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D 
 
 A IN^EW 
 
 CLASSICAL DICTIONARY 
 
 BIOGRAPHY, MrTHOLOGY, AND GEOGRAPHY, 
 
 PAKTLT BASED ON THE " DlCTIONARy OF GREEK AND ROMAN BIOaEAPHT AND JIYIHOLOGY." 
 
 BY WILLIAM SMITH, LL.D. 
 
 EDITOIl OF THE DIGTIONAPwIES OF " GEEBK AND P.OiiAN ANT[:iaiTIES;" 
 " BIOGRAPHY AND MYTHOLOGT." AND - GEOGRAPHY." 
 
 SECOND EDITION. 
 
 LONDON: 
 
 JOHN MURRAY, ALBEMARLE STREET; 
 TAYLOR, WALTON, AND MABERLY, UPPER GOWER STREET, 
 
 AND IVr LANE, PATERNOSTER ROW. 
 J 853. 
 
 '7 
 
PREFACE. 
 
 The great progress which classical studies have made in Europe, and more 
 especially in Germany during the present century, has superseded most of the 
 Works usually employed in the elucidation of the Greek and Roman writers. 
 It had long been felt by our best scholars and teachers that something better 
 was required than we yet possessed in the English language for illustrating the 
 Antiquities, Literature, Mythology, and Geography of the Ancient Writers, 
 and for enabling a diligent student to read them in the most profitable manner. 
 It was with a view of supplying this acknowledged want that the series of 
 Classical Dictionaries was undertaken ; and the very favourable manner in 
 which these Works have been received by the Scholars and Teachers of this 
 country demands from the Editor his most grateful acknowledgments. The 
 approbation with which he has been favoured has encouraged him to proceed 
 in the design which he had formed from the beginning, of preparing a series 
 of works which might be useful not only to the scholar and the more ad- 
 vanced student, but also to those who were entering on their classical studies. 
 The Dictionaries of " Greek and Roman Antiquities," and of " Greek and 
 Roman Biography and Mythology," which are already completed, and the 
 " Dictionary of Greek and Roman Geography," on which the Editor is now- 
 engaged, are intended to meet the wants of the more advanced scholar ; but 
 these Works are on too extended a scale, and enter too much into details, to be 
 suitable for the use of junior students. For the latter class of persons a work 
 is required of the same kind as Lempriere's well-known Dictionary, containing in 
 a single volume the most important names. Biographical, Mythological, and 
 Geograpliical, occurring in the Greek and Roman writers, usually read in 
 our public schools, It is invidious for an author to speak of the defects of his 
 predecessors ; but it may safely be said that Lempriere's work, which originally 
 contained the most serious mistakes, has long since become obsolete ; and that 
 since the time it was compiled we have attained to more correct knowledge on 
 a vast number of subjects comprised in that work. 
 
 The present Dictionary is designed, as already remarked, chiefly to elucidate 
 the Greek and Roman writers usually read in schools ; but at the same time it 
 has not been considered expedient to omit any proper names connected with 
 
\i TKEEACE. 
 
 classical antiquity, of which it is expected that some knowledge ought to be 
 possessed by every person who aspires to a liberal education. Accordingly, 
 while more space has been given to the prominent Greek and Eoman 
 writers, and to the more distinguished characters of Greek and Eoman 
 history, other names have not been omitted altogether, but only treated with 
 greater brevity. The chief difficulty which every Author has to contend with 
 in a Work like the present is the vastness of his subject and the copiousness of 
 his materials. It has therefore been necessary in all cases to study the greatest 
 possible brevity ; to avoid all discussions ; and to be satisfied with giving 
 simply the results at which the best modern scholars have arrived. The Writer 
 is fully aware that in adopting this plan he has frequently stated dogmatically 
 conclusions which may be opened to much dispute ; but he has thought it 
 better to run this risk, rather than to encumber and bewilder the junior student 
 with conflicting opinions. With the view likewise of economising space few 
 references have been given to ancient and modern writers. In fact such refer- 
 ences are rarely of service to the persons for whom such a Work as the present 
 is intended, and serve more for parade than for any useful purpose ; and 
 it has been the less necessary to give them in this Work, as it is supposed 
 that the persons who really require them will be in possession of the larger 
 Dictionaries. 
 
 The present Work may be divided into three distinct parts, Biography, 
 Mythology, and Geography; on each of which a few words may be necessary. 
 
 The Biographical portion may again be divided into the three departments 
 of History, Literature, and Art. The Historical articles include all the names 
 of any importance which occur in the Greek and Eoman writers, from the 
 earliest times down to the extinction of the Western Empire in the year 
 476 of our era. Very few names are inserted which are not included in 
 this period; but still there are some persons who lived after the fall of the 
 Western Empire who could not with propriety be omitted in a Classical 
 Dictionary. Such is the case with Justinian, whose legislation has exerted 
 such an important influence upon the nations of Western Europe ; with 
 Theodoric, king of the Ostrogoths, at whose court lived Cassiodorus and 
 Boethius ; and with a few others. The lives of the later Western Emperors 
 and their contemporaries are given with greater brevity than the lives of such 
 persons as lived in the more important epochs of Greek and Roman history, 
 since the students for whom the present Work is intended will rarely require 
 information respecting the later period of the empire. The Romans, as a 
 general rule, have been given under the cognomens, and not under tlie 
 gentile names ; but in cases where a person is more usually mentioned under 
 the name of his gens than under that of his cognomen, he will be found under 
 the former. Thus, for example, the two celebrated conspirators against Caesar, 
 Brutus and Cassius, are given under these names respectively; though 
 uniformity would require, either that Cassius should be inserted under his 
 cognomen of Longinus, or Brutus under his gentile name of Junius. But in 
 this, as in all other cases, it has been considered more advisable to consult 
 utility, than to adhere to any prescribed rule, which would be attended with 
 practical inconveniences. 
 
I'RKFACE. vii 
 
 To the Literary articles considerable space has been devoted. Not only are 
 all Greek and Roman writers inserted whose works are extant, but also all such 
 as exercised any important influence upon Greek and Roman literature, 
 althoun-h their writings have not come down to us. It has been thought quite 
 unnecessary, however, to give the vast number of writers mentioned only by 
 Athenaeus, Stobaeus, the Lexicographers, and the Scholiasts ; for though such 
 names ought to be found in a complete history of Greek and Roman Literature, 
 they would be clearly out of place in a Work like the present. In the case of all 
 writers whose works are extant, a brief account of their works, as well as of 
 their lives, is given ; and at the end of each article one or two of the best 
 modern editions are specified. As the present Work is designed for the eluci- 
 dation of the Classical writers, the Christian writers are omitted, with the 
 exception of the more distinguished Fathers, who form a constituent part of 
 the history of Greek and Roman literature. The Byzantine historians are, for 
 the same reason, inserted ; though in their case, as well as in the case of the 
 Christian Fathers, it has been impossible to give a complete account either of 
 their lives or of their writings. 
 
 The lives of all the more important Artists have been inserted, and an account 
 has also been given of their extant works. The history of ancient Art has 
 received so little attention from the scholars of this country, that it has been 
 deemed advisable to devote as much space to this important subject as the limits 
 of the Work would allow. Accordingly, some artists are noticed on account of 
 their celebrity in the history of Art, although their names are not even men- 
 tioned in the ancient writers. This remark applies to Agasias, the sculptor of 
 the Borghese gladiator, which is still preserved in the Louvre at Paris ; to Age- 
 sander, one of the sculptors of the group of Laocoon ; to Glycon, the sculptor of 
 the Farnese Hercules ; and to others. On the contrary, many of the names of 
 the artists in Pliny's long list are omitted, because they possess no importance 
 in the history of Art. 
 
 In writing the Mythological articles care has been taken to avoid, as far as 
 possible, all indelicate allusion.'s, as the Work will probably be much in the 
 hands of young persons. It is of so much importance to discriminate between 
 the Greek and Roman mythology, that an account of the Greek divinities is 
 given under their Greek names, and of the Roman divinities under their Latin 
 names, a practice which is universAlly adopted by the continental writers, 
 which has received the sanction of some of our own scholars, and which is 
 moreover of such great utility in guarding against endless confusions and 
 mistakes as to require no apology for its introduction into this Work. 
 
 For the Geographical articles the Editor is alone responsible. The Bio- 
 graphical and Mythological articles are founded upon those in the " Dictionary 
 of Greek and Roman Biography and Mythology ; " but the Geographical articles 
 are written entirely anew for the present Work. In addition to the original sources 
 the Editor has availed himself of the best modern treatises on the subject, and 
 of the valuable works of travels in Greece, Italy, and the East, which have 
 appeared within the last few years, both in England and in Germany. It would 
 have been impossible to give references to these treatises, without inter- 
 
Vin PREFACE. 
 
 fering with the general plan of the present Work ; but this omission will be 
 supplied in the forthcoming " Dictionary of Greek and Roman Geography." 
 It is hoped that in the Geographical portion of the Work very few omissions 
 will be discovered of names occurring in the chief classical writers ; but the 
 great number of names found only in Strabo, Pliny, Ptolemy, and the Itineraries, 
 have been purposely omitted, except in cases where such names have become 
 of historical celebrity, or have given rise to important towns in modern times. 
 At the commencement of every geographical article the Ethnic name and the 
 modern name have been given, whenever they could be ascertained. In con- 
 clusion, the Editor has to express his obligations to his brother, the Rev. Philip 
 Smith, who has rendered him valuable assistance by writing the Geographical 
 articles relating to Asia and Africa. 
 
 WILLIAM SMITH. 
 
 London, August 12tb, 1850. 
 
CLASSICAL DICTIONARY, 
 
 BIOGRAPHICAL, MYTHOLOGICAL, AND 
 GEOGRAPHICAL. 
 
 ABACAENUM. 
 
 Abacaenum (^ASaKaivov or ret 'ASaKaiva : 
 ASaicaiv^vos : iir. Tripi, Ru.), an ancient town of 
 the Siculi in Sicily, W. of Messana, and S. of 
 Tyndaris. 
 
 Abae I^ASai : 'ASaios : nr. JSxa7-cJio^ T^n.), an 
 ancient town of Phocis, on the boundaries of Boe- 
 ■otia, said to have been founded by the Argive 
 Abas, but see Abantes. It possessed an ancient 
 temple and oracle of Apollo, who hence derived 
 the surname oi Abacus. The temple was destroyed 
 by the Persians in the invasion of Xerxes, and a 
 second time by the Boeotians in the sacred war : it 
 was rebuilt by Hadrian. 
 
 Abantes ("Afiaj/res), the ancient inhabitants of 
 Euboea. (Horn. II. ii. 536.) They are said to 
 have been of Thracian origin, to have first settled 
 in Phocis, where they built Abae, and afterwards 
 to have crossed over to Euboea. The Abantes of 
 Euboea assisted in colonising several of the Ionic 
 cities of Asia Minor. 
 
 Abantiades ('ASavriaSTis), any descendant of 
 Abas, but especially Perseus, great-grandson of 
 Abas, and Acrisius, son of Abas. A female de- 
 scendant of Abas, as Danae and Atalante, was 
 •called Abantias. 
 
 Abantias. [Aeantiade.s.] 
 Abantldas (^ASavriSas), son of Paseas, became 
 tyrant of Sicyon, after murdering Clinias, the father 
 of Aratus, B. c. 264, but was soon after assassinated. 
 Abaris {"ASapis), son of Seuthes, was a Hyper- 
 i)orean priest of Apollo, and came from the country 
 about the Caucasus to Greece, while his own 
 country was visited by a plague. In his travels 
 through Greece he carried with him an arrow as 
 the symbol of Apollo, and gave oracles. His his- 
 tory is entirely mythical, and is related in various 
 ways : he is said to have taken no earthly food, and 
 to have ridden on his arrow, the gift of Apollo, 
 through the air. He cured diseases by incantations, 
 and delivered the world from a plague. Later 
 writers ascribe to him several works ; but if such 
 works were really current in ancient times, they 
 were not genuine. The time of his appearance in 
 Greece is stated differently : he may perhaps be 
 placed about B. c. 570. 
 
 Abamis (^'ASapyis or 'ASapvos : 'ASapvsis), a 
 
 ABDOLONYMUS. 
 
 town and promontory close to Lampsacus on the 
 Asiatic side of the Hellespont. 
 
 Abas ("ASas). 1. Son of Metanira, was 
 changed by Demeter into a lizard, because he 
 mocked the goddess when she had come on her 
 wanderings into the house of his mother, and drank 
 eagerly to quench her thirst. ^2. Twelfth king of 
 Argos, son of Lynceus and Hypermnestra, grandson 
 of Danaus, and father of Acrisius and Proetus. 
 When he informed his father of the death of 
 Danaus, he was rewarded with the shield of his 
 grandfather, which was sacred to Hera. This 
 shield performed various marvels, and the mere 
 sight of it could reduce a revolted people to sub- 
 mission. He is described as a successful conqueror 
 and as the founder of the town of Abae in Phocis, 
 and of the Pelasgic Argos in Thessaly. 
 
 Abdera (to 'ASS-npa, Abdera, ae, and Abdera, 
 orum: 'AgS-qph-rif, AhiSntes and .'ibderita). 1. 
 {Polystilo), a town of Thrace, near the mouth of 
 the Nestus, which flowed through the town. Ac- 
 cording to mythology, it was founded by Hercules 
 in honour of his favourite Abderus ; but accord- 
 ing to histor}', it was colonised by Timesius of 
 Clazomenae about b. c. 656. Timesius was ex- 
 pelled by the Thracians, and the town was colo- 
 nised a second time by the inhabitants of Teos in 
 Ionia, who settled there after their own town had 
 been taken by the Persians E. c. 544. Abdera 
 was a flourishing town when Xentes invaded 
 Greece, and continued a place of importance under 
 the Romans, who made it a free city. It was the 
 birthplace of Democritus, Protagoras, Anaxarchus, 
 and other distinguished men ; but its inhabitants 
 notwithstanding were accounted stupid, and an 
 " Abderite " was a term of reproach. — 2. {A dra), 
 a town of Hispania Baetica on the coast, founded 
 by the Phoenicians. 
 
 Abderus ('AffSTjpos), a favourite of Hercules, 
 was torn to pieces by the mares of Diomedes, which 
 Hercules had given him to pursue the Bistones. 
 Hercules is said to have built the town of Abdera 
 in honour of him. 
 
 AbdSlonymug or Abdalommus, also called 
 Balionymus, a gardener, but of royal descent, was 
 made king of Sidon by Alexander the Great. 
 
2 ABELLA. 
 
 AlDella or Avella (Abellanus: Ji^ella veccUa\ 
 a town of Campania, not f;ir from Nola, founded 
 by the Chalcidians in Euboea. It was celebrated 
 for its apples, whence Virgil {Aen. vii. 740) calls 
 it mdli/era, and for its great hazel-nuts, nuces 
 Avclldnae. 
 
 Abellinum (Abellinas: Avellino), a town of 
 the Hirpini in Samnium, near the sources of the 
 Sabatus. 
 
 Abgarus, Acbarus, or Augarus {"ASyapos^ 
 AicSapo^^ Aijyapos)^ a name common to many rulers 
 of Edi ssa, the capital of the district of Osrhoene in 
 Mesopotamia. Of these rulers one is supposed by 
 Eusebiua to have been the author of a letter 
 ■vvritten to Christ, which he found in a church at 
 Edessa and translated from the Syriac. The letter 
 is believed to be spurious, 
 
 Abia {r) ASia : nr. Zarnaia), a town of Mes- 
 senia, on the Messenian gulf. It is said to have 
 becTi the same town as the Ire of tlie Iliad (ix. 292), 
 and to have acquired the name of Abia in honour of 
 Abia, the nurse of Hyllus, a son of Hercules. At a 
 later time Abia belonged to the Achaean League. 
 
 Abii ("Agiot), a tribe mentioned by Homer (//. 
 xiii. 6), and apparently a Thracian people. This 
 matter is discussed by Strabo (p. 296). 
 
 Abila (ra "ASiKa : 'AStX-nvds), a town of Coele- 
 Syria, afterwards called Claudiopolis, and the capi- 
 tal of the tetrarchy of Abilene (Luke, iii. 1). The 
 position seems doubtful, A town of the same name 
 is mentioned by Josephus as being 60 stadia E. of 
 the Jordan. 
 
 Abisares (^A^to-apTjj), also called Embisams, 
 an Indian king beyond the river Hydaspes, sent 
 embassies to Alejtander the Great, who not only 
 allowed him to retain his kingdom, but increased 
 it, and on his death appointed his son hig successor. 
 
 Abnoba Mons, the range of hills covered by 
 the Black Forest in Germany, not a single moun- 
 tain. 
 
 Abonitichos ('ASwuov Ti7xo?\ a town of Pa- 
 phlagouia ou the Black Sea, with a liarbour, after- 
 wards called lonopolis ('IwvtJTToAis), whence its 
 modern name IiiefjoU, the birth-place of the pre- 
 tended prophet Alexander, of whom Lucian has 
 left us an account. 
 
 Aborigines, tlie original inhabitants of a coun- 
 try, equivalent to the Greek avr6x^"'^^S' But the 
 Aborigines in Italy are not in the Latin writers 
 the original inhabitants of all Italy, but the name 
 of an ancient people who drove the Siculi out of 
 Latium, and there became the progenitors of the 
 Latitn", 
 
 Aborrlias CASo^^as : KItahur\ a branch of the 
 Euphrates, which joins that river on the east side 
 near Arcesium. It is called the Ajaxes by Xeno- 
 phon (Anah, i. 4. § 19), and was crossed by the 
 army of CjTus the Younger in the march from 
 Sardis to the neighbourhood of Babylon, b. c. 401. 
 A branch of this river, which rises near Nisibis, 
 and is now called Jakhjakhah, is probably the an- 
 cient Mygdonius. The Khabnr rises near Orfah, 
 and is joined near the lake of Khatuniyah by the 
 Jakhjakhah, after which the united stream flows 
 into the Euphrates. The course of the Khabur is 
 very incorrectly represented in the maps. 
 
 Abradatas ('Ag/jaSaros), a king of Susa and an 
 ally of the Assyrians against Cyrus, according to 
 Xenopbon's Cyropaedia. His wife Panthea was 
 taken on the conquest of the Assyrian camp. In 
 consequence of the honourable treatment which she 
 
 ABYD03. 
 
 received from C3'ru3, Abradatas joined the latter 
 with his forces. He fell in battle, while fighting 
 against the Egyptians. Inconsolable at her loss, 
 Panthea put an end to her own life. Cyrus liad a 
 high mound raised in honour of them. 
 
 Abrincatui, a people of Gallia Lugdunensis in 
 the neighbourhood of the modern Jvrmiches. 
 
 Abrocomas {'A€poic6/j.as), one of the satraps of 
 Axtaxerxes Mnemon, was sent with an army, to 
 oppose Cyrus on his march into Upper Asia, b. c. 
 401. He retreated on the approach of Cjtus, but did 
 not join the king in time for the battle of Cunaxa. 
 
 Abronyclius {'ASpiJvvxos)^ an Athenian, served 
 in the Persian war, B.C. 4B0, and was subsequently 
 sent as ambassador to Sparta with Theniistocles and 
 Aristides respecting the fortifications of Athens. 
 
 Abrotonum, mother of Themistocles. 
 
 Abrotonum {'A§p6rouoy : Sahart or Old Tri- 
 poli), a city on the coast of Africa, between tho 
 Syrtes, founded by the Phoenicians ; a colony 
 under the Romans. It was also called Sabrata 
 and Neapolis, and it formed, with Oea and Leptis 
 Magna, the African Tripolis. 
 
 Absyrtides or Apsyrtides, sc. insulae {^A^vp- 
 riSes : Cherso and Osero), the name of two islands 
 off the coast of Illyricum. According to one tra- 
 dition Absyrtus was slain in these islands by his 
 sister Medea and by Jason. 
 
 Absyrtus or Apsyrtus ("Ai^upTos), son of 
 Aeetes, king of Colchis, and brother of Medea. 
 When Medea fled with Jason, she took her brother 
 Absyrtus with her ; and when she was ncarl}'- 
 overtaken by her father, she miu-dered Absyrtus, 
 cut his body in pieces and strewed them on the 
 road, that her father might thus be detained by 
 gathering the limbs of his child. Tomi, the plnc^ 
 where this horror was committed, was believed to 
 have derived its name from rifivu^ "cut." Accord- 
 ing to another tradition Absyrtus did not accompany 
 Medea, but was sent out by his father in pursuit 
 of her. He overtook her in Corcyra, where she 
 had been kindly received by king Alcinous, who 
 refused to surrender her to Absyrtus, When he 
 overtook her a second time in certain islands off" the 
 Illyrian coast, he was slain by Jason. The son of 
 Aeetes, who was murdered by Medea, is called by 
 some writers Aegialeus. 
 
 Abulites {'ASovXh-ns), the satrap of Susiana, 
 surrendered Susa to Alexander. The satrapy was 
 restored to hira by Alexander, but he and his son 
 Oxyathres were afterwards executed by Alexander 
 for the crimes they had committed. 
 
 Aburnus Valens. [Valens.] 
 
 Abus {Humbert a river in Britain. 
 
 Abydenus {'ASvS-qvos)^ a Greek historian, wrote 
 a history of Assyria. His date is uncertain : he 
 made use of the works of Megasthenes and Berosus, 
 and he wrote in the Ionic dialect. His work was par- 
 ticularly valuable for chronology. The fragments 
 of his history have been published by Scaliger, De 
 EmendatioTie Temporiim, and Richter, Berosi Chal- 
 daeoruni Historiae, &c.. Lips. 1825. 
 
 Abydos ("AgcSos : 'ASv^-nv6s). 1. A town of 
 theTroad on the Hellespont, and a Milesian colony. 
 It was nearly opposite to Sestos, but a little lower 
 down the stream. The bridge of boats which 
 Xerxes constructed over the Hellespont, B, c. 480, 
 commenced a little higher up than Abydos, and 
 touched the European shore between Sestos and 
 Madytus. The site of Abydos is a little N. of 
 Sultania or the old castle of Asia, which is opposite 
 
ABYLA. 
 
 to the old castle of Europe. — 2. (Nr. Aralat el 
 Matfoon and El Birheh^ Ru.), a city of Upper 
 Eg^'pt, near the \\', bank of the Nile ; once second 
 only to Thebes, but in Strabo's time (a. d. 14) 
 a small village. . It had a temple of Osiris and a 
 Memnonium^ both still standing, and an oracle. 
 Here was found the inscription known as the Table 
 o/Abydos, which contains a list of the Egyptian 
 kings. 
 
 Abyla or Abila Mens or Columna (jAevKrj or 
 'A&iATj <TT7)\7j or Spos : Jebel Zalout, i. e. Apes'* 
 Hill, above Ceuta)^ a mountain in Mauretania Tin- 
 gitana, forming the E. extremity of the S. or 
 African coast of the Fretum Gaditanum. This and 
 M. Calpe ( Gibi'altar), opposite to it on the Spanish 
 coast, were called the Columns of Hercules, from 
 the fable that they were originally one mountain, 
 ■which was torn asunder by Hercules. 
 
 Acacallia ('A/ca/caAAis), daughter of Minos, by 
 ■whom Apollo begot a son Miletus, as well as other 
 children, Acacallis was in Crete a common name 
 for a narcissus. 
 
 Acacesium (^AKaK-htriov ; 'AKaK'na-tos), a town 
 of Arcadia, at the foot of a hill of the same name. 
 
 Acacesius ('AKtuoJo-ios), a surname of Hermes, 
 for which Homer uses the form Acacetes. Some 
 ■writers derive it from the Arcadian town of Acace- 
 sium, in which he was believed to have been 
 brought up ; others from Ka/cJjs, and suppose it to 
 mean " the god who does not hurt." The same 
 surname is given to Prometheus, whence it may be 
 inferred that its meaning is that of benefactor or 
 deliverer from evil. 
 
 Acacetes. [Acacesius.] 
 
 Academia ('Arta57)/.teia or 'AKaK^r]}ila : also 
 Academia in tlie older Latin writers), a piece of 
 land on the Cephissus, 6 stadia from Athens, 
 originally belonging to the hero Academus, and 
 subsequently a gymnasium, which was adorned by 
 Cimon with plane and olive plantations, statues, 
 and other works of art. Here taught Plato, who 
 possessed a piece of land in the neighbourhood, and 
 after him his followers, who were hence called the 
 Academiei, or Academic philosophers. When Sulla 
 besieged Athens in b. c. 87, he cut down the plane 
 trees in order to construct his military machines ; 
 but the place was restored soon afterwards. Cicero 
 gave the name of Academia to his villa near Puteoli, 
 where he wrote hia " Quaestiones Academicae." 
 
 Academici. [Academia.] 
 
 Academus ('AKoSTj/ioy), an Attic hero, who be- 
 trayed to Castor and Pollux, when they invaded 
 Attica to liberate their sister Helen, that she was 
 kept concealed at Aphidnae. For this the Tyn- 
 darids always showed him gratitude, and whenever 
 the Lacedaemonians invaded Attica, they spared 
 the land belonging to Academus. [Academia.] 
 
 Acalandrus {Salandrella), a river in Lucania, 
 flowing into the gulf of Tarentum. 
 
 Acama3 {'AKdfxas). 1. Son of Theseus and 
 Phatdra, accompanied Diomedes to Troy to demand 
 the surrender of Helen. During his stay at Troy 
 he won the affection of Laodice, daughter of Priam, 
 and begot by her a son, Munitus. He was one of 
 the Greeks concealed in the wooden horse at the 
 taking of Troy. The Attic tribe Acamantis de- 
 rived its name from him. — 2. Son of Antenor and 
 Theano, one of the bravest Trojans, slain by Me- 
 riones. — 3. Son of Eussorus, one of the leaders of 
 the Thracians in the Trojan war, slain by the Te- 
 lamonian Ajax. 
 
 ACCA. 3 
 
 Acanthus (^AkuvOos; 'AKavOios). 1, (Nr. jEz-so, 
 Ru.), a town on the Isthmus, which connects the 
 peninsula of Athos with Chalcidice. It was founded 
 by the inhabitants of Andros, and continued to be a 
 place of considerable importance from the time of 
 Xerxes to that of the Romans.^2. (Daskur), a 
 town on the W. bank of the Nile, 120 stadia S. of 
 Memphis, with a temple of Osiris. 
 
 Acaman. {'AKapvdp^ -avos), one of the Epigoni, 
 son of Alcmaeon and Callirrhoe, and brother of 
 Amphoterus. Their father was murdered by Phe- 
 geus, when they were very young, and Callirrhoe 
 prayed to Zeus to make her sons grow quickl}', 
 that they might be able to avenge the death of 
 their father. The prayer was granted, and Acar- 
 nau with his brother slew Phegeus, his wife, and 
 his two sons. The inhabitants of Psophis, where 
 the sons had been slain, pursued the murderers as 
 far as Tegea, where, however, they were received 
 and rescued. They afterwards went to Epirus, 
 where Acaman founded the state called after him 
 Acarnania. 
 
 Acamania (^Aicapvavia : 'AKapvdy, -avos), the 
 most westerly province of Greece, was bounded on 
 the N. by the Ambracian gulf, on the W. and 
 S. W. by the Ionian Sea, on the N. E. by Amphi- 
 lochia, which is sometimes included in Acarnania, 
 and on the E. by Aetolia, from which at a later- 
 time it was separated by the Achelous. The name 
 of Acamania does not occur in Homer, In the 
 most ancient times the land was inhabited by the 
 Taphii, Teleboae, and Leleges, and subsequently by 
 the Curetes, who emigrated from Aetolia and settled 
 there. At a later time a colony from Argos, said to 
 have been led by Acarnan, the son of Alcmaeon, 
 settled in the country. In the seventh century b. c. 
 the Corinthians founded several towns on the coast. 
 The Acarnaiaians first emerge from obscurity at the 
 beginning of the Peioponnesian war, b. c. 431. 
 They were then a rude people, living by piracy 
 and robbery, and they always remained behind the 
 rest of the Greeks in civilization and refinement. 
 They were good slingers, and are pmsed for their 
 fidelity and courage. The different towns formed 
 a League with a Strategus at their head in the 
 time of war : the members of the League met at 
 Stratos, and subsequently at Thyrium or Leucas. 
 Under the Romans Acarnania formed part of the- 
 province of Macedonia. 
 
 Acastus ("AKatTTos), son of Pelias,king of lolcus, 
 and of Anaxibia or Philomache. He was one of 
 the Argonauts, and also took part in the Calydonian 
 hunt. His sisters were seduced by Medea to cut 
 up their father and boil him, in order to make him 
 young again. Acastus, in consequence, drove Jason 
 and Medea fr-om lolcus, and instituted funeral 
 games in honour of his father. During these games 
 Astydamla, the wife of Acastus, also called Hip- 
 polyte, fell in love with Peleus, whom Acastus had 
 purified from the murder of Eurytion. When Peleus 
 refused to listen to her addresses, she accused him 
 to her husband of having attempted her dishonour. 
 Shortly afterwards, when Acastus and Peleus were 
 hunting on mount Pelion, and the latter had fallen 
 asleep, Acastus took his sword from him, and left 
 him alone. He was in consequence nearly destroyed 
 by the Centaurs ; but he was saved by Cbiron or 
 Plermes, returned to Acastus, and killed him toge- 
 ther with his wife. 
 
 Acbarus. [Aegarus.] 
 
 Acca Laurentia or Larentla, a mythical 
 
4 ACCIUS 
 
 woman in early Roman story. According to one 
 account, in the reign of Ancus Martins a servant 
 (aeditutis) of the temple of Hercules invited the 
 god to a game of dice, promising that if he should 
 lose the game, he would treat the god with a re- 
 past and a heautiful woman. When the god had 
 conquered the servant, the latter shut up Acca 
 Laurentia together with a well-stored table in the 
 temple of Hercules. On the following morning the 
 god advised her to gain the affection of the first 
 wealthy man she should meet. She succeeded in 
 making Canitius or Tamitius, an Etruscan, love 
 and marry her. After his death she inherited his 
 large property, which she left to the Roman people. 
 Ancus, in gratitude for this, allowed her to be 
 buried in the Velabrum, and instituted an annual 
 festival, the Larentalla, at which sacrifices were 
 offered to the Lares. According to another account, 
 Acca Laurentia was the wife of the shepherd Fau- 
 stulns and the nurse of Romulus and Remus after 
 they had been taken from the she-wolf. Accord- 
 ing to other accounts again she was not the wife of 
 Faustulus, but a prostitute who from her mode of 
 life was called lupa by the shepherds, and who left 
 the property she gained in that way to the Roman 
 people. Thus much seems certain, whatever we 
 may think of the stories, that she was of Etruscan 
 origin, and connected with the worship of the Lares, 
 from which her name Larentia seems to be de- 
 rived. 
 
 L. Accius or Attius, an early Roman tra,^c 
 poet and the son of a freedman, was born b. c. 170, 
 and lived to a great age. Cicero, when a young 
 man, frequently conversed with him. His tragedies 
 were chiefly imitated from the Greek, but he also 
 wrote some on Roman subjects {Praetextaia) ; one 
 of which, entitled Brutus, was probably in honour 
 of his patron D. Brutus. We possess only fragments 
 of his tragedies, but they are spoken of in terms of 
 admiration by the ancient writers. Accius also wrote 
 Annates in verse, containing the history of Rome, 
 like those of Ennius ; and a prose work, LibH Didas- 
 ealion^ which seems to have been a historj'' of poetry. 
 The fragments of his tragedies are given by Bothe, 
 Poet Scenici Latin, vol. v. Lips. 1834 : and those 
 of the Didascalia by Madvig, De L. Attii Didas- 
 caliis Comment. Hafniae, 1831. 
 
 Acco, a chief of the Senones in Gaul, who in- 
 duced his countr}'^men to revolt against Caesar, b. c. 
 53, by whom he was put to death. 
 
 Ace. [Ptolemais.] 
 
 Acerbas, a Tyrian priest of Hercules, who mar- 
 ried Elissa, the sister of king Pygmalion. He had 
 concealed his treasures in the earth, knowing the 
 avarice of Pj^gmalion, but he was murdered by 
 Pygmalion, who hoped to obtain his treasures 
 through his sister. The pnidence of Elissa saved 
 the treasures, and she emigrated from Phoenicia. 
 In this account, taken from Justin, Acerbas is the 
 same person as Sichaeus, and Elissa the same as 
 Dido in Virgil {Am. i. 343, seq.). The names 
 in Justin are undoubtedly more correct than in 
 Virgil ; for Virgil here, as in other cases, has 
 changed a foreign name into one more convenient 
 to him. 
 
 Acerrae (Acen-anns). 1. {Accrra)^ a town in 
 Campania on the Clanius, received the Roman fran- 
 chise in B. c. b32. It was destroyed by Hannibal, 
 but was rebuilt.—- 2. (Geira)^ a town of the Insu- 
 bres in Gallia Transpadana. 
 
 Acersesomes (AK€p(TeK6/.i7]s), a surname of 
 
 ACHAEL 
 
 Apollo expressive of his beautiful hair which was 
 never cut or shorn. 
 
 Acesas ('AKeo-as), a native of Salamis in Cyprus^ 
 famed for his skill in weaving cloth with variegated 
 patterns {■polymitarius). He and, his son Helicon 
 were the first who made a peplus for Athena Po- 
 lias. They must have lived before the time of 
 Euripides and Plato, who mention this peplus. 
 
 Acesines ('AKetnVTjs). 1. {Clienavh)^ a river 
 in India, into which the Hydaspes flows, and 
 which itself flows into the Indus.— 2. {Alcantara), 
 a river in Sicily, near Tauromenium. 
 
 Acestes ('A/cetrTT/s), son of a Trojan woman of 
 the name of Egesta or Segesta, who was sent by 
 her father to Sicily, that she might not be devoured 
 by the monsters which infested the territory of 
 Troy. When Egesta arrived in Sicily, the river- 
 god Crimisus begot by her a son Acestes, who was 
 afterwards regarded as the hero who had founded 
 the town of Segesta. Aeneas, on his arrival in 
 Sicily, was hospitably received by Acestes. 
 
 Acestor ('AKeVrajp). 1. Surnamed Sacas, on 
 account of his foreign origin, was a tragic poet at 
 Athens, and a contemporary of Aristophanes.— 2. 
 A sculptor of Cnossus, who flourished about b. c. 
 432. 
 
 Achaea ('Axafa, from ^xo^, " grief"), " t}i% 
 distressed one," a surname of Deraeter at Athens, 
 30 called on account of her sorrow for the loss of 
 her daughter. 
 
 Achaei ('Axaioi), one of the chief Hellenic 
 races, were according to tradition descended from 
 Acliaeus, who was the son of Xuthus and Creusa, 
 and grandson of Hellen. The Achaei originally 
 dwelt in Thessaly, and from thence migrated to 
 Peloponnesus, the whole of which became subject 
 to them with the exception of Arcadia, and the 
 country afterwards called Achaia. As they were 
 the ruling nation in Peloponnesus in the heroic 
 times. Homer frequently gives the name of Achaei 
 to the collective Greeks. On the conquest of the 
 greater part of Peloponnesus by the Heraclldae and 
 the Dorians 80 years after the Trojan war, many 
 of the Achaei under Tisamenus, the son of Orestes, 
 left their country and took possession of the north- 
 em coast of Peloponnesus then called Aegialea, 
 and inhabited by the lonians, whom they expelled 
 from the country, which was henceforth called 
 Achaia. The expelled Tonians migrated to At- 
 tica and Asia Minor. The Achaei settled in 12 
 cities: Pellene, Aegira, Aegae, Bura, Helice, 
 Aegium, Rhypae, Patrae, Pharae, Olenus, Dyme, 
 and Tritaea. These cities are said to have been 
 governed by Tisamenus and his descendants till 
 Ogyges, upon whose death a democratical form of 
 government was established in each state ; but the 
 twelve states formed a league for mutual defence 
 and protection. In the Persian war the Achaei 
 took no part ; and they had little influence in the 
 affairs of Greece till the time of the successors of 
 Alexander. In b. c. 281 the Achaei, who were then 
 subject to the Macedonians, resolved to renew their 
 ancient league for the purpose of shaking off the 
 Macedonian yoke. This was the origin of the 
 celebrated Achaean League. It at first consisted 
 of only four towns, Dyme, Patrae, Tritaea, and 
 Pharae, but was subsequently joined by the other 
 towns of Achaia with the exception of Olenus and 
 Helice. It did not, however, obtain much im- 
 portance till B. c. 251, when Aratus united to it 
 his native town, Sicyon. The example of Sicyon 
 
ACHAEMENES. 
 
 ■was followed by Corinth and many other towns in 
 Greece, and the League soon became the chief po- 
 litical power in Greece. At length the Achaei de- 
 clared war against the Romans, who destroyed the 
 League, and thus put an end to the independence 
 of Greece. Corinth, then the chief town of the 
 League, was taken by the Roman general Mum- 
 mius, in B. c. 146, and the whole of southern 
 Greece made a Roman province under the name of 
 AcHAiA. The different states composing the 
 Achaean League had equal rights. The assemblies 
 of the League were held twice a year, in the 
 epring and autumn, in a grove of Zeus Homa- 
 gyrius near Aegium. At these assemblies all the 
 business of the League was conducted, and at the 
 spring meeting the public functionaries were chosen. 
 These were: — 1. a Strategua (o-TparTjytis) or Ge- 
 neral, and an Hipparchus {'linrapxos) or com- 
 mander of the cavalry ; 2. a Secretary (ypa/x- 
 fiareus) ; and 3. ten Demiurgi {5T}fxtovpyoi, also 
 called &pxovTes\ who appear to have had the right 
 of convening the assembly. For further particu- 
 lars see Diet, of Ant, art. AcJiaicum Foedus. 
 
 Acbaemenes ('AxaiM^'^^Js)- !• The ancestor of 
 the Persian kings, who foimded the family of the 
 Achaemenidae ('AxoiA'fiSai), which was the noblest 
 family of the Pasargadae, the noblest of the Per- 
 sian tribes. The Roman poets use the adjective 
 Acliaemenius in the sense of Persian. — 2. Son 
 of Darius I., governor of Egypt, commanded the 
 Egyptian fleet in the expedition of Xerxes against 
 Greece, b. c. 400. He was defeated and killed in 
 battle by Inarus the Libyan, B. c. 460. 
 
 Achaemenides, or Acheziienides, son of Ada- 
 mastus of Ithaca, and a companion of Ulysses, 
 who left him behind in Sicily, when he fled from 
 the Cyclops. Here he was found by Aeneas, who 
 took him with him. 
 
 Achaeus (Axattis). 1. Son of Xuthus, the 
 mythical ancestor of the Achaki. — 2. Governor 
 under Antiochus III. of all Asia W. of raoimt 
 Taurus. He revolted against Antiochus, but was 
 defeated by the latter, taken prisoner at Sardis, and 
 put to death, b. c. 214. — 3. Of Eretria in Euboea, 
 a tragic poet, born b. c. 484. In 447, he contended 
 ■with Sophocles and Euripides, and though he 
 subsequently brought out many dramas, according 
 to some as many as 34 or 40, he nevertheless 
 only gained the prize once. In the satyrical drama 
 be possessed considerable merit. The fragments of 
 his pieces have been published by Urlichs, Bonn, 
 1834. 
 
 Acbaia (*Axata: *Axaio5). 1. The northern 
 coast of the Peloponnesus, originally called Aegialea 
 (A(7ioAeia) or Aegialus {Pdyia\65)^ i.e. the coast- 
 land, was bounded on the N. by the Corinthian 
 gulf and the Ionian sea, on the S. by Elis and Ar- 
 cadia, on the W. by the Ionian sea, and on the E. 
 by Sicyonia, It was a narrow slip of country slop- 
 ing down from the mountains to the sea. The 
 coast is generally low, and has few good ports. 
 Respecting its inhabitants see Achaei. ^2. A 
 district in Thessaly, which appears to have been 
 the original seat of the Achaei. It retained the 
 name of Achaia in the time of Herodotus. — 3. The 
 Roman province, included Peloponnesus and north- 
 em Greece S. of Thessaly. It was formed on 
 the dissolution of the Achaean League in B. c. 146, 
 and hence derived its name. 
 
 Achamae {'Axapyal : Axap^'eus, PI. 'Axapi'^s), 
 the principal demus of Attica, belonging to the tribe 
 
 ACHERUSIA. 5 
 
 Oeneis, 60 stadia N. of Athens, possessed a rough 
 and warlike population, who were ■able to furnish 
 3000 hoplitae at the commencement of the Pelo- 
 ponnesian war. Their land was fertile and they 
 carried on a considerable traffic in charcoal. One 
 of the plays of Aristophanes bears the name of the 
 inhabitants of this demus. 
 
 Acharrae, a to^vn in Theasaliotis in Thessaly, 
 on the river Pamisus. 
 
 Achates {Dirillo), a river in southern Sicily, be- 
 tween Camarina and Gela, in which the first agate 
 is said to have been found. 
 
 Acheloides, a surname of the Sirens, the 
 daughters of Achelous and a Muse : also a surname 
 of water-nymphs. 
 
 Achelous ('AxeA^os-, ^Ax^^^'ios in Hom. : Asj>ro 
 Potamo), more anciently called Thoas, Axenus, 
 and Thestius, the largest river in Greece. It 
 rises in Mount Pindus, and flows southwai-d, form- 
 ing the boundary between Acarnania and Ae- 
 tolia, and falls into the Ionian sea opposite the 
 islands called Echinades. It is about 130 miles in 
 length. The god of this river is described as the 
 son of Oceanus and Tethys, and as the eldest of 
 his 3000 brothers. He fought with Hercules for 
 Deianira, but was conquered in the contest. He 
 then took the form of a bull, but was again over- 
 come by Hercules, who deprived him of one of his 
 horns, which however he recovered by giving up 
 the hom of Amalthea. According to Ovid {Met. 
 ix. 37), the Naiads changed the horn which Her- 
 cules took from Achelous into the hom of plenty. 
 Achelous was from the earliest times considered to 
 be a great divinity throughout Greece, and was 
 invoked in prayers, sacrifices, &c. On several 
 coins of Acarnania the god is represented as a 
 bull with the head of an old man. — Achelous was 
 also the name of a river in Arcadia, and of another 
 in Thessaly. 
 
 Achemenides [Achaemenides.] 
 
 Acheroa ('Axe'pw^'), the name of several rivers, 
 all of which were, at least at one time, believed to 
 be connected with the lower world.— 1. A river in 
 Thesprotia in Epirus, which flows through the lake 
 Achemsia into the Ionian sea. — 2. A river in 
 Elis which flows into the Alpheus. — 3. A river 
 in southern Italy in Bruttii, on which Alexander 
 of Epirus perished. — 4. The river of the lower 
 world, round which the shades hover, and into 
 which the Pyriphlegethon and Cocytus flow. In 
 late writers the name of Acheron is used in a ge- 
 neral sense to designate the whole of the lower 
 world. The Etruscans were acquainted with the 
 worship of Acheron (Acheruns) from very early 
 times, as we must infer from iheiT AcJteruniici b'bri, 
 which treated of the deification of souls, and of the 
 sacrifices (Aclieruntia sacra) by which this was to 
 be effectei 
 
 Acherontia. 1. (Acerenza), a town in Apulia 
 on a summit of Mount Vultur, whence Horace 
 {Cariii. iii. 4, 14) speaks of celsae nidum Ache- 
 roniiae.^^2. A town on the river Acheron, in 
 Bmttii. [Acheron, No. 3.] 
 
 Acherusia (^Ax^pomia. XifxpT) or 'Axepovffis)^ 
 the name of several lakes and swamps, which, like 
 the various rivers of the name of Acheron, were at 
 some time believed to be connected with the lower 
 world, until at last the Acherusia came to be con- 
 sidered to be in the lower world itself. The lake 
 to which this belief seems to have been first at- 
 tached was the Acherusia ii' ""hesprotia, through 
 
6 ACHETUM. 
 
 ■which the Acheron flowed. Other lakes or swamps 
 of the same name were near Hermione m Argolis, 
 between Cumae and cape Misenum in Campania, 
 and lastly in Eg^^pt, near Memphis. — Acherusia 
 was also the name of a peninsula, near HbTaclea in 
 Bithynia, with a deep chasm, into which Hercules 
 is said to have descended to bring up the dog Cer- 
 berus, 
 
 Achetum, a small town in Sicily, the site of 
 which is uncertain. 
 
 Achilla or AchoUa ("Axo^^^ct ; 'Axo/XAaTos, 
 AchiUitanus : EL Aiiah^ Ru.), a to'wn on the sea- 
 coast of Africa, in the Carthaginian territory (By- 
 zacena), a little above the northern point of the 
 Syrtis Minor. 
 
 Achillas ('Ax'^Aa?), one of the guardians of 
 the Egyptian king Ptolemy Dionysus, and com- 
 mander of the troops, when Pompey fled to Egypt, 
 JQ. c. 48. It was he and L. Septimius who killed 
 Pompey. He subsequently joined the eunuch Po- 
 thinus in resisting Caesar, and obtained possession 
 of the greatest part of Alexandria. He was shortly 
 afterwards put to death by Aisinoe, the j'oungest 
 sister of Ptolemy, b. c. 47. 
 
 AcMlles ('AxiAA.eiJs), the great hero of the Iliad. 
 — Homeric story. Achilles was the son of Peleus, 
 king of the Myrmidones in Phtiiiotis, in Thessaly, 
 and of the Nereid Thetis. From his father's name 
 he is often called PclJdes, Pek'iades^ or Pelion^ 
 and from his grandfather's, -4eacz£/c5. He was edu- 
 cated by Phoenix, who taught him eloquence and 
 the arts of war, and accompanied him to the Trojan 
 war. In the healing art he was instructed by 
 Chiron, the centaur. His mother Thetis foretold 
 him that his fate was either to gain glory and die 
 early, or to live a long but inglorious life. The 
 hero chose the former, and took part in the Trojan 
 war, from which he knew that he was not to 
 return. In 50 ships he led his hosts of Mynni- 
 dones, Hellenes, and Achaeans against Troy. Here 
 the swift-footed Achilles was the great bulwark of 
 the Greeks, and the worthy favourite of Athena 
 and Hera. Previous to the dispute with Aga- 
 memnon, he ravaged the country around Troy, 
 and destroyed 12 towns on the coast and 1 1 in 
 the interior of the country. "When Agamemnon 
 was obliged to give up Chryseis to her father, he 
 threatened to take away Briseis from Achilles, who 
 surrendered her on the persuasion of Athena, but 
 at the same time refused to take any further part 
 in the war, and shut himself up in his tent. Zeus, 
 on the entreaty of Thetis, promised that victory 
 should be on the side of the Trojans, luitil the 
 Achaeans should have honoured her son. The aifairs 
 of the Greeks declined in consequence, and they 
 were at last pressed so hard, that an embassy was 
 sent to Achilles, offering him rich presents and the 
 restoration of Brise'is ; but in vain. Finally, how- 
 ever, he was persuaded by Patroclus, his dearest 
 friend, to allow him to make use of his men, 
 his horses, and his amiour. Patroclus was slain, 
 and when this news reached Achilles, he was 
 seized with unspeakable grief. Thetis consoled 
 him, and promised new arms, to be made by 
 Hephaestus, and Iris appeared to rouse him from 
 his lamentations, and exhorted him to rescue the 
 body of Patroclus. Achilles now rose, and his 
 thundering voice alone put the Trojans to flight. 
 When his new armour was brought to him, he 
 hurried to the field of battle, disdaining to take 
 any di'inl; or food until the death of his friend 
 
 ACHILLES. 
 
 should be avenged. He wounded and slew num- 
 bers of Trojans, and at length met Hector, whom 
 he chased thrice around the walls of the city. He 
 then slew him, tied his body to his chariot, and 
 dragged him to the ships of the Greeks. After 
 this, he burnt the body of Patroclus, together with 
 twelve young captive Trojans, who were sacrificed 
 to appease the spirit of his friend ; and subsequently 
 gave up the body of Hector to Priam, who came in 
 person to beg for it. Achilles himself fell in the 
 battle at the Scaean gate, before Troy was taken. 
 His death itself does not occur in the Iliad, but it 
 is alluded to in a few passages (xxii. 358, xxi. 
 273). It is expressly mentioned in the Odyssey 
 (xxiv. 36), where it is said that his fall — • 
 hia conqueror is not mentioned — -was lamented 
 by gods and men, that his remains together with 
 those of Patroclus were buried in a golden urn 
 which Dionysus had given as a present to Thetis, 
 and were deposited in a place on the coast of the 
 Hellespont, where a mound was raised over them. 
 Achilles is the principal hero of the Iliad: he is 
 the handsomest and bravest of all the Greeks ; he 
 is affectionate towards his mother and his friends ; 
 formidable in battles, which are his delight ; open- 
 hearted and without fear, and at the same time 
 susceptible of the gentle and quiet joys of home. 
 His greatest passion is ambition, and when his 
 sense of honour is hurt, he is unrelenting in his 
 revenge and anger, but withal submits obediently 
 to thii will of the gods. — Later traditions. These 
 chiefly consist in accounts which fill up the history 
 of his youth and death. His mother wishing to make 
 her son immortal, is said to have concealed him 
 by night in the fire, in order to destroy the mortal 
 parts he had inherited from his father, and by day 
 to have anointed him with ambrosia. But Peleus 
 one night discovered his child in the fire, and cried 
 out in terror. Thetis left her son and fled, and 
 Peleus entrusted him to Chiron, who educated and 
 instructed him in the arts of riding, hunting, and 
 playing the phorminx, and also changed his original 
 name, Ligyron, i. e. the '* whining," into Achilles. 
 Chiron fed his pupil with the hearts of lions and 
 the marrow of bears. According to other accounts, 
 Thetis endeavoured to make Achilles immortal by 
 dipping him in the river Styx, and succeeded with 
 the exception of the ankles, by which she held 
 him. When he was nine years old, Calchas de- 
 clared that Troy could not be taken without his 
 aid, and Thetis knowmg that this war would be 
 fatal to him, disguised him as a maiden, and in- 
 troduced hira among the daughters of Lycomedes 
 of ScyroR, where he was called by the name of 
 Pyrrha on account of his golden locks. But his 
 real cliaracter did not remain concealed long, 
 for one of his companions, Deidamla, became 
 mnther of a son, Pyrrhus or Neoptolemus, by him. 
 Ulysses at last discovered his place of concealment, 
 and Achilles immediately promised his assistance. 
 During the war against Troy, Achilles slew Pen- 
 thesilea, an Amazon. He also fought with Mem- 
 nnn and Troilus. The accounts of his death 
 differ very much, though all agree in stating 
 that he did not fall by human hands, or at least 
 not without the interference of the god Apollo. 
 According to some traditions, he was killed by 
 Apollo himself ; according to others, Apollo as- 
 sumed the appearance of Paris in killing him, while 
 others say that Apollo merely directed the weapon 
 of Paris against Achillea, and thus caused his 
 
ACHILLES. 
 
 death, as had been suggested by the dyirjj Hector. 
 Others again relate that Achilles loved Polyxena, 
 a daughter of Priam, and tempted by the promise 
 that he should receive her as his wife, if he would 
 join the Trojans, he went without arms into the 
 temple of Apollo at Thymbra, and was assassinated 
 there by Paris. His body was rescued by Ulysses 
 and Ajax the Telamonian ; his armour was pro- 
 mised by Thetis to the bravest among the Greeks, 
 which gave rise to a contest between the two heroes 
 who had rescued his body. [Ajax.] After his 
 death, Achilles became one of the judges in the 
 lower world, and dwelled in the islands of the 
 blessed, where he was united with Medea or Iphi- 
 genia. 
 
 AcMlles Tatius, or as others call him Achilles 
 Statins, an Alexandrine rhetorician, lived in the 
 latter half of the fifth or the beginning of the 
 sixth century of our era. He is the author of a 
 Greek romance in eight books, containing the ad- 
 ventures of two lovers, Clitophon and Leucippe, 
 which has come down to us. The best edition is 
 by Fr. Jacobs, Lips. 1821. Suidaa ascribes to 
 this Achilles a work on the sphere {irepl <T<paipas)^ 
 a fragment of which professing to be an intro- 
 duction to the Phaenomena of Aratus is still 
 extant. But this work was written at an earlier 
 period. It is printed in Petavius, Uranologia^ 
 Paris, 1630, and Amsterdam, 1703. 
 
 AcMlleum f AxiAXeioj'), a town near the pro- 
 montory Sigeum in the Troad, where Achilles was 
 supposed to have been buried. There was a place 
 of the same name on the Cimmerian Bosporus, or 
 Straits of Kaffa, on the Asiatic side. 
 
 Achilleus, assumed the title of emperor under 
 Diocletian, and reigned over Egypt for some time. 
 He was taken by Diocletian after a siege of 8 months 
 in Alexandria, and put to death, a. d. 296. 
 
 Acbilleus Dromos ('Ax^AAeios SpS/xos : Ten- 
 dera or Tendra), a narrow tongue of land in the 
 Euxine Sea, not far from the mouth of the Bory- 
 sthenes, where Achilles is said to have made a 
 race-course. Before it lay the celebrated Island of 
 Achilles {Insula Achillis) or Leuce (Aev/c^), where 
 there was a temple of Achilles. 
 
 Achilleus Portus {'Ax'i^^^tos \t/j.7}v)j a har- 
 bour in Laconia, near the promontory Taenarum. 
 
 AcMllides, a patronymic of Pyrrhus, son of 
 Achilles. 
 
 Acliillis Insula. [Achilleus Dromos.] 
 
 Achiroe {'Axip67}\ daughter of Nilus, and wife 
 of Belus, by whom she became the mother of 
 Aegyptus and Danaus. 
 
 Achivl, the name of the Achaei in the Latin 
 writers, and frequently used, like Achaei, to sig- 
 nify the whole Greek nation. [Achaei.] 
 
 AcboUa. [Achilla.] 
 
 Acboloe, [Harpyiae.] 
 
 Achradina or Acradlna. [Syracusae.] 
 
 Acieliorius ('Affixi^pios), one of the leaders of 
 the Gauls, who invaded Thrace and Macedonia in 
 B. c. 280. In the following year he accompanied 
 Brennus in his invasion of Greece. Some writers 
 suppose that Brennus and Acichorius are the same 
 persons, the former being only a title and the latter 
 the real name. 
 
 Acidalia, a surname of Venus, from the well 
 Acidalius near Orchomenos, where she used to bathe 
 with the Graces. 
 
 Acidinus, L. Manlius. 1. One of the Roman 
 generals in the second Punic war, praetor urbanus 
 
 ACRAE. 7 
 
 B.C. 210, served against Hasdrabal in 207, and 
 was sent into Spain in 206, where he remained till 
 199.— 2. Surnamed FuLViANUS, because he ori- 
 ginally belonged to the Fulvia geng, praetor b. c. 
 188 in Nearer Spain, and consul in 179 with his 
 o^vn brother Q. Fulvius Flaccus, which is the only 
 instance of two brothers holding the consulship at 
 the same time. 
 
 Acilia Gens, plebeian. Its members are men- 
 tioned under the family-names of A VIOLA, Balbus, 
 and Glabrio. 
 
 Acis ("A/cfs), son of Faunus and S^'maethis, was 
 beloved by the nymph Galatea: Polyphemus the 
 Cyclop, jealous of him, crushed him under a huge 
 rock. His blood gushing forth from under the 
 rock was changed by the nymph into the river 
 Acis or Acinius at the foot of Mount Aetna (now 
 Fiume dl Jaci), This story, which is related only 
 by Ovid {Alet. xiil. 750, seq.), is perhaps no more 
 than a happy fiction suggested by the manner in 
 which the little river springs forth from under a 
 rock. 
 
 Acmoiua CAKfxovia : 'AKfiovirTjs, AcmoTiensis), 
 a city of the Greater Phrj-gia. 
 
 AcmonSEdes, one of the three Cyclopes in Ovid, 
 is the same as Pyracmon in Virgil, and as Arges 
 in most other accounts of the Cyclopes. 
 
 Acoetes {'AKo'nrjs)^ son of a poor fisherman 
 of Maeonia, who served as a pilot in a ship. After 
 landing at the island of Naxos, the sailors brought 
 with them on board a beautiful boy asleep, whom 
 they wished to take with them ; but Acoetes, 
 who recognised in the boy the god Bacchus, dis- 
 suaded them fi'om it, but in vain. When the ship 
 had reached the open sea, the boy awoke, and 
 desired to be carried back to Naxos. The sailors 
 promised to do so, but did not keep their word. 
 Hereupon the god disclosed himself to them in bis 
 majestj' ; vines began to twine round the vessel, 
 tigers appeared, and the sailors, seized with mad- 
 ness, jumped into the sea and perished. Acoetes 
 alone was saved and conveyed back to Naxos, 
 where he was initiated in the Bacchic mysteries. 
 This is the account of Ovid {Met. in. 582, &c.). 
 Other writers call the crew of the ship Tyrrlienian 
 pirates, and derive the name of the Tyrrhenian sea 
 from them. 
 
 Acontius {'AicSvTLos), a beautiful youth of the 
 island of Ceos. On one occasion he came to Delos 
 to celebrate the annual festival of Diana, and fell 
 in love with Cydippe, the daughter of a noble 
 Athenian. In order to gain her, he had recourse 
 to a stratagem. While she was sitting in the 
 temple of Diana, he threw before her an apple upon 
 which he had written the words " I swear by the 
 sanctuarj^ of Diana to marry Acontius." The nurse 
 took up the apple and handed it to Cydippe, who 
 read aloud what was written upon it, and then 
 threw the apple away. But the goddess had heard 
 her vow, and the repeated illness of the maiden, 
 when she was about to marry another man, at 
 length compelled her father to give her in marriafre 
 to Acontius. This story is related by Ovid (He- 
 roid. 20, 21), who borrowed it from a lost poem o^ 
 Callimachus, entitled " Cydippe." 
 
 Acoris {^AKopis), king of Egj-pt, assisted Eva- 
 goras king of Cj-prus, against Artaxerxes king of 
 Persia, about b. c. 385. He died about 374, before 
 the Persians entered Egj'pt, which was in the fol- 
 lowing year. 
 
 Acrae CAKpai) 1. (Nr. Palazzalo, Ru.), a town 
 
 B 4 
 
8 
 
 ACRAEA, 
 
 in Sicily, W. of Syracuse, and 10 stadia from the 
 river AJiapus, was founded by the Syracusans 70 
 j'ears after the foundation of their own city.— 2. 
 A town in Aetolia. 
 
 Acraea ('AKpat'a), and Acraeus, are surnames 
 given to various goddesses and gods whose temples 
 were situated upon hills, such as Zeus, Hera, 
 Aphrodite, Pallas, Artemis, and others. 
 Acraepheus. [Acraephia.] 
 Acraephia, Acraephiae, or Acraephion ('A- 
 Kpai<f>iaj AKpai(plaij *A/cpai^ioc : 'AKoaitpios, 'AKpai- 
 <pi(iios : Kardhitza), a town in Boeotia, on the lake 
 Copais, said to have been founded by Acraepheus, 
 the son of Apollo. 
 
 Acragas. [Agrigentum.] 
 Acratus, a freedman of Nero, sent into Asia 
 and Achaia (a. d. 64) to plunder the temples and 
 take away the statues of the gods. 
 
 Acriae {'AKpiai, or *AKpa7ai), a town in Laconia, 
 not far from the mouth of the Eurotas. 
 
 Acrillae, a town in Sicily between Agrigen- 
 tum and Acrae. 
 
 Acrisione [*AKpiffi(tivrf)f a patronymic of Danae, 
 daughter of Acrisius. Perseus, grandson of Acri- 
 sius, was called in the same way AcrisiOniades. 
 
 Acrisius ('AKpiViOs), son of Abas, king of 
 Argos, and of Ocalia, grandson of Lynceus, and 
 great-grandson of Banaus. His twin-brother was 
 Proetus, with whom he is said to have quarrelled 
 even in the womb of his mother. Acrisius ex- 
 pelled Proetus from his inheritance ; but, supported 
 by his fiither-in-law lobates, the Lycian, Proetus 
 returned, and Acrisius was compelled to share his 
 kingdom with his brother by giving up to him 
 Tiryns, while he retained Axgos for himself. An 
 oracle had declared that Danae, the daughter of 
 Acrisius, would give birth to a son who would kill 
 his grandfather. For this reason he kept Danae 
 shut up in a subterraneous apartment, or in a 
 brazen tower. But here she became mother of Per- 
 seus, notwithstanding the precautions of her father, 
 according to some accounts by her uncle Proetus, 
 and according to others by Zeus, who visited her 
 in the form of a shower of gold. Acrisius ordered 
 mother and child to be exposed on the wide sea in 
 a chest ; but the chest floated towards the island 
 of Seriphus, where both were rescued by Dictys. 
 As to the manner in which the oracle was sub- 
 sequently fulfilled, see Perseus. 
 
 Acritas {'AKpehas : C. Gallo), the most southerly 
 promontory in Messenia. 
 
 Acroceraimia (ra 'AKpoKepavvia, sc. opij : C. 
 LiTigueita)^ a promontory in Epims, jutting out into 
 the Ionian sea, was the most westerly part of the 
 Ceraunii Montes. The coast of the Acroce- 
 raunia was dangerous to ships, whence Horace 
 (Caj-jK.i. 3. 20) speaks of iJifames scopulos Aero- 
 ceraunia. 
 Acrocorintlius. [Corinthus.] 
 AcroUssus. [Lissos.J 
 
 Acron, 1, King of the Caeninenses, whom 
 Romulus slew in battle, and whose arms he dedi- 
 cated to Jupiter Feretrius as Spolia Optmu.— 2. 
 An eminent physician of Agrigentum in Sicily, is 
 said to have been in Athens during the great 
 plague (b. c. 430) in the Peloponnesian war, and 
 to have ordered large fires to be kindled in the 
 streets for the purpose of purifying the air, which 
 proved of great service to several of the sick. This 
 fact, however, is not mentioned by Thucydides. 
 The medical sect of the Empirici, in order to boast 
 
 ACTE. 
 
 of a greater antiquity than the Dogmatici (founded 
 about B. c. 400), claimed Acron as their founder, 
 though they did not really exist before the third 
 century b. c. 
 
 Acron, Helenius, a Roman grammarian, pro- 
 bably of the fifth century a. d., wrote notes on 
 Horace, part of which are extant, and also, accord- 
 ing to some*critic3, the scholia which we have on, 
 Persius. 
 Acropolis. [Athenae.] 
 Acropolita, Georgius (reti/jyios *AKpoitoKir-qi)^ 
 a Byzantine writer, was bom at Constantinople in 
 A.D. 1220, and died in 1282. He wrote several 
 works which have come down to us. The most 
 important of them is a history of the Byzantino 
 empire, from the taking of Constantinople by the 
 Latins in 1204, down to the year 1261, when 
 Michael Palaeologus delivered the city from the 
 foreign yoke. Edited by Leo Allatius, Paris, 
 1651, reprinted at Venice, 1729. 
 
 Acrorea ( ^ ^AKpupeia), a mountainous tract of 
 country in the north of Elis. 
 
 Acrotatus ('AKpSraTos). 1. Son of Cleomenes 
 IL king of Sparta, sailed to Sicily in b. c. 
 314 to assist the Agrigentines against Agathoclea 
 of Syracuse. On his arrival at Agrigentum he 
 acted with such tyranny that the inhabitants com- 
 pelled him to leave the city. He returned to 
 Sparta, and died before his father, leaving a son, 
 Areus. — 2. Grandson of the preceding, and the 
 son of Areus L king of Sparta ; bravely defended 
 Sparta against Pyrrhus in B. c. 272 ; succeeded 
 his father as king in 265, but was killed in th& 
 same year in battle against Aristodemus, the tyrant 
 of Megalopolis. 
 
 Acrotlioiun. or Acrotlioi (^AKpSQoioVy 'A/cpd- 
 6(aoi : *AKpo6uitT7}s : Lavra), afterwards called 
 Uranopolis, a town near the extremity of the pen- 
 insula of Athos. 
 
 Actaea ('Affraia), daughter of Nereus and Dorla. 
 Actaeon {'AicTaiuu). 1. A celebrated hunts- 
 man, son of Aristaeus and Autonoe, a daughter of 
 Cadmus, was trained in the art of hunting by the 
 centaur Chiron. One day as he was hunting, 
 he saw Artemis with her nymphs bathing in 
 the vale of Gargaphia, whereupon the goddess 
 changed him into a stag, in which form he was torn 
 to pieces by his 50 dogs on Mount Cithaeron. Others 
 relate that he provoked the anger of the goddess by 
 boasting that he excelled her in hunting. — 2. Son 
 of Melissus, and grandson of Abron, who had fled 
 from Argos to Corinth for fear of the tyrant Phi- 
 don. Archias, a Corinthian, enamoured with the 
 beauty of Actaeon, endeavoured to carry him off ; 
 but in the struggle which ensued between Melisaus 
 and Archias, Actaeon was killed. [Archias] 
 
 Actaeus ('A/ctoTos), son of Erisichthon, and the 
 earliest king of Attica. He had three daughters, 
 Agraulos, lierse, and Pandrosus, and was suc- 
 ceeded by Cecrops, who married Agraulos. 
 
 Acte, the concubine of Nero, was originally a 
 slave from Asia Minor. Nero at one time thought 
 of marrying her ; whence he pretended that she 
 was descended from king Attalus. She sui'vived 
 Nero. 
 
 Acte (*Akt^), properly a piece of land running 
 into the sea, and attached to another larger piece of 
 land, but not necessarily by a narrow neck. 1. An 
 ancient name of Attica, used especially by the 
 poets. — 2. The eastern coast of Peloponnesus near 
 Troezen and Epidaurus.— 3. The peninsula be- 
 
ACTIACUS. 
 tween the Strymonic and Singitic gulfs, on which 
 Mount AthoB ia. 
 
 Actiacus. [ AcTi um. 3 
 
 Actisanes ('AKTKravTjs), a king of Ethiopia, 
 who conquered Egypt and governed it with justice, 
 in the reign of Amasis. This Amasis is a more 
 ancient king than the contemporary of Cyrus. 
 
 Actium {^Aktiov : "Aictios : La Punta not Azio), 
 a promontory, and likewise a place, in Acamania, at 
 the entrance of the Ambracian gulf, off which Au- 
 gustus gained the celebrated victory over Antony 
 and Cleopatra, on September 2, b. c. 31. At Actium 
 there was originally no town, but only a temple of 
 Apollo, who was hence called Actiacus and Actius. 
 This temple was beautified by Augustus, who 
 established, or rather revived, a festival to Apollo, 
 called Actia (see Did. of Ant. s. r.), and erected 
 NicoPOLis on the opposite coast, in commemoration 
 of his victory. A few buildings sprung up around 
 the temple at Actium, but the place was only a 
 kind of suburb of Nicopolig. 
 
 Actius. [Attius.] 
 
 Actor (^AKTwp). L Son of Deion and Bio- 
 mede, father of Menoetius, and grandfather of 
 Patroclus. — 2, Son of Phorbas and Hynnine, 
 and husband of Molione. — 3, A companion of 
 Aeneas, of whose conquered lance Tumua made a 
 boast. This story seems to have given rise to the 
 proverb Actons spolium (Juv. ii. 100), for any poor 
 spoil. 
 
 ActSndes or Actorion (*AktopiStjs or *Akto- 
 piwv), patronyTuics of descendants of an Actor, such 
 as Patroclus, Erithus, Eurytus, and Cteatus. 
 
 Actuarius, Joannes, a Greek physician of Con- 
 stantinople, probably lived in the reign of Andro- 
 nicus II. Palaeologus, a. d. 1281 — 1328. He was 
 the author of several medical works, which are 
 extant. 
 
 C. Aculeo, an eminent Roman lawyer, who 
 married the sister of Helvia, the mother of Cicero: 
 his son was C. Visellius Varro ; whence it would 
 appear that Aculeo was only a surname given to 
 the father from his acuteness, and that his full 
 name was C. Visellius Varro Aculeo. 
 
 Actisilaus (AKouo-iAaos), of Argos, one of the 
 earlier Greek logographers, flourished about B.C. 
 525. Three books of his Genealogies are quoted, 
 which were for the most part only a translation of 
 Hesiod into prose. He wrote in the Ionic dialect. 
 His fragments are published by Sturtz, Lips. 
 1824, and in Didot's Fragm. Histor, Graec. p. 100, 
 seq. 
 
 Ada ("ASr), daughter of Hecatomnus, king of 
 Caria, and sister of Mausolus, Artemisia, Idrieus, 
 and Pixodarus. She was married to her brother 
 Idrieus, on whose death (b. c. 344) she succeeded 
 to the throne of Caria, but was expelled by her 
 brother Pixodarus in 340. When Alexander en- 
 tered Caria in 334, Ada, who was in possession of 
 the fortress of Alinda, surrendered this place to 
 him. After taking Halicarnassus, Alexander com- 
 mitted the government of Caria to her. 
 
 Adamantea. [Amalthea.] 
 
 Adamantiua. (*A5a/ia;'Tioy), a Greek physician, 
 flourished about a. d. 415, the author of a Greek 
 treatise on Physiognomy, which is borrowed in a 
 great measure from Polemo's work on the same 
 subject. Edited by Franzius, in Scriplores Phy- 
 siognomia^ Veteres^ 1780, 8vo. ^ 
 
 Addiia {Adda\ a river of Gallia Cisalpina, ; 
 which rises in the Rhaetian Alps, and flows through ■■ 
 
 ADONIS. & 
 
 the Lacus Larius (Z. di Como) into the Po, about 
 8 miles above Cremona. 
 
 Adherhal ('ArdpSas), son of Micipsa, and grand- 
 son of Masinisaa, had the kingdom of Numidia 
 left to hira by his father in conjunction with his 
 brother Hiempsal and Jugurtha, b. c. 11 8. After 
 the murder of his brother by Jugurtha, Adherbal 
 fled to Rome and was restored to his share of the 
 kingdom by the Romans in 117. But he was 
 again stripped of his dominions by Jugurtha and 
 besieged in Cirta, where he was treacherously 
 killed by Jugurtha in 112. 
 
 Adiahene ('A5ja§77i/^), a district of Assyria, E, 
 of the Tigris, and between the river Lycus, called 
 Zabatus in the Anabasis of Xenophon, and the 
 Caprus, both of which are branches of the Tigris. 
 
 Adimantus {'A^elfxaPTos). 1. The commander of 
 the Corinthian fleet, when Xerxes invaded Greece 
 (b. c. 480), vehemently opposed the advice of The- 
 mistocles to give battle to the Persians. — 2. An 
 Athenian, one of the commanders at the battle of 
 Aegospotami, b. c. 405, where he was taken pri- 
 soner. He was accused of treachery in this battle, 
 and is ridiculed by Aristophanes in the " Frogs.'* 
 — 3. The brother of Plato, frequently mentioned 
 by the latter. 
 
 Adis ('A5is: Rhodes?), a considerable town on 
 the coast of Africa, in the territory of Carthage- 
 (Zeugitana), a short distance E. of Tunis. Under 
 the Romans it appears to have been supplanted by 
 a new cityi named Maxula. 
 
 Admete (ASyit^TT;). 1. Daughter of Oceanua 
 and Thetys. ^ 2, Daughter of Eurystheus and 
 Antimache or Admete. Hercules was Obliged by 
 her father to fetch for her the girdle of Ares, which 
 was worn by Hippolyte, queen of the Amazons. 
 
 Admetus (^AS^tjtos). 1. Son of Plieres and 
 Periclyraene or Clymene, was king of Pherae in 
 Thessaly. He took part in the Calydonian hunt 
 and in the expedition of the Argonauts. He sued 
 for the hand of Alcestis, the daughter of Pelias, 
 who promised her to him on condition that he 
 should come to her in a chariot drawn by lions and 
 boars. This task Admetus performed by the assist- 
 ance of Apollo, who served him, according to some 
 accounts, out of attachment to hira, or, according to- 
 others, because he was obliged to serve a mortal for 
 one year for having slain the Cyclops. On the day 
 of his marriage with Alcestis, Admetus neglected 
 to offer a sacrifice to Artemis, but Apollo reconciled 
 the goddess to him, and at the same time induced 
 the Moirae to grant to Admetus deliverance from 
 death, if at the hour of his death his father, mother, 
 or wife would die for him. Alcestis died in his 
 stead, but was brought back by Hercules from the 
 lower world. ^ 2. King of the Molossians, to 
 whom Themistocles fled for protection, when 
 pursued as a party to the treason of Pausanias. 
 
 Adonis i^ASuyis), a beautiful youth, beloved 
 by Aphrodite, He was, according to ApoUodorus, 
 a son of Cinyras and Medarme, or, according to 
 the cyclic poet Panyasis, a son of Theias, king of 
 Assyria, and Smyrna (Myrrha). The ancient 
 story ran thus : Smyrna had neglected the worship 
 of Aphrodite, and was pimished by the goddess 
 with an unnatural love for her father. With the 
 assistance of her nurse she contrived to share her 
 father's bed. When he discovered the crime he 
 wished to kill her ; but she fled, and on being- 
 nearly overtaken, pra3'-ed to the gods to make her 
 invisible. They were moved to pity and changed 
 
10 
 
 ADONIS. 
 
 her into a tree called fffxvpva. After the lapse of 
 9 months the tree burst, and Adonis was born 
 Aphrodite was so much charmed with the beauty of 
 the infant, that she concealed it in a chest which 
 she entrusted to Persephone ; but the latter refused 
 to give it up. Zeus decided the dispute by 
 declaring that during 4 months of every year 
 Adonis should be left to himself, during 4 months 
 lie should belong to Persephone, and during the 
 remaining 4 to Aphrodite. Adonis, however, 
 preferring to live with Aphrodite, also spent with 
 her the four months over which he had control. 
 Adonis afterwards died of a wound which he re- 
 ceived from a boar diu-ing the chase. The grief of 
 the goddess at the loss of her favourite was so 
 great, that the gods of the lower world allowed 
 him to spend 6' montlis of every year with 
 Aphrodite upon the earth. The worship of Adonis, 
 which in later times was spread over nearly all the 
 countries round the Mediterranean, was, as the 
 story itsc-If sufficiently indicates, of Asiatic, or more 
 especially of Phoenician origin. Thence it was 
 transferred to Ass}'Tia, Eg^'pt, Greece, and even to 
 Italy, though of course with various modifications. 
 In the Homeric poems no trace of it occurs, and 
 the later Greek poets changed the original symbolic 
 account of Adonis into a poetical story. In the 
 Asiatic religions Aphrodite was the fructifying 
 principle of nature, and Adonis appears to have 
 reference to the death of nature in winter and its 
 revival in spring — hence he spends 6 months in 
 the lower and 6 ia the upper world. His death 
 and his return to life were celebrated in an- 
 nual festivals (Adonia) at Byblos, Alexandria in 
 Egypt, Athens, and other places 
 
 Adonis ("ASwi'iy), a small river of Phoenicia, 
 which rises in the range of Libanus. 
 
 Adramyttixtm. (^K^pa^vmiov or 'ABpafxvrrtov : 
 "ABpa/j.vTT-qi'Ss : Adraimjti), a town of Mysia near 
 the head of the gulf of Adramyttium, and opposite 
 to the island of Lesbos. 
 
 Adrana {Eder\ a river in Germany, which 
 flows into the Fulda near Cassel. 
 
 Adranum or Hadranum ("ASpai-oy, "AZpavov : 
 'ASpaWTTjy : Aderno% a town in Sicily, on the 
 river Adranus, at the foot of M. Aetna, was built 
 by Dionysius, and was the seat of the worship of 
 the god Adranus. 
 
 Adranus ('ASpavos). [Adranum.] 
 Adrastia (*ASpairT€ia), 1. A Cretan nymph, 
 daughter of Melisseus, to whom Rhea entrusted the 
 infant Zeus to be reared in the Dictaean grotto. 
 ^2. A surname of Nemesis, derived by some 
 writers from Adrastus, who is said to have built 
 the first sanctuary of Nemesis on the river Asopug, 
 and by others from the verb 5i5patr/c€iv, i. e. the 
 goddess whom none can escape. 
 
 Adrastns {"ASpaaros). 1. Sonof Talaus, kingof 
 Ajgos, and Lysimache, or Lysianassa or Eur}'nome. 
 Adrastus was expelled from .'Vrgos by AmphiarSus, 
 and fled to Polybus, king of Sicyon, whom he suc- 
 ceeded on the throne of Sicyon, and instituted the 
 Nemean games. Afterwards he became reconciled to 
 Amphiaraus, and returned to his kingdom of Argos. 
 He married his two daughters Deipyle and Argia, 
 the former to Tydeus of Calydon, and the latter 
 to Polynices of Thebes, both fugitives from their 
 native countries. He now prepared to restore Po- 
 l^-nices to Thebes, who had been expelled by his 
 brother Eteocles, although Amphiaraus foretold that 
 all who should engage in the war should perish, 
 
 ADULA. 
 
 with the exception of Adrastus. Thus arose the 
 celebrated war of the " Seven against Thebes," in 
 which Adi-astas was joined by six other heroes, 
 viz. Polynices, Tydeus, Amphiaraus, Capaneus, 
 Hippomedon, and Parthenopaeus. Instead of Ty- 
 deus and Polynices other legends mention Eteocles 
 and Mecisteas. This war ended as unfortunately 
 as Amphiaraus had predicted, and Adrastus alone 
 was saved by the swiftness of his horse Arlon, 
 the gift of Hercules. Creon of Thebes refusing to 
 allow the bodies of the six heroes to be buried, 
 Adrastus went to Athens and implored the assist- 
 ance of the Athenians. Theseus was persuaded to 
 undertake an expedition against Thebes ; he took 
 the city and delivered up the bodies of the fallen 
 heroes to their friends for burial. Ten years after 
 this Adrastus persuaded the seven sons of the 
 heroes who had fallen in the war, to make a new 
 attack upon Thebes, and Amphiaraus now promised 
 success. This war is known as the war of the 
 " Epigoni " ('Eiriyovoi) or descendants. Thebes was 
 taken and razed to the ground. The only Argive 
 hero that fell in this war, was Aegialeus, the son of 
 Adrastus : the latter died of grief at Megara on his 
 return to Argos, and was buried in the former city. 
 He was worshipped in several parts of Greece, as 
 at Megara, at Sicyon, where his memory was cele- 
 brated in tragic choruses, and in Attica. The 
 legends about Adrastus and the two wars against 
 Thebes furnished ample materials for the epic as 
 well as tragic poets of Greece.— 2. Son of the 
 Phrygian king Gordius, having unintentionally 
 killed his brother, fled to Croesus, who received 
 him kindl}-. While hunting he accidentally killed 
 Atya, the son of Croesus, and in despair put an end 
 to his own life. 
 
 Adria or Hadria. 1. (Adi-ia)^ also called At- 
 rica, a town in Gallia Cisalpina, between the mouths 
 of the Po and the Athesis {Adige\ from which 
 the Adriatic sea takes its name. It was originally 
 a powerful town of the Etruscans. —2. {Atri\ a 
 town of Picenum in Italy, probably an Etruscan 
 town originall}'', afterwiu"ds a Roman colony, at 
 which place the family of the emperor Hadrian 
 lived. 
 
 Adria ('AS/jiar, Ion. 'ASpiTjy), or Mare Adria- 
 tictun, also Mare Superum, so called from the 
 town Adria [No. 1], was in its widest signification 
 the sea between Italy on the AV., and lUyricum, 
 Epirug, and Greece, on the E. By the Greeks 
 the name Adrias was only applied to the northern 
 part of this sea, the southern part being called the 
 Ionian Sea. 
 
 Adrianus. [Hadrianus.] 
 
 Adrianus ('A5piaj/tJs), a Greek rhetorician, 
 born at Tyre in Phoenicia, was the pupil of He- 
 rodes Atticus, and obtained the chair of philosophy 
 at Athens during the lifetime of his master. He 
 was invited by M. Antonius to Rome, where he 
 died about A. d. 192. Three of his declamations 
 are extant, edited by Walz in Rhetores Ch-aeci, 
 vol. i. 1832. 
 
 Admmetnm. [Hadrumetum.] 
 
 Aduatiica, a castle of the Eburones in Gaul, 
 probably the same as the later Aduaca Tongrorum 
 {Tonpeni). 
 
 Adnatiici or Adnatici, a powerful people uf 
 Gallia Belgica in the time of Caesar, were the de- 
 scendants of the Cimbri and Teutoni, and lived 
 between the Scaldis (Schelde) and Moaa {Maas). 
 
 Adiila Mons. [Alpes.] 
 
ADULE. 
 
 Adule or Adiilia ("ASouArj, "AZovXis, and also 
 other forms: 'A5ou\fT7)y, Adulitanus: Arkiko or 
 Zula^ Ru.), a maritime city of Aethiopia, on a bay 
 of the Red Sea, called Adulitanus Sinus ('ASouAi- 
 TiKhs kSKtto^, Annesley Bay), It was believed to 
 have been founded by slaves who fled from E;jypt, 
 and afterwards to have fallen into the power of the 
 Auxumitae, for whose trade it became the great 
 emporium. Cosmas Indicopleustes (a. d. 535) 
 found here the Monumentum Adulitanitm^ a Greek 
 inscription raiounting the conquests of Ptolemy II. 
 Eaergetes in Asia and Thrace. 
 
 Adyrmachidae ('A5i;pju.axi5a0» ^ Libyan peo- 
 ple, who appear to have once possessed the whole 
 coast of Africa from the Canopic mouth of the Nile 
 to the Catabathmus Major, but were afterwards 
 pressed further inland. In. their manners and cus- 
 toms they resembled the Egyptians, to whom they 
 were the nearest neighbours. 
 
 Aea (Ala), sometimes with the addition of the 
 word Colchis, may be considered either a part of 
 Colchis or another name for the country. (Herod. 
 
 Aeaces (AiaKTjs), son of Syloson, and grand- 
 son of Aeaces, was tyrant of Samos, but was de- 
 prived of his tyrann}' by Aristagoras, when the 
 lonians revolted from the Persians, b. c. 500. He 
 then fled to the Persians, who restored him to the 
 tyranny of Samos, b. c. 494. 
 
 Aeaceum (Atarceiov). [Aegina.] 
 
 Aeacides (A/oki5tjs), a patronymic of the 
 descendants of Aeacus, as Peleus, Telamon, and 
 Phocus, sons of Aeacus ; Achilles, son of Peleus 
 and grandson of Aeacus ; Pyrrhus, son of Achilles 
 and great-grandson of Aeacus ; and Pyrrhus. king of 
 Epirus, who claimed to be a descendant of Achilles. 
 
 Aeacides, son of Arymbaa, king of Epii'us, 
 succeeded to the throne on the death of his cousin 
 Alexander, who was slain in Italy, b. c. 326. 
 Aeacides married Phthia, by whom he had the 
 celebrated Pyrrhus. He took an active part in 
 favour of Olympias against Cassander ; but his 
 subjects disliked the war, rose against their king, 
 and drove him from the kingdom. He was recalled 
 to his kingdom by his subjects in b. c. 313: Cas- 
 sander sent an army against him under Philip, 
 who conquered him the same year in two battles, 
 in the last of which he was killed. 
 
 Aeacu3 (AZa/cos), son of Zeus and Aegina, a 
 daughter of the river-god Asopus. He was bom 
 in the island of Oenone or Oenopia, whither 
 Aegina had been carried by Zeus, and from 
 whom this island was afterwards called Aegina. 
 Some traditions related that at the birth of Aeacus, 
 Aegina was not yet inhabited, and that Zeus 
 changed the ants (/jLupfnjKes) of the island into 
 men (Myrmidones) over whom Aeacus ruled. Ovid 
 (Met vii. 520) relates the story a little differently, 
 Aeacus was renowned in all Greece for his justice 
 and piety, and was frequently called upon to settle 
 disputes not only among men, but even among 
 the gods themselves. He was such a favourite 
 with the gods, that, when Greece was visited by a 
 drought, rain was at length sent upon the earth in 
 consequence of his prayers. Respecting the temple 
 which Aeacus erected to Zeus Panhellenius, and 
 the Aeaceum, where he was worshipped by the 
 Aeginetans, see Aegina. After his death Aeacus 
 became one of the three judges in Hades. The 
 Aeginetans regarded him as the tutelary deity of 
 their island. 
 
 AEGAE. 
 
 U 
 
 Aeaea (Atam). 1. A sumame of Circe, the 
 sister of Aeetes. Her son Telegonus is likewise 
 mentioned with this surnarae.^S. A sumame of 
 Calypso, who Avas believed to have inhabited a 
 small island of the name of Aeaea in the straits 
 between Italy and Sicily. 
 
 Aebura {Cuei-va\ a town of the Carpetani in 
 Hispania Tarraconeusis. 
 
 Aebutia Gens, patrician, was distinguished in 
 the early ages of the Roman republic, when many 
 of its members were consuls, viz. in b. c. 499, 463, 
 and 442. 
 
 Aeca or Aeeae (Aecanus), a to^vn of Apulia on 
 the road from Aquilonia in Samnium to Venusia. 
 
 Aecnlanum or Aeclanum, a town of the Plir- 
 pini in Samnium, a few miles S. of Beneventum. 
 
 Aedepsus (AiSrjxl/os : A15t)^los: Dipso), a town 
 on the W. coast of Euboea, N. of Chalcia, with 
 warm baths sacred to Hercules, which the dictator 
 Sulla used. 
 
 • Aedon (^Aijdc*)!/), daughter of Pandareus of 
 Ephesus, wife of Zethus king of Thebes, and 
 mother of Itylus. Envious of Niobe, the wife of 
 her brother Amphion, who had six sons and six 
 daughters, she resolved to kill the eldest of Niobe's 
 sons, but by mistake slew her own son Itylus. 
 Zeus relieved her grief by changing her into a 
 nightingale, whose melancholy tunes are repre- 
 sented by the poets as Aedon 's lamentations about 
 her child. Aedon 's story is related differently in 
 a later tradition. 
 
 Aedui or Hediii, one of the most powerful peo- 
 ple in Gaul, lived between the Liger (Loire) and 
 the Arar (Saone). They w^ere the first Gallic 
 people who made an alliance with the Romans, by 
 whom they were called " brothers and relations." 
 On Caesar's arrival in Gaul, b. c. 58, they were 
 subject to Ariovistus, but were restored by Caesar 
 to their former power. In B. c. 52 they joined in 
 the insurrection of Vercingetorix against the Ro- 
 mans, but were at the close of it treated leniently 
 by Caesar. Their principal town was Bibracte. 
 Their chief magistrate, elected annually by the 
 priests, was called Vergobretus. 
 
 Aeetes or Aeeta (Ai^ijTTjs), son of Helios (the 
 Sun) and Perseis, and brother of Circe, Pasiphae, 
 and Perses. His wife was Idyia, a daughter of 
 Oceanus, by whom he had two daughters, Medea 
 and Chalciope, and one son, Absyrtus. He was 
 king of Colchis at the time when Phrixus brought 
 thither the golden fleece. For the remainder of 
 his history, see Absyrtus, Argonautae, Jason, 
 Mehea. 
 
 Aeetis, Aeetias, and Aeetine, patronymics of 
 Medea, daughter of Aeetes. 
 
 Aega (AI77;), daughter of Olenus, who with 
 her sister Helice, nursed the infant Zeus in Crete, 
 and was changed by the god into the constellation 
 Capella. 
 
 Aegae (Ai7a^ : Alya7os). 1. A to-wn in Achaia 
 on the Crathis, with a celebrated temple of Posei- 
 don, was originally one of the twelve Achaean 
 towns, but its inhabitants subsequently removed 
 to Aegira. — 2. A town in Emathia in Macedonia, 
 the burial-place of the Macedonian kings, was pro- 
 bably a different place fromEDESSA.— 3. A town 
 in Euboea with a celebrated temple of Poseidon, 
 who was hence called Aegaeus. ^ 4. Also Aegaeae 
 (Alyatai : AiyeaTTjs), one of the twelve cities of 
 Aeolis in Asia Minor, N. of Smyrna, on the river 
 Hyllus : it suffered greatly from an earthquake in 
 
12 AEGAEON. 
 
 the time of Tiberius. — 5. {Ayas\ a seaport town 
 of Cilicia. 
 
 Aegaeon (Aiyaiwv), son of Uranus by Gaea. 
 Aegaeon and his brothers Gyges and Cottus are 
 known under the name of the Uranids, and are 
 described as huge monsters with a hundred arms 
 (e/cartJyx^'Pfy) and fifty heads. Most writers men- 
 tion the third Uranid under the name of Briareus 
 instead of Aegaeon, which is explained by Homer 
 {II. i. 403), who says that men called him Aegaeon, 
 but the gods Briareus. According to the most 
 ancient tradition Aegaeon and his brothers con- 
 quered the Titans when they made war upon the 
 gods, and secured the victory to Zeus, who thrust 
 the Titans into Tartarus, and placed Aegaeon and 
 his brothers to guard them. Other legends repre- 
 sent Aegaeon as one of the giants who attacked 
 Olympus ; and many writers represent him as a 
 marine god living iu the Aegaean sea. Aegaeon 
 and his brothers must be regarded as personifica- 
 tions of the extraordinary powers of nature, such as 
 earthquakes, volcanic eruptions, and the like. 
 
 Aegaeum Mare (jh hiyaiov ir^Xayos, 6 Alya7os 
 '7r6vTos), the part of the Mediterranean now called 
 the Archipelago. It was bounded on the N. by 
 Thrace and Macedonia, on the W. by Greece, and 
 on the E. by Asia Minor. It contains in its south- 
 ern part two groups of islands, the Cyclades, which 
 were separated from the coasts of Attica and Pe- 
 loponnesus by the Myrtoan sea, and the Sporades, 
 lying oif the coasts of Caria and Ionia. The part 
 of the Aegaean which washed the Sporades was 
 called the Icarian sea, from the island Icaria, one 
 of the Sporades. The origin of the name of 
 Aegaean is uncertain ; some derive it from Aegeus, 
 the king of Athens, who threw himself into it ; 
 others from Aegaea, the queen of the Amazons, who 
 perished there ; others firom Aegae in Euboea ; 
 and others from 01715, a squall, on account of its 
 storms. 
 
 Aegaeus (Alya7os). [Aeg.\e, No. 3.] 
 
 Aegaleos {AlydXeus, rh AlyaAeci}!/ opos : SJcar- 
 maiiga)^ a mountain in Attica opposite Salamis, 
 from which Xerxes saw the defeat of his fleet, e, c 
 480. 
 
 Aegates, the goat-islands, were three islands oif 
 theW. coast of Sicily, between Drepanura and Lily- 
 baeum, near which the Romans gained a naval 
 victory over the Carthaginians, and thus brought 
 the first Punic war to an end, E. c. 241. The is- 
 lands were Aegusa {hlyoixraa) or Capraria {Favig- 
 7iana), Phorbantia {Levanzo) and Hiera (Mare- 
 timo) . 
 
 Aegeria or Egeria, one of the Camenae in 
 Koman mythology, from whom Numa received his 
 instructions respecting the forms of worship which 
 he introduced. The grove in which the king had 
 his interviews with the goddess, and in which a 
 ■\v\i\\ gushed forth from a dark recess, was dedi- 
 cated by him to the Camenae. The Roman legends 
 point out two distinct places sacred to Aegeria, one 
 near Aricia, and the other near Rome at the Porta 
 Capena, in the valley now called C'aparella. Aegeria 
 was regarded as a prophetic divinity, and also as 
 the giver of life, whence she was invoked by 
 pregnant women. 
 
 Aegesta. [Segksta.] 
 
 Aegestus. [Acestes.] 
 
 Aegeus (Aly^vs). 1. Son of Pandion and king 
 of Athens. He had no children by his first two 
 wives, but he afterwards begot Theseus by Aethra 
 
 AEGIMIUS. 
 
 at Troezen. When Theseus had grown up to 
 manhood, he went to Athens and defeated the 
 50 sons of his uncle Pallas, who had made war 
 upon Aegeus and had deposed him. Aegeus was 
 now restored. When Theseus went to Crete to 
 deliver Athens from the tribute it had to pay to 
 Minos, he promised his father that on his return he 
 would hoist white sails as a signal of his safety. 
 On approaching the coast of Attica he forgot his 
 promise, and his father, perceiving the black sail, 
 thought that his son had perished and threw him- 
 self into the sea, which according to some tradi- 
 tions received from this event the name of the 
 Aegean. Aegeus was one of the eponymous 
 heroes of Attica ; and one of the Attic tribes 
 (Aegeis) derived its name from him.— 2. The 
 eponymous hero of the phyle called the Aegidae 
 at Sparta, son of Oeolycus, and grandson of Theras, 
 the founder of the colony in Thera, All the 
 Aegeids were believed to be Cadmeans, who formed 
 a settlement at Sparta previous to the Dorian con- 
 quest. 
 
 Aegias (Aly^iai, AtYaTai), a small tovra in La- 
 conia, not far from Cythium, the Augiae of Homer 
 (//. ii.S^aS). 
 
 Aegiale or Aegialea (AlyidXtj, AlyidXeia), 
 daughter of Adrastus and Amphithea, or of Aegia- 
 leus the son of Adrastus, whence she is called Adras- 
 tine. She was married to Diomedes, who, on his 
 return from Troy, found her living in adultery with 
 Cometes. The hero attributed this misfortune to 
 the anger of Aphrodite, whom he had wounded in 
 the war against Troy : when Aegiale threatened 
 his life, he fled to Italy. 
 
 Aegialea, Aegialos. [Achaia ; Sicyon.] 
 
 Aegialeus {AiyiaXevs). L Son of Adrastus, 
 the only one among the Epigoni that fell in the 
 war against Thebes. [Adrastus.]— 2. Son of 
 Inachus and the Oceanid Melia, from whom the 
 part of Peloponnesus afterwards called Achaia de- 
 rived its name Aegialea : he is said to have been 
 the first king of Sicyon.^3. Son of Aeetes, and 
 brother of Medea, commonly called Absyrtus. 
 
 Aegides (At7eiB7js), a patronymic from Aegeus, 
 especially his son Theseus. 
 
 Aegila (to AtyiKa), a town of Laconia with a 
 temple of Demeter. 
 
 Aegilia (Aiyi\la : AlyiM^vs). 1. A demus of 
 Attica belonging to the tribe Antiochis, celebrated 
 for its figs. ^3. (Cerigotto), an island between 
 Crete and Cythera. ^ 3. An island W. of Euboea 
 and opposite Attica. 
 
 Aegimius {Alyifj.L05\ the mythical ancestor of 
 the Dorians, whose king he was when they were 
 yet inhabiting the northern parts of Thessaly. In- 
 volved in a war with the Lapithae, he called Her- 
 cules to his assistance, and promised him the third 
 part of his territory, if he delivered him from his 
 enemies. The Lapithae were conquered. Hercules 
 did not take the territory for himself, but left it to 
 the king who was to preserve it for the sons of 
 Hercules. Aegimius had two sons, Dymas and 
 Pamphylus, who migrated to Peloponnesus, and 
 were regarded as the ancestors of two branches of 
 the Doric race (Dymanes and Pamphylians), while 
 the third branch derived its name from Hyllus 
 (Hylleans), the son of Hercules, who had been 
 adopted by Aegimius. There existed in antiquity 
 an epic poem called Aegimius^ which described the 
 war of Aegimius and Hercules against the La- 
 pithae, 
 
AEGIMURUS. 
 
 AegimuTUS (Alyifxovpos, Aegtmori Arae, Plln., ' 
 and probably the Arae of Virg. Am. i. 108 ; 
 Zowamour or Zeml/ra), a lofty island, surrounded 
 by cliffs, off the African coast, at the mouth of the 
 Gulf of Carthage. 
 
 Aegina {Atyiva : AlytvT}T7}S : Egltina)^ a rocky 
 island in the middle of the Saronic gulf, about 200 
 stadia in circumference. It was originally called 
 Oenone or Oenopia, and is said to have obtained 
 the name of Aegina from Aegina, the daughter 
 of the river god Asopus, who was carried to the 
 island by Zeus, and there bore him a son Aeacus. 
 As the island had then no inhabitants, Zeus 
 changed the ants into men (Myrmidones), over 
 ■whom Aeacua ruled. [Abacus.] It was first co- 
 lonized by Achaeans, and afterwards by Dorians 
 from Epidaurus, whence the Doric dialect and cus- 
 toms prevailed in the island. It was at first closely 
 connected with Epidaurus, and was subject to the 
 Argive Phidon, who is said to have established a 
 silver-mint in the island. It early became a place of 
 great commercial importance, and its silver coinage 
 was the standard in most of the Dorian states. In 
 the sixth century b. c. Aegina became independent, 
 and for a century before the Persian war was a 
 prosperous and powerful state. The Aeginetans 
 fought with 30 ships against the fleet of Xerxes at 
 the battle of Salamis, B. 0. 480, and are allowed 
 to have distinguished themselves above all the 
 other Greeks by their bravery. After this time 
 its power declined. In B.C. 429 the Athenians 
 took possession of the island and expelled its inha- 
 bitants, and though a portion of them was restored 
 by Lysander in b. c. 404, the island never re- 
 covered its former prosperity. In the NW. of the 
 island there was a city of the same name, which 
 contained the Aeaceum or temple of Aeacus, and 
 on a hill in the NE. of the island was the cele- 
 brated temple of Zeus Panhellenius, said to have 
 been built by Aeacus, the ruins of which are still 
 extant. The sculptures which occupied the tym- 
 pana of the pediment of this temple were discovered 
 in 1811, and are now preserved at Munich. In the 
 lialf century preceding the Persian war, and for a 
 few years afterwards, Aegina was the chief seat of 
 Greek art : the most eminent artists of the Aegi- 
 iietan school were Gallon, Anaxagobas, Glau- 
 ciAS, Simon, and Onatas. 
 
 Aegiueta Paulus. [Paulus Aegineta.] 
 
 Aeginium {Pdyiviov : Alyivi^vs : Slagus), a 
 to^vn of the Tymphaei in Thessaly on the con- 
 fines of Athamania. 
 
 Aeg^ochus (Alyloxos), a surname of Zeus, be- 
 cause he bore the Aegis. 
 
 Aegipau (At7l7rai'), that is, Goat-Pan, was, ac- 
 cording to some, a being distinct from Pan, while 
 others regard him as identical with Pan. His story 
 appears to be of late origin. [Pan.] 
 
 AegiplanctUS Mons (rh hiyi-n\ayKrov opos), 
 a mountain in Megaris. 
 
 Aeg^a {Atyeipa : AlyeipdTrjs), formerly Hy- 
 peresia ('TTrepT^o-ta), a town in Achaia on a steep 
 hill, with a sea-port about 12 stadia from the town. 
 [Aegae, No. 1.] 
 
 Aegirussa (AiyipSeaffo^ Alyipovaaa), one of the 
 12 cities of Aeolis in Asia Minor. 
 
 Aegisthus (A'iyiaOos), son of Thyestes, who 
 
 AEGYPTUS. 
 
 13 
 
 brought him up as his son. When Pelopla lay 
 with her father, she took from him his sword, 
 which she afterwards gave to Aegisthus. This 
 sword was the means of revealing the crime of 
 Thyestes, and Pelopia thereupon put an end to 
 her own life. Aegisthus murdered Atreus, because 
 he had ordered him to slay his father Thyestes, 
 and he placed Thyestes upon the throne, of which 
 he had been deprived by Atreus. Homer appears 
 to know nothing of these tragic events ; and we 
 learn from him only that Aegisthus succeeded 
 his father Thyestes in a part of his dominions. 
 According to Homer Aegisthus took no part in the 
 Trojan war, and during the absence of Agamemnon, 
 the son of Atreus, Aegisthus seduced his wife 
 Clytemnestra. Aegisthus murdered Agamemnon 
 on his retiun home, and reigned 7 years over My- 
 cenae. In the 8th Orestes, the son of Agamem- 
 non, avenged the death of his father by putting 
 the adulterer to death. [Agamemnon, Clytem- 
 nestra, Orestes.] 
 
 Aegithallus {AlylBaWos ; C di S. Teodoro), 
 
 a promontory in Sicily, between Lilybaeum and 
 
 Drepanum, near which was the town Aegithallum. 
 
 Aegltium {Alyinov)^ a town in Aetolia, on the 
 
 borders of Locris. 
 
 Aegium {AXyiov : Alyuvs : Vostitza), a town of 
 Achaia, and the capital after the destruction of 
 Helice. The meetings of the Achaean league were 
 held at Aegium in a grove of Zeu5 called Homarium. 
 Aegle (AI7A77), that is " Brightness" or "Splen- 
 dour," is the name of several mythological females, 
 such as, 1. The daughter of Zeus and Neaera, the 
 most beautiful of the Naiads ;^2. A sister of 
 Phaeton ;— 3. One of the Hesperides ;— 4. A 
 nymph beloved by Theseus, for whom he forsook 
 Ariadne ;^5. One of the daughters of Aesculapius, 
 Aegletes {Aly\7}TT}s), that is, the radiant god, 
 a surname of Apollo. 
 
 Aegocerus {Aly6K€pios), a surname of Pan, de- 
 scriptive of his figure with the horns of a goat, but 
 more commonly the name of one of the signs of the 
 Zodiac, Capricornus. 
 
 Aegos-Potamos {Alyh': irorafiSs)^ the " goat's- 
 river," a small river, with a town of the same name 
 on it, in the Thracian Chersonesus, flows into the 
 Hellespont. Here the Athenians were defeated 
 by Ijy Sander, b. c. 405, 
 
 AegOBthena {Aiy6(Tdeva : Alyoadevevs, Alyo- 
 ffOeylTTjs), a town in Megaris on the borders of 
 Boeotia, with a sanctuary of Melampus. 
 
 Aegus and Eoscilltis, two chiefs of the Allo- 
 brogea, who had served Caesar with fidelity in the 
 Gallic war, deserted to Porapey in Greece (b. c. 48). 
 Aegusa. [Aegates.] 
 
 Aegypsus or Aegysus, a town of Moesia on 
 the Danube. 
 
 Aegyptus (A'tyvirros), son of Belus and An- 
 chinoe or Achiroe, and twin-brother of Danaus. 
 Belus assigned Libya to Danaus, and Arabia to 
 Aegyptus, but the latter subdued the country of 
 the Melarapodes, which he called Aegypt after 
 his own name. Aegyptus by his several wives 
 had 50 sons, and his brother Danaus 50 daughters. 
 Danaus had reason to fear the sons of his brother, 
 and fled with his daughters to Argos in Pelopon- 
 nesus. Thither he was followed by the sons of 
 
 A !..„ ,..!., 
 
 .-^j-j i,:„ j„„„T,t, 
 
14 
 
 AEGYPTUS. 
 
 gave a dagger, with which they were to kill their 
 husbands in the bridal night. All the sons of 
 Aegyptus were thus murdered, with the exception 
 of Lynceus, who was saved by Hypermnestra, 
 The Danaids buried the heads of their murdei'ed 
 husbanda in Lema, and their bodies outside the 
 town, and were afterwards purified of their crime 
 by Athena and Hermes at the command, of Zeus. 
 
 Aegyptus (ij Aiyvirros : AlyinrrtoSj Aegyptius : 
 Egypt), a country in the N. E. comer of Africa, 
 bounded on the N. by the Mediterranean, on 
 the E. by Palestine, Arabia Petraea, and the Red 
 Sea, on the S. by Ethiopia, the division between 
 the two countries being at the First or Little Cataract 
 of the Nile, close to Syene (^Assouan ; Lat. 24° 
 8'), and on the W. by the Great Libyan Desert. 
 This is the extent usually assigned to the coxmtry ; 
 but it would be more strictly correct to define it as 
 that part of the basin of the Nile which lies below 
 the First Cataract. — 1. Physical Description of 
 Egypt. The river Nile, flowing from S. to N. 
 through a narrow valley, encounters, in Lat. 24° S', 
 a natural barrier, composed of two islands (Philae 
 and Elephantine) and between them a bed of 
 sunken rocks, by which it is made to fall in a 
 series of cataracts, or rather rapids (to. KoraSoyTro, 
 (5 fiiKphs KaTa^pdKTT}?, Catarrhactes Minor, comp. 
 Catarrhactes), which have always been re- 
 garded as the southern limit assigned by nature to 
 Egypt. The river flows due N. between two 
 ranges of hills, so near each other as to leave 
 scarcely any cultivable land, as far as Silsilis {Jebel 
 Selseleh), about 40 miles below Syene, where the 
 valley is enlarged by the W. range of hills retiring 
 from the river. Thus the Nile flows for about 
 500 miles, through a valley whose average breadth 
 is about 7 miles, between hills which in one place 
 (W. of Thebes) attain the height of 1000 or 1200 
 feet above the sea, to a point some few miles below 
 Memphis, where the W. range of hills runs to the 
 N. W., and the E. range strikes off to the E., and 
 the river divides into branches (seven in ancient 
 time, but now only two), which flow through a low 
 alluvial land, called, from its shape, the Delta, into 
 the Mediterranean. To this valley and Delta must 
 be added the country round the great natural lake 
 Moeris {Birkei-el-KerQun\ called Nomos Arsinoites 
 (Faioum), lying N. W. of Heracleopolis, and con- 
 nected with the valley of the Nile by a break in 
 the W. range of hills, The whole district thus de- 
 scribed is periodically laid imder water by the over- 
 flowing of the Nile from April to October. The 
 river, in subsiding, leaves behind a rich deposit of 
 fine mud, which forms the soil of Egypt. All be- 
 yond the reach of the inundation is rock or sand. 
 Hence Egypt was called the " Gift of the Nile." 
 The extent of the cultivable land of Egypt is in 
 the Delta about 4500 square miles, in the valley 
 about 2255, in Faioum about 340, and in all about 
 7095 square miles. The outlymg portions of 
 ancient Egypt consisted of 3 cultivable valleys 
 (called Oases), in the midst of the Western or Li- 
 ' byan Desert, a valley in the "W. range of hills on the 
 W. of the Delta, called Nomos Nitriotes from the 
 Natron Lakes which it contains, some settlements 
 on the coast of the Red Sea and in the mountain 
 passes between it and the Nile, and a strip of coast 
 on the Mediterranean, extending E. as far as Rhi- 
 nocolura (El-Arish), and W. as far (according to 
 
 AEGYPTUS. 
 
 Egypt is the Nile [Nilus]. A great artificial 
 canal (BaJir-Yussouf, L e. Joseph's Canal) runs 
 parallel to the river, at the distance of about 6 
 miles, from Diospolis Parva in the Thebais to a 
 point on the W. month of the river about half-way 
 between Memphis and the sea. Many smaller 
 canals were cut to regulate the irrigation of the 
 coimtry. A canal from the E. mouth of the Nile 
 to the head of the Red Sea was commenced under 
 the native kings, and finished by Darius, son of 
 Hystaspes. There were several lakes in the coun- 
 try, respecting which see Moeris, Mareotis, 
 BuTos, Tanis, Sirbonis, and Lacus Amari. 
 — 2. A?icient History. At the earliest period, to 
 which civil history reaches back, Egypt was in- 
 habited by a highly civilized agricultural people, 
 under a settled monarchical government, divided 
 into castes, the highest of which was composed of 
 the priests, who were the ministers of a religion 
 based on a pantheistic worship of nature, and hav- 
 ing for its sacred symbols not only images but also 
 living animals and even plants. The priests were 
 also in possession of all the literature and science 
 of the country and all the employments based upon 
 such knowledge. The other castes were, 2nd, the 
 soldiers, 3rd, the husbandmen, 4th, the artificers 
 and tradesmen, and last, held in great contempt, 
 the shepherds or herdsmen, poulterers, fishermen, 
 and servants. The Egyptians possessed a written 
 language, which appears to have had affinities with 
 both the great families of Language, the Semitic 
 and the Indo-European ; and the priestly caste had, 
 moreover, the exclusive knowledge of a sacred sys- 
 tem of writing, the characters of which are known, 
 by the name of Hieroglyphics, in contradistinction 
 to which the common characters are called Enclio- 
 1-ial (i. e. of the country). They were acquainted 
 with all the processes of manufacture which are 
 essential to a highly civilized community : they 
 had made great advances in the fine arts, especially 
 architecture and sculpture (for in painting their 
 progress was impeded by a want of knowledge of 
 perspective) : they were deterred from commercial 
 enterprize by the policy of the priests, but they 
 obtained foreign productions to a great extent, 
 chiefly through the Phoenicians, and at a later 
 period they engaged in maritime expeditions : in 
 science they do not seem to have advanced so far 
 as some have thought, but their religion led them 
 to cultivate astronomy and its application to chrono- 
 logy, and the nature of their country made a know- 
 ledge of geometry (in its literal sense) indispensable, 
 and their application of its principles to architecture 
 is attested by their extant edifices. There can be 
 little doubt that the origm of this remarkable people 
 and of their early civilization is to be traced to the 
 same Asiatic source as the early civilization of Assyria 
 and India. The ancient history of Egypt may be 
 divided into 4 great periods : — (1 ) From the earliest 
 times to its conquest by Cambyses ; during which 
 it was ruled by a succession of native princes, into 
 the difficulties of whose history this is not the 
 place to inquire. The last of them, Psammenitua, 
 was conquered and dethroned by Cambyses in 
 B. c. 525, when Egypt became a province of the 
 Persian empire. During this period Egypt was 
 but little known to the Greeks. The Homeric 
 poems show some slight acq^uaintance with the 
 country and its river (which is also called AlfyuTrros, 
 
AEGYPTUS. 
 
 latter part of the period learned men among the 
 Greeks began to travel to Egypt for the Biike of 
 studying its institutions : among others it was 
 visited by Pythagoras, Thales, and Solon, (2) 
 From the Persian conquest in b. c. 5*25, to the 
 transference of their dominion to the Macedonians 
 in B. c. 332. This period was one of almost con- 
 stant struggles between the Egyptians and their 
 conquerors, until b. c. 340, when Nectanebo II., 
 the last native ruler of Egypt, was defeated by 
 Darius Ochus. It was during this period that the 
 Greeks acquired a considerable knowledge of 
 Egypt. In the wars between Egypt and Persia, 
 the two leading states of Athens and Sparta at 
 different times assisted the Egyptians, according 
 to the state of their relations to each other and to 
 Persia ; and, during the intervals of those wars, 
 Egypt was visited by Greek historians and philosn- 
 phers, such as Hellanicus, Herodotus, Anaxagoras, 
 Plato, and others, who brought back to Greece the 
 knowledge of the country which they acquired 
 from the priests and through personal observation. 
 (3) The dynasty of Macedonian kings, from the 
 accession of Ptolemy, the son of Lagus, in b. c. 
 323, down to B. c. 30, when Egypt became a pro- 
 vince of the Roman empire. When Alexander 
 invaded Egypt in b. c. 332, the country submitted 
 to him without a struggle ; and, while he left it 
 behind him to return to the conquest of Persia, he 
 conferred upon it the greatest benefit that was in 
 his power, by giving orders for the building of 
 Alexandria. In the pai-tition of the empire of 
 Alexander after his death in b. c. 323, Egypt fell 
 to the share of Ptolemy, the son of Lagus, who 
 assumed the title of king in b. c. 306, and founded 
 the dynasty of the Ptolemies, under whom the 
 country greatly flourished, and became the chief 
 seat of Greek learning. But soon came the period 
 of decline. "Wars with the adjacent kingdom of 
 Syria, and the vices, weaknesses, and dissensions of 
 the royal family, wore out the state, till in b. c. 81 
 the Romans were called upon to interfere in the 
 disputes for the crown, and in b. c. 55 the dynasty 
 of the Ptolemies came to be entirely dependent 
 on Roman protection, and, at last, after the battle 
 of Actium and the death of Cleopatra, who was 
 the last of the Ptolemies, Egypt was made a 
 Roman province, B. c. 30. (4) Egypt under the 
 Romans, down to its conquest by the Arabs in 
 A. D. 638. As a Roman province, Egypt was one 
 of the most flourishing portions of the empire. The 
 fertility of its soil, and its position between Europe 
 and Arabia and India, together with the possession 
 of such a port as Alexandria, gave it the full be- 
 nefit of the two great sources of wealth, agriculture 
 and commerce. Learning continued to flourish at 
 Alexandria, and the patriarchs of the Christian 
 Church in that city became so powerful as to con- 
 tend for supremacy with those of Antioch, Constan- 
 tinople, and Rome, while a succession of teachers, 
 such as Origen and Clement of Alexandria, con- 
 ferred real lustre on the ecclesiastical annals of the 
 country. When the Arabs made their great in- 
 road upon the Eastern empire, the geographical 
 position of Egypt naturally caused it to fall an 
 immediate victim to that attack, which its wealth 
 and the peaceful character of its inhabitants in- 
 vited. It was conquered by Amrou, the lieutenant 
 of the Caliph Omar, in a. d. 638, — 3. Political 
 Geograpliy. — From the earliest times the country 
 was divided into (I) The Delta or Lower Egypt 
 
 AEMILIA. 15 
 
 (tu AeAra, 7} Kctrw x^^P^-i El-Bcihari^ Et-Kelni) 
 (2) The Heptanoniis, or Middle Egj'pt, '"E-nrixvo^is, 
 ?7 fisra^h X^P°-< Mcsr Modani) ; (3) The Thebais, 
 or Upper Egypt (©Tjfiats-, 77 &U{*} x^P°-f Said) : 
 and it was further subdivided into 36 nomes or 
 governments. Respecting the Oases, see Oasis. 
 
 Aegys {kiyvs^ AlyvT7]s ; nr. GhiorQicza), a 
 town of Laconia on the borders of Arcadia. 
 
 Aelana (AtKava: AlAavlrris), a to'wn on the 
 northern arm of the Red Sea, near the Bahr-el- 
 Akaba, which was called by the Greeks Aelanites 
 from the name of the town. It is the Elath of the 
 Hebrews, and one of the sea-ports of which Solomon 
 possessed himself. 
 
 Aelia Gens, plebeian, the members of which are 
 given under their surnames, Gallus, Lamia, 
 Paetus, Sejanus, Stilo, Tueero. 
 
 Aelia, a name given to Jerusalem after its re- 
 storation by the Roman emperor Aelius Hadrianus. 
 
 Aelianus, Claudius, was bom at Praeneste 
 in Italy, and lived at Rome about the middle of 
 the 3rd century of the Christian era. Though an 
 Italian, he spoke and wrote Greek as well as a 
 native Athenian. He never marned, and lived to 
 the age of CO. Two of his works have come down 
 to us : one a collection of miscellaneous history 
 (rioiKiXTj 'IcTopla) in 14 books, commonly called 
 VaTia Historia ; and the other a work on the pe- 
 culiarities of animals (Ilepi Zmwv IdiSrrtros) in 17 
 books, commonly called De Animalium Natura. 
 The former work contains short naiTations and 
 anecdotes, historical, biographical, antiquarian, &c., 
 selected fi'om various authors, generally without 
 their names being given, and on a great variety 
 of subjects. The latter work is of the same kind, 
 scrappy and gossipping. It is partly collected from 
 older writers, and partly the result of his own 
 observations both in Italy and abroad. There are 
 also attributed to him 20 letters on husbandry 
 (^ AypoiKiKoL 'ETTiffToAol), written in a rhetorical 
 style and of no value. — Editions. Of the Varia 
 His/oru(, by Perizonlus, Leyden, 1701 ; by Gro- 
 novius, Leyden, 1731 ; and by KUhn, Leipzig, 
 1780. Of the De Animaliinn Natura^ hy Gvono- 
 vius, Lend. 1744 ; by J. Schneider, Leipzig, 1784 ; 
 and by Fr. Jacobs, Jena, 1832. Of the Letters^ 
 by Aldus Manutius, in his CoUectio Epistolarum 
 Graecarum^ Venice, 1499, 4to. 
 
 Aelianus Meccius, an ancient physician, who 
 must have lived in the 2nd century after Christ, 
 as he is mentioned by Galen as the oldest of bis 
 tutors. 
 
 Aelianus Tacticus, a Greek writer, who lived 
 in Rome and wrote a work on the Military Tactics 
 of the Greeks (Tlepl :S,TpaTTjy ikuv Td^etDv 'EAAtj- 
 viKwv), dedicated to the emperor Hadrian. He 
 also gives a brief account of the constitution of a 
 Roman army at that time. — Editions. By Fran- 
 ciscus Robortellus, Veniccj 1552 ; and by Elzevir, 
 Leyden, 1613. 
 
 Aello, one of the Harpies. [Harpyiae.] 
 
 Aellopus ('AeAA.(J7rous), a simiame of Iris, the 
 messenger of the gods, by which she is described 
 as swift-footed as a storm-wind. 
 
 Aemilia. 1. The 3rd daughter of L. Aemilius 
 Paul us, who fell in the battle of Cannae, was the 
 wife of Scipio Africanus I. and the mother of the 
 celebrated Cornelia, the mother of the Gracchi. — 
 3. Aemilia Lepida. [Lepida.]— ^. A Vestal virgin, 
 put to death b. c. 114 for having committed incest 
 upon several occasions. 
 
16 
 
 AEMILIA GENS. 
 
 AemUXa Gens, one of the most ancient patrician 
 gentes at Rome, said to have been descended from 
 Mamercus, who received the name of Aemilius on 
 account of the persuasiveness of his language (St' 
 ■alfj.v\iav \6yov). This Mamercus is represented 
 "by some as the son of Pythagoras, and by others 
 as the son of Nuraa. The most distinguished 
 members of the gens are given under their surnames 
 Barbula, Lepidus, Mamercus or Mamer- 
 ciNus, Papus, Paul us, Regillus, Scaurus. 
 
 Aemilia Via, made by M. Aemilius Lepidus, 
 COS. B. c. 137, continued the Via Flaminiafrom Ari- 
 minum, and traversed the heart of Cisalpine Gaul 
 through Bononia, Mutina, Parma, Placentia (where 
 it crossed the Po) to Mediolanum. It was sub- 
 sequently continued as far as Aquileia, 
 
 Aenuliaiius. 1. The son of L. Aemilius Paulus 
 Macedonicus, was adopted by P. Cornelius Scipio, 
 the son of P. Cornelius Scipio Africanus, and was 
 thua called P. Cornelius Scipio Aemilianus Africa- 
 nus. [Scipio.] ^2. The governor of Pannonia and 
 Moesia in the reign of Gallus, was proclaimed em- 
 peror by his soldiers in a. d. 253, but was slain by 
 them after reigning a few months.^3. One of the 
 30 tyrants (a. d. 259 — 268), assumed the purple 
 in Egypt, but was taken prisoner and strangled by 
 ■order of Galltenus. 
 
 Aemilius Probus. [Nepos, Cornelius.] 
 
 Aemona or Emona (Laihach), a fortified to-vvn 
 in Pannonia, and an important Roman colony, said 
 to have been built by the Argonauts, 
 
 Aenaria, also called Pithecusa and Inarime 
 (/scAmz), a volcanic island off the coast of Campania, 
 at the entrance of the bay of Naples, under which 
 the Roman poets represented Typhoeus as lying. 
 
 Aenea {Aivaa : AiVetei's, AiVeiarTjs), a town 
 in Chalcidice, on the Thermaic gulf. 
 
 Aeneades (AiVeiaS?]?), a patronymic from Ae- 
 neas, given to his son Ascanius. or lulus, and to 
 those who were believed to be descended from him, 
 such as Augustus, and the Romans in general. 
 
 Aeneas (AiVeicts). 1. Homeric Story. Aeneas 
 ■was the son of Anchises and Aphrodite, and born 
 on mount Ida. On his father's side he was a 
 great-grandson of Tros, and thus nearly related 
 to the royal house of Troy, as Priam himself 
 was a grandson of Tros, He was educated from 
 his infancy at Dardanus, in the house of Alca- 
 thous, the husband of his sister. At first he 
 took no part in the Trojan war ; and it was not 
 till Achilles attacked him on mount Ida, and drove 
 away his flocks, that he led his Dardanians against 
 the Greeks. Henceforth he and Hector are the 
 great bulwarks of the Trojans against the Greeks, 
 and Aeneas appears beloved by gods and men. On 
 more than one occasion he is saved in battle by 
 the gods : Aphrodite carried him oif when he was 
 wounded by Diomedes, and Poseidon, when he 
 •was on the point of perishing by the hands of 
 Achilles. Homer makes no allusion to the emi- 
 gi-ation of Aeneas after the capture of Troy, but on 
 the contrary he evidently conceives Aeneas and his 
 descendants as reigning at Troy after the extinction 
 of the house of Priam. — Later Stories. The later 
 stones present the greatest variations respecting the 
 conduct of Aeneas at the capture of Troy and in 
 the events immediately following. Most accounts, 
 however, agree that after the cit}' had fallen, he 
 withdrew to mount Ida with his friends and the 
 images of the gods, especially that of Pallas {Pal- 
 ladium) • and that from thence he crossed over to 
 
 AENEAS. 
 Europe, and finally settled at Latiiim in Italy, 
 where he became the ancestral hero of the Romans. 
 A description of the wanderings of Aeneas before 
 he reached Latium, and of the various towns and 
 temples he was believed to have founded during 
 his wanderings, is given by Dionyslus of Halicar- 
 nassus (i.50,&c.), whose account is on the whole the 
 same as the one followed by Virgil in his Aeneid, 
 although the latter makes various embellishments 
 and additions, some of which, such as his landing 
 at Carthage and meeting with Dido, are irrecon- 
 cilable with mythical chronology. From Pallene, 
 where Aeneas stayed the winter after the taking of 
 Troy, he sailed with his companions to Delos, Cy- 
 thera,Boiae in Laconia, Zacynthus, Leucas, Actium, 
 Ambracia, and to Dodona, where he met the Trojan. 
 Helenus. From Epirus he sailed across the Ionian 
 sea to Italy, where he landed at the lapygian pro- 
 montory. Thence he crossed over to Sicily, where 
 he met the Trojans, Elymus and Aegestus (Aces- 
 tes), and built the towns of Elyme and Aegesta. 
 From Sicily he sailed back to Italy, landed in the 
 port of Palinums, came to the island of Leucasia, 
 and at last to the coast of Latium. Various 
 signs pointed out this place as the end of his 
 wanderings, and he and his Trojans accordingly 
 settled in Latium. The place where they had 
 landed was called Troy. Latinus, king of the Ab- 
 origines, prepared for war, but afterwards concluded 
 an alliance with the strangers, gave up to them 
 part of his dominions, and with their assistance 
 conquered the Rutulians. Aeneas founded the 
 town of Lavinium, called after Lavinia,the daughter 
 of Latinus, whom he married. A new war then, 
 followed between Latinus and Tm'nus, in which 
 both chiefs fell, whereupon Aeneas became sole 
 ruler of the Aborigines and Trojans, and both 
 nations were united into one. Soon after this 
 Aeneas fell in a battle with the Rutulians, who 
 were assisted by Mezentius, king of the Etruscans. 
 As his body was not found after the battle, it was 
 believed that it had been carried up to heaven, or 
 that he had perished in the river Numicius. The 
 Latins erected a monument to him, with the in- 
 scription To the father and native god. Virgil re- 
 presents Aeneas landing in Italy 7 j'ears after 
 the fall of Tro}--, and comprises all the events in 
 Italy from the landing to the death of Tumus, 
 within the space of 20 days. The story of the 
 descent of the Romans from the Trojans through 
 Aeneas was believed at an early period, but pro- 
 bably rests on no historical foundation.^ 2. Aeneas 
 Silvius, son of Silvius, and grandson of Ascanius, 
 is the 3rd in the list of the mythical kings of Alba 
 in Latium : the Silvii regarded him as the founder 
 of their house. 
 
 Aeneas Gazaens, so called from Gaza, his birth- 
 place, flourished a. d. 487. He was at first a Pla- 
 tonist and a Sophist, but afterwards became a 
 Christian, when he composed a dialogue. On the 
 Immortality of the Soul, called Theophrasttis. — ■ 
 Editions. By Barthius, Lips. 1655 ; by Boissonade, 
 Par. 1836. 
 
 Aeneas Tactions, a Greek writer, may be the 
 same as the Aeneas of Stymphalus, the general of 
 the Arcadians, b. c. 362 (Xen. Hell vii. 3. § 1) ; 
 and he probably lived about that period. He wrote 
 a work on the art of war, of which a portion only 
 is preserved, commonly called Commeniarius Polior- 
 cetiais, showing how a siege should be resisted. 
 An epitome of the whole book was made by Cineag. 
 
AENESIDEMUS. 
 
 (Cic. ad Fam. ix. 25.) — Editions. By Ernesti, 
 Lips. 1763 ; by Orelli, Lips. 1818. 
 
 Aeiiesidemus(A(in7cri5i7;ioy),aceIebrateii sceptic, 
 bom at Cnossus in Crete, probably lived a little 
 later than Cicero. He differed on many points 
 from the ordinary sceptics. The grand peculiarity 
 of his system was the attempt to unite scepticism 
 with the earlier philosophy, to raise a positive 
 foundation for it by accounting from the nature of 
 things for the never-ceasing changes both in the 
 material and spiiitual world. None of the works 
 of Aenesidemus have come down to us. To them 
 Sextus Empiricus was indebted for a considerable 
 part of his work. 
 
 Aenianes (Ali/idves^ Ion. *E»'i^i'es), an ancient 
 Greek race, originally near Ossa, afterwards in 
 southern Thessaly, between Oeta and Othrys, on 
 the banks of the Spercheus. 
 
 Aeniis {ATvos: Aivios, AIviolttj^ : Eno)^ an 
 ancient town in Thrace, near the mouth of the 
 Hebrus, mentioned in the Iliad. It was colonized 
 by the Aeolians of Asia Minor. Virgil {Aen. iii. 
 18) supposes Aenos to have been built by Aeneas, 
 but he confounds it with Aenea in Chalcidice. 
 Under t)ie Romans Aenos was a free town, and a 
 place of importance. 
 
 Aenus {Inn) a river in Rhaetia, the boundary 
 between Rhaetia and Noricum. 
 
 Aeoles or Aeolii (AtoAeTs), one of the chief 
 branches of the Hellenic race, supposed to be de- 
 scended from Aeolus, the son of Hellen. [Aeolus, 
 No. l.J They originally dwelt in Thessaly, from 
 whence they spread over various parts of Greece, 
 and also settled in Aeolis in Asia Minor, and in 
 the island of Lesbos. 
 
 Aeoliae Insiilae {al Al6\ov v^aot : LipaH 
 Islands), a group of islands N. E. of Sicily, where 
 Aeolus, the god of the winds, reigned. Homer {Od. 
 X. 1) mentions only one Aeolian island, and Virgil 
 {AenA. 52) accordingly speaks of only one ^eo- 
 Ua (sc. insula), where Aeolus reigned, supposed 
 to be Strongyle or Lipara. These islands were 
 also called Hepkaesiiades or Vulcdniae, because 
 Hephaestus or Vulcan was supposed to have 
 had his workshop in oiie of them called Hiera. 
 (Virg. Aen. viii. 415, seq.) They were also named 
 Liparemes, from Lipara, the largest of theui. 
 The names of these islands were, Lipara {LipuH) ; 
 Hiera ( Volcano) ; Strongyle (Stromboli) ; Phoe- 
 nicusa {Felicudi) ; Ericusa (Alicudi) ; Euonymus 
 {Panajna) ; Didyme {Salina) ; Hicesia {Lisea Bi- 
 anco) ; Basilidia (Basilizzo) ; Osteodes {Uatica), 
 
 Aeolides (AioA/Stjj), a patronymic given to 
 the sons of Aeolus, as Atharaas, Cretheus, Sis3''phus, 
 Salmoneus, &:c., and to his grandsons, as Cephalus, 
 Ulysses and Phrixus. Aeolis is the patronymic 
 of the female descendants of Aeolus, given to his 
 daughters Canace and Alcyone. 
 
 AeSlis (AToAis) or Aeolia, a district of Mysia 
 in Asia Minor, was peopled by Aeolian Greeks, 
 whose cities extended from the Troad along the 
 shores of the Aegaean to the river Herraus. In 
 early times their 12 most important cities were 
 independent and formed a League, the members 
 of which celebrated an annual festival {Panaeo- 
 lium) at Smyrna. The 12 cities comprising this 
 League were Cyme, Larissae, Neontichos, Temnus, 
 
 AEQUL 17 
 
 Croesus, and were incorporated in the Persian em- 
 pire on the conquest of Croesus by Cyrus. 
 
 Aeolus {AioKos). 1. Son of Hellen and the 
 nymph Orseis, and brother of Dorus and Xuthus. 
 He was the ruler of Thessaly, and the founder of 
 the Aeolic branch of the Greek nation. His child- 
 ren are said to have been very numerous ; but the 
 most ancient story mentioned only four sons, viz. 
 Sisyphus, Athamas, Cretheus, and Salraoneua. 
 The great extent of country which tins race occu- 
 pied probably gave rise to the varying accounts 
 about the number of his children. ^ 2. Son of 
 Hippotes, or, according to others, of Poseidon and 
 Ariie, a descendant of the previous Aeolus. His 
 story probably refers to the emigration of a branch 
 of the Aeolians to the west. His mother was car- 
 ried to Metapontum in Italy, where she gave birth 
 to Aeolus and his brother Boeotus. The two 
 brothers afterwards fled from Metapontum, and 
 Aeolus went to some islands in the Tyrrhenian sea, 
 which received from him the name of the Aeolian 
 islands. Here he reigned as a just and pious king, 
 taught the natives the use of sails for ships, and 
 foretold them the nature of the winds that were to 
 rise. In these accounts Aeolus, the father of the 
 Aeolian race, is placed in relationship with Aeolus 
 the ruler and god of the winds. In Homer, how- 
 ever, Aeolus, the son of Hippotes, is neither the 
 god nor the father of the winds, but merely the 
 happy niler of the Aeolian island, to whom Zeus 
 had given dominion over the winds, which he might 
 soothe or excite according to his pleasure. (Od. x. 
 1, seq.) This statement of Homer and the etymo- 
 logy of the name of Aeolus from aeAAco led to Aeolus 
 being regarded in later times as the god and king of 
 the winds, which he kept enclosed in a mountain. 
 It is therefore to him that Juno applies when she 
 wishes to destroy the fleet of the Trojans. (Virg. 
 Aen. i. 7U.) The Aeolian island of Homer was in 
 later times believed to be Lipara or Strong}-le, and 
 was accordingly regarded as the place in which the 
 god of the winds dwelt. [Aeoliae Insulae.] 
 
 Aepea (AiTreia; AtVeaT^js). L A town in Mes- 
 senia on the sea-coast, afterwards Thuria,— 2. A 
 town in Cyprus, afterwards Soli. 
 
 Aepy (AiTTy), a town in Elis, situated on a 
 height, as its name indicates. 
 
 Aepytus (AiVuToy). 1. A mythical king of 
 Arcadia, from whom a part of the countiy was . 
 called Aepytis.^ 2. Youngest son of the Hcraclid' 
 Cresphontes, king of Messeriia, and of Mernpe^. 
 daughter of the Arcadian king Cypselus. When 
 his father aud brothers were murdered during an 
 insurrection, Aepytus alone, who was with his 
 grandfather Cypselus, escaped the danger. The 
 throne of Cresphontes was in the meantime occu- 
 pied by the Heraclid Polyphonies, who also forced 
 Merope to become his wife. When Aepytus had 
 grown to manhood, he returned to his kingdom, 
 and put Polyphonies to death. From him the 
 kings of Messenia were called Aepytids instead of 
 the more general name Heraclids. ^3. Son of 
 liippothous, king of Arcadia, and great-grandson 
 of the Aepytus mentioned first. 
 
 Aequi, Aequicoli, Aeqiiicolae, Aequiculani, 
 an ancient warlike people of Italy, dwelling in the 
 upper valley of the Anio in the mountains forming 
 
18 
 
 AEQUI. 
 
 were finally subdued in b. c. 30'2. One of their 
 chief seats was Mount Algidus, from which they were 
 accustomed to make their marauding expeditions. 
 
 Aequi Falisci. [Falerii.]' 
 
 Aeqnimaelium. [Maelius.] 
 
 Aerope {*Aep6^n^), daughter of Catreua, king of 
 Crete, and granddaughter of Minos.. Her father, 
 who had received an oracle that he should lose his 
 life by one of his children, gave her and her sister 
 Clymene to Nauplius, who was to sell them in a 
 foreign land. Aerope married Plisthenes, the son 
 of Atreus, and became by him the mother of Aga- 
 memnon and Menelaus. After the death of Plis- 
 thenes Aerope married Atreus ; and her two sons, 
 who were educated by Atreus, were generally be- 
 lieved to be his sons. Aerope was faithless to 
 Atreus, being seduced by Thyestes. 
 
 Aesacus {A'ia-aKos), son of Priam and Alex- 
 irrhoe. He lived far from his father's court in the 
 solitude of mountain-forests. Hesperia, however, 
 the daughter of Cebren, kindled love in his heart, 
 and on one occasion while he was pursuing her, 
 she was stung by a viper and died. Aesacus in 
 his grief threw himself into the sea and was changed 
 by Thetis into an aquatic bird. This is the story 
 related by Ovid (Met. xi. 750), but it is told dif- 
 ferently by ApoUodorus. 
 
 Aesar, the name of the deity among the Etrus- 
 cans. 
 
 Aesar or Aesarus (Esaro), a river near Croton 
 in Bruttii, in southern Italy. 
 
 Aeschines (AiVxtfT/s). 1. The Athenian ora- 
 tor bom B. c. 389, was the son of Atrometus and 
 Glaucothea. According to Demosthenes, his poli- 
 tical antagonist, his parents were of disreputable 
 character and not even citizens of Athens ; but 
 Aeschines himself says that his father was de- 
 scended from an honourable family, and lost his 
 property during the Peloponnesian war. In his 
 youth Aeschines appears to have assisted his father 
 in his school ; he next acted as secretary to 
 Aristophon, and afterwards to Eubulus ; he sub- 
 sequently tried his fortune as an actor, but was 
 unsuccessful ; and at length, after serving with 
 distinction in the army, came forward as a public 
 speaker and soon acquired great reputation. In 
 347 he was sent along with Demosthenes as 
 one of the 10 ambassadors to negotiate a peace 
 vrith Philip: from this time he appears as the 
 friend of the Macedonian party and as the oppo- 
 nent of Demosthenes. Shortly afterwards Aes- 
 chines formed one of the second embassy sent to 
 Philip to receive the oath of Philip to the treaty 
 ■which had been concluded with the Athenians ; 
 but as the delay of the ambassadors in obtaining 
 the ratification had been favourable to the interests 
 of Philip, Aeschines on his return to Athens was 
 accused by Timarchus. He evaded the danger by 
 bringing forward a counter-accusation against 
 Timarchus (345), and by showing that the moral 
 conduct of his accuser was such that he had no 
 right to speak before the people. The speech in 
 which Aeschines attacked Timarchus is still ex- 
 tant : Timarchus was condemned and Aeschines 
 gained a brilliant triumph. In 343 Demosthenes 
 renewed the charge against Aeschines of treachery 
 during his second embassy to Philip. This charge 
 of Demosthenes (irepl irapanpeaSeias) was not 
 apoken, but published as a memorial, and Aeschines 
 answered it in a similar memorial on the embassy 
 
 o,: \ i.:„i. i:i 
 
 AESCHYLUS. 
 
 lished. Shortly after the battle of Chaeronea in 
 338, which gave Philip the supremacy in Greece, 
 Ctesiphon proposed that Demosthenes should be 
 rewarded for his services with a golden .crown 
 in the theatre at the great Dionysia. Aeschines 
 in consequence accused Ctesiphon ; but he did 
 not prosecute the charge till 8 years later, 330. 
 The speech which he delivered on the occasion is 
 extant, and was answered by Demosthenes in his 
 celebrated oration on the crown {irepl o-Te^civoi/), 
 Aeschines was defeated, and withdrew from 
 Athens. He went to Asia Minor, and at length 
 established a school of eloquence at Rhodes. On 
 one occasion he read to his audience in Rhodes his 
 speech against Ctesiphon, and when some of his 
 hearers expressed their astonishment at his defeat, 
 he replied, ^ You would cease to be astonished if 
 you had heard Demosthenes." From Rhodes he 
 went to Samoa, where he died in 314. Besides 
 the 3 orations extant, we also possess 12 letters 
 which are ascribed to Aeschines, but which are the 
 work of late sophists. — Editions. In the editions of 
 the Attic orators [Demosthenes], and by Bremi, 
 Zurich, 1823.^2. An Athenian philosopher and 
 rhetorician, and a disciple of Socrates. After the 
 death of his master, he went to Syracuse ; but re- 
 turned to Athens after the expulsion of Dionysius, 
 and supported himself, receiving money for his in- 
 structions. He wrote several dialogues, but the 
 3 whicli have come down to us under his name 
 are not genuine. — Editions. By Fischer, Lips. 
 1786 ; by Bdckh, Heidel. 1810 ; and in many 
 editions of Plato. — 3. Of Neapolis, a Peripatetic 
 philosopher, who was at the head of the Aca- 
 demy at Athens, together with Charmades and 
 Clitomachus about b, c. 109. — 4. Of Miletus, a 
 contemporary of Cicero, and a distinguished orator 
 in the Asiatic style of eloquence. 
 
 Aeschrion (AtVxpiw;/). 1. Of Sj'racuse, whose 
 wife Pippa was one of the mistresses of Verres, and 
 who was himself one of the scandalous instruments 
 of Verres. — 2. An iambic poet, a native of Samos. 
 There was an epic poet of the same name, who was 
 a native of Mytilene and a pupil of Aristotle, and 
 who accompanied Alexander on some of his expe- 
 ditions. He may perhaps be the same person as 
 the Samian.— 3. A native of Pergamus, and a 
 physician in the second century after Christ, was 
 one of Galen's tutors. 
 
 Aeschylus (AiVx^Xos). 1. The celebrated tragic 
 poet, was bom at Eleusis in Attica, b. c- 525, so 
 that he was 35 years of age at the time of the 
 battle of Marathon, and contemporary with Simo- 
 nides and Pindar. His father Euphorion was pro- 
 bably connected with the worship of Demeter, and 
 Aeschylus himself was, according to some autho- 
 rities, initiated in the mysteries of this goddess. 
 At the age of 25 (b. c, 499), he made his first ap- 
 pearance as a competitor for the prize of tragedy, 
 without being successful. He fought with his 
 brothers Cynaeglrus and Aminius, at the battle of 
 Marathon (490), and also at those of Salamis (480) 
 and Plataea (479). In 484 he gained the prize of 
 tragedy ; and in 472 he gained the prize with the 
 trilogy, of which the Persae, the earliest of his 
 extant dramas, was one piece. In 468 he was de- 
 feated in a tragic contest by his yoimger rival So- 
 phocles ; and he is said in consequence to have quitted 
 Athens in disgust, and to have gone to the court of 
 Hiero, king of Syracuse, where he found Siraonides 
 
AESCULAPIUS. 
 
 Hiero died ; and in 458, it appears that Aeschylus 
 was again at Athens, from the &,Gt that the trilogy 
 of the Oresteia waa produced in that year. In the 
 aame or the following year, he again visited Sicily, 
 and he died at Gela in 456, in the 69th year of his 
 age. It is said that an eagle, mistalting the poet^s 
 hald head for a stone, let a tortoise fall upon it to 
 treak the shell, and so fulfilled an oracle, according 
 to which Aeschylus was fated to die by a blow 
 from heaven. The alterations made by Aeschylus 
 in the composition and dramatic representation of 
 Tragedy were so great, that he was considered by 
 - the Athenians as the father of it, just as Homer 
 was of Epic poetry and Herodotus of History. 
 Even the improvements and alterations introduced 
 by his successors were the natural results and sug- 
 gestions of those of Aeschylus. The first and 
 principal alteration which he made was the intro- 
 duction of a second actor {S^vTepayon/urTTjs) ^ and 
 the consequent formation of the dialogue properly 
 so called, and the limitation of tlie choral parts. 
 This innovation was of course adopted by his con- 
 temporaries, just as Aeschylus himself followed the 
 example of Sophocles, in subsequently introducing 
 a third actor. But the improvements of Aeschylus 
 were not limited to the composition of tragedy : he 
 added the resources of art in its exhibition. Thus, 
 he is said to have availed himself of the skill of 
 Agatharchus, who painted for him the first scenes 
 which had ever been drawn according to the prin- 
 ciples of linear perspective. He also furnished his 
 actors with more suitable and magnificent dresses, 
 with significant and various masks, and with the 
 thick-soled cothurnus, to raise their stature to the 
 height of heroes. He moreover bestowed so much 
 attention on the choral dances, that he is said to 
 have invented various figures himself, and to have 
 instructed the choristers in them without the aid 
 of the regular ballet-masters. With him also arose 
 the usage of representing at the same time a irilogy 
 of plays connected in subject, so that each formed 
 one act, as it were, of a great whole, which might 
 be compared with some of Shakspeare's historical 
 plays. Even before the time of Aeschylus, it had 
 been customary to contend for the prize of tragedy 
 with 3 plays exhibited at the same time, but it 
 was reserved for him to show how each of 3 
 tragedies might be complete in itself, and indepen- 
 dent of the rest, and nevertheless form a part of an 
 harmonious and connected whole. The only ex- 
 ample still extant of such a trilogy is the Oresteia, 
 as it was called. A satyricai play commonly 
 followed each tragic trilogy. Aeschylus is said 
 to have written 70 tragedies. Of these only 
 7 are extant, namely, the Persians^ the Seven, 
 <igamst Thebes^ the Suppliants, the Prometheus, the 
 Agamemnon^ the Ckoephori, and EuTnemides ; the 
 last three forming, as already remarked, the trilogy 
 of the Oresteia, The Persiajis was acted in 472, 
 and the Seven against Thebes a year afterwards. 
 The Oresteia waa represented in 458 ; the Sup- 
 plicmts and the Prometheus were brought out some 
 time between the Seven against Thebes and the 
 ihesteza. It has been supposed from some allusions 
 in the Supplianis, that this play was acted in 461, 
 
 AESEPUS. 19 
 
 cian " (iTjT^p afjLVfiojif), whose sons. Macron and 
 Podalirius, were the physicians in the Greek army, 
 and ruled over Tricca, Ithome, and OeehaJia. 
 Homer says nothing of the descent of Aesculapius. 
 The common story relates that he was a son of 
 Apollo and Coronis, and that when Coronis waa 
 with child by Apollo, she became enamoured with 
 Ischys, an Arcadian. Apollo, informed of this by 
 a raven, which he had set to watch her, or, accord- 
 ing to others, by his own prophetic powers, 'sent 
 his sister Artemis to kill Coronis. Artemis accord- 
 iflgly destroyed Coronis in her own house at Laceria 
 in Thessaly, on the shore of lake Baebia. Accord- 
 ing to Ovid {Met. ii. 60S), it was Apollo himself 
 who killed Coronis and Ischys. When the body 
 of Coronis was to be burnt, either Apollo or 
 Hermes saved the child Aesculapius from the flaihes, 
 and carried it to Chiron, who instructed the boy in 
 the art of healing and in hunting. There are 
 various other narratives respecting his birth, accord- 
 ing to some of which he was a native of Epidaurus, 
 and this was a common opinion in later times. 
 After he had grown up, reports spread over all 
 countries, that he not only cured all the sick, but 
 called the dead to life again. But while he waa 
 restoring Glaucus to life, Zeus killed him with a 
 flash of lightning, as he feared lest men might con- 
 trive to escape death altogether, or, because Pluto 
 had complained of Aesculapius diminishing the 
 number of the dead. But, on the- request of 
 Apollo, Zeus placed Aesculapius among the stars. 
 Aesculapius is also said to have taken part in the 
 expedition of the Argonauts and in the Calydonian 
 hunt He was married to Epione, and besides the 
 two sons spoken of by Homer, we also find mention 
 of the following children of his : laniscus, Alexe- 
 nor, Aratus, Hygieia, Aegle, laso, and Panaceia, 
 most of whom are only personifications of the 
 powers ascribed to their father. Aesculapius waa 
 worshipped all over Greece. His temples were 
 usually built in healthy places, on hills outside the 
 town, and near wells which were believed to have 
 healing powers. These temples were not only 
 places of worship, but were frequented by great 
 numbers of sick persons, and • may therefore be 
 compared to modem hospitals. The principal seat 
 of his worship in Greece was Epidaurus, where he 
 had a temple surroimded with an extensive grove. 
 Serpents were everywhere connected with his wor- 
 ship, probably because they were a symbol of pru- 
 dence and renovation, and were believed to have 
 the power of discovering herbs of wondrous powers. 
 For these reasons, a peculiar kind of tame serpents, 
 in which Epidaurus abounded, was not only kept 
 in his temple, but the god himself frequently ap- 
 peared in the form of a serpent. At Rome the 
 worship of Aesculapius was introduced from Epi- 
 daurus at the command of the Delphic oracle or of 
 the Sibylline books, in b, c. 293, for the purpose 
 of averting a pestilence. The supposed descendants 
 of Aesculapius were called by the patronymic name 
 ^sc^l^Wae(*A(rKA.T)Tri(£Sai), and their principal seats 
 were Cos and Cnidus. They were an order or 
 caste of priests, and for a long period the practice 
 of medicine was intunately connected with rel^ion. 
 
 Ttio TrnnwlpHo'p nf TTipHif^ino wna rpfrnrdpd t^a a. 
 
20 
 
 AESERNIA. 
 
 the Propontis, which it enters W. of Cyzicus and 
 E. of the Granicus. 
 
 Aesemia (Aeseminus: Isernia)^ a town in 
 Samnium, made a Roman colony in the first Punic 
 war. 
 
 Aesis (Eslno or Fiumesino\ a river which formed 
 the boundary between Picenum and Umbria, was 
 anciently the S. boundary of the Senones, and the 
 N.E. boundary of Italy proper. 
 
 Aesis or Aesitim (Aesinaa: Jesi\ a town and 
 a Roman colony in Umbria on the river Aesis, 
 celebrated for its cheese, Aesiiias caseus. 
 
 Aeson (Aicrwv), son of Cretheus, the founder of 
 lolcus, and of Tyro, the daughter of Salmoneus, and 
 father of Jason and Promachus. He was excluded 
 from the throne by his half-brother Pelias, who en- 
 deavoured to keep the kingdom to himself by send- 
 ing Jason away with the Argonauts. Pelias sub- 
 sequently attempted to get rid of Aeson by force, 
 "but the latter put an end to his own life. Accord- 
 ing to Ovid (Met. \ii. 162, seq.), Aeson. survived 
 the return of the Argonauts, and was made young 
 again by Medea. 
 
 Aesopus {Ataanros) . 1. A writer of Fables, 
 lived about b. c. 570, and was a contemporary of 
 Solon. He was originally a slave, and received 
 his freedom from his master ladmon the Samian. 
 Upon this he visited Croesus, who sent him to 
 Delphi, to distribute among the citizens 4 minae 
 apiece ; but in consequence of some dispute 
 on the subject, he refused to give any money at 
 all, upon which the enraged Delphians threw him 
 from a precipice. Plagues were sent upon thera 
 from the gods for the offence, and the}' pro- 
 claimed their willingness to give a compensation 
 for his death to any one who could claim it. At 
 length ladmon, the grandson of his old master, re- 
 ceived the compensation, since no nearer connection 
 could be found. A life of Aesop prefixed to a book 
 of fables purporting to be his, and collected by 
 Maximus Planudes, a monk of the I4th centur}'-, 
 represents Aesop as a perfect monster of ugliness 
 and deformity ; a notion for which there is no au- 
 thority whatever in the classical authors. Whether 
 Aesop left any written works at all, is a question 
 which affords considerable room for doubt ; though it 
 is certain that fables, bearing Aesop's name, were 
 popular at Athens in its most intellectual age. 
 We find them frequently noticed by Aristophanes. 
 They were in prose, and were turned into poetry 
 hy several writers. Socrates turned some of them 
 into verse during his imprisonment ; and Demetrius 
 Phalereus (b. c. 320) imitated his example. The 
 only Greek versifier of Aesop, of whose writings 
 any whole fables are presei-ved, is Babrius. [Ba- 
 BRius.] Of the Latin writers of Aesopean fables, 
 Pliaedrus is the most cilebrated. [Piiaeduus.] 
 The fables now extant in prose, bearing the name 
 of Aesop, are unquestionably spurious, as is proved 
 by Bentley in his dissertation on the Fables of 
 Aesop appended to his celebrated letters on Pha^ 
 laris. — Editions. By Emesti, Lips. 1781, and by 
 Schaefer, Lips. 1820.^2. A Greek historian, who 
 wrote a life of Alexander the Great. The original 
 is lost, but there is a Latin translation of it by 
 Julius Valerius. 
 
 AETHIOPIA. 
 
 the dedication of the theatre of Pompey (b. c. 55), 
 when his voice failed him, and he could not go 
 through with the speech. Aesopus realized an im- 
 mense fortune by his profession, which was squan- 
 dered by his son, a foolish spendthrift. It is said, 
 for instance, that he dissolved in vinegar and drank 
 a pearl worth about 8000/., which be took from the- 
 ear-ring of Caecilia Metella. 
 
 Aestii, Aestyi, or Aestui, a people dwelling on: 
 the sea-coast, in the N. E. of Genuany, probably in 
 the modem Kurland, who collected amber, wliicb 
 they called glessmn. Their castoms, says Taci- 
 tus, resembled the Suevic, and their language the 
 British. They were probably a Sarmatian or Sla- 
 vonic race, and not a Germanic, 
 
 Aesula (Aesiilanus), a town of the AequI on a 
 mountain between Praeneste and Tibur. (Aesu- 
 lae declive arvum," Hor. Carm. iii. 29.) 
 
 Aethalia {AldaKia, Aled\7]), called Ilva (Elba} 
 by the Romans, a small island in the Tuscan sea, 
 opposite the town of Populonia, celebrated for its 
 iron mines. It had on the N. E. a good harbour,, 
 "Argons Portus" {Porto Ferraio\ in which the 
 Argonaut Jason is said to have landed. 
 
 Aethalides (AidaAiS'rjs), son of Hermes and Eu- 
 polemui, the herald of the Argonauts. He had 
 received from his father the faculty of remembering- 
 every thing, even in Hades, and was allowed to 
 reside alternately in the upper and in the lower 
 world. His soul, after many migrations, at length 
 took possession of the bodj-- of Pythagoras, in which 
 it still recollected its fonner migrations. 
 
 Aether (A/fli^p), a personified idea of the mj'thi- 
 cal cosmogonies, in which Aether was considered' 
 as one of the elementary substances out of which 
 the Universe was formed. Aether was regarded 
 by the poets as the pure upper air, the residence of 
 the gods, and Zeus as the Lord of the Aether, or 
 Aether itself personified. 
 
 Aethices (Af0i«er), a Thessalian or Epirot 
 people, near M. Pindus. 
 
 AetHcus, Hister or Ister, a Roman writer of 
 the 4th century after Ciirist, a native of Istria, 
 the author of a geographical work, called Aetkici 
 Cosmographiiiy which appears to have been chiefly 
 drawn up from the measurement of the whole Ro- 
 man world ordered by Julius Caesar, b. c. 44, and 
 from other ofiicial documents. Edited by Gro- 
 novius, in his edition of Pomponius Mela, Leyden, 
 1722. 
 
 Aethilla {AtSiWa or A'iQvWa), daughter of 
 Laomedon and sister of Priam, became after th& 
 fall of Troy the prisoner of Protesilaus. 
 
 Aethiopes (AWioTres, said to be from aXdco and' 
 tSi^, but perhaps really a foreign name corrupted), 
 was a name applied (1) most generally to all black 
 or dark races of men ; (2) to the inhabitants of all 
 the regions S. of those with which the early Greeks 
 were well acquainted, extending even as far N. as 
 Cyprus and Phoenicia ; (3) to all the inhabitants' 
 of Inner Africa, S. of Mauretania, the Great Desert, 
 and Egypt, from the Atlantic to the Red Sea and 
 Indian Ocean, and to some of the dark races of 
 Asia ; and (4) most specifically to the inhabitants 
 of the land S. of Egypt, which was allied 
 Aethiopia. 
 
AETHLIUS. 
 
 of the Nile, and extendinrj on the E, to the Red 
 Sea, <and to the S. and S.W. indefinitely, as far ap- 
 parently as the knowledge of the ancients extended. 
 In its most exact political sense the word Aethiopia 
 seems to have denoted the kingdom of Merge ; 
 tut in its wider sense it included also the kingdom 
 of the AxoMiTAE, besides several other peoples, 
 such as the Troglodytes and the Ichthj'ophagi on 
 the Red Sea, the Blemmyes and Megabari and 
 Nubae in the interior. The country was watered 
 by the Nile and its tributaries, the Astipus (Bahr- 
 ■eL~Az7-ek or BUie Nile) and the Astaboras (Atbara 
 or Tacazze). The people of Ethiopia seem to 
 iavc been of the Caucasian race, and to have spoken 
 a language allied to the Arabic. Monuments are 
 found in the counti-y closely resembling those of 
 Egypt, but of an inferior style. The religion of the 
 Ethiopians appears to have been similar to that of 
 the Eg3^tians, but free from the grosser supersti- 
 tions of the latter, such as the worship of animals. 
 Some traditions made Meroe the parent of Egyptian 
 civilization, while others ascribed the civilization 
 of Ethiopia to Egyptian colonization. So great 
 ■was the power of the Ethiopians, that more than 
 -once in its history Eg}'pt was governed by Ethio- 
 ,pian kings ; and even the most powerful kings of 
 Egypt, though they made successful incursions into 
 Ethiopia, do not appear to have had any extensive 
 or permanent hold upon the countrj'. Under the 
 Ptolemies Graeco-Egj'ptian colonies established 
 themselves in Ethiopia, and Greek manners and 
 philosophy had a considerable influence on the 
 upper classes ; but the country was never subdued. 
 The Romans failed to extend their empire over 
 Ethiopia, though they made expeditions into the 
 ■countr}-, in one of which C. Petronius, prefect of 
 Egj'pt under Augustus, advanced as far as Napata, 
 and defeated the warrior queen Candace (b. c. 22). 
 Christianity very early extended to Ethiopia, pro- 
 bably in consequence of the conversion of the trea- 
 surer of queen Candace (Acts, viii. 27)- The history 
 of the downfall of the great Ethiopian kingdom of 
 Meroe is very obscure. 
 
 Aethlius ('Ae'eAws), first king of Elis, father of 
 Endymion, was son of Zeus and Protogenia, 
 daughter of Deucalion, or son of Aeolus. 
 
 Aethra {^XQpa). 1. Daughter of Pittheus of 
 Troezen, was mother of Theseus by Aegeus. She 
 -afterwards lived in Attica, from whence she was 
 carried off" to Lacedaemon by Castor and Pollux, 
 and became a slave of Helen, with whom she was 
 taken to Troy. At the capture of Troy she was 
 restored to liberty by her grandson Acamas or 
 Demophon. — 2. Daughter of Oceanus, by whom 
 A-tlas begot the 12 Hyades and a son Hyas. 
 
 Aetion ('A€T?an'). 1. A sculptor of Amphipolis, 
 flourished about the middle of the 3rd century 
 ■B. c— 2. A celebrated painter, whose best picture 
 represented the marriage of Alexander and Roxana. 
 It is commonly supposed that he lived in the time 
 ■of Alexander the Great ; but the words of Lucian 
 {Herod. 4) show that he must have lived about 
 the time of Hadrian and the Antonines. 
 
 Aetius. 1. A celebrated Roman general, de- 
 fended the "Western empire against the barbarians 
 during the reign of Valentinian III. In A. d. 451 
 he gained a great victory over Attila, near Chalons 
 an Gaul ; but he was treacherously murdered by 
 Valentinian in 454.-2. A Greek medical writer, 
 bom at Amida in Mesopotamia, lived at the end of 
 the 5th or the beginning of the 6th century after 
 
 AETOLTA. 21 
 
 Christ. His work BtgAi'a 'larpiKo. 'EicicalScKa, 
 " Sixteen Bonks on Medicine," is one of the most 
 valuable medical remains of antiquity, as being a 
 judicious compilation from many authors whose 
 works are lost. The whole of it has never ap- 
 peared in the original Greek, but a comipt trans- 
 lation of it into Latin was published by Cornarius, 
 Basil. 154"J, often reprinted, and in H. Stephens's 
 Medicae Artis Frincipes^ Paris, 1567. 
 
 Aetna {hXTvr\). 1. {Monte Gihello), a vol- 
 canic mountain in the N. E. of Sicily between 
 Tauromenium and Catana. It is said to have 
 derived its name from Aetna, a Sicilian nymph, a 
 daughter of Uranus and Gaea, or of Briareus. Zeus 
 buried under it Typhon or Enceladus ; and in its 
 interior Hephaestus and the Cyclops forged the 
 thunderbolts for Zeus. There were several erup- 
 tions of M. Aetna in antiquity. One occurred 
 in B. c. 475, to which Aeschylus and Pindar pro- 
 bably allude, and another in b. c. 425, which 
 Thucydides says (iii. 110) was the third on re- 
 cord since the Greeks had settled in Sicily. The 
 form of the mountain seems to have been much 
 the same in antiquity as it is at present. Its 
 base covers an area of nearly 90 miles in cir- 
 cumference, and its highest point is 10,8/4 feet 
 above the level of the sea. The circumference of 
 the crater is variously estimated from 2^ to 4 miles, 
 and the depth from 600 to 800 feet.— 2. (Aetnen- 
 ses : S. Maria di Licodia), a town at the foot of 
 M. Aetna, on the road to Catana, formerly called 
 Inessa or Innesa. It was founded in B.C. 461, 
 by the inhabitants of Catana, who had been ex- 
 pelled from their own town by the Siculi. They 
 gave the name of Aetna to Inessa, because their own 
 to^vn Catana had been called Aetna by Hiero I. 
 
 Aetnaeus (AiVr/aTos), an epithet of several gods 
 and mythical beings connected with Moxmt Aetna ; 
 — of Zeus, of whom there was a statue on Mount 
 Aetna, and to whom a festival was celebrated 
 there, called Aetnea ; of Hephaestus ; and of the 
 Cyclops. 
 
 Aetolia (AiTwXia : AixoiXdy), a division of 
 Greece, was boimded on the W. by Acarnania, 
 from which it was separated by the river Achelous, 
 on the N. by Epirus and Thessaly, on the E. by 
 the Ozolian Locrians, and on the S. by the en- 
 trance to the Corinthian gulf. It was divided into 
 two parts, Old Aetolia, from the Achelous to the 
 Evenus and Calydon, and New Aetolia, or the 
 Acquired (^tt^kttjtos), from the Evenus and Caly- 
 don to the Ozolian Locrians. On the coast the 
 country is level and fruitful, but in the interior 
 mountainous and unproductive. The mountains 
 contained many wild beasts, and were celebrated 
 in mythology for the hunt of the Calydonian boar. 
 The country was originally inhabited by Coretes and 
 Leleges, but was at an early period colonized by 
 Greeks from Elis, led by the mythical Aetolus. 
 The Aetolians took part in the Trojan war, under 
 their king Thoas. They continued for a long time 
 a rude and uncivilized people, living to a great ex- 
 tent by robbery ; and even in the time of Thucy- 
 dides (b. c. 410) many of their tribes spoke a lan- 
 guage which was not Greek, and were in the habit 
 of eating raw flesh. Like the other Greeks, they 
 abolished at an early time the monarchical form of 
 government, and lived under a democracy. They 
 appear to have been early united by a kind of 
 League, but this League first acquired political im- 
 portance about the middle of the 3rd centurj-- b. a. 
 
22 AETOLUS. 
 
 and became a formidable rival to the Macedcinian 
 monarchs and tbe Achaean Leagae. The Aetolian 
 League at one time included not only Aetolia 
 Proper, but Acamania, part of Thessaly, Locrls, 
 and the islaTid of Cephallenia ; and it also had 
 close alliances with EUs and several towns in the 
 Peloponnesus, and likewise with Cius on the Pro- 
 pontis. Its annual meetings, called Panaeiolica, 
 were held in the autumn at Thermus, and at them 
 were chosen a General {(TTparTjyds), who was at 
 the head of the League, an Hipparchus, or Master 
 of the Horse, a Secretar}'-, and a select committee 
 called Apocleti {airuic\vToi). For further parti- 
 culars respecting the constitution of the League, 
 see Diet, of Ant. art. Aeioiicum Foedus. The A^:to- 
 lians took the side of Antiochus III. against 
 the Romans, and on the defeat of that monarch 
 B.C. ltJ9, they became virtually the subjects of 
 Rome. On the conquest of the Achaeans, b. c. 
 T4(), Aetolia was included in the Roman province 
 of Achaia. After the battle of Actium, B.C. 31, 
 a considerable part of the population of Aetolia was 
 transplanted to the city of Nicopolis, which Au- 
 gustus built in commemoration of his victory, 
 
 Aetolus (AlTct'A.(is), son of Endj'mion and Neis, 
 or Tphianassa, married Pronoe, by whom he had 
 two sons, Pleuron and Calydon. He was king of 
 Elis, but was obliged to leave Peloponnesus, be- 
 cause he had slain Apis, the son of Jaaon or Sal- 
 moneus. He went to the country near the Achelous, 
 ■which was called Aetolia after him. 
 
 Asxone {At^wvri and Al^ivfTiis : Al^ccv^us : 
 Asani?)^ an Attic demus of the tribe Cecropis or 
 Pandionis. Its inhabitants had the reputation of 
 being mockers and slanderers. 
 
 Afer, Domitius, of Nemausus (Nismes) in 
 Gaul, was the teacher of Quintilian, and one of the 
 most distinguished orators in the reigns of Tiberius, 
 Caligula, Claudius, and Nero, but he sacrificed his 
 character by conducting accusations for the govern- 
 ment. He was consul snffectus in a.d. 39, and 
 died in GO. Quintilian mentions several works of 
 bis on oratory, which are all lost. 
 
 AfraniUS. 1. L. A Roman comic poet, flourished 
 about B. c. 100. His comedies described Roman 
 scenes and manners {Comoediue togatae\ and the 
 subjects were mostly taken from the life of the 
 lower classes. {Comocdute tabemareaeS) They were 
 frequently polluted with disgraceful amours ; but 
 he depicted Roman life with such accuracy, that he 
 is classed witb Menander (Bor. Ep. n. 1.57). 
 His comedies continued to be acted under the 
 empire. The names and fragments of between 
 20 and 30 are still preserved .—2. L., a person 
 of obscure origin, and a faithful adherent of Pom- 
 pey. He served under Porapey against Sertorius 
 and Mithridates, and was, through Pompey's in- 
 fluence, made consul, b. c. 60. When Pompey 
 obtained the provinces of the two Spains in his 
 second consulship (b. c. 55)^ he sent Afranius 
 and Petreius to govern them, while he himself re- 
 mained in Rome. In B.C. 49, Afranius and Pe- 
 treius were defeated by Caesar in Spain. Afranius 
 thereupon passed over to Pompey in Greece ; was 
 present at the battle of Pharsalia, b. c. 48 ; and 
 subsequently at the battle of Thapsus in Africa, 
 B.C. 46. He then attempted to fly into Maure- 
 tania, but was taken prisoner by P. Sittius, and 
 killed. 
 
 Afirxca {'Acpplicrj : Africanus), was used by the 
 ancients in two senses, (1) for the whole continent 
 
 AFRICA. 
 
 of Africa, and (2) for the portion of N. Africa 
 which constituted the territory of Carthage, and 
 which the Romans erected into a province, under 
 the name of Africa Propria. — !. In the more 
 general sense tlie name was not used by the Greek 
 writers ; and its use by the Romans arose from the 
 extension to the whole continent of the name of a 
 part of it. The proper Greek name for the con- 
 tinent is Libya {Ai€u7]). Considerably before the 
 historical period of Greece begins, the Phoenicians 
 extended their commerce over the Mediterranean, 
 and founded several colonies on the N, coast of 
 Africa, of which Carthage was the chief. [Car- 
 thago.] The Greeks knew veiy little of the 
 country until the foundation of the Dorian colony 
 of CvRENE (b. c. 620), and the intercourse of Greek 
 travellers with Egypt in the 6th and 5th centuries ; 
 and even then their knowledge of all but the part 
 near Cyrene was derived from the Egyptians and 
 Phoenicians, who sent out some remarkable ex- 
 peditions to explore the country. A Phoenician 
 fleet sent by the Egj'^ptian king Pharaoh Necho 
 (about B. c. 600), was said to have sailed from 
 the Red Sea, round Africa, and so into the Medi- 
 terranean : the authenticity of this story is still 
 a matter of dispute. We still possess an authentic 
 account of another expedition, which the Cartha- 
 ginians despatched under Hanno (about B.C. 510), 
 and which reached a point on the W. coast nearl}'', 
 if not quite, as far as lat. 10° N. On the opposite 
 side of the continent, the coast appears to have 
 been very little known beyond the S. boundary of 
 Egypt, till the time of the Ptolemies. In the in- 
 terior, the Great Desert {Sahara) interposed a for- 
 midable obstacle to discovery ; but even before the 
 time of Herodotus the people on the northern coast 
 told of individuals who had crossed the Desert and 
 had reached a great river flowing towards the E., 
 with crocodiles in it, and black men living on its 
 banks ; which, if the story be tnie, was probably 
 the Nige.r in its upper course, near Timhuctoo. 
 That the Cai'thaginians had considerable intercourse 
 with the regions S. of the Sahara^ has been inferred 
 from the abundance of elephants they kept. Later 
 expeditions and inquiries extended the knowledge 
 which the ancients possessed of the E. coast to 
 about 10° S. lat., and gave tiiem, as it seems, some 
 further acquaintance with the interior, about Laha 
 Tclmd, but the southern part of the continent wns 
 so totilly unknown, that Ptolemy, who finally 
 fixed the limits of ancient geographical science, re- 
 curred to the old notion, which seems to have pre- 
 vailed before the time of Herodotus, that the S. 
 parts of Africa met the S.E. part of Asia, and that the 
 Indian Ocean was a vast lake. The greatest geo- 
 graphers who lived before Ptolemy, namely, Era- 
 tosthenes and Strabo, had accepted the tradition 
 that Africa was circumnavigable. The shape of 
 the continent they conceived to be that of a right- 
 angled triangle, having for its hypotennse a line 
 drawn from the Pillars of Hercules to the S. of the 
 Red Sea ; and, as to its extent, they did not sup- 
 pose it to reach nearly so far as the Equator. Pto- 
 lemy supposed the W. coast to stretch N. and S. 
 from the Pillars of Plercules, and he gave the con- 
 tinent an indefinite extent towards the S. There 
 were also great differences of opinion as to the 
 boundaries of the continent. Some divided the 
 whole world into only two parts, Europe and Asia, 
 and they were not agreed to which of these two 
 Libya (i. e. Africa) belonged j and those who 
 
AFRICA. 
 
 recognised three divisions differed again in plac- 
 ing the boundary between Libya and Asia either 
 on the W, of Egypt, or along the Nile, or at 
 the isthmus of Suez and the Red Sea : the last 
 opinion gradually prevailed. As to the subdi- 
 vision of the country itself, Herodotus distributes 
 it into Aegyptus, Aethiopia (i. e. all the regions 
 S. of Egypt and the Suhara), and Libya, pro- 
 perly so called ; and he subdivides Libya into three 
 parts, according to their physical distinctions, 
 iiamely, (1) the Inhabited Country along the Me- 
 diterranean, in which dwelt the Nomad Libj-ans 
 (oi ■jrapadaKairo'LOL twv vu^aSuiV Ai€va}i' : the Bar- 
 hary States) ; (2) the Country of Wild Beasts (^ 
 ^TjpiiiSTis}, S. of the former, that is, the region be- 
 tween the Little and Great Atlas, which still 
 abounds in wild beasts, but takes its name from its 
 prevailing vegetation (Beled-el-Jerid, i. e. ike Coun- 
 iry of Pahiis\ and (3) the Sandy Desert (^ ij^a.u- 
 \LQs ; the Saluira)^ that is, the table land bounded 
 by the Atlas on the N. and the margin of the Nile- 
 valley on the E., which is a vast tract of sand 
 broken only by a few habitable islands, called 
 Oases. As to the people, Herodotus distinguishes 
 four races, two native, namely, the Libyans and 
 Ethiopians, and two foreign, namely, the Phoeni- 
 cians and the Greeks. The Libyans, however, 
 were a Caucasian race : the Ethiopians of Herodo- 
 tus correspond to our Negro races. The Phoenician 
 colonies were planted chiefly along, and to the W. 
 of, the great recess in the middle of the N. coast, 
 which formed the two Syrtes, by far the most 
 important of them being Carthage ; and the Greek 
 colonies were fixed on the coast along and beyond 
 the E. side of the Syrtes ; the chief of them was 
 Cykene, and the region was called Cyrena'ica. 
 Between this and Egypt were Libyan tribes, and 
 the whole region between the Carthaginian domi- 
 nions and Egypt, including Cyrenaica, was called 
 by the same name as the whole continent, Libya. 
 The chief native tribes of this region were the 
 Adyrmachidae. Marmaridae, Psylli, and 
 Nasamones. The last extended into the Car- 
 thaginian territory. To the W. of the Carthaginian 
 possessions, the country was called by the general 
 names of Numidia and Mauretania, and was 
 possessed partly by Carthaginian colonies on the 
 coast, and partly by Libran tribes under various 
 names, the chief of which were the Numidae, 
 Ma.ssylii, Massaesylii, and Mauri, and to the 
 S. of them the Gaetuli. The whole of this north- 
 em region fell successively under the power of 
 Rome, and was finally divided into provinces as 
 follows : — (1) Aegypt ; (2) Libya, including (a) 
 Libyae Nomos or Libya Exterior, (6) Marmarica, 
 (c) Cyrenaica ; (3) Africa Propria, the former em- 
 pire of Carthage (see below. No. 2) ; (4) Numidia; 
 (5) Mauretania, divided into (a) Sitifensis, {h) 
 Caesariensis, (c) Tingitana: these, with (G) 
 Aethiopia, make up the whole of Africa, according 
 to the divisions recognised by the latest of the 
 ancient geographers. The northern district was 
 better known to the Romans than it is to us, and 
 was extremely populous and flourishing; and, if 
 we may judge by the list of tribes in Ptolemy, the 
 interior of the country, especially between the 
 Little and Great Altars, must have supported many 
 more inhabitants than it does at present. Further 
 information respecting the several portions of the 
 country will be found in the separate articles. — 2. 
 Africa Propria or Provincia, or simply Africa, 
 
 AGAMEDES. 
 
 23 
 
 was the name under which the Romans, after the 
 Third Punic War (b. c. 146), erected into a pro- 
 vince the whole of the former territory of Carthage. 
 It extended from the river Tusca, on the W., 
 which divided it from Numidia, to the bottom of 
 the Syrtis Minor, on the S. E. It was divided into 
 two districts (regiones), namely, ( 1 ) Zeugis or Zeu- 
 gitana, the district round Carthage, (2) Byzacium 
 or Byzacena, S. of Zeugitana, as far as the bottom 
 of tiie Syrtis Minor. It corresponds to the modem 
 regency of Tunis. The province was full of flou- 
 rishing towns, and was extremely fertile, especially 
 Byzacena: it furnished Rome with its chief sup- 
 phes of corn. The above limits are assigned to the 
 province by Pliny : Ptolemy makes it extend from 
 the river Ampsaga on the W., to the borders of 
 Cyrenaica, at the bottom of the Great Syrtis, on 
 the E., 60 as to include Numidia and Tripolitana. 
 
 Africanus, a surname given to the Scipios on 
 account of their victories in Africa, [SciPio.] 
 
 Africanus. 1. Sex. Caecilius, a Roman juris- 
 consult, lived under Antoninus Pius (a.d. 138— 
 161), and wrote Lihri IX. Quaestio?iujn^ from which 
 many extracts are made in the Digest.— 2. Julius, 
 a celebrated orator in the reign of Nero, is much 
 praised by Quintilian, who speaks of him and 
 Domitius Afer as the best orators of their time.— 
 3. Ses. Julius, a learned Christian writer at the be- 
 ginning of the 3rd century, passed the greater part 
 of his life at Emmaus in Palestine, and afterwards 
 lived at Alexandria. His principal work was a 
 Chronicon in five books, from the creation of the 
 world, which he placed in 5499 B.C., to a. d. 221. 
 This work is lost, but part of it is extracted by 
 Eusebius in his Chronicon^ and many fragments of 
 it are preserved by Georgius Syncellns, Cedrenus, 
 and in the Paschale Chronicon. There was another 
 work written by Africanus, entitled Cesti (KecTOi), 
 that is, embroidered girdles, so called from the 
 celebrated Cestus of Aphrodite (Venus). It treated 
 of a vast variety of subjects— medicine, agriculture, 
 natural history, the military art, &c. The work 
 itself is lost, but some extracts fi-om it are pub- 
 lished by Thcvenot in the Alatliematici Veteres, 
 Paris, 1693, and also in the Gcoponica. 
 
 Africus {\iTp by the Greeks), the S. W. wind, 
 so called because it blew from Africa, frequently 
 brought storms with it (creherque procellis Africus, 
 Virg. Aen. i- 85). 
 
 A^amede {'AyafLrjBr)), daughter of Augias and 
 wife of Mulius, who, according to Homer {II. xi. 
 739), was acquainted with the healing powers of 
 all the plants that grow upon the earth. 
 
 Agamedes ('A7a^T]57)s), commonly called son 
 of Erginus, king of Orchomenus, and brother of 
 Trophonius ; though his family connexions are 
 related ditferenth- b}' different writers. Agamedes 
 and Trophonius distinguished themselves as archi- 
 tects : they built a temple of Apollo at Delphi, and 
 a treasury of Hyrieus, king of Hyria in Boeotia. 
 The story about this treasury resembles the one 
 which Herodotus (ii. 121) relates of the treasury 
 of the Egyptian king Rhampsinitus. In the con- 
 stnictlon of the treasury of Hyrieus, Agamedes 
 and Trophonius contrived to place one stone in 
 such a manner, that it could be taken away out- 
 side, and thus formed an entrance to the treasury, 
 without any body perceiving it. Agamedes and 
 Trophonius now constantly robbed the treasury ; 
 and the king, seeing that locks and seals were un- 
 injured while his treasures were constantlv de- 
 
 c 4 
 
24 
 
 AGAMEMNON. 
 
 creasing, set traps to catch the thief. A^E^amedes 
 ivas thus ensnared, and Trophonius cutoff his head 
 to avert the discovery. After this Trophonius was 
 immediately swallowed up by the earth. On this 
 spot there was afterwards, in the grove of Lebadea, 
 the cave of Agamedes with a column "by the side 
 of it. Here also was the onicle of Trophonius, and 
 those who consulted it first offered a ram to Aga- 
 medes and invoked him. A tradition mentioned 
 "by Cicero (Tusc. Quaest. i. 47) states that Aga- 
 medes and Trophonius, after building the temple of 
 Apollo at Delphi, prayed to the god to grant them 
 in reward for their labour what was best for men. 
 The god promised to do so on a certain day, and 
 when the day came, the two brothers died. 
 
 Agamemnon C'Aya/j.s/j.vcov), son of Plisthenes 
 and Aerope or Eriphyle, and grandson of Atrcus, 
 king of Mj'cenae ; but Homer and others call him 
 a son of Atreus and grandson of Pelops. Aga- 
 memnon and his brother Menelaus were brought up 
 together with Aegisthus, the son of Thyestes, in 
 the house of Atreus. After the murder of Atreus 
 by Aegisthus and Thyestes, who succeeded Atreus 
 in the kingdom of Mycenae [Aegisthus], Aga- 
 memnon and Menelaus went to Sparta, where 
 Agamemnon married Clytemnestra, the daughter 
 of Tyndareus, by whom he became the father of , 
 Iphianassa (Iphigenia), Chr^'sothemis, Laodice 
 (Electra), and Orestes. The manner in which 
 Agamemnon obtained the kingdom of M3'ccnac, is 
 differently related. From Plomer, it appears as if 
 he had peaceably succeeded Thyestes, while, ac- 
 cording to others, he expelled Thyestes, and 
 usurped his throne. He now became the most 
 powerful prince in Greece. A catalogue of his do- 
 minions is given in the Iliad (ii. 569, &c.). When 
 Homer attributes to Agamemnon the sovereignty 
 over all Argos, the name Argos signifies Pelopon- 
 nesus, or the greater part of it, for the city of 
 Argos was governed by Diomedes. When Helen, 
 the wife of Menelaus, was carried off by Paris, 
 and the Greek chiefs resolved to recover her by 
 force of arras, Agamemnon was chosen their com- 
 mander in chief. After two years of preparation, 
 the Greek army and fleet assembled in the port of 
 Aulis in Boeotia. At this place Agamemnon 
 killed a stag which was sacred to Artemis, who in 
 return visited the Greek army with a pestilence, 
 and produced a calm which prevented the Greeks 
 from leaving the port. In order to appease her 
 wrath, Agamemnon consented to sacrifice his 
 daughter Iphigenia ; but at the moment she was 
 to be sacrificed, she was carried off by Artemis 
 herself to Tauris and another victim was sub- 
 stituted in her place. The calm now ceased, and 
 the army sailed to the coast of Troy. Agamemnon 
 alone had 100 ships, independent of 60 which 
 he had lent to the Arcadians. In the tenth 
 j'ear of the siege of Troy we find Agamemnon in- 
 volved in a quarrel with Achilles respecting the 
 possession of Briseis, whom Achilles was obliged to 
 give up to Agamemnon. Achilles withdrew from 
 the field of battle, and the Greeks were visited by 
 successive disasters. The danger of the Greeks at 
 last induced Patroclus, the friend of Achilles, to take 
 part in the battle, and his fall led to the reconcilia- 
 tion of Achilles and Agamemnon. [Achilles.] 
 Agamemnon, although the chief commander of the 
 Greeks, is not the hero of the Iliad, and in chival- 
 rous spirit, bravery, and character, altogether in- 
 ferior to Achilles. But he nevertheless rises above 
 
 AGATHARCHUS. 
 
 all the Greeks by his dignity, power, and majesty: 
 his eyes and head are likened to those of Zeus, his 
 girdle to that of Ares, and his breast to that of 
 Poseidon. The emblem of his power is a sceptre, 
 the work of Hephaestus, which Zeus had once 
 given to Hermes, and Hermes to Pelops, from 
 whom it descended to Agamemnon. At the cap- 
 ture of Troy he received Cassandra, the daughter 
 of Priam, as his prize. On his return home he 
 was murdered by Aegisthus, who liad seduced 
 Clytemnestra during the absence of her husband. 
 The tragic poets make Clytemnestra alone murder 
 Agamemnon ; her motive is in Aeschylus her jea- 
 lousy of Cassandra, in Sophocles and Euripides her 
 wrath at the death of Iphigenia. 
 
 Agamemnonides {'Aya/.L€/xvoviBr)s), the son of 
 Agamemnon, i. e. Orestes. 
 
 Aganippe {*Ayai'l7nn])^ a n}Tnph of the well of 
 the same name at the foot of Mount Helicon, in 
 Boeotia, which was considered sacred to the Muses 
 (who were hence called Aganippii.ks\ and which 
 was believed to have the power of inspiring those 
 who drank of it. The fountain of Hippocrene has 
 the epithet Aganippis (Ov. Fast. v. 7), from its 
 being sacred to the Muses, like that of Aganippe. 
 Agapenor ('A7a7r:^i'ajp), son of Ancaeus king 
 of the Arcadians, received 60 ships from Aga- 
 memnon, in which he led his Arcadians to Troy. 
 On his return from Troy he was cast by a stonn on 
 the coast of Cyprus, where he founded the town of 
 Paphus, and in it the famous temple of Aphrodite. 
 Agarista (^AyaplarT}). 1. Daughter of Clis- 
 thenes, tyrant of Sicyon, wife of Megacles, and 
 mother of ClTsthenes who divided the Athenians 
 into ten tribes, and of Hippocrates.^2. Daughter 
 of the above-mentioned Hippocrates, and grand- 
 daughter of No. 1, wife of Xanthippus, and mother 
 of Pericles. 
 
 Agasias ('Ayaa-tas), son of Dositheus, a sculp- 
 tor of Ephesus, probably a contemporary of Alex- 
 ander the Great (b. c. 330), sculptured the statue 
 known by the name of the Borghese gladiator, 
 which is still preserved in the gallery of the 
 Louvre. This statue, as well as the Apollo Bel- 
 videre, was discovered among the ruins of a palace 
 of the Roman emperors on the site of the ancient 
 Antium {Capo d^Anzo). From the attitude of the 
 figure it is clear, that the statue represents not a 
 gladiator, but a warrior contending with a mounted 
 combatant. Perhaps it was intended to represent 
 Achilles fighting with Pcnthesilea. 
 
 Agasicies, Agesicles, or Hegesicles ^Ayain- 
 K\7}s^ 'AyT}(riicKris^ '}ly7}(nKKT}s), king of Sparta, 
 succeeded his father Archidamus I., about B.C. 600 
 or 590. 
 
 Agatliarchides {' Ay adapxi^rjs) or Agathar- 
 chus {'Ayddapxos), a Greek grammarian, born at 
 Cnidos, lived at Alexandria, probably about b. c. 
 130. He wrote a considerable number of geogra- 
 phical and historical works ; but we have only an 
 epitome of a portion of his work on the Er}'thriiean 
 sea, which was made by Photius : it is printed in 
 Hudson's Geogr. Script. Gr. Minorcs, 
 
 Agatharchns (^AydQapxos)^ an Athenian artist, 
 said to have invented scene-painting, and to have 
 painted a scene for a tragedy which Aeschylus ex- 
 hibited. It was probably not till towards the end 
 of Aeschylus's career that scene-painting was in- 
 troduced, and not till the time of Sophocles that it 
 was generally made use of ; which may account 
 for Aristotle's assertion {PoUt. iv. 16) that scene- 
 
AGATHEMERUS. 
 
 painting was introduced "by Sophocles. — 3. A 
 Greek painter, a native of Samoa, and son of Eu- 
 demua. He was a contemporary of Alcibiades and 
 Zeuxis, and must not be confounded with the con- 
 temporary of Aeschylus. 
 
 Agatlieineraa ('A7a07]/iepos), the author of "A 
 sketch of Geography in epitome"" (TTJy yeurypa(pias 
 vTTOTVTrwcrets iv iiriTOfi^), probably lived about the 
 beginning of the 3rd century after Christ. The 
 ivork consists chiefly of extracts from Ptolemy and 
 other earlier writers. It is printed in Hudson's 
 Geog?\ Scnpt. Chr. Minores. 
 
 Agathias {'AyaOlas)^ a Byzantine writer, bom 
 about A. r. 536 at Myrina in Aeolia, practised as 
 an advocate at Constantinople, whence he obtained 
 his surname Scholasticus (which word signified an 
 advocate in his time), and died about a. d. 582. 
 He wrote many poems, of which several have come 
 dowii to us ; but his principal work was his History 
 in five books, which is also extant, and is of consi- 
 derable value. It contains the history from a. d. 
 S53 — 558,aperiod remarkable for important events, 
 6uch as the conquest of Italy by Narses and the 
 exploits of Belisarius over the Huns and other bar- 
 barians. The best edition is by Niebuhr, Bonn, 
 J 828. 
 
 Agathoclea {*Aya66K\eta\ mistress of Pto- 
 lemy IV. Philopator, king of Egypt, and sister of 
 his minister Agathocles. She and her brother 
 were put to death on the death of Ptolemy (b. c. 
 205). 
 
 Agathocles (*Aya6oK\T)s). 1. A Sicilian, raised 
 himself from the station of a potter to that of tyrant 
 of Syracuse and king of Sicily. Bom at Thermae, 
 a town of Sicily subject to Carthage, he is said to 
 have been exposed when an infant, by his father, 
 Carcinus of Rhegium, in consequence of a succes- 
 sion of troublesome dreams, portending that he 
 would be a source of much evil to Sicily. His 
 mother, however, secretly preserved his life, and 
 at 7 years old he was restored to his father, who 
 had long repented of his conduct to the child. By 
 him he was taken to Syracuse and brought up as 
 a potter. His strength and personal beauty re- 
 commended him to Damas, a noble Syracusan, who 
 drew him from obscurity, and on whose death he 
 married his rich widow, and so became one of the 
 wealthiest citizens in Syiticuse. His ambitious 
 schemes then developed themselves, and he was 
 driven into exile. After several changes of fortune, 
 he collected an army which overawed both the Sy- 
 racusans and Carthaginians, and was restored under 
 an oath that he would not interfere with the de- 
 mocracy, which oath he kept by murdering 4000 
 and banishing 6000 citizens. He was immediately 
 declared sovereign of Syracuse, under the title of 
 Axitocrator, b. c. 317. In the course of a few 
 years the whole of Sicily, which was not under the 
 dominion of Carthage, submitted to him. In b. c. 
 310 he was defeated at Himera by the Car- 
 thaginians, under Hamilcar, who straightway laid 
 siege to Syracuse ; whereupon he formed the bold 
 design of averting the ruin which threatened him, 
 by carrying the war into Africa. His successes 
 were most brilliant and rapid. He constantly de- 
 feated the troops of Carthage, but was at length 
 summoned from Africa by the affairs of Sicily, 
 where many cities had revolted from him, b. c. 307. 
 These he reduced, after making a treaty with the 
 Carthaginians. He had previously assumed the 
 title of king of Sicily. He afterwards plun- 
 
 AGDISTIS. 25 
 
 dered the Lipari isles, and also carried his arras 
 into Italy, in order to attack the Bruttii. But his 
 last days were embittered by family misfortunes. 
 His grandson Archagathus murdered his son Aga- 
 thocles, for the sake of succeeding to the crown, 
 and the old king feared that the rest of his fa- 
 mily would share his fate. He accordingly sent 
 his wife Texena and her two children to Egypt, 
 her native country ; and his o^vn death followed 
 almost immediately, b. c. 289, after a reign of 28 
 years, and in the 72nd year of his age. Other 
 authors relate an incredible story of his being poi- 
 soned by Maeno, an associate of Archagathus. 
 The poison, we are told, was concealed in the quill 
 with which he cleaned his teeth, and reduced him 
 to so frightful a condition, that he was placed on 
 the funeral pile and burnt while yet living, being 
 unable to give any signs that he was not dead.^ 
 2. Of Pella, father of Lysimachus.— 3. Son of 
 Lysimachus, was defeated and taken prisoner by 
 Dromichaetis, king of the Getae, about b. c. 292, 
 but was sent back to his father with presents. 
 In 287, he defeated Demetrius Poliorcetes. At 
 the instigation of his stepmother, Arsinoe, Lysi- 
 machus cast him into prison, where he was mur- 
 dered (284) by Ptolemaeus Ceraunus.^4. Brother 
 of Agathoclea.^5. A Greek historian, of un- 
 certain date, wrote the history of Cyzicus, which 
 was extensively read in antiquity, and is referred 
 to by Cicero {de Div. i. 24), 
 
 Agathodaemon CAyadoSaifiuv or ^Aya6hs i&eor). 
 1. The *' Good Deity,'' in honour of whom the 
 Greeks drank a cup of unmixed wine at the end 
 of every repast. — 3. Of Alexandria, the designer 
 of some maps to accompany Ptolemy's Geography. 
 Copies of these maps are found appended to several 
 MSS. of Ptolemy. 
 
 Agathon. {'Ayddwv), an Athenian tragic poet, 
 born about B.C. 447, of a rich and respectable fa- 
 mily, was a friend of Euripides and Plato. He 
 gained his first victory in 416 : in honour of which 
 Plato represents the Symposium to have been given, 
 which he has made the occasion of his dialogue so 
 called. In 407, he visited the court of Archelaus, 
 king of Macedonia, where his friend Euripides was 
 also a guest at the same time. He died about 400, 
 at the age of 47. The poetic merits of Agathon 
 were considerable, but his compositions were more 
 remarkable for elegance and flowery ornaments than 
 force, vigour, or sublimity. In the Tkesinophoria- 
 zusae of Aristophanes he is ridiculed for his effe- 
 minacy, being brought on the stage in female dress. 
 Agathyma, Agathymum {'AydBvpya, ~ov : 
 ^Ayadvpvaios : Agatlia), a town on the N. coast of 
 Sicily.^ 
 
 Agathyrsi {^Aya.Qvp(Toi\ a people in European 
 Sarmatia, on the river Maris (Marosch) in Tran- 
 sylvania. From their practice of painting or tatoo- 
 ing their skin, they are called by Virgil {Aen. iv. 
 146) picli Agathyrsi. 
 
 Agave ('A7au7]), daughter of Cadmus, wife of 
 Echion, and mother of Pentheus. When Pen- 
 theus attempted to prevent the women from cele- 
 brating the Dionysiac festivals on mount Cithaeron, 
 he was torn to pieces there by his own mother 
 Agave, who in her frenzy believed him to be a 
 wild beast. [Pentheus.] — One of the Nereids, 
 one of the Danaids, and one of the Amazons were 
 also called Agavae. 
 Agbatana. [ Ecbat ana.] 
 Agdistis ('A^St'o-Tis), an androgynous deity, the 
 
AGATHEMERUS. 
 
 painting 'was introduced by Sophocles. — 2. A 
 Greek painter, a native of Samoa, and son of Eu- 
 demus. He was a contempoi-ary of Alcibiades and 
 Zeuxis, and must not be confounded with the con- 
 temporary of Aeschylus. 
 
 Agathemerus (Aya6'f)fxepos)^ the author of " A 
 slcetch of Geography in epitome" {rris y^Qyypa({}ias 
 inroTVTTcoffeis 4v IttitojUtJ), probably lived about the 
 beginning of the 3rd century after Christ. The 
 ivork consists chiefly of extracts from Ptolemy and 
 other earlier writers. It is printed in Hudson''s 
 Geogr. Scnpt. Gr. Atinores. 
 
 Agathias (^hyaBias)^ a Byzantine writer, bom 
 about A. I). 536 at Myrina in Aeolia, practised aa 
 an advocate at Constantinople, whence he obtained 
 his surname Scholasticus (which word signified an 
 advocate in his time), and died about a. d. 582, 
 He wrote many poems, of which several have come 
 down to us ; but his principal work was his History 
 in five books, which is also extant, and is of consi- 
 derable value. It contains the history from a. d. 
 553 — 558,aperiod remarkablefor important events, 
 such as the conquest of Italy by Narses and the 
 exploits of Beliaaiius over the Huns and other bar- 
 barians. The best edition is by Niebuhr, Bonn, 
 3 828. 
 
 Agathoclea (^hyad6KXeia\ mistress of Pto- 
 lemy IV". Philopator, king of Egypt, and sister of 
 his minister Agathocles. She and her brother 
 were put to death on the death of Ptolemy (b. c. 
 205). 
 
 Agathocles (^AyaBoKKris). 1. A Sicilian, raised 
 himself from the station of a potter to that of tyrant 
 of Syracuse and king of Sicily. Bom at Thermae, 
 a 4o\vn of Sicily subject to Carthage, he is said to 
 have been exposed when an infant, by his father, 
 Carcinus of Rhegium, in consequence of a succes- 
 sion of troublesome dreams, portending that he 
 would be a source of nnich evil to Sicily. His 
 mother, however, secretly preserved his life, and 
 at 7 3'ear3 old he was restored to his father, who 
 had long repented of his conduct to the child. By 
 him he was taken to Syracuse and brought up as 
 a potter. His strength and personal beauty re- 
 commended him to Damas, a noble Syracusan, who 
 drew him from obscurity, and on whose death he 
 married his rich widow, and so became one of the 
 wealthiest citizens in Syracuse, His ambitious 
 Bchemes then developed themselves, and he was 
 driven into exile. After several changes of fortune, 
 he collected an army which overawed both the Sy- 
 racusans and Carthaginians, and was restored under 
 an oath that he would not interfere with the de- 
 mocracy, which oath he kept by murdering 4000 
 and banishing 6000 citizens. He was immediately 
 declared sovereign of Syracuse, under the title of 
 Autocrator, B.C. 317. In the coiu-se of a few 
 years the whole of Sicily, which was not under the 
 dominion of Carthage, submitted to him. In b. c. 
 310 he was defeated at Himera by the Car- 
 thaginians, under Hamilcar, who straightway laid 
 siege to Syracuse ; whereupon he foraied the bold 
 design of averting the ruin which threatened him, 
 by carrying the war into Africa. His successes 
 were most brilliant and rapid. He constantly de- 
 feated the troops of Carthage, but was at length 
 summoned from Africa by the affairs of Sicily, 
 where many cities had revolted from him, b. c. 307. 
 These he reduced, after making a treaty with the 
 Carthaginians. He had previously assumed the 
 title of king of Sicily. He afterwards plun- 
 
 AGDISTIS. 
 
 25 
 
 dered the Lipari isles, and also carried his arms 
 into Italy, in order to attack the Bruttii. But his 
 last days were embittered by family misfortunes. 
 His grandson Archagathus murdered his son Aga- 
 thocles, for the sake of succeeding to the crown, 
 and the old king feared that the rest of his fa- 
 mily would share his fate. He accordingly sent 
 his wife Texena and her two children to Egypt, 
 her native country ; and his own death followed 
 almost immediately, B.C. 289, after a reign of 2S 
 years, and in the 72nd year of his age. Other 
 authors relate an incredible story of his being poi- 
 soned by Maeno, an associate of Archagathus. 
 The poison, we are told, was concealed in the quill 
 with which he cleaned his teeth, and reduced him 
 to so frightful a condition, that he was placed on 
 the funeral pile and burnt while yet living, being 
 unable to give any signs that he was not dead.— 
 2. Of Pella, father of Lysimachus. — 3. Son of 
 Lysimachus, was defeated and taken prisoner by 
 Dromichaetis, king of the Getae, about b. c. 292, 
 but was sent back to his father Avith presents. 
 In 287, he defeated Demetrius Poliorcetes. At 
 the instigation of his stepmother, Arsinoe, Lysi- 
 machus cast him into prison, where he was mur- 
 dered (284) by Ptoleraaeus Ceraunus.— 4. Brother 
 of Agathoclea,^5. a Greek historian, of un- 
 certain date, wrote the history of Cyzicus, which 
 was extensively read in antiquity, and is referred 
 to by Cicero {de D'tv. i. 24). 
 
 Agathodaemon {'kyaQoZaifx.uiv or 'A7a0bs- ^eos). 
 1. The " Good Deity," in honour of whom the 
 Greeks drank a cup of unmixed wine at the end 
 of every repast. ^3. Of Alexandria, the designer 
 of some maps to accompany Ptolemy''3 Geography. 
 Copies of these maps are found appended to several ■ 
 MSS.^of Ptolemy. 
 
 Agathon i^hyaQcav), an Athenian tragic poet, 
 born about b. c. 447, of a rich and respectable fa- 
 mily, was a friend of Euripides and Plato. He 
 gained his first victory in 416 : in honour of which 
 Plato represents tlie Symposium to have been given, 
 which he has made the occasion of his dialogue so 
 called. In 407, he visited the court of Archelaus, 
 king of Macedonia, where his friend Euripides was 
 also a guest at the same time. He died about 400, 
 at the age of 47. The poetic merits of Agathon 
 were considerable, but his compositions were more 
 remarkable for elegance and flowery ornaments than 
 force, vigour, or sublimity. In the Thesmophoria' 
 zusae of Aristophanes he is ridiculed for his effe- 
 minacy, being brought on the stage in female dress. 
 Agathyma, Agathymum {^hyddvpva^ ~ov .• 
 ^ ^.yadvpvaios : Agatha)^ a town on the N, coast of 
 Sicil}''. 
 
 Agathyrsi {''Xy6.Qvp(ToC), a people in European 
 Sarmatia, on the river Maris {Marosch) in Tran- 
 sylvania, From their practice of painting or tatoo- 
 ing their skin, they are called by Virgil {A&n. iv. 
 146) picti Agathyrsi. 
 
 A^ave i^hyavT])^ daughter of Cadmus, wife of 
 Echion, and mother of Pentheua. When Pen- 
 theus attempted to prevent the women from cele- 
 brating the Dionysiac festivals on mount Cithaeron, 
 he was torn to pieces there by his own mother 
 Agave, who in her frenzy believed him to be a 
 wild beast. [Pentheus.] — One of the Nereids, 
 one of the Danaids, and one of the Amazons were 
 also called Agavae. 
 Agbatana, [Ecbatana.] 
 Agdistis (*A75to-Tis), an androgynous deity, the 
 
AGLAIA. 
 
 Aglaia {^AyXaia\ " the bright one." 1. One of 
 the Charites or Graces.— 2. Wife of Charopus 
 and mother of Nireus, who came from the island 
 of Sime against Troy. 
 
 Aglaopheme. [Sirenes.] 
 
 Aglaopkon {"AyKaocpcjv) . 1. Painter of Thasos, 
 father and instructor of Polygnotus and Aristo- 
 phon, lived about b. c. 500.— 2. Painter, lived 
 about B. c. 420, probably grandson of No. 1, 
 
 Aglaus (^Ay\a6s), a poor citizen of Psophis 
 in Arcadia, whom the Delphic omcle declared hap- 
 pier than Gyges king of Lydia, on account of his 
 contented disposition. Pausanias places him in the 
 time of Croesus. 
 
 Agnodice ('AyyoSiVij), an Athenian maiden, was 
 the first of her sex to learn midwifery, which a law 
 at Athens forbade any woman to learn. Dressed as 
 a man, she obtained instruction from a physician 
 named Hierophilus, and afterwards practised her art 
 ■u'ith success. Summoned before the Areopagus by 
 the envy of the other practitioners, she was obliged 
 to disclose her sex, and was not only acquitted, but 
 obtained the repeal of the obnoxious law. This 
 tale, though often repeated, does not deserve much 
 credit, as it rests on the authority of Hyginus 
 alone. 
 
 Agnonides CAyvwvid-qs:)^ an Athenian dema- 
 gogue, induced the Athenians to sentence Phocion 
 to death (b. c. 318), but was shortly afterwards 
 put to death himself by the Athenians. 
 
 Agoracritua {' Ay opdKptTos)^ a statuary of Pai'os, 
 flourished b. c. 440 — 428, and was the favourite 
 pupil of Phidias. His greatest work was a statue 
 of Aphrodite, which he changed into a statue of 
 Nemesis, and sold it to the people of Rhamnus, 
 because he was indignant that the Athenians had 
 given the preference to a statue by Alcamenes, who 
 was another distinguished pupil of Phidias. 
 
 Agoraea and Agoraeus {'Ayopaia and 'Ayo- 
 paTos), epithets of several divinities who were con- 
 sidered as the protectors of the assemblies of the 
 people in the agora, such as Zeus, Athena, Ai-temis, 
 and Hermes. 
 
 Agraei ('A-ypaToi), a people of Aetolia on the 
 Achelous. 
 
 Agraule {^AypavX^ and ''AypvKTj ; *Aypu\evs)^ 
 an Attic deraus of the tribe Erechthcis, named 
 after Agraulos, No. 2. 
 
 Agraulos {""AypavXas, also "AyXavpos). 1. 
 Daughter of Actaeus, first king of Athens, and 
 wife of Cecrops.— 2, Daughter of Cecrops and 
 Agraulos, is an important personage in the legends 
 of Attica, and there were three different stories 
 about her. 1. According to some writers Athena 
 gave Erichthonius in a chest to Agraulos and her 
 sister Herse, with the command not to open it ; 
 but unable to control their curiosity, they opened 
 it, and thereupon were seized with madness at the 
 sight of Erichthonius, and threw themselves do^vn 
 from the Acropolis. 2. According to Ovid {Met. 
 ii. 710) Agraulos and her sister survived opening 
 the chest, but Agraulos was subsequently punished 
 by being changed into a stone by Hermes, because 
 she attempted to prevent the god from entering the 
 house of Herse, when he had fallen in love with 
 the latter. 3. The third legend relates that Athens 
 was once involved in a long-protracted war, and that 
 Agraulos threw herself do^vn from the Acropolis 
 because an oracle had declared that the Athenians 
 would conquer if some one would sacrifice himself 
 for hia country. The Athenians in gratitude built 
 
 AGRIPPA. 
 
 27 
 
 her a temple on the Acropolis, in wliich it became 
 customary for the young Athenians, on receiving 
 their first suit of armour, to take an oath that they 
 would always defend their country to the last. 
 One of the Attic demi (Agraule) derived its name 
 from this heroine, and a festival and mysteries 
 {Agraulia) were celebrated at Athens in honour of 
 her. 
 
 Agreua ('AypsiJs), a hunter, a surname of Pan 
 and Aristaeus. 
 
 Agri Decumates, tithe lands, the name given 
 by the Romans to a part of Germany, E. of the 
 Rhine and N. of the Danube, which they took 
 possession of when the Gennans retired eastward, 
 and which they gave to Gauls and subsequently 
 to their own veterans on the payment of a tenth of 
 the produce (decuma). Towards the end of the 
 first or the beginning of the second century after 
 Christ, these lands were incoi-porated in the Roman 
 empire, 
 
 Agrxcola, Cn. Jlilins, bom June 13th, a. d. 
 37, at Forum Julii {Frtjus in Provence), was the 
 son of Julius Graecinus, who was executed by Ca- 
 ligula, and of Julia Procilla. He received a careful 
 education; he first served in Britain, a. d. 60, 
 under Suetonius Paulinus ; was quaestor in Asia 
 in 63 ; was governor of Aquitania from 74 to 76 ; 
 and was consul in 77, when he betrothed his 
 daughter to the historian Tacitus, and in the fol- 
 lowing year gave her to him in marriage. In 
 78 he received the government of Britain, which 
 he held for 7 years, during which time he sub- 
 dued the whole of the country with the exception 
 of the highlands of Caledonia, and by his wise 
 administration introduced among the inhabitants 
 the language and civilization of Rome. He was 
 recalled in 85 through the jealousy of Domitian, 
 and on his return lived in retirement till his death 
 in 93, which according to some was occasioned by 
 poison, administered by order of Domitian. His 
 character is drawn in the brightest colours by his 
 son-in-law Tacitus, whose Life of Agricolahas come 
 down to us. 
 
 Agrigentum {'AKpdyas : 'AicpayavrTpos, Agri- 
 gentlnus : Girgenli), a town on the S. coast of Sicily, 
 about 2i miles from the sea, between the livers 
 Acragas (Flume di S. Biagio)^ and Hj'psas (Fiume 
 Dvago). It was celebrated for its wealth and 
 populousness, and till its destruction by the Car- 
 thaginians (b.c, 405) was one of the most splendid 
 cities of the ancient world. It was the birthplace 
 of Empedocles. It was founded by a Doric colony 
 from Gela, about b. c. 579, was under the govern- 
 ment of the cruel tyrant Phalaris (about 560), 
 and subsequently under that of Theron (488 — 
 472), whose praises are celebrated by Pindar. 
 After its destruction by the Carthaginians, it was 
 rebuilt by Timoleon, but it never regained its 
 former greatness. After undergoing many vicissi- 
 tudes it at length came into the power of the 
 Romans (210), in whose hands it remained. 
 There are still gigantic remains of the ancient city, 
 especially of the Olyrapieum, or temple of the 
 Olympian Zeus. 
 
 Agrinium i^Aypiviov\ a to^vn in Aetolia, per- 
 haps near the sources of the Thermissus. 
 
 Agrippa, first a praenomen, and afterwards a cog- 
 nomen among the Romans, signifies a child pre- 
 sented at its birth with its feet foremost. 
 
 Agrippa, Herodes. 1. Called " Agrippa the 
 Great," son of Aristobulus and Berenice, and grand- 
 
28 
 
 AGRIPPA. 
 
 Gon of Herod the Great. He was educated at Rome 
 with the future emperor Claudius, and Drusus the son 
 ■of Tiberius. Having given offence to Tiberius he was 
 thrown into prison ; but Caligula, on his accession 
 {a. D. 37), set him at liberty, and gave him the 
 tetrarchies of Abilene, Batanaea, Trachonitis, and 
 Auranitis. On the death of Caligula (41), Agrippa, 
 ■who was at the time in Rome, assisted Claudius in 
 gaining possession of the empire. As a reward for 
 his services, Judaea and Samaria were annexed to 
 his dominions. His government was mild and 
 gentle, and he was exceedingly popular amongst the 
 jews. It was probably to increase his popularity 
 with the Jews that he caused the apostle James to 
 be beheaded, and Peter to be cast into prison 
 (44). The manner of his death, which took 
 place at Caesarea in the same year, is related in 
 jicis xii. By hia wife Cypres he had a son 
 Agrippa, and three daughters, Berenice, Mari- 
 amne, and Drusilla.— 2. Son of Agrippa I., was 
 educated at the court of Claudius, and at the time 
 of his father's death was 17 3'"ears old. Claudius 
 kept him at Rome, and sent Cuspius Fadus as pro- 
 curator of the kingdom, which thus again became 
 a Roman province. On the death of Herodes, 
 king of Chalcis (48), his little principality was 
 given to Vgrippa, who subsequently received an 
 accession of territory. Before the outbreak of the 
 war with the Romans, Agrippa attempted in vain 
 to dissuade the Jews from rebelling. He sided 
 with the Romans in the war ; and after the cap- 
 ture of Jerusalem, he went with his sister Berenice 
 to Rome, and died in the 70th year of his age, 
 A. D. 100. It was before this Agrippa that the 
 Eipostle Paul made his defence, a. d. 60 (Actsxxy. 
 xxvi.). 
 
 Agrippa, M. Vipsanius, bom in b. c. 63, of 
 En obscure family, studied with young Octavius 
 (afterwards the emperor Augustus) at Apollonia 
 in lllyria ; and upon the murder of Caesar in 
 44, was one of the friends of Octavius, who ad- 
 vised him to proceed immediately to Rome. In 
 the civil wars which followed, and which ter- 
 minated in giving Augustus the sovereignty of the 
 Roman world, Agrippa took an active part ; and 
 his military abilities, combined with his prompti- 
 tude and energy, contributed greatly to that result. 
 In 41 Agrippa, who was then praetor, commanded 
 part of the forces of Augustus in the Penisinian 
 war. In 38 he obtained great successes in Gaul 
 and Germany ; in 37 he was consul ; and in 
 36 he defeated Sex. Pompey by sea. In 33 he 
 was aedile, and in this office expended immense 
 sums of money upon great public works. He re- 
 stored old aqueducts, constructed a new one, to 
 which he gave the name of the Julian, in honour 
 ffif Augustus, and also erected several public 
 buildings. In 31 he commanded the fleet of Au- 
 gustus at the battle of Actium ; was consul a 
 second time in 28, and a third time in 27, when 
 he built the Pantheon. In 21 he married Julia, 
 daughter of Augustus. He had been marred twice 
 feefore, first to Pomponia, daughter of T. Pom- 
 ponius Atticus, and next to Marcella, niece of Au- 
 gustus. He continued to be employed in various 
 military commands in Gaul, Spain, Syria, and 
 Pannonia, till his death in b. c. 12. By his first 
 wife Pomponia, Agrippa had Vipsania, married to 
 Tiberius, the successor of Augustus ; and by his 
 third wife, Julia, he had 2 daughters, Julia, mar- 
 ried to L. Aemilius Paulus, and Agrippina, married 
 
 AGYRIUM. 
 
 to Germanicus, and 3 sons, Caius Caesar, Lucius 
 Caesar [Caesar], and Agrippa Postumus, who 
 was banished by Augustus tn the island of Planaaia, 
 and was put to death by Tiberius at hia accession, 
 A. D. 14. 
 
 Agrippina. 1. Daughter of M. Vipsanius 
 Agrippa and of Julia, the daughter of Augustus, 
 married Germanicus, by whom she had nine chil- 
 dren, among whom was the emperor Caligula, and 
 Agrippina, the mother of Nero. She was distin- 
 guished for her virtues and heroism, and shared all 
 the dangers of her husband's campaigns. On his 
 death in a. d. 17 she returned to Italy ; but the 
 favour with which she was received by the people 
 increased the hatred and jealousy which Tiberius 
 and his mother Livia had long entertained towards 
 her. For some years Tiberius disguised his hatred, 
 but at length under the pretext that she was fonn- 
 ing ambitious plans, he banished her to the island 
 of Pandataria (a. d, 30), where she died 3 
 years afterwards, a. d. 33, probably by voluntary 
 starvation .^2. Daughter of Germanicus and Agrip- 
 pina [No. 1.], and mother of the emperor Nero, 
 was bom at Oppidum Ubiorum, afterwards called 
 in honour of her Colonia Agrippina, now Cologne. 
 She was beautiful and intelligent, but licentious, 
 cruel, and ambitious. She was first married to 
 Cn. Domitius Ahenobarbus (a. d. 28), by whom 
 she had a son, afterwards the emperor Nero ; next 
 to Crispus Passienus ; and thirdly to the emperor 
 Claudius (49), although she was his niece. In 
 50, she prevailed upon Claudius to adopt her 
 son, to the prejudice of his own son Britannicus ; 
 and in order to secure the succession for her 
 son, she poisoned the emperor in 54. Upon 
 the accession of her son Nero, who was then 
 only 17 years of age, she governed the Roman 
 empire for "a few years in his name. The young 
 emperor soon became tired of the ascendency of 
 his mother, and after making several attempts to 
 shake oiF her authority, he caused her to be assas- 
 sinated in 59. 
 
 Agrippmenses. [Colonia Agiiippina.] 
 
 Agrius {"Aypios), son of Porthaon and Euryte, 
 and brother of Oeneus, king of Calydon in Aetolia : 
 his six sons deprived Oeneus of his kingdom, and 
 gave it to their father ; but Agrius and his sons 
 were afterwards slain by Diomedes, the grandson 
 of Oeneus. 
 
 Agroecius or Agroetius, a Roman gramma- 
 rian, probably lived in the 5th century after Christ, 
 and wrote an extant work Dc Orthographia et Dif- 
 ferentia Sermonis, which is printed in Putschius, 
 Grarmnaticae Laiinae Auctores Antigui, pp. 2266 
 —2275. 
 
 Agron CAypuv). 1. Son of Ninus, the first of 
 the Lydian dynasty of the Heraclldae.^3. Son 
 of Pleuratus, king of lllyria, died b. c. 231, and 
 was succeeded by his wife Teuta, though he left a 
 son Pinnes or Pinneua by his first wife, Triteuta, 
 whom he had divorced. 
 
 Agrotera ('AypoTepa), the huntress, a surname 
 of Artemis. There was a festival celebrated to 
 her honour at Athens under this name. (See Did, 
 of Aniiq.) 
 
 Agryle. [Agraule.] 
 
 Agyiens ('Ayvievs), a surname of Apollo, as the 
 protector of the streets and public places. 
 
 Agylla (''A7u\Aa), the ancient Greek name of' 
 the Etruscan town of Caere. 
 
 Agyrinm (^Ayupioy ; 'Ayvpivaios, Agyrinensis : 
 
AGYRRHIUS. 
 
 S. Filipo (VArgiro)^ a town in Sicily on the Cya- 
 mosorus, N. W. of Centurlpae and N. E. of Enna, 
 the birth-place of the historian Diodorus. 
 
 Agyrrhius (^Ayvp^ios\ an Athenian, after being 
 in prison many years for embezzlement of public 
 money, obtained about B. c. 395 the restoration of 
 the Theoricon, and also tripled the pay for attend- 
 ing the assembly : hence he became so popular, that 
 he was appointed general in 389. 
 
 Ahala, Servilius, the name of several distin- 
 guished Romans, who held various high offices in 
 the state from b. c. 478 to 342. Of these the best 
 known is C. Servilius Ahala, magister equitum in 
 439 to the dictator L. Cincinnatus, when he slew 
 Sp. Maelius in the forum, because he refused 
 to appear before the dictator. Ahala was after- 
 wards brought to trial, and only escaped con- 
 demnation by a voluntary exile. 
 
 Ahama, a town in Etruria, N. E. of Volsinii. 
 
 Ahenobarbus, Doxnitius, the name of a distin- 
 guished Roman family. They are said to have 
 obtained the surname of Ahenobarbus, i. e. "Brazen- 
 Beard" or "Red-Beard," because the Dioscuri an- 
 nounced to one of their ancestors the victory of the 
 Romans over the Latins at lake Reglllus (e. c. 
 496), and, to confirm the truth of what they said, 
 stroked his black hair and beard, which imme- 
 diately became red.— 1. Cn., plebeian aedile B. c. 
 196", praetor 194, and consul 192, when he fought 
 against the Boii.^2. Cn,., son of No. 1, consul 
 suft'ectus in 162.^3. Cn., son of No. 2, consul 
 122, conquered the Allobroges in Gaul, in 121, at 
 the confluence of the Sulga and Rhodanus. He 
 Tvas censor in 115 with Caecilius Metellus. The 
 Via Domitia in Gaul was ^ade by him.— 4. Cn., 
 son of No. 3, tribune of the plebs 104, brought 
 forward the law (Lex Domitia), hj which the 
 election of the priests was transferred from the col- 
 legia to the people. The people afterwards elected 
 him Pontifex Maximus out of gratitude. He was 
 consul in 96, and censor in 92, with Licinius 
 Crassus, the orator. In his censorship he and his 
 colleague shut up the schools of the Latin rhetori- 
 cians : but otherwise their censorship was marked 
 by their violent disputes.— 5. L,, brother of No. 
 4, praetor in Sicily, probably in 96, and consul in 
 94, belonged to the party of Sulla, and was mur- 
 dered at Rome in 82, by order of the younger 
 Marius.^6. Cn., son of No. 4, married Cornelia, 
 daughter of L. Cinna, consul in 87, and joined the 
 Marian party. He was proscribed by Sulla in 82, 
 and fled to Africa, where he was defeated and 
 killed by Cn. Pompey in 81.^7. L., son of No. 
 4, married Porcia, the sister of M. Cato, and was 
 a stanch and courageous supporter of the aristocra- 
 tical party. He was aedile in 61, praetor in 58, 
 and consul in 54. On the breaking out of the 
 civil war in 49 he threw himself into Corfinium, 
 but was compelled by his own troops to surrender 
 to Caesar. He next went to Massilia, and, after 
 the surrender of that town, repaired to Pompey in 
 Greece : he fell in the battle of Pharsalia (40), 
 ■where he commanded the left wing, and, according 
 to Cicero's assertion in the second Philippic, by the 
 hand of Antony.— 8. Cn., son of No. 7, was taken 
 ■with his father at Corfinium (49), was present at 
 the battle of Pharsalia (40), and returned to Italy 
 in 46, when he was pardoned by Caesar. After 
 Caesar's death in 44, he commanded the republican 
 fleet in the Ionian sea. He afterwards became 
 reconciled to Antonyj whom he accompamcd iu his 
 
 AIUS. 
 
 29 
 
 campaign against the Parthians in 36. He was 
 consul in 32, and deserted to Augustus shortly be- 
 fore the battle of Actium.^9. L., son of No. 8, 
 married Antonia, the daughter of Antony by Oc- 
 tavia ; waa aedile in 22, and consul in 16 ; and 
 after his consulship, commanded the Roman array 
 in Germany and crossed the Elbe. He died a. d. 
 25.^10. On., son of No. 9, consul a. d. 32, mar- 
 ried Agrippina, daughter of Geimanicus, and was 
 father of the emperor Nero. [Agrippina.] 
 
 Ajax (Aias). 1. Son of Telaraon, king of Sa- 
 lamis, by Periboea or Eriboea, and grandson of 
 Acacua. Homer calls him Ajax the Telamonian, 
 Ajax the Great, or simply Ajax, whereas the other 
 Ajax, son of O'lleus, is always distinguished from 
 the former by some epithet. He sailed against 
 Troy in 12 ships, and is represented in the Iliad 
 as second only to Achilles in bravery, and as the 
 hero most worthj', in the absence of Achilles, to 
 contend with Hector. In the contest for the ar- 
 mour of Achilles, he was conquered by Ulysses, 
 and this, says Homer, was the cause of his death. 
 (Od. xL 541, seq.) Homer gives no further par- 
 ticulars respecting his death ; but later poets relate 
 that his defeat by Ulysses threw him into an awful 
 state of madness ; that he rushed from his tent and 
 slaughtered the sheep of the Greek army, fancying 
 they were his enemies ; and that at length he put 
 an end to his own life. From his blood there 
 sprang up a purple flower bearing the letters ai on 
 its leaves, which were at once the initials of his 
 name and expressive of a sigh. Homer does not 
 mention his mistress Tecmessa. Ajax was wor- 
 shipped in Salamis, and was honoured with a fes- 
 tival (Alapreia). He was also worshipped at 
 Athens, and one of the Attic tribes (Aeantis) was 
 called after him, ^2. Son of O'ileus, king of the 
 Locrians, also called the lesser Ajax, sailed against 
 Troy in 40 ships. Pie is described as small of 
 stature, and wears a linen cuirass (Xtvodwpr}^), but 
 is brave and intrepid, skilled in throwing the spear, 
 and, next to Achilles, the most swift-footed amon^^ 
 the Greeks. On his return from Troy his vessel waa 
 wrecked on the Whirling Rocks {Tvpal TreVpai) ; 
 he himself got safe upon a rock through the as- 
 sistance of Poseidon ; but as he boasted that he 
 would escape in defiance of the immortals, Poseidon 
 split the rock with his trident, and Ajax was swal- 
 lowed up by the sea. This is the account of Homer, 
 but his death is related somewhat differently by 
 Virgil and other writers, who also tell us that the 
 anger of Athena was excited against him, because, on 
 the night of the capture of Troy, he violated Cas- 
 sandra in the temple of the goddess, where she had 
 taken refuge. The Opuntian Locrians worshipped 
 Ajax as their national hero. 
 
 Aides {'Atd-qs), [Hades.] 
 
 Aidoneua {'A'iBcovevs). 1. A lengthened form 
 oi A'ides. [Hades.] ^2. A mythical king of the 
 Molossians in Epinis, husband of Persephone, and 
 father of Core. When Theseus and Pirithous at- 
 tempted to carry off Core, Ai'doneus had Pirithous 
 killed by Cerberus, and kept Theseus in captivity 
 till he was released by Hercules. 
 
 Aius Locutins or Loquens, a Roman divinity. 
 A short time before the Gauls took Rome (b. c, 
 390) a voice was heard at Rome in the Via novn^ 
 during the silence of night, announcing that the 
 Gauls were approaching. No attention was at the 
 time paid to the warning, but the Romans after- 
 wards erected on the spot where the voice had been 
 
30 
 
 ALABANDA. 
 
 heard, an altar with, a sacred enclosure around it, 
 to Aiaa Locutius, or the " Announcing Speaker." 
 
 Alabanda (tJ 'A\d§auda or to. 'AXdSapda : 
 *A\a§aj/5euy or 'AXdSau^os : Arahissar\ an inland 
 town of Caria, near the Marsyas, to the S. of the 
 Maeander, waa situated between two hills : it was 
 a prosperous place, but one of the most corrupt 
 and luxurious towns in Asia Minor. Under the 
 Romans it was the seat of a conventus juridicus. 
 
 Alabon {'AAaSJjv), a river and town in Sicily, 
 N. of Syracuse. 
 
 Alagonia {*A\ayovia\ a town of the Eleuthero- 
 Laconians on the frontiers of Messenia. 
 
 Alalcomeuae (^A\a\KOfi€vai : 'A\a\Knij.evaios, 
 'AXaA/eo^efieiis). 1. (SuUnai-i), an ancient town 
 of Boeotia, E. of Coronea, with a temple of 
 Athene, who is said to have been born in the 
 town, and who was hence called Alalcomeneis 
 {^AKci\K0fj.€V7}'i's, i5os). The name of the town 
 was derived either from Alalcomenia, a daughter 
 of Ogyges, or from the Boeotian hero Alalcomenes. 
 —2. A town in Tthaca, or in the island Asteria, 
 between Ithaca and Cephallenia. 
 
 Alalia. [Aleria.] 
 
 Alani ('AAavoi, *A\avvoi, i. e. mountaineers^ 
 from the Sarmatian word ala\ a great Asiatic 
 people, included under the general name of Scy- 
 thians, but probably a branch of the Massagetae. 
 They were a nation of warlike horsemen. They 
 are first found about the E. part of the Caucasus, 
 in the country called Albania, which appears to be 
 only another form of the same name. In the reign 
 of Vespasian they made incursions into Media and 
 Armenia ; and at a later time they pressed into 
 Europe, as fiir as the banks of the Lower Danube, 
 where, towards the end of the 5th century, they 
 were routed by the Huns, who then compelled tliem 
 to become their allies. In a. d. 406, some of the 
 Alani tonk part Avith the Vandals in their irruption 
 into Gaul and Spain, where they gradually disap- 
 pear from history. 
 
 Alancus, in Gennan Al-ric^ i.e. "All-rich," 
 elected king of the Visigoths in a.d. ;:J!)8, had 
 previously commanded the Gothic auxiliaries of 
 Theodosius. He twice invaded Italy, first in a. d. 
 402 — 403, when he was defeated by Stilicho at 
 the battle of PoUentia, and a second time in 408 — 
 410 ; in his second invasion he took and plundered 
 Rome, 24th of Augi^t, 410. He died shortly 
 afterwards at Consentia in Bruttium, while pre- 
 pariiie to invade Sicily. 
 
 Alastor {'AkdffTwp). 1. A surname of Zeus 
 as the avenger of evil, and also in general any 
 deity who avenges wicked deeds.— 3. A Lycian, 
 and companion ot Sarpedon, slain by Ulysses. 
 
 Alba Silviua, one of the mythical kings of Alba, 
 son of Latinus, reigned 3.9 j-ears. 
 
 Alba. 1. (Abla), a town of the Bastitani in 
 Spain.— 3. (Alvamia), a tawn of the Barduli in 
 Spain.^3. Augusta {Auljis^ nr. Durance), a 
 town of the Elicoci in Gallia Narbonensis.— 4. 
 Fiiceiitia or Fucentis (Albenses: Alba ov Albi)., 
 a town of the Marsi, and subsequently a Roman 
 colony, was situated on a lofty rock near the lake 
 Fucinus. It was a strong fortress, and was used 
 by the Romans as a state prison.— 5. Longa 
 (Albani), the most ancient town in Latium, is said 
 to have been built by Ascanius, and to have 
 founded Rome. It was called Longa, from its 
 Btretching in a long line down the Alban 
 Mount towards the Alban Lake, perhaps near the 
 
 ALBINUS. 
 
 modern convent of Palazzolo. It was destroyed 
 b}'- Tullus Hostilius, and was never rebuilt: its 
 inhabitants were removed to Rome. At a later 
 time the surrounding countrj'-, which was highly 
 cultivated and covered with vineyards, was studded 
 with the splendid villas of the Roman aristocracy 
 and emperors (PompeyX Domitian's, &c.), each 
 of which was called Albanum^ and out of which a 
 new town at length grew, also called Albanum 
 {Albaiio\ on the Appian road, ruins of which are 
 extant.— 6. Pompeia (Albenses Pompeiani : Alba)^ 
 a town in Liguria, founded by Scipio Africanus I., 
 and colonized by Pompeius Magnus, the birth- 
 place of the emperor Pertinax. 
 
 Albania ('A\§a»'io : ^AKSavoi^ Albani; Schirwan 
 and part of Daghestan, in the S.E. part of Georgia)., 
 a country of Asia on the W. side of the Caspian, 
 extending from the rivers Cyrus and Araxes on 
 the S. to M. Ceraunius (the E. part of the Cau- 
 casus) on the N., and bounded on the W. by 
 Iberia. It was a fertile plain, abounding in pasture 
 and vineyards ; but the inhabitants were fierce and 
 warlike. They were a Scythian tribe, probably a 
 branch of the Massagetae, and identical with the 
 Ai.ANi. The Romans first became acquainted with 
 them at the time of the Mithridatic war, when 
 they encountered Porapey with a large army. 
 
 Albanum. [Alba, No. 5.] 
 
 Albanus Lacus {Lago di Albano), a small lake 
 about 5 miles in circumference, \V. of the Mons 
 Albanus between Bovillae and Alba Longa, is the 
 crater of an extinct volcano, and is many hundred 
 feet deep. The emissarium which the Romans 
 bnrcd through the solid rock during the siege of 
 Veii, in order to carry off the superfluous water of 
 the lake, is extant at the present day. 
 
 Albanus Mons {Monte Cavo or Albafio), was, 
 in its narrower signification, the mountain in La- 
 tium on whose declivity the town of Alba Longa 
 was situated. It was the sacred mountain of the 
 Latins, on which the religious festivals of the 
 Latin League were celebrated {Feiiae Laiinae), 
 and on its highest summit was the temple of Jupi- 
 ter Latiaris, to which the Roman generals ascended 
 in triumph, when this honour was denied them in 
 Rome. The Mons Albanus in its wider significa- 
 tion included the Mons Algidus and the moun- 
 tains about Tusculum. 
 
 Albi Montes, a lofty range of mountains in the 
 W. of Crete, 300 stadia in length, covered with 
 snow the greater part of the year. 
 
 Albici {'AASloLKoi, 'AAgteis), a warlike Gallic 
 people, inhabiting the mountains north of Massilia. 
 
 Albingaunum. [Albium Ingaunum.] 
 
 Albinovanus, C. Pedo, a friend of Ovid, who 
 addresses to him one of his Epistles from Pontus 
 (iv. 10). Three Latin elegies are attributed to 
 Albinovanus, printed by Wernsdorf, in his Poctae 
 Latiid Minoi-es, vol. iii. iv., and by Meinecke, Qued- 
 linburg, 1819. 
 
 Albinovanus, P. Tullius, belonged to the Ma- 
 rian party, was proscribed in B. c. 87, but was 
 pardoned by Sulla in 81, in consequence of his put- 
 ting to death many of the officers of Norbanus, 
 whom he had invited to a banquet at Ariminumi. 
 
 Albinus or Albus, Postumius, the name of a 
 patrician family at Rome, many of the members of 
 which held the highest offices of the state from the 
 commencement of the republic to its downfal. — 1. 
 A., aumamed Begillensis, dictator b. c. 498, when 
 he conquered the Latins in the great battle near 
 
ALBINUS. 
 lake Regillus, and consul 496, in whicK year some 
 of the annals placed the battle.^2. Sp., consul 
 466, and a member of the first decemvirate 451.— 
 3, Sp,, consul 344, and again 3*21. In the latter 
 year he marched against the Samnitea, "but was de- 
 feated near Caudiura, and obliged to surrender with 
 his whole army, who were sent under the yoke. 
 The senate, on the advice of Albinus, refused to 
 ratify the peace which he had made with the Sara- 
 nites, and resolved that all persons who had sworn 
 to the peace should be given up to the Samnites, 
 but they refused to accept them.— 4. L., consul 
 234, and again 229. In 216 he was praetor, and 
 was killed in battle by the Boii.^5. Sp., consul 
 in 186, when the senatusconsultum was passed, 
 which is extant, for suppressing the worship of 
 Bacchus in Rome. He died in 179. — 6. A., con- 
 sul ] 80, when he fought against the Ligurians, and 
 censor 174. He was subsequently engaged in 
 many public missions. Livy calls him Luscus, from 
 which it would seem that he was blind of one eye. 
 —7. L., praetor 180, in Further Spam, where he 
 remained two 3'ears, and conquered the Vaccaei and 
 Lusitani. He was consul in 173, and afterwards 
 served under Aemillus Paulus iii Macedonia in 
 168.^8. A., consul 151, accompanied L. Mumraius 
 into Greece in 146. He was well acquainted with 
 Greek literature, and wrote in that language a poem 
 and a Roman history, which is censured by Poly- 
 bius. — 9. Sp., consul 110, carried on war against 
 Jugurtha in Numidia, but effected nothing. When 
 Albinus departed from Africa, he left his brother 
 Aulus in command, who was defeated by Jugurtha. 
 Spurius was condemned by the Mamilia Lex, as 
 gnilty of treasonable practices with Jugurtha.^10. 
 A., consul B.C. 99, with M. Antonius, is said by 
 Cicero to have been a good speaker. 
 
 Albinus {*A\€hos), a Platonic philosopher, 
 lived at Smyrna in the 2nd century after Christ, 
 and wrote an Introduction to the Dialogues of Plato. 
 which contains hardly any thing of importance. — 
 Editions. In the first edition of Fabricius's Bill. 
 Ch-aec. vol. ii., aud prefixed to Etwall's edition of 
 three dialogues of Plato, Oxon. 1771 ; and to 
 Fischer's four dialogues of Plato, Lips. 1783. 
 
 Albinus, Clodius, whose full name was Decimus 
 Clodius CSionius Sepiimius Albinus^ was bom at 
 Adrumetum in Africa. The emperor Commodus 
 made him governor of Gaul and afterwards of 
 Britain, where he was on the death of Commodus 
 in A. D. 1 92. In order to secure the neutrality of 
 Albinus, Septimius Severus made him Caesar ; but 
 after Severus had defeated his rivals, he turned his 
 arms against Albinus. A great battle was fought 
 between them at Lugdunum (Lyons), in Gaul, the 
 19th of February, 197, in which Albinus was de- 
 feated and killed. 
 
 Albion or Alebion (^AASiuii/, 'AAcgtwy), son of 
 Poseidon and brother of Dercynus or Bergion, 
 with whom he attacked Hercules, when he passed 
 through their country (Liguria) with the oxen of 
 Geryon. They were slain by Hercules. 
 
 Albion, another name of Britannia, the white 
 land, from its white cliffs opposite the coast of 
 Gaul. 
 
 Albis (Elbe), one of the great rivers in Gennany, 
 the most easterly which the Romans became ac- 
 quainted with, rises according to Tacitus in the 
 country of the Hermimduri. The Romans reached 
 the Elbe for the first time in b. c. 9 under Drusus, 
 and croBsed it for the first time in B. c. 3 under 
 
 ALCAMENES. 
 
 31 
 
 Domitius Ahenobarbug. The last Roman general 
 who saw the Elbe was Tiberius in a. d, 5, 
 
 Albium Ingaunum or Albingaunum (Al~ 
 hevgo)^ a town of the Ingauni on the coast of Li- 
 guria, and a municipium. 
 
 AllDium Intemelinm or Albintemelium ( Vin- 
 timiglia)., a town of the Intemelii on the coast of 
 Liguria, and a municipium. 
 
 T. Albucins or Albutitis, studied at Athens, 
 and belonged to l^e Epicurean sect ; he was well 
 acquainted with Greek literature, but was satirized 
 by Lucilius on account of his affecting on every 
 occasion the Greek language and philosophy. He 
 was praetor in Sardinia in b. c. 105 ; and in 103 
 was accused of repetundae by C. Julius Caesar, and 
 condemned. He retired to Athens and pursued 
 the study of philosophy. 
 
 Albiila, an ancient name of the river Tiber. 
 Albulae Aquae [Albunea.] 
 Albunea or Albuna, a prophetic nymph or 
 Sybil, to whom a grove was consecrated in the 
 neighbourhood of Tibur (Tivoli), with a fountain 
 and a temple. This fountain was the largest of 
 the Albulae aquae, still called Acque Albule, 
 sulphureous springs at Tibur, which flow into the 
 Anio. Near it was the oracle of Faunus Fati- 
 dicus. The temple is still extant at Tivoli. 
 
 Albnmus Mons, a mountain in Lucania, co- 
 vered with wood, behind Paestum. 
 
 Alcaeus ('AA/ca7or), son of Perseus and Andro- 
 meda, and father of Amphitrj'on and Anaxo. 
 
 Alcaeus. 1. Of Mytilene in Lesbos, the earliest ■ 
 of the Aeolian lyric poets, began to flourish about 
 B. c. 611. In the war between the Athenians and 
 Mytilenaeans for the possession of Sigeum (b. c. 
 606) he incurred the disgrace of leaving his arms 
 on the field of battle : these arms were hung up 
 as a trophy by the Athenians in the temple of 
 Pallas at Sigeum. Alcaeus took an active part in 
 the struggles between the nobles and people of 
 Mytilene : he belonged by birth to the nobles and 
 was driven into exile with his brother Antimeni- 
 das, when the popular party got the upper hand. 
 He attempted by force of arms to regain his 
 country ; but all his attempts were frustrated by 
 PiTTACUS, who had been chosen by the people 
 Aesymnetes or dictator for the pui-pose of resisting 
 him and the other exiles. Alcaeus and his brother 
 afterwards travelled into various countries : the 
 time of his death is uncertain. Some fragments of 
 his poems which remain, and the excellent imita- 
 tions of Horace, enable us to understand something 
 of their character. Those which have received the 
 highest praise are his warlike odes, in which he 
 tried to rouse the spirits of the nobles, the Alcaei 
 minaces Camenae of Horace (Caivn. iv. 9, 7). In 
 others he described the hardships of exile, and his 
 perils by sea {dura navis., dura fugae mala, dura 
 belli, Hor. Carm. ii. 13. 27). Alcaeus is said to 
 have invented the well-known Alcaic metre. — 
 EditioTis. By Matthiae, Alcaei Mytilenaei reliquiae., 
 Lips. 1827 ; and by Bergk, in Poetae Lyrid Graeci., 
 Lips. 1 843.-2. A comic poet at Athens, flourished 
 about B. c. 388, and exhibited plays of that mixed 
 comedy, which formed the transition between the 
 old and the middle— 3. Of Messene, the author of 
 22 epigrams in the Greek anthology, written be- 
 tween B. c. 219 and 196. 
 
 Alcamenes (*AA.Ka/ie'j/Tjs). 1. Son of Teleclus, 
 king of Sparta, from b. c. 779 to 742. — 2. A sta- 
 tuary of Athens flourished from B. c. 444 to 400 
 
32 
 
 ALCANDER. 
 
 and was the most famous of the pupils of Phidias, 
 His greatest work was a statue of Aphrodite. 
 
 Alcander {"AKKavdpos), a young Spartan, who 
 thnist out one of the eyes of Lycurgus, when his 
 fellow-citizens were discontented with the laws he 
 proposed. Lycurgus pardoned the outrage, and 
 thus converted Alcander into one of his warmest 
 friends. 
 
 Alcathoe or Alcithoe {^AXKa66Tj or 'A\ki66i}), 
 daughter of Minyas, refused wi^h her sisters Leu- 
 cippe and Arsippe to join in the worship of Diony- 
 sus when it was introduced into Boeotia, and were 
 accordingly changed by the god into bats, and their 
 work into vines. See Did. of Ant. art. Agrionia. 
 
 Alcathous (A\Kafloos). 1. Son of Pelops and 
 Hippodamla, brother of Atreus and Thyestes, ob- 
 tained as his wife Euaechme, the daughter of Me- 
 gareus, by slaying the Cithaeronlan lion, and suc- 
 ceeded his father-in-law as king of Megai-a. He 
 restored the walls of Megara, in which work he was 
 assisted by Apollo. The stone upon which the 
 god used to place his lyre while he was at work, 
 was believed, even in late times, to give fortli a 
 sound, when struck, similar to that of a lyre (Ov. 
 Met. viiL 15).— 2. Son of Aesyetes and husband 
 of Hippodamla, the daughter of Anchises and 
 sister of Aeneas, was one of the bravest of the 
 Trojan leaders in the war of Troy, and was slain 
 by Idomeneus. 
 
 Alcestis or Alceste ("AAfCTjcTis or 'AAkcVttj), 
 daughter of Pelias and Anaxibia, wife of Adraetus, 
 died in place of her husband. [Admetus.] 
 
 Alcetas ('AA-Keras), two kings of Epirus. 1. 
 Son of Tharypus, was expelled from his kingdom, 
 and was restored by the elder Dionysius of Syra- 
 cuse. He was the ally of the Athenians in b. c. 
 373.-2. Son of Arymbas, and grandson of Al- 
 cetas I., reigned B.C. 313 — 303, and was put to 
 death by his subjects. 
 
 Alcetas. 1. King of Macedonia, reigned 29 
 years, and was father of Amyntas I.'^2. Brother 
 of Perdiccas and son of Orontes, was one of Alex- 
 ander's generals. On the death of Alexander, he 
 espoused his brother's party, and upon the murder 
 of the latter in Egypt in 321, he joined Euraenes. 
 He killed himself at Termessus in Pisidia in 320, 
 to avoid falling into the hands of Antigonus. 
 
 Alcibiades ('AA(Cig(a57js), son of Clinias and 
 Dinomache, was bom at Athens about b. c. 450, 
 and on the death of his father in 447, was brought 
 up by his relation Pericles. He possessed a beau- 
 tiful person, transcendent abilities, and great 
 wealth, which received a large accession through 
 his marriage with Hipparete, the daughter of Hip- 
 ponicus. His youth was disgraced by his amours 
 and debaucheries, and Socrates, who saw his vast 
 capabilities, attempted to win him to the paths of 
 virtue, but in vain. Their intimacy was strength- 
 ened by mutual services. At the battle of Potidaea 
 (b. c. 432) his life was saved by Socrates, and at 
 thatof Delium (424) he saved the life of Socrates, 
 He (lid not take much part in public affairs till 
 after the death of Cleon (422), but he then became 
 one of the leading politicians, and the head of the 
 war party in opposition to Niciaa. Enraged at the 
 affront put upon him hy the Lacedaemonians, 
 who had not chosen to employ his intervention 
 in the negotiations which ended in the peace of 
 421, and had preferred Nicias to him, he induced 
 the Athenians to form an alliance with Argos, 
 Mantinea, ajid Elis, and to attiick the allies of 
 
 ALGID AMAS. 
 Sparta. In 415 he was foremost among the advo- 
 cates of the Sicilian expedition, which he believed 
 would be a step towards the conquest of Italy, Car- 
 thage, and Peloponnesus. While the preparations for 
 the expedition were going on, there occurred the 
 mysterious mutilation of the Hennes-busts, which 
 the popular fears connected in some unaccountable 
 manner with an attempt to overthrow the Athenian 
 constitution. Alcibiades was charged with being 
 the ringleader in this attempt. He had been al- 
 ready appointed along with Nicias .and Lamachiis 
 as commander of the expedition to Sicily, and he 
 now demanded an investigation before he set sail. 
 This, however, his enemies would not grant ; as 
 they hoped to increase the popular odium against 
 him in his absence. He was therefore obliged to 
 depart for Sicily ; but he had not been there lonfj, 
 before he was recalled to stand his trial. On his 
 return homewards, he managed to escape at Thnrii, 
 and thence proceeded to Sparta, where he acted as 
 the avowed enemy of his country. At Athens 
 sentence of death was passed upon him, and his 
 property was confiscated. At Sparca he rendered 
 himself popular by the facility with which he 
 adopted the Spartan manners ; but the machina- 
 tions of his enemy Agis II. induced him to 
 abandon the Spartans and take refuge with Tis- 
 saphernes (412), whose favour he soon gained. 
 Through his influence Tissaphernes deserted the 
 Spartans and professed his willingness to assist the 
 Athenians, who accordingly recalled Alcibiades 
 from banishment in 411. He did not immediately 
 return to Athens, but remained abroad for the next 
 4 years, during which the Athenians under liis 
 command gained the victories of Cynossema, Aby- 
 dos, and Cyzicus, and got possession of Chalcedon 
 and Byzantium. In 407 he returned to Athens, 
 where he was received with great euthusiasm, and 
 was appointed commander-in-chief of all the land 
 and sea forces. But the defeat at Notium, occa- 
 sioned during his absence by the imprudence of 
 his lieutenant, Antiochus, furnished his enemies 
 with a handle against him, and he was superseded 
 in his command (b. c. 406). He now went into 
 voluntary exile to his fortified domain at Bisanthe 
 in the Thracian Chersonesus, where he made war 
 on the neighbouring Thraci.ans. Before the fatal 
 battle of Aegos-Potami (405), he gave an in- 
 effectual warning to the Athenian generals. After 
 the fall of Athens (404), he was condemned to 
 banishment, and took refuge with Pharnabar-us ; 
 he was about to proceed to the court of Arta- 
 xcrxes, when one night his house was surromided 
 by a band of armed men, and set on fire. He 
 rushed out sword in hand, but fell, pierced with 
 arrows (404). The assassins were probably either 
 employed by the Spartans, or by the brothers of a 
 lady whom Alcibiades had seduced. He left a son 
 by his wife Hipparete, named Alcibiades, who 
 never distinguished himself. It was for him that 
 Isocrates wrote the speech Ilepl rov Zevyovs. 
 
 Alcidamas ('AAKiSajticts), a Greek rhetorician, of" 
 Elaea in Aeolis, in Asia Minor, was a pupil of Gorgias, 
 and resided at Athens between b. c, 432 and 411, 
 His works were characterised by pompous dictioa 
 and the extravagant use of poetical epithets and 
 phrases. There are two declamations extant which 
 bear his name, entitled Ulysses^ and On the So- 
 phists, but they were probably not written by him. 
 Editions. — In Reiske's Oraiores Gracci, vol. viii., 
 and in Bekker'a Oratores Attici, vol vii. 
 
ALCIDAS. 
 
 Alcidas (*AXKi5as Dor. =:'AAKeiS7js), .1 Spartan 
 commander of the fleet in the Peloponncsian war, 
 B. c. 42o — 427. In the former year he was sent 
 to Mytilene, and in the latter to Corcyra. 
 
 Alcides ('AAK€t5?)s), a name of Amphitryon, 
 the son of Alcaeus, and more especially of Hercules, 
 the grandson of Alcaeus. 
 
 Alcimede ('AA/c£^e'57j), daughter of Phylacus 
 and Clymene, wife of Aeson, and mother of Jason. 
 
 Alcimus (Avitnis) Aletluus, the writer of 7 
 short poems, a rhetorician in Aquitania, in Gaul, is 
 spoken of in terms of praise by Sidonius Apol- 
 l inaris, and Ausonius. — Editions. lu Meier''a Antho- 
 logia Lcitma^ ed. 254 — 260, and in Wemsdorf's 
 Poctae Latini Minm^es^ vol. ti. 
 
 Alcinous ('AAkiVoos). 1. Son of Nausithous, 
 and grandson of Poseidon, is celebrated in the story 
 of the Argonauts, and still more in the Odyssej'. 
 Homer represents him as the happy ruler of the 
 Phaeacians in the island of Scheria, who has by 
 Arete five sons and one daughter, Nausicaa. The 
 Tvay in which he received Ulysses, and the stories 
 which the latter related to the king about his 
 wanderings, occupy a considerable portion of the 
 Odyssey (books vi. to xiii.).— 2. A Platonic philo- 
 sopher, who probably lived under the Caesars, 
 wrote a work entitled Epitome of the Doctrines of 
 Plato. — Editions. By Fell, Oxon. 1667, and by 
 J. F. Fischer, Lips. 1783, 8vo. 
 
 Alcipliroii CAKKKppaiu), the most distinguished 
 ■of the Greek epistolary writers, was perhaps a con- 
 temporary of Lucian, about a. d. 180. The letters 
 ■(113 in number, in 3 books) are written by ficti- 
 tious personages, and the language is distinguished 
 by its purity and elegance. The new Attic comedy 
 was the principal source from which the author de- 
 rived his information respecting the characters and 
 manners which he describes, and for this reason 
 they contain much valuable information about the 
 private life of the Athenians of that time. — Edi- 
 tions. By Bergler, Lips. 1715, and by Wagner, 
 Lips. 1798. 
 
 Alcithoe. [Alcathoe.] 
 
 Alcmaeon ('AA/c^aioic). 1. Son of Araphiaraus 
 and Eriphyle, and brother of Amphilochus. His 
 mother was induced by the necklace of Harmonia, 
 ■which she received from Polynices, to persuade her 
 husband Amphiaraus to take part in the expedition 
 against Thebes ; and as he knew he should perish 
 there, he enjoined his sons to kill their mother as 
 Boon as they should be gro^vn up. Alcmaeon took 
 part in the expedition of the Epigoni against Thebes, 
 and on his return home after the capture of the 
 •city, he slew his mother according to the injunction 
 of his father. For this deed he became mad, and 
 was haunted by the Erinnyes. He went to Phe- 
 geus in Psophis, and being purified by the latter, 
 he married his daughter Arsinoe or Alphesiboea, to 
 whom he gave the necklace and peplus of Har- 
 monia. But as the land of this country ceased to 
 bear on account of its harbouring a matricide, he 
 left Psophis and repaired to the country at the 
 mouth of the river Achelous. The god Achelous 
 gave him his daughter Callirrhoe in marriage ; and 
 *i3 the latter wished to possess the necklace and 
 peplus of Harmonia, Alcmaeon went to Psophis 
 and obtained them from Phegeus, under the pre- 
 text of dedicating them at Delphi ; but when 
 Phegeus heard that the treasures were fetched for 
 Callirrhoe, he caused his sons to murder Alcmaeon. 
 Alcmaeon was worshipped as a hero at Thebes, 
 
 ALCMENE. 
 
 S3 
 
 and at Psophis his tomb was sho^vn, surrounded 
 with cypresses.^ 2. Son of Megaclcs, was greatly 
 enriched by Croesus. ^3. Of Crotona in Italy, 
 said to have been a pupil of Pythagoras, though 
 this is very doubtful. He is said to have been the 
 first person who dissected animals, and he made 
 some important discoveries in anatomy and natiu-al 
 philosophy. He wrote several medical and philo- 
 sophical works, which are lost. 
 
 Alcmaeonidae ('AAK^uaioiviSai), a noble family 
 at Athens, members of which fill a space in Grecian 
 history from b. c. 750 to 400. They were a branch 
 of the family of the Nelidae, who were driven out 
 of Pylus in Messenia by the Dorians, and settled 
 at Athens. In consequence of the way in which 
 Mcgacles, one of the family, treated the insurgents 
 under Cylon (b. c. 612), they brought upon them- 
 selves the guilt of sacrilege, and were in consequence 
 banished from Athens, about 595. About 560 
 they returned from exile, but were again expelled 
 by Pisistratus. In 54:H they contracted with the 
 Amphlctyonic council to rebuild the temple of 
 Delphi, and obtained great popularity throughout 
 Greece by executing the work in a style of mag- 
 nificence which "much exceeded their engagement. 
 On the expulsion of Hippias in 510, they were 
 again restored to Athens. They now joined the 
 popular party, and Clisthenes, who was at that time 
 the head of the family, gave a new constitution to 
 Athens. [Clisthenes.] 
 
 Alcmau ('AAk^cIj/, also called 'AA/c/^atoJc), the 
 chief lyric poet of Sparta, by birth a Lydian of' 
 Sardis, was brought to Laconia as a slave, when 
 very young, and was emancipated by his master, 
 who discovered his genius. He probably flourished 
 about B. c. 631, and most of his poems were com- 
 posed after the conclusion of the second Messenian 
 war. He is said to have died, like Sulla, of the 
 morbus pedicularis. Alcman's poems were com- 
 prised in 6 books : many of them were erotic, 
 and he is said by some ancient writers to have 
 been the inventor of erotic poetry. His metres 
 were very various. The Cretic hexameter was 
 named Alcmanic, from his being its inventor. His 
 dialect was the Spartan Doric, with an intermixture 
 of theAeolic. The Alexandrian grammarians placed 
 Alcman at the head of their canon of the 9 lyric 
 poets. The fragments of his poems are edited by 
 Welcker, Giessen, 1815 ; and by Bergk, in Poetae 
 Lyrid Graed^ 1843. 
 
 Alcmene {*A\Kfi-f}V7}), daughter of Electryon, 
 king of Mycenae, by Anaxo or Lysidice. The 
 brothers of Alcmene were slain by the sons of Pte- 
 relaus ; and their father set out to avenge their 
 death, leaving to Amphitryon his kingdom and 
 his daughter Alcmene, whom Amphitryon was to 
 marry. But Amphitryon having unintentionally 
 killed Electryon before the man-iage, Sthenelus ex- 
 pelled both Amphitryon and Alcmene, who went 
 to Thebes. But here, instead of marrying Amphi- 
 tr}''on, Alcmene declared that she would only marr\' 
 the man who should avenge the death of her bro- 
 thers. Amphitryon undertook the task, and invited 
 Creon of Thebes to assist him. During his absence, 
 Zeus, in the disguise of Amphitryon, visited 
 Alcmene, and, pretending to be her husband, re- 
 lated in what way he had avenged the death of 
 her brothers. Amphitryon himself returned the 
 next day ; Alcmone became the mother of Hercules 
 by Zeus, and of Iphicles by Amphitryon. [Her- 
 cules.] After the death of Amphitrj'on, Alcmens 
 
34 ALCYONE. 
 
 married Rhadamanthys, at Ocalia in Boeotia. 
 When Hercules was raised to the rank of a god, 
 Alcmene, fearing Eurystheus, fled with the sons of 
 Hercules to Athens. 
 
 Alcyone or Halcyons ("AXKudn?). 1. A Pleiad, 
 daughter of Atlas and Pleione, and beloved by Po- 
 Beidon. ^2. Daughter of Aeolus and Enarete or 
 Aegiale, and wife of Ceyx, They lived so liappily 
 that they were presumptuous enough to call each 
 other Zeus and Hera, for which Zeus metamor- 
 phosed them into birds, aleyon and ceyx. Others 
 relate that Ceyx perished in a shipwreck, that Al- 
 cyone for grief threw herself into the sea, and that 
 the gods, out of compassion, changed the two into 
 birds. It was fabled, that during the seven days 
 before, and as many after, the shortest day of the 
 year, while the bird aleyon was breeding, there 
 always prevailed calms at sea. 
 
 Alcyonens ('AAKuo^'eiis), a giant, killed by Her- 
 cules at the Isthmus of Corinth. 
 
 Alcyonium Mare (tj "hXKuovXz ^d^aa-ffa), the 
 E. part of the Corinthian gulf. 
 
 Alea (*AA.ea), a surname of Athena, under which 
 Bbe was worshipped at Alea, Mantinea, and Tegea. 
 Her temple at the latter place was one of the most 
 celebrated in Greece. It is said to have been built 
 by Aleus, son of Aphidas, king of Tegea, from 
 whom the goddess is supposed to have derived this 
 sumame. 
 
 Alea ('AAe'a : *AAeus), a town in Arcadia, E. of 
 the Stymphalian lake, with a celebrated temple of 
 Athena, the ruins of which are near Fiali. 
 
 Alebion. [Albion.] 
 
 AlectO. [ EUMENIDES.] 
 
 Alemanni or Alamanni or Alamani (from the 
 German alle Manner, all men), a confederacy of 
 German tribes, chieflj^ of Suevic extraction, be- 
 tween the Danube, the Rhine, and the Main, 
 though we subsequently find them extending their 
 territories as far as the Alps and the Jura. The 
 different tribes of the confederacy were governed 
 by their own kings, but in time of war they obeyed a 
 common leader. They were brave and warlike, and 
 proved formidable enemies to the Romans. They 
 first came into contact with the Romans in the reign 
 of Caracalla, who assumed the sumame of Aleraan- 
 nicus on account of a pretended victory over them 
 (a. d. 214). They were attacked by Alexander 
 Severus (234), and by Maxirain (237). They 
 invaded Italy in 270, but were driven back by 
 Aurelian, and were again defeated by Probug in 
 282. After this time they contuiually invaded 
 the Roman dominions in Germany, and, though 
 defeated by Constantius I., Julian (357), Valen- 
 tinian, and Gratian, they gradually became more 
 and more powerful, and in the fifth century were 
 in possession of Alsace and of German Switzerland. 
 
 Aleria ('AAepi'a : 'A\o\ia in Herod.), one of the 
 cbief cities of Corsica, on the E. of the island, on 
 the S. bank of the river Rhotanus (Tarignano) 
 near its mouth. It was founded by the Phocaeans 
 B. c. 564, was plundered by L. Scipio in the first 
 Punic war, and was made a Roman colony by Sulla. 
 
 Alesa. [Halesa.] 
 
 Alesia (*A\€(rfa), an ancient town of the Man- 
 dubii in Gallia Lugdunensia, said to have been 
 founded by Hercules, and situated on a high hill 
 (now Auxois\ which was washed by the two 
 rivers Lutosa {Oze) and Osera {Ozerain). It was 
 taken and destroyed by Caesar, in b. c. 52, after a 
 memorable siege, but was afterwards rebuilt. 
 
 ALEXANDER. 
 
 Alesiae CAAeo-fai), a town in Laconia, W. of 
 Sparta, on the road to Pherae. 
 
 Alesium ('AAciVioi'), a town in Elis, not far 
 from Olympia, afterwards called Alesiaeum. 
 
 Alesius Mens (rb ''A\^aiov Spoi), a mountain 
 in Arcadia, with a temple of Poseidon Hippius 
 and a grove of Demeter. 
 
 Aletes CAKtjttjs), son of Hippotes and a ae- 
 scendant of Hercules, is said to have taken posses- 
 sion of Corinth, and to have expelled the Sisyphids, 
 30 years after the first invasion of Peloponnesus 
 by the Heraclids. His family, called the Aletidae, 
 maintained themselves at Corinth down to the time 
 of Bacchis. 
 
 Aletmm (Aletlnus), a town of Calabria. 
 
 Aletrium or Alatrinm (Aletiinas, -atis : Ala- 
 i7-i), an ancient town of the Hemici, subsequentlj"- a 
 municipium and a Roman coloi:y, W. of Sora and 
 E. of Anagnia. 
 
 Aleuadae. [Aleuas.] 
 
 Alenas ('AAcuas), a descendant of Hercules, was 
 the ruler of Larissa in Thesaaly, and the reputed 
 founder of the celebrated family of the Aleuadae. Be- 
 fore the time of Pisistratus (b.c. 560), the family of 
 the Aleuadae appears to have become divided into 
 two branches, the Aleuadae and the Scopadae. The 
 Scopadae inhabited Crannon and perhaps Pharsalus 
 also, while the main branch, the Aleuadae, re- 
 mained at Larissa. The influence of the families, 
 however, was not confined to these towns, but ex- 
 tended more or less over the greater part of Thes- 
 3a.\y. They formed in reality a powerful aristocmtic 
 party in opposition to the great body of the Thes- 
 salians. In the invasion of Greece by Xerxes (480), 
 the Aleuadae espoused the cause of the Persians, 
 and the family continued to be the predominant 
 one in Thessaly for a long time afterwards. But 
 after the end of the Peloponnesian war (404), 
 another Thessalian family, the d3Tiasts of Pherae, 
 gradually rose to power and influence, and gave a 
 great shock to the power of the Aleuadae. The 
 most formidable of these princes was Jason of 
 Pherae, who succeeded, after various struggles, in 
 raising himself to the dignity of Tagus, or supreme 
 niler of Thessaly. [Jason.J 
 
 Aleus. [Alea.] 
 
 Alez or Halex (Alece), a small river in S. 
 Italy, was the boundary between the territory of 
 Rhegium and of the Locri Epizephyrii, 
 
 Alexander {^A\e^avBpos), the usual name of 
 Paris in the Iliad. 
 
 Alexander Severus. [Severus.] 
 
 Alexander, I. Minor Historical Persons. 
 
 1. Son of Aeropus, a native of the Macedonian 
 district called Lyncestis, whence he is usually called 
 Alexander Lyncestes. He was an accomplice in 
 the murder of Philip, b. c. 336, but was pardoned 
 by Alexander the Great. He accompanied Alex- 
 ander to Asia ; but in 334 he was detected in 
 carrying on a treasonable correspondence with Da- 
 rius, was kept in confinement and put to death in 
 330.— 2. Son of Antonius the triumvir, and 
 Cleopati*a, born with his twin-sister Cleopatra, b.c, 
 40. After the battle of Actiura they were taken 
 to Rome by Augustus, and were generously edu- 
 cated by Octavia, the wife of Antonius, with her 
 own children.— 3. Eldest son of Aristobulus II., 
 king of Judaea, rose in arms in B. c. 67, against 
 Hyrcanus, who was supported by the Romans. 
 Alexander was defeated by the Romans in 56 and 
 5$, and was put to death by Pompey at Antioch 
 
ALEXANDER, 
 
 in 49.^4. Third son of Cassander, king of 
 Macfldonia, by Thessalonica, sister of Alexander 
 the Great. In his quarrel with his elder brother 
 Antipater for the government [Antipater], he 
 called in the aid of Pyrrhua of Epirus and Deme- 
 trius Poliorcetes, by the latter of whom he waa 
 murdered b. c. 294.^5. Jannaeus, the son of 
 Joannes Hyrcanus, and brother of Aristobulus I., 
 king of the Jews B. a 104 — 77. At the com- 
 mencement of his reign he was engaged in war 
 with Ptolemy Lathyrus, king of Cyprus ; and sub- 
 sequently he had to carry on for six years a dan- 
 gerous struggle with his own subjects, to whom he 
 had rendered himself obnoxious by his cruelties and 
 by opposing the Pharisees. He signalized his 
 victory by the most frightful butchery of his sub- 
 jects.— 6. Surnamed Isius, the chief commander 
 of the Aetolians, took an active part in opposing 
 Philip of Macedonia (b. c. 198, 197), and in the 
 various negotiations with the Romans.-— 7. Tyrant 
 of Pherae, was a relation of Jason, and succeeded 
 either Polydorus or Polyphron, as Tagus of Thes- 
 saly, about b. c. 369, In consequence of his ty- 
 rannical government the Thessalians applied for 
 aid first to Alexander II., king of Macedonia, and 
 next to Thebes. The Thebans sent Pelopidas into 
 Thessaly to succour the malcontents ; but having 
 ventured incautiously within the power of the 
 tyrant, he was seized by Alexander, and thrown 
 into prison b. c. 368. The Thebans sent a large 
 army into Thessaly to rescue Pelopidas, but they 
 were defeated in the first campaign, and did not 
 obtain their object till the next year, 367. In 364 
 Pelopidas again entered Thessaly with a small 
 force, but was slain in battle by Alexander. The 
 Thebans now sent a large army against the tyrant, 
 and compelled him to become a dependent ally 
 of Thebes. We afterwards hear of Alexander 
 making piratical descents on many of the Athenian 
 dependencies and even on Attica itself. He was 
 murdered in 367, by his wife Thebe, with the as- 
 sistance of her three brothers. ^8. Son of Poly- 
 sperch-on, the Macedonian, was chiefly employed 
 by his father in the command of the armies which 
 he sent against Cassander. Thus he was sent 
 against Athens in b. c. 318, and was engaged in 
 military operations dui'ing the next year in various 
 parts of Greece. But in 315 he became reconciled 
 to Cassander, and we find him in 314 commanding 
 on behalf of the latter. He was murdered at Si- 
 cyon in 314. —9, Ptolemaeus. [Ptoiemaeus.] 
 ^10. Tiberius, bom at Alexandria, of Jewish 
 parents, and nephew of the writer Philo. He 
 deserted the faith of his ancestors, and was re- 
 warded for his apostacy by various public appoint- 
 ments. In the reign of Claudius he succeeded 
 Fadius as procurator of Judaea (a. d. 46), and 
 was appointed by Nero procurator of Egypt. He 
 was the first Roman governor who declared in 
 favour of Vespasian ; and he accompanied Titus in 
 the war against Judaea, and was present at the 
 taking of Jerusalem. 
 
 II. Kifigs of Epirus. 
 
 1. Son of Neoptolemus and brother of Olyrapias, 
 the mother of Alexander the Great. Philip made 
 him king of Epirus in place of his cousin Aeacides, 
 and gave him his daughter Cleopatra in marriage 
 (b. c. 336). In 332, Alexander, at the request of 
 the Tarentines, crossed over into Italy, to aid them 
 against the Lucanians and Bnittii. After meeting 
 
 ALEXANDER. 
 
 35 
 
 with considerable success, he was defeated and 
 slain in battle in 326, near Pandosia, on the banks 
 of the Acheron in Southern Italy. ^2. Son of 
 Pyrrhus and Lanassa, daughter of the Sicilian 
 tyrant Agathocles, succeeded his father in b. c, 272, 
 and drove Autigonus Gonatas out of Macedonia. 
 He was shortly afterwards deprived of both Mace- 
 donia and Epirus by Demetrius, the son of Anti- 
 gonus ; but he recovered Epirus by the aid of the 
 Acamanians. 
 
 III. Kings of Macedonia. 
 
 1. Son of Amyntas I., distinguished himself in 
 the life-time of his father by killing the Persian 
 ambassadors who had come to demand the sub- 
 mission of Amyntas, because they attempted to 
 offer indignities to the ladies of the court, about 
 B. c. 507. He succeeded his father shortly after- 
 wards, was obliged to submit to the Persians, and 
 accompanied Xerxes in his invasion of Greece (b. c. 
 480). He gained the confidence of Mardonius, 
 who sent him to Athens to propose peace to the 
 Athenians, which was rejected. He was secretl}' 
 inclined to the cause of the Greeks, and informed 
 them the night before the battle of Plataeae of the 
 intention of Mardonius to fight on the following 
 da}'. He died about b. c. 455, and was suc- 
 ceeded by Perdiccas II.— 2. Son of Amjiitas II,, 
 whom he succeeded, reigned b. c. 369 — 367. A 
 usurper of the name of Ptolemy Alorites, having 
 risen against him, Pelopidas, who was called in to 
 mediate between them, left Alexander in possession 
 of the kingdom, but took with him to Thebes se- 
 veral hostages ; among whom was Philip, the 
 youngest brother of Alexander, afterwards king of 
 Macedonia. Alexander was shortly afterwards 
 murdered by Ptolemy Alorites.^3. Surnamed the 
 Great, son of Philip II. and Olympias, was bom at 
 Pella, B. c. 356. His early education was com- 
 mitted to Leonidas and Lysimachus ; and he was 
 also placed under the care of Aristotle, who ac- 
 quired an influence over his mind and character, 
 which was manifest to the latest period of his life. 
 At the age of 16 Alexander was entmsted with 
 the government of Macedonia by his father, while 
 he was obliged to leave his kingdom to march 
 against Byzantium. He first distinguished himself, 
 however, at the battle of Chaeronea (338), where 
 the victory was mainly owing to his impetuositv 
 and courage. On the murder of Philip (3365, 
 Alexander ascended the throne, at the age of 20, 
 and found himself siurrounded by enemies on every 
 side. He first put down rebellion in his own king- 
 dom, and then rapidly marched into Greece. His 
 unexpeciedactivityoverawedall opposition ; Thebes, 
 which had been most active against him, submitted 
 when he appeared at its gates ; and the assembled 
 Greeks at the Isthmus of Corinth, with the sole 
 exception of the Lacedaemonians, elected him to 
 the command against Persia, which had previously 
 been bestowed upon his father. He now directed 
 his arms against the barbarians of the north, 
 marched (early in 335) across mount Haemus, 
 defeated the Triballi, and advanced as far as 
 the Danube, which he crossed ; and on his re- 
 turn subdued the lUyrians and Taulantii. A 
 report of his death having reached Greece, the 
 Thebans once more took up arms. But a terrible 
 punishment awaited them. He advanced into 
 Boeotiaby rapid marches took Thebes by assault, 
 destroyed all the buildirjgs, with the exception of 
 
36 
 
 ALEXANDER. 
 
 tlie house of Pindar, killed most of the inhabitants, 
 and sold the rest as slaves. Alexander now pre- 
 pared for his great expedition against Persia. In 
 the spring of 334, he crossed the Hellespont, ■with 
 about 35^000 men. Of these 30,000 were foot and 
 5000 horse ; and of the former only 12,000 were 
 Macedonians. Alexander's first engagement with 
 the Persians was on the river Granicus in Mysia 
 (May 334)* where they were entirely defeated by 
 him. This battle was followed by the capture or 
 snbniission of the chief towns on the W. coast 
 of Asia Minor. Halicarnassus was not taken till 
 late in the autumn, after a vigorous defence by 
 Memnnn, the ablest general of Darius, and whose 
 death in the following year (333) relieved Alex- 
 ander from a formidable opponent. He now marched 
 along the coast of Lycia and Pamphylia, and then 
 N. into Phrygia and to Gordiam, where he cut 
 or untied the celebrated Gordian knot, which, 
 it was said, was to be loosened only by the con- 
 queror of Asia. In 333, he marched from Gor- 
 dium through the centre of Asia Minor into Cilicia, 
 where he nearly lost his life at Tarsus by a fever, 
 brought on by his great exertions, or through throw- 
 ing himself, when heated, into the cold waters of 
 the Cydnus. Darius meantime had collected an army 
 of500,000 or 600,000men, with 30,000 Greek mer- 
 cenaries, whom Alexander defeated in the narrow 
 plain of Issus. Darius escaped across the Euphrates 
 by the ford of Thapsacus ; but his mother, wife, and 
 children fell into the hands of Alexander, who 
 treated them with the utmost delicacy and respect. 
 Alexander now directed his arms against the cities 
 of Phoenicia, most of which submitted ; but Tyre 
 was not taken till the middle of 332, after an ob- 
 stinate defence of seven months. Next followed 
 the siege of Gaza, which again delayed Alexander 
 two months. Afterwards, according to Josephus, 
 he marched to Jerusalem, intending to punish the 
 people for refusing to assist him, but he was di- 
 verted from his purpose by the appearance of the 
 high priest, and pardoned the people. This stor^^ 
 is not mentioned by Arrian, and rests on questionable 
 evidence. — Alexander next marched into Egypt, 
 which willingly submitted to him, for the Egj'ptians 
 had ever hated the Persians. At the beginning of 
 331, Alexander founded at the mouth of the W. 
 branch of the Nile, the city of Alexandri.\, 
 and about the same time visited tlie temple of 
 Jupiter Ammon, in the desert of Libya, and was 
 saluted by the priests as the son of Jupiter Ammon. 
 — In the spring of the samej'ear (331), Alexander 
 set out to meet Darius, who had collected another 
 army. He marched through Plmenicia and Syria 
 to the Euphrates, which he crossed at the ford 
 of Thapsacus ; thence he proceeded through Me- 
 sopotamia, crossed the Tigris, and at length met 
 with the immense hosts of Darius, said to have 
 amounted to more than a million of men, in the 
 plains of Gaugamela. The battle was fought in the 
 month of October, 331, and ended in the complete 
 defeat of the Persians. Alexander pursued the 
 fugitives to Arbela (Erbil), which place has given 
 its name to the battle, though distant about 50 
 miles from the spot where it was fought. Da- 
 rius, who had left the field of battle early in the 
 dav, fled to Ecbatana {Hamadan)^ in Media, 
 Alexander was now the conqueror of Asia, and 
 be'i'an to adopt Persian habits and customs, by 
 which he conciliated the affections of his now sub- 
 jects. From Arbela he marched to Babylon, Susa, 
 
 ALEXANDER 
 
 and Persepolis, all of which surrendered to him. He 
 is said to have set fire to the palace of Persepolis, 
 and, according to some accounts, in the revelry of a 
 banquet, at the instigation of Thais, an Athenian 
 coiu-tezan. — At the beginning of 330 Alexander 
 marclied from Persepolis into Media, in pursuit of 
 Darius, whom he followed through Rhagae and the 
 passes of the Elburz mountains, called by the 
 ancients the Caspian Gates, into the deserts of 
 Parthia, where the unfortunate king was murdered 
 by Bessus, satrap of Bactria, and his associates. 
 Alexander sent his body to Persepolis, to be buried 
 in the tombs of the Persian kings. Bessus escaped 
 to Bactria, and assumed the title of king of Persia. 
 Alexander was engaged during the remainder of 
 the year in subduing the N. provinces of Asia 
 between the Caspian and the Indus, namely, Hyr- 
 cania, Parthia, Aria, the Dmngae and Sarangae. 
 It was during this campaign that Philotas, his 
 father Parmenion, and other Macedonians, were 
 executed on the charge of treason. In 329 Alex- 
 ander crossed the mountains of the Paroptimisus 
 (the Hi7idoo Koosh)^ and marched into Bactria 
 against Bessus, whom he pursued across the Oxus 
 into Sogdiana. In this country Bessus was be- 
 trayed to him, and was put to death. From the 
 Oxus he advanced as far as the Jaxartes (the Sir), 
 which he crossed, and defeated several Scythian. 
 tribes N. of that river. After founding a city 
 Alexandria on the Jaxartes, he retraced his steps, 
 and returned to Zariaspa or Bactra, where he spent 
 the winter of 329. It was here that he killed 
 his friend Clitus in a drunken revel. — In 328, 
 Alexander again crossed the Oxus to complete the 
 subjugation of Sogdiana, but was not able to effect 
 it in the year, and accordingly went into winter 
 quarters at Nautaca, a place in the middle of the 
 province. At the beginning of 327, he took a 
 mountain fortress, in which Oxyartes, a Bactrian. 
 prince, had deposited his wife and daughters. The 
 beauty of Roxana, one of the latter, captivated the 
 conqueror, and he accordingly made her his wife. 
 This marriage with one of his Eastern subjects 
 was in accordance with the whole of his policy. 
 Having completed the conquest of Sogdiana, he 
 marched S. into Bactria, and made preparations for 
 the invasion of India. While in Bactria another 
 conspiracy was discovered for the murder of the 
 king. The plot was formed by Hermolaus with a 
 number of the royal pages, and Callisthenes, a 
 pupil of Aristotle, was involved in it. All the 
 conspirators were put to death. Alexander did not 
 leave Bactria till late in the spring of 327, and 
 crossed the Indus, probably near the modem 
 Attock. He met with no resistance till he reached 
 the Hydaspes, where he was opposed by Porus, an 
 Indian king, whom he defeated after a gallant re- 
 sistance, and took prisoner. Alexander restored to 
 him his kingdom, and treated him with distin- 
 guished honour. He founded two towns, one on 
 each bank of the Hydaspes : one called Bucephala, 
 in honour of his horse Bucephalus, who died here, 
 after carrying him through so many victories ; and 
 the other Nicaca, to commemorate his victory. 
 From thence he marched across the Acesines (the 
 Cliinab) and the Hydraotes (the Ravee)^ and pe- 
 netrated as far as the Hyphasis {Garra). This was 
 the fiu'theat point which he reached, for the Macedo- 
 nians, wora out by long service, and tired of the war, 
 refused to advance further ; and Alexander, not- 
 withstanding his entreaties and prayers, was obliged 
 
ALEXANDER. 
 
 to lead them "back. He returned to the Hydaspes, 
 "where he had previously" given orders forthe building 
 of a fleet, and then sailed down the river with about 
 8000 men, while the remainder marched along the 
 "banks in two divisions. This was late in. the au- 
 tumn of 32". The people on each side of the 
 river submitted without resistance, except the Malli, 
 in the conquest of one of whose places Alexander 
 Tvas severely wounded. At the confluence of the 
 Acesines and the Indus, Alexander founded a city, 
 and left Philip as satrap, with a considerable body 
 of Greeks. Here he built some fresh ships, and 
 continued his voyage down the Indus, founded a 
 city at Pattala, the apex of the delta of the Indus, 
 and sailed into the Indian ocean, which he reached 
 about the middle of 3'26. Nearchus was sent with 
 the fleet to sail along the coast to the Persian gulf 
 [Nearchus] ; and Alexander marched with the 
 rest of his forces through Gedrosia, in which country 
 his army suffered greatly from want of water and 
 provisions. He reached Susa at the beginning of 
 325. Here he allowed himself and his troops 
 some rest from their labours ; and anxious to form 
 his European and Asiatic subjects Into one people, 
 he assigned to about 80 of his generals Asiatic 
 wives, and gave with them rich dowries. He him- 
 self took a second wife, Barsine, the eldest daughter 
 of Darius, and accordmg to some accounts, a third, 
 Parysatis, the daughter of Ochus. About 10,000 
 Macedonians followed the example of their king 
 and generals, and married Asiatic women. Alex- 
 ander also enrolled large numbers of Asiatics 
 among his troops, and taught them the Macedonian 
 tactics. He moreover directed his attention to the 
 increase of commerce, and for this purpose had the 
 Euphrates and Tigris made navigable, by removing 
 the artificial obstructions which had been made in 
 the river for the purpose of irrigation. The Mace- 
 donians, who were discontented with several of the 
 new arrangements of the king, rose in mutiny 
 against him, which he q^uelled with some difficulty. 
 Towards the close of the same year (325) he went 
 to Ecbatana, where he lost his great favourite He- 
 PHAESTiON. From Ecbatana he marched to Ba- 
 bylon, subduing in his way the Cossaei, a mountain 
 tribe ; and before he reached Babylon he was met 
 by ambassadors from almost every part of the 
 known world. Alexander entered Babylon in the 
 spring of 324, about a year before his death, not- 
 withstanding the warnings of the Chaldaeans, who 
 predicted evil to him if he entered the city at 
 that time. He intended to make Babylon the 
 capital of his empire, as the best point of com- 
 munication between his eastern and western do- 
 minions. His schemes were numerous and gigantic. 
 His first object was the conquest of Arabia, which 
 was to be followed, it was said, by the subjuga- 
 tion of Italy, Cartilage, and the West. But his 
 views were not confined merely to conquest. He 
 ordered a fleet to be built on the Caspian, in order 
 to explore that sea. He also intended to improve 
 the distribution of waters in the Babylonian plain, 
 and for that purpose sailed down the Euphrates to 
 inspect the canal called Pallacopas. On his return 
 to Babylon he was attacked by a fever, probably 
 brought on by his recent exertions in the marshy 
 districts around Babylon, and aggravated by the 
 quantity of wine he had drimk at a banquet given 
 to hia principal officers. He died after an illness of 
 11 days, in the month of Mayor June B.c.323,at 
 the age of 32, after a reign of 12 years and 8 months. 
 
 ALEXANDER. 
 
 37 
 
 He appointed no one as hia successor, but just before 
 his death he gave his ring to Perdiccas. Roxana was 
 with child at the time of his death, and afterwards 
 bore a son who is known by the name of Alexan- 
 der Aegus. — The history of Alexander forms an 
 important epoch in the history of mankind. Unlike 
 other Asiatic conquerors, his progress was marked 
 by something more than devastation and ruin ; at 
 every step of his course the Greek language and 
 civilization took root and flourished ; and after his 
 death Greek kingdoms were formed in all parts of 
 Asia, which continued to exist for centuries. By 
 his conquests the knowledge of mankind was in- 
 creased ; the sciences of geography, natm*al history 
 and others, received vast additions ; and it was 
 through hiin that a road was opened to India, and 
 that Europeans becameacquainted with the products 
 of the remote East.— 4. Aegus, son of Alexander 
 the Great and Roxana, was born shortly after the 
 death of his father, in b. c. 323, and was acknow- 
 ledged as the partner of Philip Arrhidaeus in the 
 empire, under the guardianship of Perdiccas, An- 
 tipater, and Polysperchon in succession. Alexander 
 and his mother Roxana were imprisoned by Cas- 
 sander, when he obtained possession of Macedonia 
 in 31 6, andremained in prison till 311, when they 
 were put to death by Cassander. 
 
 I v. Kings of Syria^ 
 
 1. Sumamed Balas, a person of low origin, pre- 
 tended to be the son of Antiochus IV. Epiphanes, 
 and reigned in Syria b. c. 150 — 146. He defeated 
 and slew in battle Demetrius I. Soter, but was 
 afterwards defeated and dethroned by Demetrius 
 II. Nicator.— 2. Sumamed Zebina or Zabinas, 
 son of a merchant, was set up by Ptolemy Physcon 
 as a pretender to the throne of Syria, shortly after 
 the return of Demetrius II. Nicator from his cap- 
 tivity among the Parthians, b. c. 128. He defeated 
 Demetrius in 125, but was afterwards defeated by 
 Antiochus Gri'pus, by whom he was put to death, 
 122. 
 
 V. Literary. 
 
 1, OfAegae, a peripatetic philosopher at Rome 
 in the first century after Christ, was tutor to the 
 emperor Nero. ^2. The Aetoliau, of Pleuron iu 
 Aetolia, a Greek poet, lived in the reign of Ptole- 
 maeus Philadelphus (b. c. 285 — 247), at Alex- 
 andria, where he was reckoned one of the seven 
 tragic poets who constituted the tragic pleiad. He 
 also wrote other poems besides tragedies. His 
 fragments are collected by Capellmann, Alexandri 
 Aeioli Fragmenta^ Bonn, 1829.— 3. Of Aphro- 
 disias, in Caria, the most celebrated of the com- 
 mentators on Aristotle, lived about a. d. 200. 
 About half his voluminous works were edited and 
 translated into Latin at the revival of literature ; 
 there are a few more extant in the original Greek, 
 which have never been printed, and an Arabic 
 version is preserved of several others. His most 
 important treatise is entitled De Faio, an inquiry 
 into the opinions of Aristotle on the subject of 
 Fate and Freewill : edited by Orelli, Zurich, 1824. 
 ^4. Cornelius, surnamed Polyhistor, a Greek 
 writer, was made prisoner during the war of Sulla 
 in Greece (b- c. 87 — 84), and sold as a slave to 
 Cornelius Lentulus, who took him to Rome, made 
 him the teacher of his children, and subsequently 
 restored him to freedom. The surname of Poly- 
 histor was given to him on account of his prodigious 
 
38 
 
 ALEXANDRIA. 
 
 leaxning. He is aaid to have written a vast mnnber 
 of works, all of whicli Imve perished : the most 
 important of them was one in 42 books, containing 
 historical and geographical accounts of nearly all 
 countries of the ancient world. — 5. Sumamed 
 Lyclunis, of Ephesus, a Greek rhetorician and 
 poet, lived about b. c. 3ft. A few fragments of 
 his geographical and astronomical poems are ex- 
 tant. — 6. Of Myndus, in Caria, a Greek writer 
 on zoology of uncertain date. ^7. ITTUueiiiiis, a 
 Greek rhetorician, who lived in the second cen- 
 tury of the Christian aera. Two works are as- 
 cribed to him, one De Figuris Sententiarum et 
 Mlocutionia, from which AquUa Romanus took his 
 materials for his work on the same subject ; and 
 the other On Shom-speeohes ; which was written 
 hy a later grammarian of the name of Alexander. 
 Edited in Walz's R/ieiores Graeei, vol. viii. 
 —8. The Paphlagonian, a celebrated impostor, 
 who flourished about the beginning of the second 
 century after Christ, of whom Lucian has given an 
 amusing account, chiefly of the various contrivances 
 by which he established and maintained the credit 
 of an oracle. The influence he attained over the 
 populace seems incredible ; indeed, the narrative 
 of Lucian would appear to be a mere romance, were 
 it not confirmed by some medals of ."intoninus and 
 M. Aurelius.^-9. Sumamed Peloplaton, a Greek 
 rhetorician of Seleucia in Cilicia, was appointed 
 Greek secretary to M. Antoninus, about A. D. 174. 
 At Athens he conquered the celebrated rhetorician 
 Herodes Atticus, in a rhetorical contest. All per- 
 sons, however, did not admit his abilities ; for a 
 Corinthian of the name of Sceptes said that he had 
 found in Alexander " the clay (n^\os), but not 
 Plato." This saying gave rise to the surname of 
 Peloplaton.^lO. PMlalethes, an ancient Greek 
 physician, lived probably towards the end of the 
 first century B. c, and succeeded Zeuxis as head 
 of ,a celebrated Herophilean school of medicine, 
 established in Phrygia between Laodicea and 
 Carura.— 11. Of lialles in Lydia, an eminent 
 physician, lived in the 6th century after Christ, 
 and is the author of two extant Greek works : 
 — 1. Libri Duodecim de Re Mediea ; 2. De Lum- 
 bricis. 
 
 Alexandria, oftener -la, rarely -ea {'A.\e^dv- 
 Speia: 'AXeJoj'Speiij, Alexandrlnus), the name of 
 several cities founded by, or in memory of Alex- 
 ander the Great. — 1. (Alexandria, Arab. Iskan- 
 deria), the capital of Egypt under the Ptolemies, 
 ordered by Alexander to be founded in B. c. 332. 
 It was built on the narrow neck of land between 
 the Lake Mareotisand the Mediterranean, opposite 
 to the I. of Pharos, which was joined to the city 
 by an artificial dyke, called Heptastadium, which 
 formed, with the island, the two harbours of the 
 city, that on the N. E. of the dyke being named the 
 Great Harbour (now the New Port), that on the 
 S.W. Eunostos (efooffror, the OH Pori). These 
 harbours communicated with each other by two 
 channels cut through the Heptastadium, one at 
 each end of it j and there was a canal from the 
 Eunostos to the Lake Mareotis. The city was 
 built on a regular plan; and was intersected by two 
 principal streets, above 100 feet wide, the one ex- 
 tending 30 stadia from E. to W., the other across 
 this, from the sea towards the lake, to the length 
 of 10 stadia. At the E. extremity of the city was 
 the royal quarter, called Bruchium, and at the other 
 end of the chief street, outside of the city, the Ne- 
 
 ALEXANDRIA. 
 
 cropolis or cemetery. A great lighthonse was 
 built on the I. of Pharos in the reign of Ptolemy 
 Philadelphus (b. c. 283). Under the care of the 
 Ptolemies, as the capital of a great kingdom and 
 of the most fertile country on the earth, and com- 
 manding by its position all the commerce of Europe 
 with the East, Alexandria soon became the most 
 wealthy and splendid city of the known world. 
 Greeks, Jews, and other foreigners flocked to it ; 
 and its population probably amounted to three 
 quarters of a million. But a still greater distinction 
 was conferred upon it through the foundation, by 
 the first two Ptolemies, of the Museum, an esta- 
 blishment in which men devoted to literature were 
 maintained at the public cost, and of the Library, 
 which contained 90,000 distinct works, and 400,000 
 volumes, and the increase of which made it neces- 
 sary to establish another library in the Serapeum 
 (Temple of Serapis), which reached to 42,800 
 volumes, but which was destroyed by the bishop 
 Theophilus, at the time of the general overthrow 
 of the heathen temples under Theodosius (a. d. 
 389). The Great Library suifered severely by 
 fire when Julius Caesar was besieged in Alex- 
 dria, and was finally destroyed by Amrou, the 
 lieutenant of the Caliph Omar, in a. D. 651. These 
 institutions made Alexandria the chief centre of 
 literary activity. When Egypt became a Roman 
 province [Aegyptus], Alexandria was. made the 
 residence of the Pracfectus Aegypti. It retained 
 its commercial and literary importance, and became 
 also a chief seat of Christianity and theological 
 learning. Its site is now covered by a mass of 
 ruins, among which are the remains of the cisterns 
 by which the whole city was supplied with water, 
 house by house ; the two obelisks (vnlg. Cleopatra's 
 Needles), which adorned the gateway of the royal 
 palace, and, outside the walls, to the S., the co- 
 lumn of Diocletian (vulg. Pompey^s Pillar), The 
 modern city stands on the dyke uniting the island 
 of Pharos to the mainland. ^ 2. A. Troas, also 
 Troaa simply ("A. ■>) Tpuay : JEskistamboul, i. e. 
 the Old City), on .the sea-coast S-W. of Troy, 
 was enlarged by Antigonus, hence called Anti- 
 gonia, but afterwards it resumed its first name. It 
 flourished greatly, both under the Greeks and the 
 Romans ; it was made a colonia ; and both Julius 
 Caesar and Constantino thought of establishing the 
 seat of empire in it. i»- 3. A* ad IssTun ('A. Kara. 
 'l(T(r6v : Iskenderoon, Scanderoun, AlexaTidreite), a 
 sea-port at the entrance of Syria, a little S. of 
 Issus. —4, In Susiana, aft. Antiochia, aft. Charaw 
 Spasini (Xopa{ Uatrivau or Sirair.), at the month 
 of the Tigris, built by Alexander ; destroyed by a 
 flood ; restored by Antiochus Epiphanes : birth- 
 place of Dionysius Periesgetes and Isidorus Chara- 
 cenus. — 5. A. Ariae ('A ?) iv 'Apiois: Herat), 
 founded by Alexander on the river Arius, in the 
 Persian province of Aria, a very flourishing city, 
 on the great caravan road to India. — 6. A. Araoho- 
 siae or Alezandropolis {Kandahar f), on the river 
 Arachotus, was probably not founded till after the 
 time of Alexander.— 7. A. Bactriana ('A kot4 
 BdKTpa : prob. Khoolcom, Ru.), E. of Bactra 
 {Balkh).— 6. A. ad Oaucasum, or apud Paropa- 
 misidas ('A. tV IIopoira/iKroSoii), at the foot of 
 M. Paropamisus (Hindoo Koosh), probably near 
 Cal>Qol. — 9. A. Ultima or Alexandrescata ('A. 
 TJ iaxdrn : Kokand ?), in Sogdiana, on the Jax- 
 artes, a little E. of Cyropolis or Cyreschata, marked 
 the furthest point reached by Alexander in his 
 
ALEXICACUS. 
 
 Scythian expedition. — These are not all the cities 
 of the Dame. 
 
 Alexicacns ('AA€|fKcucos), the averter of evil, a 
 sumame of several deities, but particularly of Zeus, 
 Apollo, and Hercules. 
 
 Alexiniis ('AAc|7vos), of Elis, a philosopher of 
 the Dialectic or Megarian school, and a disciple of 
 Euhulides, lived about the beginning of the 3rd 
 century B. c. 
 
 Alexis ("AXclu). 1. A comic poet, horn at 
 Thurii in Italy, and an Athenian citizen. He was 
 the uncle and instructor of Menander, was bom 
 about B. c. 394, and lived to the age of 106. 
 Some of his plays, of which he is said to have writ- 
 ten 24S, belonged to the Middle, and others to the 
 New Comedy.^2. A sculptor and statuary, one 
 of the pupils of Polycletus. 
 
 Alfeniis Varus. [Viaus.] 
 
 Algldtim or Algidns (nr. Cava ?), a small but 
 strongly fortified town of the Aequi on one of the 
 hills of M. Algidus, of which all trace haa now 
 disappeared. 
 
 Algidus Hons, a range of mountains in La- 
 tium, extending S. from Praeneste to M. Alba- 
 nus, cold, but covered with wood, and containing 
 good pasturage {gelido Algido, Hor. Carm. i. 21. 
 6 ; nigrae feraci frondis in Algido, Id. iv. 4. 
 58). It was an ancient seat of the worship of 
 Diana. From it the Aequi usually made their in- 
 cursions into the Roman territory. 
 
 Alieuus Caecina. [Caecina.] 
 
 Alimentns, L, Cmcius, a celebrated Roman an- 
 nalist, antiquary, and jurist, was praetor in Sicily, 
 B. c. 209, and wrote several works, of which the 
 best known was his Annates^ which contained an 
 account of the second Punic war. 
 
 AliTidi^ (ra ''AA.tj'So : 'AXtcSeus), a fortress and 
 small town, S.E. of Stratonice, where Ada, queen 
 of Caria, fixed her residence, when she was driven 
 out of Halicamassus (b. c. 340). 
 
 Aliphera ('AAi(/)«pa, *AAf^7;pa: ^AXitpeipatos, 
 *A\itp7ipevs : nr. Nerovitza, Ru.), a fortified town 
 in Arcadia, situated on a mountain on the borders 
 of Elis, S. of the Alpheus, said to have been founded 
 by the hero Alipherus, son of Lycaon. 
 
 AUpherus. [Aliphera.] 
 
 Aliso iBlsm), a strong fortress built by Drusus 
 B. c. 11, at the confluence of the Luppia (Lippe) 
 and the Eliso (Alme). 
 
 AHsontia (Alsiiz), a river flowing into the Mo- 
 sella (Mosel). 
 
 Allectos, the chief officer of Carausius in Bri- 
 tain, whom he murdered in A. D. 293. He then 
 assumed the imperial title himself, but was de- 
 feated and slain in 296 by the general of Constan- 
 tius. 
 
 Allia or more correctly AUa, a small river, which 
 rises about 11 miles from Rome, in the neighbour- 
 hood of Crustumerium, and flows into the Tiber 
 about 6 miles from Rome. It is memorable by the 
 defeat of the Romans by the Gauls on its banks, 
 July 16th, B. c. 390 ; which day, dies Alliensis, 
 was hence marked as an unlucky day in the Roman 
 calendar. 
 
 A. AUienns. 1. A friend of Cicero, was the 
 legate of Q. Cicero in Asia, B. c. 60, praetor in 49, 
 and governor of Sicily on behalf of Caesar in 48 
 and 47. ^2. A legate of Dolabella, by whom he 
 was sent into Egypt in 43. 
 
 AUifae or AKfae (Allifanus : Alli/e), a town of 
 RamniTim nn the Vnltumus. in a fertile coimtry. 
 
 ALPES. 
 
 39 
 
 It was celebrated for the manufacture of its large 
 drinking-cups (Alli/ana sc. poada, Hor. Sat. ii. 8. 
 39). 
 
 Allobroges (Nom. Sing. Allobrox: 'A\x6Spoyef, 
 'AWdSpvyes, 'AX\6Spiyes : perhaps from the Celtic 
 aill^ "xock" or " mountain," and i/rog, " dwelling," 
 consequently " dwellers in the mountains"), a 
 powerful people of Gaul dwelling between the 
 Rhodanus {Rhone) and the Isara (/sere), as far as 
 the L. Lemannus {Lake of Geneva), consequently 
 in the modem Dauphind and Savoy. Their chief 
 town was Vienna on the Rhone. They are first 
 mentioned in Hannibal's invasion, B. c. 218. They 
 were conquered, in B. c. 121, by Q. Fabius Maxi- 
 mus AUobrogicus, and made subjects of Rome, but 
 ihey bore the yoke unwillingly, and were always 
 disposed to rebellion. In the time of Ammianus 
 the eastern part of their country was called Sapau- 
 dia, i. e. Savoy. 
 
 Almo {Almone}, a small river, rises near Bo- 
 villae, and flows into the Tiber S. of Rome, in 
 which the statues of Cj'bele were washed an- 
 nually. 
 
 Almopes ('A\/xcDirey), a people in Macedonia, 
 inhabiting the district Almopia between Eordaea 
 and Pelagonia. 
 
 Aloens ('AAw€iis), son of Poseidon and Canace, 
 married Iphimedia, the daughter of Triops. His 
 wife was beloved by Poseidon, by whom she had 
 two sons, Otus and Ephialtes, who are usually 
 called the Aloidae, from their reputed &ther Aloeus. 
 They were renowned for their extraordinary strength 
 and daring spirit. When they were 9 years 
 old, each of their bodies measured 9 cubits in 
 breadth and 27 in height. At this early age, 
 they threatened the Olympian gods with war, 
 and attempted to pile Ossa upon Olympus, and 
 Pelion upon Ossa. They would have accomplished 
 their object, says Homer, had they been allowed 
 to grow up to the age of manhood j but Apollo 
 destroyed them before their beards began to ap- 
 pear {Od. xi. 305, seq.). They also put the god 
 Ares in chains, and kept him imprisoned for 
 13 months. Other stories are related of them by 
 later writers. 
 
 Aloidae. [Aloeus.] 
 
 Alonta {'A\6ma : Terek), a river of Albania, in 
 Sarmatia Asiatica, flowing into the Caspian. 
 
 Alope (*AA({in]), daughter of Cercyon, became 
 by Poseidon the mother of Hippothods. She was 
 put to death by her father, but her body was 
 changed by Poseidon into a well, which bore the 
 same name. 
 
 Alope ('AAdinj : *AAoTrei5y, 'AAottittjs), 1, A 
 town in the Opuntian Locris, opposite Euboea, 
 — 2. A town in Phthiotis in Thessaly {11. ii. 
 682). 
 
 Alopece ('A\M7r€K^ and 'AKunreKut; 'AAwre- 
 Keu's), a demus of Attica, of the tribe Antiochis, 
 11 stadia E. of Athens, on the hill Anchesmus. 
 
 AlopecoimesQS (^hXuTtfK6vvn<Tos: 'AAairemv- 
 vjiaioi : Alexi ? ), a town in the Thracian Cher- 
 sonesus, founded by the Aeolians. 
 
 Alpenus ('AA.inii'iSj, 'AXirnvoi), a town of the 
 Epicnemidii Locri at the entrance of the pas^ of 
 Thermopylae. 
 
 Alpes (o( "AAireis, r\ 'AXns, to 'AKTrcivh Spri, 
 ri 'AATTEia ipri ; probably from the Celtic Alb or 
 Alp, " a height "), the mountains forming the 
 boundary of" northern Italy, are a part of the 
 great mountain-chain, which extends from the 
 
40 
 
 ALPES. 
 
 Gulf of Genoa across Europe to the Black Sea, 
 of wliich the Apennines and the mountains of the 
 Grecian peninsula may be regarded as off-shoots. 
 Of the Alps proper, the Greeks had very little 
 knowledge, and included them under the general 
 name of the Rhipaean mountains. The Romans 
 first obtained some knowledge of them by Hanni- 
 taVs passage across them : this knowledge was 
 gradually extended by their various wars with the 
 inhabitants of tire mountains, who were not finally 
 subdued till the reign of Augustus. In the time 
 of the emperors the different parts of flie Alps 
 •were distinguished by the following names, most 
 of which are still retained. We enumerate them 
 in order from W. to E. 1. AiPES Maritimae, 
 the Maritime or Ligurian Alps^ from Genua (Ge- 
 noa), where the Apennines begin, run W. as 
 far as the river Varus ( Var) and M. Cema (la 
 Caillole), and then N. to M. Vesulus (Monte 
 Viso), one of the highest points of the Alps. — 
 2. Alpes Cottiae or Cottxanae, the Cottian 
 Alps (so called from a king Cottius in the time of 
 Augustus), from Monte Viso to Mont Cenis, con- 
 tained M. Matrona, afterwards called M. Janus or 
 Janua (Mont Gencvre), across which Cottius con- 
 Btructed a road, which became the chief means of 
 communication between Italy and Gaul : this road 
 leads from the valley of the Durance in France 
 to Segusio (Susa) and the valley of the Dora in 
 Piedmont. The pass over Mont Cenis, now one 
 of the most fi-equented of the Alpine passes, appears 
 to have been unknown in antiquity. — 3. Alpes 
 Graiae, also Saltus Grains (the name is probably 
 Celtic, and has nothing to do with Greece), the 
 Graian Alps, from Mont Cenis to the Little St. 
 Bernard inclusive, contained the Jugum Cremonis 
 (& Cramont) and the Centronicae Alpes, apparently 
 the Little St. Bernard and the surrounding moun- 
 tains. The Little St. Bernard, which is sometimes 
 called Alpis Graia, is probably the pass by which 
 Hannibal crossed the Alps ; the road over it, 
 •which was improved by Augustus, led to Au- 
 gusta (Aosia) in the territory of the Salassi. — 
 4. Alpes Pekninae, the Pennine Alps, from the 
 Great St Bernard to the Simplon inclusive, the 
 highest portion of the chain, including Mont Blanc, 
 Monte Rosa, and Mont Cervin. The Great St. 
 Bernard was called M. Pennlnus, and on its sum- 
 mit the inhabitants worshipped a deity, whom the 
 Romans called Jupiter Penninus. The name is 
 probably derived from the Celtic pen, " a height." 
 — 5. Alpes Lepontiorum or Lepontiae, the 
 Lepontian or Helvetian Alps, from the Simplon to 
 the St. Gothard. — 6. Alpes Rhaeticae, the 
 Bhaetian Alps, from the St. Gothard to the Or- 
 teler by the pass of the Stelvio. M. Adula is 
 usually supposed to be the St Gothard, but it must 
 be another name for the whole range, if Strabo 
 is right in stating that both the Rhine and the 
 Adda rise in M. Adula. The Romans were ac- 
 quainted with two passes across the Rhaetian Alps, 
 connecting Curia (Coire) and Milan, one across 
 the SplUgen and the other across Mont Septimer, 
 and both meeting at Clavenna (Chiavmna), — 7. 
 Alpes TridentI.vae, the mountains of southern 
 Tyrol, in which the Athcsis (Adige) rises, with the 
 pass of the Brenner. — G. Alpes Noricae, the 
 Noric Alps, N. E. of the Tridentine Alps, com- 
 prising the mountains in the neighbourhood of 
 Salzburg. — 9. Alpes Carnicae, the Carnic Alps, 
 E. of the Tridentine, and S. of the Noric, to Mount 
 
 ALTINUM. 
 
 Terglu. — 10. Alpes Juliae, the Julian Alps,. 
 from Mount Terglu to the commencement of the 
 Illyrian or Dalmatian mountains, which are known 
 by the name of the Alpes Dalmaticae, further north 
 by the name of the Alpes Pannonicae. The Alpes 
 Juliae were so called because Julius Caesar or 
 Augustus constructed roads across them : they are- 
 also called Alpes Venetae. 
 
 Alpbenus Varus. [V.arus.] 
 
 Alphesiboea (^A.K(f>(aiSo7a). 1, Mother of Ado- 
 nis. [Adonis.] — 2. Daughter of Phegeus, who 
 married Alcmaeon. [Alcmaeon.] 
 
 Alpheus Hytilenaeus ('A\i()6ios VluTiX-nvaios'), 
 the author of about 12 epigrams in the Greek 
 Anthology, was probably a contemporary of the 
 emperor Augustus. 
 
 Alpheus ('A\tpei6s: X)oT.'A\(pe6s ; Alfeo, Ro- 
 feo, Ryfo, Riifta), the chief river of Peloponnesus, 
 rises at Phylace in Arcadia, shortly afterwards 
 sinks under ground, appears again near Asea, and 
 then mingles its waters with those of the Eurotas. 
 After flowing 20 stadia, the two rivers disappear 
 under ground : the Alpheus again rises at Pegae 
 in Arcadia, and increased by many affluents, flows 
 N. W. through Arcadia and Elis, not far from 
 Plympia, and falls into the Ionian sea. The sub- 
 terranean descent of the river, which is confirmed 
 by modern travellers, gave rise to the story about 
 the river-god Alpheus and the nymph Arethusa. 
 The latter, pursued by Alpheus, was changed by 
 Artemis into the fountain of Arethusa in the island 
 of Ortygia at Syracuse, but the god continued to 
 pursue her under the sea, and attempted to mingle- 
 his stream with the fountain in Ortygia. Hence 
 it was said that a cup thrown into the Alpheus 
 would appear again in the fountain of Arethusa in 
 Ortygia. Other accounts related that Artemis her- 
 self was beloved by Alpheus : the goddess was 
 worshipped, under the name of Alplteaea, both in 
 Elis and Ortj'gia. 
 
 Alphius A-ritus. [Avitus.] 
 
 Alpinns, a name which Horace gives in ridicule 
 to a bombastic poet. He probably means Biba- 
 culus. 
 
 Alsium (Alsiensis : Palo), one of the most an- 
 cient Etruscan to^vn3 on the coast near Caere, and 
 a Roman colony after the 1st Punic war. In its 
 neighbourhood Pompey had a country-seat (villoi 
 Alsiensis). 
 
 Althaea ('A\$aia), daughter of the Aetolian king 
 Thestius and Eurythemis, married Oeneus, king of 
 Calydon, by whom she became the mother of several 
 children, and among others of Meleageh, upon 
 whose death she killed herself. 
 
 Althaea, the chief toivn of the Olcades in the 
 country of the Oretani in Hispania Tarraconensis. 
 
 Althemenes ('AAe-riiiivris or 'AA.6ai/i€V7js), son 
 of Catreus, king of Crete. In consequence of an 
 oracle, that Catreus would lose his life by one of 
 his children, Althemenes quitted Crete and went 
 to Rhodes. There he unwittingly killed his father, 
 who had come in search of his son. 
 
 Altinum (Altinas; Allino), a wealthy muni- 
 cipium in the land of the Veneti in the N. of Italy, 
 at the mouth of the river Silis and on the road 
 from Patavium to Aquileia, was a wealthy manu- 
 facturing town, and the chief emporium for all the 
 goods which were sent from southern Italy to the 
 countries of the north. Goods could be brought 
 from Ravenna to Altinum through the Lagoons 
 and the numerous canals of the Po, safe from storms 
 
ALUS. 
 
 and pirates. There were many beautiful villas 
 around tlie town. (Mart. iv. 25.) 
 
 Altis ("AAtis), the sacred grove of Zeus at 
 Olvmpia. 
 
 Alnntium or Halimtium (^AXovvrtov)^ a town 
 on the N. coast of Sicily on a steep hill, celebrated 
 for its wine. 
 
 Alus or Halus ("AAos, "AKos : 'AAeus : nr. Ke- 
 yfalosi^ Ru.), a town in Phthiotis in Thessaly, at 
 the extremity of M. Othrj-s, built by the hero 
 Athamas. 
 
 Alyattes CAAuarTTjs), ting of Lydia, B. c. 617 
 — 560, succeeded his father Sadyattes, and was 
 himself succeeded by his son Croesus, He carried 
 on war with Miletus from 617 to 612, and with 
 Cyaxares, king of Media, from 590 to 585 ; an 
 eclipse of the sun, whicli happened in 505 during a 
 battle between Alyattes and Cyaxares, led to a peace 
 between them. Alyattes drove the Cimmerians out 
 of Asia and took Sm}TTia. The tomb of Alyattes, 
 K. of Sardis, near the lake Gygaea, which consisted 
 of a large mound of earth, raised upon a foundation 
 of great stones, still exists. Mr. Hamilton says 
 that it took him about ten minutes to ride round 
 its base, which would give it a circumference of 
 nearly a mile. 
 
 Alyba {^kXv€7i\ a town on the S. coast of the 
 Euxine. (Horn. //. ii. 857.) 
 
 Alypius ('A\uTrios), of Alexandria, probably 
 lived in the 4th century of the Christian aera, 
 and is the author of a Greek musical treatise en- 
 titled "Introduction to Music" {ilaaybiyr] fiovaiKi]), 
 printed by Meibomius in Antiquaa D,[usicae Auc~ 
 tores Septem, Amstel. 1652. 
 
 Alyzia or Alyzea ('AAi/fi'a, 'AAu^cta : ^AXv^aios ; 
 Ru. in the valley of Kandili), a town in Acamania 
 near the sea opposite Leucas, with a harbour and 
 a temple both sacred to Hercules. The temple 
 contained one of the works of Lysippus represent- 
 ing the labours of Hercules, which the Romans 
 carried off. 
 
 Amadocus ('A/aciSokos-) or Medocus (M^Sokos). 
 1. King of the Odrysac in Thrace, when Xenophon 
 visited the country in b. c. 400. He and Seuthes, 
 who were the most powerful Thracian kings, were 
 frequently at variance, but were reconciled to one 
 another by Thrasybul'us, the Athenian commander, 
 in 390, and induced by him to become the allies of 
 Athens. — 2. A ruler in Thrace, who, in conjunc- 
 tion with Berisades and Cersobleptes, succeeded 
 Cotys in 358. 
 
 Amagetobria. [Magetobria.] 
 
 Amalthea ('AfiaKdeia). 1. The nurse of the 
 infant Zeus in Crete. According to some traditions 
 Amalthea is the goat who suckled Zeus, and who 
 was rewarded by being placed among the stars. 
 [Aega.J According to others, Amalthea was a 
 nymph, daughter of Oceanus, Helios, Haemonius, 
 or of the Cretan king Melisseus, who fed Zeus with 
 the milk of a goat When this goat broke off one 
 of her horns, Amalthea filled it with fresh herbs 
 and gave it to Zeus, who placed it among the stars. 
 According to other accounts Zeus himself broke off 
 one of the horns of the goat Amalthea, and gave it 
 to the daughters of Melisseus, and endowed it with 
 the wonderful power of becoming filled with what- 
 ever the possessor might wish. This is the story 
 about the origin of the celebrated horn of Amal- 
 thea, commonly called the horn of plenty or cornu- 
 copia, which was used in later times as the symbol 
 of plenty in general. — 3. One of the Sibyls, iden- 
 
 AMA6TRIS. 
 
 41 
 
 tified with the Cumaean Sibyl, who sold to king 
 Tarquinius the celebrated Sibylline books. 
 
 Amaltheum or Amaltbea, a villa of Atticus 
 on the river Thyamis in Epirus, was perhaps ori- 
 ginally a shrine of the nymph Amalthea, which 
 Atticus adorned with statues and bas-reliefs, and 
 converted into a beautiful summer retreat. Cicero, 
 in imitation, constructed a similar retreat on hia 
 estate at Arpinum. 
 
 Amantia {'Afxavria : Amantinus, Amantianus, 
 or Amantes, pi. : Nhnizd)^ a Greek town and dis- 
 trict in Illyricum : the town, said to have been 
 founded by the Abantes of Euboea, lay at some- 
 distance from the coast, E. of Oricum. 
 
 Amanus {6 *AiJ.av6s, rh 'Anav6v : 'AfiavlTTjs^ 
 Amaniensis : Almadagh), a branch of Mt. Taurus, 
 which runs from the head of the Gulf of Issus N.E. 
 to the principal chain, dividing Syria from Cilicia 
 and Cappadocia. There were two passes in it ; 
 the one, called the Syrian Gates (at Supiot iruAai, 
 Syriae Portae : Bylan) near the sea ; the other, 
 called the Amanian Gates ('A/xaj/tSey or 'A^avtrtai 
 TTuAat : Ajnanicae Pylae, Portae Amani Montis : 
 Demir Kapic^ i. e. tlie Iron Gate), further to the N. 
 The former pass was on the road from Cilicia t& 
 Antioch, the latter on that to the district Comma- 
 gene ; but, on account of its great difficulty, the- 
 latter pass was rarely used, until the Romans made 
 a road through it The inhabitants of Amanus 
 were wild banditti. 
 
 Amardi or Mardi ("AfiapZot, MapSot), a power- 
 ful, warlike, and predatory tribe who dwelt on the 
 S. shore of the Caspian Sea. 
 
 Amardus or Mardus {"Ajxaphos, MapEfos : Kixil 
 Ozien), a river flowing through the country of the 
 Mardi into the Caspian Sea. 
 
 Amarynceus {'A/xapvyKevs), a chief of tie 
 Eleans, is said by some writers to have fought 
 against Troy ; but Homer only mentions his son 
 Diores {Amaryncides) as taking part in the Trojan 
 war. 
 
 Amaryutlius (^A^apwdos : ^A^jiapvvBioi), a tovm 
 in Euboea 7 stadia from Eretria, to which it be- 
 longed, with a celebrated temple of Artemis, who 
 was hence called Amaryntkia or Amai~ysia, and in 
 whose honour there was a festival of this name 
 both in Euboea ^nd Attica. (See Diet, of Antiq* 
 art. AmaryntJaa.) 
 
 Amasenns (Amaseno), a river in Latium, rises^ 
 in the Volscian mountams, flows by Privemum, and 
 after being joined by the Ufens {Ufente)^ which 
 flows from Setia, falls into the sea between Circeii 
 and Terracina, though the greater part of its waters 
 are lost in the Pontine marshes. 
 
 Amasia or -ea ('A/iao-eia : 'A/iatreuy : Amasiah\ 
 the capital of the kings of Pontus, was a strongly 
 fortified city on both banks of the river Iris. It 
 was the birthplace of Mithridates the Great and 
 of the geographer Strabo. 
 
 Amasis ("Ajuao-is). 1. Kingof Eg5'pt,B.c.570 — 
 526, succeeded Apries, whom he dethroned. During 
 his long reign Egypt was in a verj' prosperous con- 
 dition ; and the Greeks were brought into much 
 closer intercourse with the Egyptians than had 
 existed previously. Amasis married Ladice, a 
 Cyrenaic lady, contracted an alliance with Cyrene 
 and Polycrates of Samos, and also sent presents to 
 several of the Greek cities. — 2. A Persian, sent 
 in the reign of Cambyses (b. c. 525) against Cyrene, 
 took Barca, but did not succeed in taking Cyrene. 
 
 Amastris {"AjxaaTpis, Ion. "Afi-qa-Tpts). 1. Wiffe 
 
42 
 
 AMASTRIS, 
 
 of Xerxeg, and mother of Artaxerxes L, was of a 
 cruel and vindictive character. ^ 2. Also called 
 Amastrine^ niece of Darius, the last king of Persia. 
 She married, 1. Craterus ; 2. Dionysius, tyrant of 
 Heraclea in Bithynia, b. c. 322 ; and 3. Lysi- 
 machus, b. c. 303. Having heen abandoned by 
 Lysimachus upon his marriage with Arsinoe, she 
 retired to Heraclea, where she reigned, and was 
 drowned by her two sons about 288. 
 
 AmastriS (*'A/xao'Tpis: 'AyuaffTptaPtJs: Amasera\ 
 a large and beautiful city, with two harlDours, on 
 the coast of Paphlagonia, built by Amastris after 
 her separation from Lysimachus (about b. c. 300), 
 on the site of the old town of Sesaraus, which 
 name the citadel retained. The new city was 
 built and peopled by the inhabitants of Cytorus 
 and Cromna. 
 
 Amata, wife of king Latinus and mother of La-, 
 vinia, opposed Lavinia being given in marriage to 
 Aeneas, because she had already promised her to 
 Tumus. When she heard that Tumus htwi fallen 
 in battle, she hung herself. 
 
 Amathus, -untis ('A^aSous-, -ovvro^ -. *A}xa9ov~ 
 ffio? : LiTnasol), an ancient town on the S. coast of 
 Cyprus, with a celebrated temple of Aphrodite, who 
 was hence called Amathu^a. There were copper- 
 mines in the neighbourhood of the town {fecundam 
 Amathunta metallic Ov. Met x. 220). 
 
 Amatins, sumamed Fseudomarius, -pvetejidQd to 
 be either the son or grandson of the great Marius, 
 and was put to death by Antony in B. c. 44. Some 
 call him Herophilus. 
 
 Amazones ('A^xafffres), a mythical race of war- 
 like females, are said to have come from the Cau- 
 casus, and to have settled in the country about the 
 river Thermodon, where they founded the city 
 Tfaemiscyra, in the neighbourhood of the modern 
 Trebizond. Their coimtiy was inhabited only 
 by the Amazons, who were governed by a queen : 
 but in order to propagate their race, they met 
 once a year the Gargareans in Mount Caucasus. 
 The children of the female sex were brought up 
 by the Amazons, and each had her right breast cut 
 off ; the male children were sent to the Gargareans 
 or put to death. The foundation of several towns 
 in Asia Minor and in the islands of the Aegean is 
 ascribed to them, e.g. of Ephesus, Smyrna, Cyme, 
 Myrina, and Paphos. The Greeks believed in 
 their existence as a real historical race down to a 
 late period ; and hence it is said that Thalestris, 
 the queen of the Amazons, hastened to Alexander, 
 in order to become a mother by the conqueror of 
 Asia. This belief of the Greeks may have arisen 
 from the peculiar way in which the women of some 
 of the Caucasian districts lived, and performed the 
 duties which in other coimtries devolve upon men, 
 as well as from their bravery and courage, which 
 are noticed as remarkable even by modem travel- 
 lers. Vague and obscure reports about them pro- 
 bably reached the inhabitants of western Asia and 
 the Greeks, and these reports were subsequently 
 worked out and embellished by popular tradition 
 and poetry. The following are the chief mythical 
 adventures with which the Amazons are connected : 
 — they are said to have invaded Lycia in the reign 
 of lobates, but were destroyed by Bellerophontes, 
 who happened to be staying at the king's court. 
 [Bellerophontes ; Laomedon.] They also in- 
 vaded Phrygia, and fought with the Phrygians and 
 Trojans when Priam was a young man. The ninth 
 among the labours imposed upon Hercules by 
 
 AMBRONES. 
 
 Eurystheug, was to take from Hippolyte, the queen 
 of the Amazons, her girdle, the ensign of her kingly 
 power, which she had received as a present from 
 Ares. [Hercules.] In the reign of Theseus 
 they invaded Attica. [Theseus.] Towards the 
 end of the Trojan war, the Amazons, under their 
 queen Penthesilea, came to the assistance of Priam ; 
 but she was killed by Achilles. The Amazons and 
 their battles are frequently represented in the re- 
 mains of ancient Greek art 
 
 Amazonicl or -lus Mons, a mountain range pa- 
 rallel and near to the coast of Pontus, containing 
 the sources of the Thermodon and other streams 
 which water the supposed country of the Amazons. 
 
 Ambarri, a people of Gaul, on the Arar 
 (Sao7ie) E. of the Aedui, and of the same stock 
 as the latter. 
 
 Ambiani, a Belgic people, between the Bello- 
 vaci and Atrebates, conquered by Caesar in B.C. 57. 
 Their chief town was Samarobriva afterwards 
 called Ambiani, now Amiens. 
 
 Ambiatinus Viciis, a place in the country of 
 the Treviri near Coblentz, where the emperor Ca- 
 ligula was bom. 
 
 Ambibari, an Armoric people in Gaul, near 
 the modem Amhieres in Normandy. 
 
 Ambiliatif a Gallic people, perhaps in Brittany, 
 
 Ambxorix, a chief of the Eburones in Gaul, cut 
 to pieces, in conjunction with Cativolcus, the Ro- 
 man troops under Sabinus and Cotta, who were 
 stationed for the winter in the territories of the 
 Eburones, b. c. 54. He failed in taking the camp 
 of Q. Cicero, and was defeated on the arrival of 
 Caesar, who was unable to obtain possession of the 
 person of Ambiorix, notwithstanding his active 
 pursuit of the latter. 
 
 Ambivareti, the clientes or vapssals of the Aedui, 
 probably dwelt N. of the latter. 
 
 Ambivariti, a Gallic people, W. of the Maas, in 
 the neighbourhood of Namur. 
 
 Ambivius Tnrpio. [Turpio.] 
 
 Amblada (ra ''A^iS\aBa : 'A/^SAo5ei5s), a town 
 in Pisidia, on the borders of Caria ; famous for ita 
 wine. 
 
 Ambracia ('AjuTrpa/cto, afterwards *Afx§paKla : 
 *A(j.€paKid>T7}s, 'A/xSpaKievs, Ambraciensis: Aria), a 
 town on the left bank of the Arachthus, 80 stadia 
 from the coast, N. of the Arobracian gulf, was 
 originally included in Acamania, but afterwards in 
 Epirus. It was colonised by the Corinthians about 
 B. c. 660, and at an early period acquired wealth 
 and importance. It became subject to the kings 
 of Epims about the time of Alexander the Great, 
 Pyrrhus made it the capital of his kingdom, and 
 adorned it with public buildings and statues. At 
 a later time it joined the Aetolian League, was 
 taken by the Romans in b. c. 189, and stripped of 
 its works of art. Its inhabitants were transplanted 
 to the new city of Nicopolis, founded by Augustus 
 after the battle of Actium, b. c. 31. South of Am- 
 bracia on the E. of the Arachthus, and close to the 
 sea was the fort Amhracus. 
 
 Ambracius Sinus {'A/j-Trpaicivhs or *A/x€paKiKhs 
 K6\'iros: G. of Arta), a gulf of the Ionian sea be- 
 tween Epirus and Acamania, said by Polybiua to 
 be 300 stadia long and 100 wide, and with an 
 entrance only 5 stadia in width. Its real length 
 is 25 miles and its width 10: the narrowest part 
 of the entrance is only 700 yards, but its general 
 width is about half a mile. 
 
 Ambrones {"AfiSpaives), a Celtic neonle. who 
 
AMBROSIUS. 
 
 joined the Cimbri and Teutoni in their inYaaion of 
 the Roman dominions, and were defeated by Ma- 
 riuB near Aquae Sextiae {Aiai) in b. c. 102. 
 
 Ambrosius, usually called St. Ambrose, one of 
 the most celebrated Christian fathers, was bom in 
 A.D. 340, probably at Augusta Trevirorum {Treves). 
 After a careful education at Kome, he practised 
 with great success as an advocate at Milan ; and 
 about A. D. 370 was appointed prefect of the pro- 
 vinces of Liguria and Aemilia, whose seat of go- 
 vernment was Milan. On the death of Auxentius, 
 bishop of Milan, in 374, the appointment of bis 
 successor led to an open conflict between the Arians 
 and Catholics. Ambrose exerted his influence to 
 restore peace, and addressed the people in a conci- 
 liatory speech, at the conclusion of which a child in 
 the further part of the crowd cried out " Ambrosius 
 episcoptts^* The words were received as an oracle 
 from heaven, and Ambrose was elected bishop by 
 the acclamation of the whole multitude, the bishops 
 of both parties uniting in his election. It was in 
 vain that he adopted the strangest devices to alter 
 the determination of the people ; nothing could 
 make them change their mind ; and at length he 
 yielded to the express command of the emperor 
 (VaJentinian I.), and was consecrated on the eighth 
 day after his baptism, for at the time of his election 
 he was only a catechumen. Ambrose was a man 
 of eloquence, firmness, and ability, and distinguished 
 himself by maintaining and enlarging the authority 
 of the church. He was a zealous opponent of the 
 Arians, and thus came into open conflict with Jus- 
 tina, the mother of Valentinian II., who demanded 
 the use of one of the churches of Milan for the 
 Aiians. Ambrose refused to give it ; he was sup- 
 ported by the people ; and the contest was at 
 length decided by the miracles which are reported 
 to have attended the discovery of the reliques of 
 two martyrs, Gervasius and Protasins. Although 
 these miracles were denied by the Arians, the im- 
 pression made by them upon the people in general 
 was so strong, that Justina thought it prudent to 
 give way. The state of the parties was quite al- 
 tered by the death of Justina in 387, when Valen- 
 tinian became a Catholic, and still more completely 
 by the victory of Theodosius over Maximus (388). 
 This event put the whole power of the empire into 
 the hands of a prince who was a firm Catholic, and 
 over whom Ambrose acquired such influence, that, 
 after the massacre at Thessalonica in 390, he re- 
 fused Theodosius admission into the church of 
 Milan for a period of 8 months, and only restored 
 him after he had performed a public penance. The 
 best edition of the works of Ambrose is that of 
 the Benedictines, Paris, 1686 and 1690. 
 
 AmbrysxLs or Amphrysus ("AfiSpva-os : 'A^u- 
 €pua€^5 : nr. Dhistomo), a town in Phocis strongly 
 fortified, S. of M. Parnassus : in the neighbour- 
 hood were numerous vineyards. 
 
 Ambustas, Fabius. 1. H., pontifex maximus 
 in the year that Rome was taken by the Gauls, 
 B. c. 390. His three sons, Kaeso, Numerius, and 
 Quintus, were sent as ambassadors to the Gauls, 
 when the latter were besieging Clusium, and took 
 part in a sally of the besieged against the Gauls 
 
 AMMIANUS 
 
 43 
 
 381 and 369,and censor in 363, had two daughters, 
 of whom the elder was married to Ser. Sulpicins, 
 and the younger to C. Licinius Stolo, the author of 
 the Licmian Rogations. According to the story 
 recorded by Livy, the younger Fabia induced her 
 iather to assist her husband in obtaining the con- 
 sulship for the plebeian order, into which she had 
 married. — 3. iSl., thrice consul, in b. c. 360, when 
 he conquered the Hemici, a second time in 356, 
 when he conquered the Falisci and Tarquinienaes, 
 and a third time in 354, when he conquered the 
 Tiburtes. He was dictator in 351. He was the 
 father of the celebrated Q. Fabius Maximus Rul- 
 lianus. [Maximcjs.] 
 
 Amenanus {^AfievavSs, Dor. *AiJ.4yas\ a river 
 in Sicily near Catana, only flowed occasionally 
 {nunc jiuiU inierdum sujypressis foniibus aret^ Ov. 
 Met Kj. 280). 
 
 Ameria (Amerinus : Amelia), an ancient town 
 in Umbria, and a municipium, the birth-place of 
 Sex. Roscius defended by Cicero, was situate in a 
 district rich in vines (Virg. Georg. L 265). 
 
 Ameriola, a town in the land of the Sabines, 
 destroyed by the Romans at a very early period. 
 
 Amestratus (Amestratlnus : Misiretta), a town 
 in the N. of Sicily not far from the coast, the 
 same as the MyUisiratum of Polybius, aid the 
 Amastra of Silius Italicus, taken by the Romans 
 from the Carthaginians in the first Punic war. 
 
 Amestria. [Amastris.] 
 
 Amida (^ "A^tSa; Diarhekr), a town in So- 
 phene (Armenia Major) on the upper Tigris. 
 
 Amilcar. [Hamilcak.] 
 
 Aminias (^Afieivias), brother of Aeschylus, dis- 
 tinguished himself at the battle of Salamis (b. c. 
 480) : he and Eumenes were judged to have been 
 the bravest on this occasion among all the Athe- 
 nians. 
 
 Amipsias ('Afxeiypias), a comic poet of Athens, 
 contemporary with Aristoplianes, whom he twice 
 conquered in the dramatic contests, gaining the 
 second prize with his Connus when Aristophanes 
 was third with the Clouds (b. c. 423), and the 
 first with his ComasUie ■when Aristophanes gained 
 the second with the Birds (b. c. 414). 
 
 Amisia or Amisiua {Ems), a river in northern 
 Germany well known to the Romans, on which 
 Drusus had a naval engagement with the Bructeii, 
 
 B. c. 12. 
 
 Amisia {Emden$), a fortress on the left bank 
 of the river of the same name. 
 
 Amisodams (*A^iir6J5o/jos), a king of Lycia, 
 said to have brought up the monster Chimaera: 
 his sons Atymnius and Maris were slain at Troy 
 by the sons of Neator. 
 
 Amisus ('A^iff^y: *Aixtfft\v6s, Amisenus: Sam- 
 sim)f a large city on the coast of Pontns, on a bay 
 of the Euxine Sea, called after it (Amisenus Sinus), 
 Mithridates enlarged it, and made it one of his 
 residences. 
 
 Amitemum (Amiteminus: Amalrica or Torre 
 d^Amitemo), one of the most ancient towns of the 
 Sabines, on the Atemus, the birth-place of the 
 historian Sallust. 
 
 Ammianus {*Anfiiav6s)y a Greek epigramma- 
 
44 
 
 AMMON. 
 
 served many years under Uraicinus, one of the 
 generak of Constantius, both in the West and East, 
 and he subsequently attended the emperor Julian 
 in his campaign against the Persians (a. d. 363). 
 Eventually he established himself at Rome, where he 
 composed his history, and wa3 alive at least as late as 
 390. His history, written in Latin, extended from 
 the accession of Nerva, a. d. 96, the point at which 
 the histories of Tacitus terminated, to the death of 
 Valens, A. D. 378, comprising a period of 282 years. 
 It was divided into 31 books, of which the first 13 
 are lost. The remaining 18 embrace the acts of 
 Constantius from a. d. 353, the 17th year of his 
 reign, together with the whole career of Gallus, 
 Julianus, Jovianus, Valentinianus, and Valens. 
 The portion preserved was the more important 
 part of the work, as he was a contemporary of the 
 events described in these books. The style of 
 Ammianus is harsh and inflated, but his accuracy, 
 fidelity, and impartiality, deserve praise. — Edi- 
 tions. Bv Gronovius, Lugd. Bat. 1 693 ; by Emesti, 
 Lips. 1773 ; by Wagner and Erfurdt, Lips. 1803. 
 
 Ammon ('A/ijUwj/), originally an Aethiopian or 
 Libyan, afterwards an Egyptian divinity. The 
 leal Egyptian name was Amun or Ammun ; the 
 Greeks called hjm Zeus Ammon, the Romans 
 Jupiter Ammon, and the Hebrews Amon. The 
 most ancient seat of his worship was Meroe, where 
 he had an oracle : thence it was introduced into 
 Egypt, where the worship took the firmest root at 
 Thebes in Upper Egypt, which was therefore fre- 
 quently called by the Greeks Diospolis, or the 
 city of Zeus. Another famous seat of the god, 
 with a celebrated oracle, was in the oasis of 
 Ammonium {Siwah) in the Libyan desert ; the 
 worship was also established in Cyrenaica. The 
 god was represented either in the form of a ram, 
 or as a human being with the head of a ram ; 
 but there are some representations in which he 
 appears altogether as a human being with only the 
 horns of a ram. It seems clear that the original 
 idea of Ammon was that of a protector and leader 
 of the flocks. The Aethiopians were a nomad 
 people, flocks of sheep constituted their principal 
 wealth, and it is perfectly in accordance with the 
 notions of the Aethiopians as well as Egyptians to 
 worship the animal which is the leader and pro- 
 tector of the flock. This view is supported by the 
 various stories related about Ammon. 
 
 Ammoniiim. [Oasis.] 
 
 Ammonius {'Aufxavios). 1. Grammaticus, of 
 Alexandria, left this city on the overthrow of the 
 heathen temples in A. d. 389, and settled at Con- 
 stantinople. He wrote, in- Greek, a valuable work. 
 On ilie Differences of Words of like Signification 
 (irepl d/j-olcDi/ Kal SiacpSpay Ae^ewr). — Editions. 
 By Valckenaer, Lugd. Bat, 1739 ; by Schafer, Lips. 
 1822. — 2. Son of Hermeas, studied at Athens 
 under Proclus (who died A. D. 484), and was the 
 master of Simplicius, Damascius, and others. He 
 wrote numerous commentaries in Greek on the 
 works of the earlier philosophers. His extant 
 works are Commentaries on the Isagoge of Por- 
 phyri/y or ilic Five Predicablcs, first published at 
 Venice in 1500 ; and On the Categories o/ Aris- 
 totle and De Interpreiatione, published by Brandis 
 in his edition of the Scholia on Aristotle. — 3. Of 
 Lamprae in Attica, a Peripatetic philosopher. 
 
 AMPHIARAUS. 
 
 was carrying the corn, landed at Alexandria, as 3 
 public porter, was born of Christian parents. Some 
 writers assert, and others deny, that he apostatized 
 from the faith. At any rate he combined the 
 study of philosophy with Christianity, and is re- 
 garded by those who maintain his apostasy as the 
 founder of the later Platonic School. Among hia 
 disciples were Longinus, Herennius, Plotinus, and 
 Origen. He died a. d. 243, at the age of more 
 than 80 years. 
 
 Anmisus (AjuvicrtJs), a town in the N. of Crete 
 and the harbour of Cnossus, situated on a river of 
 the same name, the nymphs of which, called 
 Amntsiades^ were in the service of Artemis. 
 
 Amor, the god of love, had no place in the reli- 
 gion of the Romans, who only translate the Greek 
 name Eros into Amor. [Eros.] 
 
 Amorgus {^ hiiopyos : 'Afj-opyifos: Amorgo)^an 
 island in the Grecian Archipelago, one of the Spo- 
 rades, the birth-place of Simonides, and under the 
 Roman emperors a place of banishment. 
 
 Amorium (^AfjiSpiov), a city of Phrygia Major or 
 Galatia, on the river Sangarius ; the reputed birth- 
 place of Aesop. 
 
 Ampe ("Afj-mj, Herod.) or Ampelone (Plin.>, 
 a town at the mouth of the Tigris, where Darius I. 
 planted the Milesians whom he removed from their 
 own city after the Ionian revolt (b. c. 494). 
 
 L. Ampelius, the author of a small work, entitled 
 Liber Memorialise probably lived in the 2nd or 3rd 
 century of the Christian aera. His work is a sort 
 of common-place-book, containing a meagre sum- 
 mary of the most striking natural objects and of 
 the most remarkable events, divided into 50 chap- 
 ters. It is generally printed with Fionas, and haa 
 been published separately by Beck, Lips. 1826. 
 
 Ampelus (^A/iTreAos), a promontory at the ex- 
 tremity of the peninsula Sithonia in Chalcidice in 
 Macedonia near Torone. 
 
 Ampelusia ('AjU7re\ouo-ta : 0. Espariel\ the 
 promontory at the W. end of the S. or African 
 coast of the Fretum Gaditanum {Straits of Gi- 
 braltar). The natives of the country called it Cotes 
 (ot KwTets). 
 
 Amphaxitis ('AtJ.(pa^Tis), a district of, Mj'g- 
 donia in Macedonia, at the mouths of the Axius 
 and Echedorug. 
 
 Ampliea ("A/z^efa: 'A(j.(p€vs)^ a small town of 
 Messenia on the borders of Laconia and Messenia, 
 conquered by the Spartans in the first Messenian 
 war. 
 
 Ampliiaraus CAfj.(pidpaos), son of Oicles and 
 H3'7)ermne3tra, daughter of Thestius, was de- 
 scended on his father''s side from the famous seer 
 Melampus, and was himself a great prophet and 
 a great hero at Argos. By his wife Eriphyle, the 
 sister of Adrastus, he was the father of Alcmaeon, 
 Araphilochus, Eurydice, and Demonassa. He took 
 part in the hunt of the Calydonian boar, and in 
 the Argonautic voyage. He also joined Adrastua 
 in the expedition against Thebes, although he fore- 
 saw its fatal termination, through the persuasions 
 of his wife Eriphyle, who had been induced to 
 persuade her husband by the necklace of Harmonia 
 which Polynices had given her. On leaving Argos, 
 however, he enjoined his sons to punish their mo- 
 ther for his death. During the war against Thebes, 
 Amphiaraus fought bravely, but could not escape 
 
AMPHICAEA. 
 
 cvertaken hy his enemy. Zeus made him immor- 
 tal, and henceforth he was worshipped as a hero, 
 ■first at Oropus and afterwards in all Greece. His 
 oracle between Potniae and Thebes, where he was 
 said to have been swallowed up, enjoyed great 
 celebrity. {See Did. of A71L art. Oraculujti.) His 
 son, Alcmaeon, is called Ampkiaraides, 
 
 Ampliicaea or Ampldclea (^A/xtpiKaia, 'A/tn^i- 
 «\eia: ' AfX(biKaievs : Dhadhi or Oglunitza^)^ a 
 town in the N. of Phocis, with an adytum of 
 Dionysus, was called for a long time OphUea 
 ('O^iTe(a) by command of the Amphictyons. 
 
 AmpMctyon {^AfKpiKrvuv), a son of Deucalion 
 and Pyrrha. Others represent him as a king of 
 Attica, who expelled from the kingdom his father- 
 in-law Cranaus, ruled for 12 years, and was 
 then in turn expelled by Erichthonius. Many 
 writers represent him as the founder of the 
 amphictyony of Thermopylae ; in consequence 
 of this belief a sanctuary of Amphictyon was 
 built in the village of Anthela on the Asopus, 
 which was the most ancient place of meeting of this 
 amphictyony. 
 
 Amp£idamas ('A^(^£5a;ias), son, or, according 
 to others, brother of Lycurgus, one of the Ar- 
 gonauts. 
 
 Ampholochia fA^^^iXoxia), the country of the 
 Amphilochi (^A/x^iKoxot), an Epirot race, at the 
 E. end of the Ambracian gulf, usaally included in 
 Acamania. Their chief town was Akgos Amphi- 
 
 LOCHICUM. 
 
 Amphiloclius CA/j.fpl\oxos), son of Amphiaraus 
 and Eriphyle, and brother of Alcmaeon. He took an 
 ■active part in the expedition of the Epigoni against 
 Thebes, assisted his brother in the murder of their 
 mother [Alcmaeon], and afterwards fought against 
 Troy. On his return from Troy, together with 
 Mopsus, who was like himself a seer, he founded 
 the town of Mallos m Cilicia. Hence he proceeded 
 to his native place, Argos, but returned to Mallos, 
 where he was killed in single combat by Mopsus. 
 Others relate (Thuc. ii. 68), that after leaving Ar- 
 gos, Amphilochus founded Argos Amphilochium on 
 the Ambracian gulf. He was worshipped at Mallos 
 in Cilicia, at Oropus, and at Athens. 
 
 Ampliilytus {'A/jicplXvTos), a celebrated seer in 
 the time of Pisistratus (b. c. 559), is called both 
 an Acarnanian and an Athenian : he may have 
 been an Acarnanian who received the franchise at 
 Athens. 
 
 Amphimaclius {'A^(pl/.Laxos). 1. Son of Cteatns, 
 ■grandson of Poseidon, one of the four leaders of the 
 Epeans against Troy, was slain by Hector. ^ 2. 
 Son of Nomion, with his brother Nastes, led the 
 Carians to the assistance of the Trojans, and was 
 slain by Achilles. 
 
 Amphimalla (ra 'A^^i/^aWa), a to'wn on the 
 N. coast of Crete, on a bay called after it {G. of 
 Armiro). 
 
 AmphimedoiL (^ A^(pifj.iZa)v), of Ithaca, a guest- 
 -friend of Agamemnon, and a suitor of Penelope, 
 was slain by Teleraachus. 
 
 AmpMon ('A/x^iw;'). 1. Son of Zeus and An- 
 tiope, the daughter of Nycteus of Thebes, and 
 twin-brother of Zethus. (Ov. Met. vi. 110, seq.) 
 Amphion and Zethus were born either at Eleuthe- 
 rae in Boeotia or on Mount Cithaeron, whither 
 their mother had fled, and grew up among the 
 shepherds, not knowing their descent. Hermes 
 (according to others, Apollo, or the Muses) gave 
 Amphion a lyre, who henceforth practised song 
 
 AMPHISSA. 
 
 45 
 
 and music, while his brother spent his time in 
 hunting and tending the flocks. (Hor. Ep. i. 18. 
 41.) Having become acquainted with their origin 
 they marched against Thebes, where Lycus reigned, 
 the husband of their mother Antiope, whom he had 
 repudiated, and had then married Dtrce in her stead. 
 They took the city, and as Lycus and Dirce had 
 treated their mother with great cruelty, the two 
 brothers killed them both. They put Dirce to death 
 by tying her to a bull,who dragged her about till she 
 perished ; and they then threw her body into a well, 
 which was from this time called the well of Dirce, 
 After they had obtained possession of Thebes, they 
 fortified it by a wall. It is said, that when Amphion 
 played his lyre, the stones moved of their own ac- 
 cord and formed the wall (inovit Amphion lapides 
 canendo, Hor. Carm. iii. 11). Amphion afterwards 
 married Niobe, who bore him many sons and 
 daughters, all of whom were killed by Apollo. His 
 death is differently related : some saj', that he 
 killed himself from grief at the loss of his children 
 (Ov. Met. vi. 270), and others tell us that he was 
 killed by Apollo because he made an assault on 
 the Pythian temple of the god. Amphion and his 
 brother were buried at Thebes. The piuiishment 
 inflicted upon Dirce is represented in the celebrated 
 Farnese bull, the work of Apollonius and Tau- 
 riscus, which was discovered in 1546, and placed 
 in the palace Farnese at Rome. — 2. Son of Jasus 
 and father of Chloris. In Homer, this Amphion, 
 king of Orchomenos, is distinct from Amphion, the 
 husband of Niobe ; but in earlier traditions they 
 seem to have been regarded as the same person. 
 
 Ampliipolis {' A/j.(plTro\is ; 'AfL(ptiro\iT't]s : Neoh- 
 Jiorio, in Turkish Jeni-Keui), a town in Macedonia 
 on the left or eastern bank of the Strj'mon, just 
 below its egress from the lake Cercinitis, and about 
 3 miles from the sea. The Strymon flowed almost 
 round the town, nearly forming a circle, whence its 
 name Amphi-polis. It was originally called "Ewea 
 5501, " the Nine Ways," and belonged to the Edo- 
 nians, a Thracian people. Aristagoras of Miletus 
 first attempted to colonize it, but was cut off with 
 his followers by the Edonians in b. c. 497. The 
 Athenians made a next attempt with 10,000 colo- 
 nists, but they were all destroyed by the Edonians 
 in 465. In 437 the Athenians were more suc- 
 cessful, and drove the Edonians out of the " Nine 
 Ways," which was henceforth called Amphipolis. 
 It was one of the most important of the Athenian 
 possessions, being advantageously situated for trade 
 on a navigable river in the midst of a fertile coun- 
 try, and near the gold mines of M. Pangaeus. 
 Hence the indignation of the Athenians when it 
 fell into the hands of Brasidas (b. c. 424) and of 
 Philip (35f»). Under the Romans it was a free 
 city, and the capital of Macedonia prima: the 
 Via Egnatia ran through it. The port of Amphi- 
 polis was EiON. 
 
 Amphis ("A/ifpis), an Athenian comic poet, of 
 the middle comedy, contemporary with the philo- 
 sopher Plato. We have the titles of 26 of his 
 plays, and a few fragments of them. 
 
 Amphissa ("A^uc^icro-a : 'Aii^Kra^vs, 'Afx(pt(r- 
 <xa7os : Salona), one of the chief towns of the Locri 
 Ozolae on the borders of Phocis, 7 miles from 
 Delphi, said to have been named after Amphissa, 
 daughter of Macareus, and beloved by Apollo. In 
 consequence of the Sacred War declared against 
 Amphissa by the Amphictyons, the town was de- 
 stroyed by Philipj b. c. 338, but it waa soon after- 
 
A6 
 
 AMPHISTRATUS 
 
 wards rebuilt, and under the Romans waa a free 
 state. 
 
 Amphiatratus (^A/Kpia-Tparos) and his brother 
 Rhecas, the charioteers of the Dioscuri, were said 
 to have taken part in the expedition of Jason to 
 Colchis, and to have occupied a part of that coun- 
 try which was called after them Henioclda, as Iie- 
 niochus {■^I'ioxos) signifies a charioteer. 
 
 Amphitrite ('A^f/xTpirr;), a Nereid or an 
 Oceanid, wife of Poseidon and goddess of the sea, 
 especially of the Mediterranean. In Homer Am- 
 phitrite is merely the name of the sea, and she first 
 occurs as a goddess in Hesiod. Later poets again 
 use the word as equivalent to the sea in genei-ai. 
 She became by Poseidon the mother of Triton, 
 Rhode or Rhodos, and Benthesicyme. 
 
 AmpMtrope {'AfAcptTpdirrj : *AiJ.<piTpoTraievs), an 
 Attic demus belonging to the tribe Antiochis, in 
 the neighbourhood of the silver-mines of Laiirium. 
 
 Amphitryon or Amphitruo ('AixipiTpvuiv), son 
 of Alcaeus, king of Tirj^na, and Hipponome. Al- 
 caeus had a brother Electryon, wlio reigned at 
 Mycenae. Between Electryon and Pterelaus, king 
 of the Taphians, a furious war raged, in which 
 Electryon lost all his children except Licymnius, 
 and was robbed of his oxen. Amphitryon recovered 
 the oxen, but on his return to Mycenae accident- 
 ally killed his uncle Electrj'on. He was now ex- 
 pelled from Mycenae, together with Alcmene the 
 daughter of Electrj'on, by Sthenelus the brother of 
 Electryon, and went to Thebes, where he was pu- 
 rified by Creon. In order to win the hand of 
 Alcmene, Amphitryon prepai'ed to avenge the 
 death of Alcmene's brothers on the Taphians, and 
 conquered them, after Comaetho, the daughter of 
 Pterelaus, through her love for Amphitryon, cut 
 off the one golden hair on her father's head, which 
 rendered him immortal. During the absence of 
 Amphitrj'on from Thebes, Jupiter visited Alcmene, 
 who became by the god the mother of Hercules ; 
 the latter is called Ampldtryoniades in allusion to 
 his reputed father. Amphitrj'on fell in a war 
 against Erginus, king of the Minyans. The comedy 
 of Plautus, called AmpJati-uo, is a ludicrous repre- 
 sentation of the visit of Zeus to Alcmene in the 
 disguise of her lover Amphitryon. 
 
 Amplioterus (^Afj.<p6T€po5). [Acarnan,] 
 
 Amphrysus {'AfjL(ppv(r6s). 1. A small river in 
 Thessaly which flowed into the Pagasaean gulf, on 
 the banks of which Apollo fed the herds of Ad- 
 metus (pastor ah Ampkryso^ Virg. Georg. iii. 2). 
 "—2. See Ambrysus. 
 
 Ampsaga {Wad-el-Kabir, or Su/jiinar), a river 
 of N. Africa, which divided Numidia from Maure- 
 tania Sitifensis. It flows past the town of Cirta 
 {CoTistaTitina). 
 
 Ampsanctiis or Amsanctus Lacus (La^o 
 d''Ansanti or Mufiti), a small lake in Samnium 
 pear Aeculanum, from which mepbitic vapours 
 arose. Near it was a chapel of the god Mephitis 
 with a cavern from which raephitic vapours also 
 came, and which was therefore regarded as an en- 
 trance to the lower world. (Virg. Aen. vii. 563, 
 seq.) 
 
 Ampsivarii. [Ansibarii.] 
 
 Ampycua {"AfMirvKos). 1. Son of Pelias, hus- 
 band of Chloris, and father of the famous seer 
 Mopsua, who is hence caXied Ampieides. Pausanias 
 calls him Ampyx. — 2. Son of Japetus, a bard 
 and priest of Ceres, killed hy Pettalus at the mar- 
 riage of Perseus. 
 
 AMYNTAS. 
 
 Ampyx. [Ampycus.] 
 
 Amiilius. [Romulus.] 
 
 Amyclae. 1. ('A^uii/cAai : ^AfxvKXaievs, *A/tu- 
 K\a7os: SklavokhoH oi Aia Ki/naki ?), an ancient 
 town of Laconia on the Eurotas, in a beautiful 
 country--, 20 stadia S.E. of Sparta. It is mentioned 
 in the Iliad (ii. 584), and is said to have been 
 founded by the ancient Lacedaemonian king Amy- 
 clas, father of Hyacinthus, and to have been the 
 abode of Tyndarus, and of Castor and Pollux, who 
 are hence called Amyclaei Fratres. After the 
 conquest of Peloponnesus by the Dorians, the 
 Achaeans maintained themselves in Amyclae for a 
 long time ; and it was only shortly before the first 
 Messenian war that the town was taken and de- 
 stroyed by the Lacedaemonians under Teleclus. 
 The tale ran that the inhabitants had been so often 
 alarmed by false reports of the approach of the 
 enemy, that they passed a law tliat no one should 
 speak of the enemy ; and accordingly when the 
 Lacedaemonians at last came, and no one dared to 
 announce their approach, " Amyclae perished 
 through silence : " hence arose the proverb A7ny- 
 clis ipsis iacitumior. After its destruction by the 
 Lacedaemonians Amyclae became a village, and 
 was only memorable by the festival of the Hya- 
 cinthia (see Did. of Ant. s. v.) celebiuted at the 
 place annually, and by the temple and colossal 
 statue of Apollo, who was hence called Amyclaeus. 
 ^3. (Amyclanus), an ancient town of Latiura, E. 
 of Terracina, on the Sinus Amyclanus, was, accord- 
 ing to tradition, an Achaean colony from Laconia. 
 In the time of Augustus the town had disappeared ; 
 the inhabitants were said to have deserted it on 
 account of its being infested by serpents ; whence 
 Virgil {Aen. x. 564) speaks of tacitae Amyclae^ 
 though some commentators suppose that he transfers 
 to this town the epithet belonging to the Amyclae 
 in Laconia [No. 1]. Near Amyclae was the Spe- 
 lunca {Sperlonga), or natural grotto, a favourite 
 retreat of the emperor Tiberius. 
 
 Amyclas. [Amyclae.] 
 
 Amyclides, a name of Hyacinthus, as the son 
 of Amyclas. 
 
 Amyous ("A/iuKoy), son of Poseidon and Bithy- 
 nis, king of the Bebryces, was celebrated for his 
 skill in boxing, and used to challenge strangers to 
 box with him. When the Argonauts came to his 
 dominions, Pollux accepted the challenge and 
 killed him, 
 
 Amymone ('AfivfidjpTj)^ one of the daughters of 
 Danaus and Elephantis. When Danaus arrived 
 in Argos, the country was suffering fix)m a drought 
 and Danaus sent out Amymone to fetch water. 
 She was attacked by a satyr, but was rescued from 
 his violence by Poseidon, who appropriated her to 
 himself, and then showed her the wells at Lerna. 
 According to another account he bade her draw 
 his trident from the rock, from which a threefold 
 spring gushed forth, which was called after her the 
 well and river of Amymone. Her son by Posei- 
 don was called Naupliug. 
 
 Ain3niander (' AfivvavBpos), king of the Atha- 
 manes in Epirus, an ally of the Romans in their 
 war with Philip of Macedonia, about B.C. 198, 
 but an ally of Antiochus, b. c. 189, 
 
 Amyntas (*AfxvvTas). 1. I. King of Macedo- 
 nia, reigned from about B. c. 540 to 500, and was 
 succeeded by his son Alexander I. ^ 2. II. King 
 of Macedonia, son of Philip, the brother of Per- 
 diccas II., reigned E. c. 393 — 369, and obtained 
 
AMYNTOR, 
 
 the crown "by the murder of the usurper Pausanias. 
 Soon after his accession he was driven from Mace- 
 donia by the Illyrians, but was restored to his 
 kingdom by the Thessalians. On his return he 
 was engaged in war with the Olynthians, in 
 which he was assisted by the Spartans, and by 
 their aid Olynthus was reduced in 379- Amyntas 
 united himself also with Jason of Pherae, and 
 carefully cultivated the friendship of Athens. 
 Amyntas left by his wife Eurydice three sons, 
 Alexander, Perdiccas, and the famous Philip. 
 ^ 3. Grandson of Amyntas II., was excluded by 
 Philip from the succession on the death of his father 
 Perdiccas III. in b. c. '660. He was put to death 
 in the first year of the reign of Alexander the 
 Great, 336, for a plot against the king's life. ^ 4. 
 A Macedonian officer in Alexander's aiiny, son of 
 Andromenes. He and his brothers were accused 
 of being privy to the conspii-acy of Philotas in 33(>, 
 but were acquitted. Some little time after he was 
 killed at the siege of a village.— 5. A Macedonian 
 traitor, son of Antiochus, took refuge at the court 
 of Darius, and became one of the commanders of 
 the Greek mercenaries. He was present at the 
 battle of Issus (b. c. 333), and afterwards fled to 
 Egypt, where he was put to death by Mazaces, 
 the Persian governor. — 6. A king of Galatia, 
 supported Antony, and fought on his side against 
 Augustus at the battle of Actium (b. c. 31). He 
 fell in an expedition against the town of Homonada 
 or Homona. ^ 7. A Greek -writer of a work en- 
 titled StatJimi (2Tci0/io/), probably an account of 
 the different halting-places of Alexander the Great 
 in his Asiatic expedition. 
 
 Amyntor (^ A/j-vvrup) , son of Orraenus of Eleon 
 in Thessaly, where Autolycus broke into his house, 
 and fiither of Phoenix, whom he cursed on ac- 
 count of unlawful intercourse with his mistress. 
 According to ApoUodorus he was a king of Orme- 
 nium, and was slain by Hercules, to whom he re- 
 fiised a passage through his dominions, and the 
 hand of his daughter Astvdaiiiia. According to 
 Ovid {Met. xii. 364) he was king of the Dolopes. 
 
 Amyrtaeus (^Afivpraios), an Eg^'ptian, assumed 
 the title of king, and joined Inarus the Libyan in 
 the revolt against the Persians in b. c. 460. They 
 at first defeated the Persians [Achaemenes], but 
 were subsequently totally defeated, 455. Amyrtaeus 
 escaped, and maintained himself as king in the 
 marshy districts of Lower Egypt till about 414, 
 when the Egj'ptians expelled the Persians, and 
 Amyrtaeus reigned 6 years. 
 
 Amyrus ("A/^upor), a river in Thessaly, with a 
 town of the same name upon it, flowing into the 
 lake Boebeis : the country around Avas called the 
 
 Amythaon {'Afxv6a.<av\ son of Cretheus and 
 Tyro, father of Bias and of the seer Melampus, who 
 is hence caWed Ami/thdonius (Virg, Georg.in.550). 
 He dwelt at Pylus in Messenia, and is mentioned 
 among those to whom the restoration of the Olym- 
 pian games was ascribed. 
 
 Anabou {'AvdStav), a district of the Persian 
 province of Aria, S. of Aria Proper, containing 4 
 towns, which still exist, Phra {Ferrah), Bis {Beesl 
 or Bost), Gari (Ghore), Nii (Neh). 
 
 Anaces ("AyaKcs). [Anax, No. 2.] 
 
 Anacharsis {'Avdxapa-is), a Scythian of princely 
 rank, left his native country to travel in pursuit of 
 knowledge, and came to Athena, about b. c. 594. 
 He became acquainted with Solon, and by his ta- 
 
 ANAMARL 
 
 47 
 
 lents and acute observations, he excited general 
 admiration. The fame of his wisdom was such, 
 that he was even reckoned by some among the seven 
 sages. He was killed by his brother Saulius on 
 his return to his native country. Cicero (Tusc. 
 Disp. V. 32) quotes from one of his letters, of which 
 several, but spurious, are still extant. 
 
 Anacreon {'AvaKpeojv)^ a celebrated lyric poet, 
 bom at Teos, an Ionian city in Asia Minor. He 
 removed from his native city, with the great body 
 of its inhabitants, to Abdera, in Thrace, when Teos 
 was taken by the Persians (about b. c. 540), but 
 lived chiefly at Samoa, under the patronage of 
 Polycrates, in whose praise he wrote many songs. 
 After the death of Polycrates (322), he went 
 to Athens at the invitation of the tyrant Hippar- 
 chus, where he became acquainted with Simonides 
 and other poets. He died at the age of 85, pro- 
 bably about 478, but the place of his death is 
 uncertain- The universal tradition of antiquity re- 
 presents Anacreon as a consummate voluptuary ; 
 and his poems prove the ti-uth of the tradition. He 
 sings of love and wine with hearty good will ; and 
 we see in him the luxury of the Ionian inflamed by 
 the fervour of the poet. The tale that he loved 
 Sappho is very improbable. Of his poems only a 
 few genuine fragments have come down to us ; for 
 the " Odes" attributed to him are now admitted to 
 be spurious. — Editions: by Fischer, Lips. 1793; 
 Bergk, Lips. 1834. 
 
 Aaactorium (^AvaKr6piov ;'A;/a«T(Jpios), atown 
 in Acamania, built by the Corinthians, upon a 
 promontory of the same name (near La Madonna) 
 at the entrance of the Ambracian gulf. Its in- 
 habitants were removed by Augustus after the 
 battle of Actium (b. c. 31) to Nicopolis. 
 
 Anadyom.ene i^AvaZvQfj.4v7])^ the goddess rising 
 out of the sea, a surname given to Aphrodite, in 
 allusion to the story of her being bom from the 
 foam of the sea. This surname had not much cele- 
 brity before the time of Apelles, but his famous 
 painting of Aphrodite Anadyomene excited the 
 emulation of other artists, painters as well as sculp- 
 tors. [Apelles.] 
 
 Anagnia (Anaguinus : Ana<jni)^ an ancient town 
 of Latium, the chief town of the Hemici, and sub- 
 sequently both a municipium and a Roman colony. 
 It lay in a very beautiful and fertile coimtry on a 
 hill, at the foot of which the Via Lavicana and 
 Via Praenestina united (Compilum Ana(/ninum). 
 In the neighbourhood Cicero had a beautiful estate, 
 Anagninum (sc. praediwn). 
 
 Aiiagyrus (^Ayayvpovs^ -ovvtos : ^Avayvpacrios, 
 'Avayvpovvr6Qiv ; nr. Vari, Ru.), a demus of At- 
 tica, belonging to the tribe Erectheis, not, as some 
 say, Aeantis, S. of Athens, near the promontory 
 Zoster. 
 
 Anaitica i^AvainKri)^ a district of Armenia, in 
 which the goddess Ana'itis was worshipped j also 
 called Acilisene. 
 
 Analtia (^Avatris), an Asiatic divinity, whose 
 name is also ^vritten kwaea, Aneitis, Tanais, or Na- 
 naea. Her worship prevailed in Armenia, Cappadocia, 
 Assyria, Persis, &c., and seems to have been a part 
 of the worship so common among the Asiatics, of 
 the creative powers of nature, both male and female. 
 The Greek writers sometimes identify Anaitis with 
 Artemis, and sometimes with Aphrodite. 
 
 Anamari or -res, a Gallic people in the plain of 
 the Po, in whose land the Romans founded Pla- 
 ceutia. 
 
AMYNTOR- 
 
 the crown "by the murder of the usurper Pausanias. 
 Soon after his accession he was driven from Mace- 
 donia by the lUyrians, but was restored to his 
 kingdom by the Tbessalians. On his return he 
 ■was engaged in war with the Olynthians, in 
 which he was assisted by the Spartans, and by 
 their aid Olynthua was reduced in 379. Amyntas 
 united himself also with Jason of Pherae, and 
 cnrefuUy cultivated the friendship of Athens. 
 Amyntas left by his wife Eurydice three sons, 
 Alexander, Perdiccas, and the famous Pliilip. 
 ^3. Grandson of Amyntas II., was excluded by 
 Philip from the succession on the death of his father 
 Perdiccas III. in b. c. '660* He was put to death 
 in the first year of the reign of Alexander the 
 Great, 336, for a plot against the king's life. ^ 4. 
 A Macedonian officer in Alexander's armj', son of 
 Andromenes. He and his brothers were accused 
 of being privy to the conspiracy of Philotaa in 330, 
 but were acquitted. Some little time after he was 
 killed at the siege of a village.— 5. A Macedonian 
 traitor, son of Antiochus, took refuge at the court 
 of Darius, and became one of the commanders of 
 the Greek mercenaries. He was present at the 
 battle of Issus (b. c. 333), and afterwards fled to 
 Egypt, where he was put to death by Mazaces, 
 the Persian governor. — 6. A king of Galatia, 
 supported Antony, and fought on his side against 
 Augustus at the battle of Actium (b. c. 31). He 
 fell in an expedition against the town of Homonada 
 or Homona. — 7. A Greek ■writer of a work en- 
 titled Stathmi (^raQfxoi)^ probably an account of 
 the different halting-places of Alexander the Great 
 in his Asiatic expedition. 
 
 Amyntor ('A/iuPTwp), son of Onuenus of Eleon 
 in Thessaly, where Autolycus broke into his house, 
 and father of Phoenix, whom he cursed on ac- 
 count of unlawful intercourse with bis mistress. 
 According to Apollodorus he was a king of Orme- 
 nium, and was slain by Hercules, to whom he re- 
 fused a passage through his dominions, and the 
 hand of his daughter AstyhamIa. According to 
 Ovid {Met. xii. 364) he was king of the Dolopes. 
 
 Amyrtaeus (^AfivpraTos), an Egj-^itian, assumed 
 the title of king, and joined Inanis the Libyan in 
 the revolt against the Persians in b. c. 460. They 
 at first defeated the Persians [Achaemenes], but 
 were subsequently totally defeated, 455. Arayrtaeus 
 escaped, and maintained himself as king in the 
 marshy districts of Lower Eg}'pt till about 414, 
 when the Egyptians expelled the Persians, and 
 Amyrtaeus reigned 6 years. 
 
 Amyrus {"A/ivpos), a river in Thessaly, with a 
 town of the same name upon it, flowing into the 
 lake Boebeis : the country around was called the 
 'AfxvpiKhv tr^Ziov. 
 
 Amythaoii {*Anvddwv\ son of Cretheus and 
 Tyro, father of Bias and of the seer Melampus, who 
 is hence caWed Ami/thdomus (Virg. G^eor^.iii.550). 
 He dwelt at Pylus in Messenia, and is mentioned 
 among those to whom the restoration of the Olym- 
 pian games was ascribed. 
 
 Anabon {*Avd€(t}t/)^ a district of the Persian 
 province of Aria, S. of Aria Proper, containing 4 
 towns, which still exist, Phra {Ferrak), Bis {Beest 
 or Bost), Gari (Ghore), Nii (Neh). 
 
 AnaCBS ("Aw/ces). [Anax, No. 2.] 
 
 Anaeharsis {'Avdxapffis), a Scythian of princely 
 rank, left his native country to travel in pursuit of 
 knowledge, and came to Athens, about b. c. 694. 
 He became acquainted with Solon, and by his ta- 
 
 ANAMARL 
 
 47 
 
 lents and acute observations, he excited general 
 admiration. The fame of his wisdom was such, 
 that he was even reckoned by some among the seven 
 sages. He was killed by his brother Saulius on 
 his return to his native country. Cicero {Tusc. 
 Disp. V. 32) quotes from one of his letters, of which 
 several, but spurious, are still extant. 
 
 Anacreon ('Acaftrpeoji/), a celebrated Ij'ric poet, 
 bom at Teos, an Ionian city in Asia Minor. He 
 removed from his native city, with the great body 
 of its inhabitants, to Abdera, in Thrace, when Teos 
 was taken by the Persians (about b. c. 540), but 
 lived chiefly at Samos, under the patronage of 
 Polycrates, in whose praise he wrote many songs. 
 After the death of Polycrates (522), he went 
 to Athens at tlie invitation of the tyrant Hippar- 
 chus, where he became acquainted with Simonides 
 and other poets. He died at the age of 85, pro- 
 bably about 478, but the place of his death is 
 unceitain. The universal tradition of antiquity re- 
 presents Anacreon as a consummate voluptuaiy ; 
 and his poems prove the tnxth of the tradition. He 
 sings of love and \vine with hearty good will ; and 
 we see in him the luxury of the Ionian inflamed by 
 the fervour of the poet. The tale that he loved 
 Sappho is very improbable. Of his poems only a 
 few genuine fragments have come down to us ; for 
 the "■ Odes" attributed to him are now admitted to 
 be spurious, — Editions: by Fischer, Lips, 1793 ; 
 Bergk, Lips. 1834. 
 
 AnactoriTua {'AvaKrSpiov '/AvaKTSpios)^ a town 
 in Acamania, built by the Corinthians, upon a 
 promontory of the same name (near La Madonna) 
 at the entrance of the Ambracian gulf. Its in- 
 habitants were removed by Aiigustus after the 
 battle of Actium (b, c. 31) to Nicopolis. 
 
 Anadyomene (^ AvaZvoiJ.4vri)^ the goddess rising 
 out of the sea, a surname given to Aphrodite, iu 
 allusion to the story of her being bom from the 
 foam of the sea. This surname had not much cele- 
 brity before the time of Apelles, but his famous 
 painting of Aphrodite Anadyomene excited the 
 emulation of other artists, painters as well as sculp- 
 tors. [Apelles.] 
 
 Aaagnia (Anagninus : Ancujni)^ an ancient town 
 of Latium, the chief town of the Hemici, and sub- 
 sequently both a municipium and a Roman colony. 
 It lay in a very beautiful and fertile coimtry on a 
 hill, at the foot of which the Via Lavicana and 
 Via Pracnestina united (Compilum Anof/ninum), 
 In the neighbourhood Cicero had a beautiful estate, 
 Ana^ni7mm (sc. praedium). 
 
 Anagyrus {'Ayayvpovs^ -ovvtos : *Avayvpd.<rios, 
 'Ayayupouyr6dep : nr. Van, Ru.), a demus of At- 
 tica, belonging to the tribe Erectheis, not, as some 
 say, Aeantis, S. of Athens, near the promontory 
 Zoster. 
 
 Anaitica (AvatTiKri], a district of Armenia, in 
 which the goddess Ana'itis was worshipped ; also 
 called Acilisene, 
 
 Anaitis {'Avains), an Asiatic divinity, whoso 
 name is also v/vitten Anaea, A?ieitis^ Tana'is, otNo- 
 noea. Her worship prevailed in Armenia, Cappadociii, 
 Assyria, Persis, &c,, and seems to have been a part 
 of the worship so common among the Asiatics, of 
 the creative powers of nature, both male and female. 
 The Greek writers sometimes identify Anaitis with 
 Artemis, and sometimes with Aphrodite. 
 
 Anamari or -res, a Gallic people in the plain of 
 the Po, m whose land the Romans founded Pla- 
 ceutia. 
 
stance into whicli all things were resolved on tlieir 
 dissolution. He was a careful observer of nature, 
 and was distinguished by his astronomical, mathe- 
 matical, and geographical knowledge : he is said to 
 have introducud the use of the Gnomon into Greece. 
 Anaximenes {'Ava^i/xeu-qs), 1. Of Miletus, 
 the third in the series of Ionian philosophers, 
 flourished about b. c. 544 ; but as he was the 
 teacher of Anaxagoi-as. b. c. 480, he must have 
 lived to a great age. He considered air to be the 
 first cause of all things, the primary form, as it 
 were, of matter, into which the other elements of 
 the universe were resolvable. -^2. Of Lampsacug, 
 accompanied Alexander the Great to Asia (b. c. 
 334), and wrote a history of Philip of Macedonia; 
 a history of Alexander the Great; and a history of 
 Greece in 12 books, from tiie earliest mythical 
 ages down to the death of Epaminondas. He also 
 enjoyed great reputation as a rhetorician, and is 
 the author of a scientific treatise on rhetoric, the 
 'PrjTOfMK^ irphs *AXe|a!'5po^, usually printed among 
 the works of Aristotle. He was an enemy of 
 Theophrastus, and published under the name of 
 the latter a work calumniating Sparta, Athens, 
 and Thebes, which produced great exasperation 
 against Theophmstus. 
 
 Anazarbus or -a {^Ava^ap€6s or -d : *Ava^ap- 
 &€uy, Anazarbenus : Anasarba or Naversa^ Ru.), 
 a considerable city of Ciiicia Campestris, on the 
 left bank of the river Pj'ramus, at the foot of a 
 mountain of the same name. Augustus conferred 
 upon it tlie name of Caesarea (ad Anazarbum) ; 
 and, on the division of Ciiicia into the two pro- 
 vinces of Prima and Secunda, it was made the ca- 
 pital of the latter. It was almost destroyed by 
 earthquakes in the reigns of Justinian and Justin, 
 Ancaeus ('AyKaTos). 1. Son of the Arcadian 
 Lycurgus and Creophile or Eurynorae, and father 
 of Agapenor. He was one of the Argonauts, and 
 took part in the Calj'donian hunt, in which he was 
 killed by the boar.^2. Son of Poseidon and Asty- 
 palaea or Alta, king of the Leleges in Samos, hus- 
 band of Samia, and father of Perilaus, Enodos, 
 Samos, Alitherses, and Parthenope. He seems to 
 have been confounded by some mytbographers 
 with Ancaeus, the son of Lycurgus. Tlie son of 
 Poseidon is also represented as one of the Argo- 
 nauts, and is said to have become the helmsman of 
 the ship Argo after the death of Tiphys. A well- 
 known proverb is said to have originated witli this 
 Ancaeus. He had been told by a seer that he 
 would not live to taste the wine of his vineyard ; 
 and when he was afterwards on the point of drink- 
 ing a cup of wine, the growth of his own vineyard, 
 he laughed at the seer, who, however, answered, 
 iroKKa. fi^ra^u kv\lk6s re icoX p^eiAew*' ixKpwu^ 
 " There is many a slip between the cup and the 
 lip." At the same instant Ancaeus was informed 
 that a wild boar was near. He put down his cup, 
 went out against the animal, and was killed by it. 
 
 Ancalites, a people of Britain, probably a part 
 of the Atrebates. 
 
 Q. Anchariua, tribune of the plebs, b. c. 59, 
 took an active part in opposing the agrarian law 
 of Caesar. He was praetor in 56 ; and succeeded 
 L. Piso in the province of Macedonia. 
 
 Anchesmus ('Ayxeir^tfs), a hill not far from 
 Athens, with a temple of Zeus, who was hence 
 called JncJiesmius. 
 
 Anchiale and -lus CAyx^^^'O)- !• {AUali), a 
 town in Thrace on the Black Sea, on the borders 
 
 ANCXRA. 45 
 
 ofMoesia.— 2. Also Anchialos, an ancient city 
 of Ciiicia, W. of the Cydnus near the coast, said to 
 have been built by Sardanapalus. 
 
 Anchises (*A7x(o-7js), son of Capys and Tliemis, 
 the daughter of IIus, king of Dardnnus on Mount 
 Ida, In beauty he equalled the immortal gods, 
 and was beloved by Aphrodite, by whom he be- 
 came the father of Aeneas, who is hence called 
 Anchisiades. The goddess warned him never to 
 betray the real mother of the child ; but as on one 
 occasion he boasted of his intercourse with the 
 goddess, he was struck by a flash of lightning, 
 which according to some traditions killed, but 
 according to others only blinded or lamed him. 
 Virgil in his Aeneid makes Anchises survive the 
 capture of Troy, and Aeneas carries his father on 
 his shoulders from the burning city. He further 
 relates that Anchises died soon after the first ar- 
 rival of Aeneas in Sicily, and was buried on 
 mount Eryx. This tradition seema to have been 
 believed in Sicily, for Anchises had a sanctuary at 
 Egesta, and the funeral games celebrated in Sicily 
 in his honour continued down to a late period. 
 
 Anchisia ('A7xio"ia), a mountain in Arcadia, 
 N. W. of Mantinea, where Anchises is said to have 
 been buried, according to one tradition. 
 
 Ajicon {AivKoffvpccv 'AyK(4)v)^ a harbour and 
 town at the mouth of the river Iris (Yeshil-ermark) 
 in Pontus. 
 
 Ancona or Ancon (^Ayx<i>v : Anconitanus : An- 
 cona)^ a town in Picenura on the Adriatic sea, 
 lying in a bend of the coast between two promon- 
 tories, and hence called Ancon or an " elbow." It 
 was built by theSyracusans, who settled thereabout 
 B. c. 392, discontented with the rule of the elder 
 Dionysius ; and under the Romans, who made it a 
 colony, it became one of the most important sea- 
 ports of the Adriatic. It possessed an excellent 
 harbour, completed by Trajan, and it carried on an 
 active trade with the opposite coast of Illyricum. 
 The town was celebrated for its temple of Venus 
 and its purple dye : the surrounding coimtry pro- 
 duced good wine and wheat. 
 
 Ancorarius Mens, a mountain in Mauretania 
 Caesariensis, S, of Caesarea, abounding in citron 
 trees, the wood of whicli was used by the Romans- 
 for furniture. 
 
 Ancore. [Njcaea.] 
 
 Ancus Marcius, fourth king of Rome, reigned^ 
 24 years, b. c. 640 — 616, and is said to have been, 
 the son of Numa^s daughter. He conquered the 
 Latins, took many Latin towns, transported the 
 inhabitants to Rome, and gave them the Aventine 
 to dwell on: these conquered Latins foimed the 
 original Plebs. He also founded a colony at Ostia, 
 at the mouth of the Tiber ; built a fortress on the 
 Janiculum as a protection against Eti-uria, and 
 united it with the city by a bridge across the 
 Tiber ; dug the ditch of the Quirites, which was a. 
 defence for the open ground between the Caelian 
 and the Palatine ; and built a prison. He was 
 succeeded by Tarquinius Priscus. 
 
 Ancyra ('A^/ciJpa: 'A7Ki/payo'y, Ancyranus). 1. 
 {Angora)^ a city of Galatia in Asia Minor, in 
 39° 56' N. lat. In the time of Augustus, when 
 Galatia became a Roman province, Ancvra was the 
 capital : it was originally the chief city of a Gallifc 
 tribe named the Tectosages, who came from the S. 
 of France. Under the Roman empire it had the 
 name of Sebaste, which in Greek is equivalent to. 
 Augusta in Latin. When Augustus recorded the 
 
50 ANDANIA. 
 
 chief events of Lis life on bronze tablets at Rome, 
 tbe citizens of Ancyra had a copy made, whieU 
 was cut on marble blocks and placed at Ancyra in 
 a temple dedicated to Augustus and Rome. This 
 inscription is called the MonumcnUnn Anci/ranum. 
 The Latin inscription was first copied bj' Tourne- 
 fort in 1701, and it has been copied several times 
 since. One of the latest copies has been made by 
 Mr. Hamilton, who also copied as much of the 
 Greek inscription as is legible. — 2. A town in 
 Phrygia Epictetus on the borders of Mysia. 
 
 Andania (^hvZavia; 'AvSavieiiy, 'ArSavios), a 
 town in Messenia, between Megalopolis and Mes- 
 sene, the capital of the kings of the race of the 
 Leleges, abandoned by its inhabitants in the se- 
 cond Messenian war, and from that time only a 
 village. 
 
 Andecavi, Andegavi, or Andes, a Gallic people 
 N. of the Loire, with a town of the same name, 
 also called Jullomagus, now Avgers, 
 
 Andematiuuium. [Lingones.] 
 
 Andera (ra "ArSeipa ; 'Aj/5eip7;i/(fs), a city of 
 Mysia, celebrated for its temple of Cybele sur- 
 named *hvZiip7]VT], 
 
 Anderitum (Anteriem:), a town of the Gabali 
 in Aquitania. 
 
 Andes. 1. See Andecavi.— 2. (Pietola), a 
 village near Mantua, the birth-place of Virgil, 
 
 Andocides (^AydoKiSi^s), one of the ten Attic 
 orators, son of Leogoras, was born at Athens in 
 B. c. 467. He belonged to a noble family, and 
 was a supporter of the oligarchical part}"- at Athens. 
 In 436 he was one of the commanders of the fleet 
 sent by the Athenians to the assistance of the 
 Corcyreans against the Corinthians. In 415 he 
 became involved in the charge brought against 
 Alcibiades for having profaned the mysteries and 
 mutilated the Hermae, and was thrown into prison ; 
 but he recovered his liberty by promising to reveal 
 the names of the real perpetrators of the crime. He 
 is said to have denotmced his own father among 
 others, but to have rescued him again in the hour 
 of danger. But as Andocides was unable to clear 
 himself entirely, he was deprived of his rights as 
 a citizen, and left Athens. He returned to Athens 
 on the establishment of the government of the Four 
 Hundred in 411, but was soon obliged to fly again. 
 In the following year he ventured once more to 
 return to Athens, and it was at this time that he 
 delivered the speech still extant, On his Return, in 
 which he petitioned for permission to reside at 
 Athens, but in vain. He was thus driven into 
 exile a third time, and went to reside at Elis. In 
 403 he again returned to Athens upon the over- 
 throw of the tyranny of the Thirty by Thrasybulus, 
 and the proclamation of the general amnesty. He 
 was now allowed to remain quietly at Athens for 
 the next 3 years, but in 400 his enemies ac- 
 cused him of having profaned the mysteries: he 
 defended himself in the oration still extant. On the 
 Mysteries, and was acquitted. In 394 he was sent 
 as ambassador to Sparta to conclude a peace, and 
 on his return in 393 he was accused of illegal con- 
 duct during his embassy {rrapaTrpeaSeias) ; he 
 defended himself in the extant speech On tJie 
 Peace with Lacedaemon, but was found guilty, and 
 sent into exile for the fourth time. He seems to 
 have died soon afterwards in exile. Besides the 
 three orations already mentioned there is a fourth 
 against Alcibiades, said to have been delivered in 
 415, but which is in all probability spurious. — 
 
 ANDROMACHE. 
 
 Editions. In the collections of the Greek oratora : 
 also separately by Baiter and Sauppe, Ziirich, 1 838. 
 
 Andraemon ('AvSpai/^uv). 1. Husband of Gorge, 
 daughter of Oeneus king of Calydon, in Aetolia, 
 whom he succeeded, and father of Thoas, who is 
 hence called Aiidraemo7ndes.''-'2. Son of Oxylus, 
 and husband of Dryope, who was mother of Am- 
 phissus by Apollo. 
 
 Andxiscug {^Avdp'ia-Kos), a man of low origin, 
 who pretended to be a natiu-al son of Perseus, king 
 of Macedonia, was seized by Demetrius, king of 
 Syria, and sent to Rome. He escaped from Rome, 
 assumed the name of Philip, and obtoined possession 
 of Macedonia, b. c. 149. He defeated the praetor 
 Jiiventius, but was conquered by Caecilius Melel- 
 lus, and taken to Rome to adorn the triumph of 
 the latter, 148. 
 
 Androcles ('AfdpoK\r}s), an Athenian dema- 
 gogue and orator. He was an enemy of Alcibiades ; 
 and it was chiefly owing to his exertions that Al- 
 cibiades was banished. After this event, Androcles 
 was for a time at the head of the democratical 
 party; but in B.C. 411 he was put to death by 
 the oligarchical government of the Four Hundred. 
 
 Androclns, the slave of a Roman consular, was 
 sentenced to be exposed to the wild beasts in the 
 circus ; but a lion which was let loose upon him, 
 instead of springing upon his victim, exhiltited 
 signs of recognition, and began licking him. Upon 
 inquiry it appeared that Androclus had been com- 
 pelled by the severity of his master, while in 
 Africa, to run away from him. Having one day 
 taken refiige in a cave from the heat of the sun, a 
 lion entered, apparently in great pain, and seeing 
 him, went up to him and held out his paw. An- 
 droclus found that a large thorn had pierced it, 
 which he drew out, and the lion was soon able to 
 use his paw again. They lived together for some 
 time in the cave, the lion catering for his benefac- 
 tor. But at last, tired of this savage life, Androclus 
 left the cave, was apprehended by some soldiers, 
 brought to Rome, and condemned to the wild 
 beasts. He was pardoned, and presented with the 
 lion, which he used to lead about the city. 
 
 Androgeos {'Avdpoyeus), son of Minos and 
 Pasiphae, or Crete, conquered all his opponents in 
 the games of the Panathenaea at Athena. This ex- 
 traordinary good luck, however, became the cause 
 of his destruction, though the mode of his death is 
 related differently. According to some accounts 
 Aegeus sent the man he dreaded to fight against 
 the Marathonian bull, who killed him ; according 
 to others, he was assassinated by his defeated rivals 
 on his road to Thebes, whither he was going to 
 take part in a solemn contest. A third account 
 related that he was assassinated by Aegeus him- 
 self. Minos made war on the Athenians in 
 consequence of the death of his son, and imposed 
 upon them the shameful tribute, from which they 
 were delivered by Theseus. He was worshipped 
 in Attica as a hero, and games were celebrated in 
 his honour every year in the Ceramicus. {Diet, 
 of Ant. art Androgeonia.') 
 
 Andromache ('ArSpo^uax'?)* daughter of Eetion, 
 king of the Cilician Thebes, and one of the nobles . 
 and most amiable female characters in the Iliad. 
 Her father and her 7 brothers were slain by 
 Achilles at the taking of Thebes, and her mother, 
 who had purchased her freedom by a large ransom, 
 was killed by Artemis. She was married to Hector, 
 by whom she had a son Scamandrius (Astyanax), 
 
ANDROMACHUS. 
 
 and for whom she entertained the raost tender 
 love. On the taking of Troy her son wag hurled 
 from the wall of the city, and she herself fell to 
 the share of Neoptolemus (Pyrrhus), the son of 
 Achilles, who took her to Epirus, and to whom 
 she bore 3 sons, Molossus, Pielus, and Pergaraus. 
 She afterwards married Helenus, a brother of 
 Hector, who ruled over Chaonia, a part of Epirus, 
 and to whom she bore Cestrinus. After the deatli 
 of Helenus, she followed her son Pergamus to Asia, 
 where an heroura was erected to her. 
 
 Andromacliua {'AvBpdfiaxos). 1. Ruler of Tau- 
 roraenium in Sicily about B. c. 344, and father of 
 the historian Timaeus.^2. Of Crete, physician to 
 the emperor Nero, a. d. 54 — 68 ; was the first 
 person on whom the title of Archiafer was con- 
 ferred, and was celebrated as the inventor of a 
 famous compound medicine and antidote called 
 TJieiiaca Andromachi^ which retains its place in 
 some foreign Pharmacopoeias to the present day. 
 Andromachus has left the directions for making 
 this mixture in a Greek elegiac poem, consisting of 
 174 lines, edited by Tidicaeus, Tiguri, 1607, and 
 Leinker, Norimb, 1 754, 
 
 Andromeda ('AcSpo/ieSTj), daughter of the 
 Aethiopian king, Cepheus and Cassiopea. Her 
 mother boasted that the beauty of her daughter 
 surpassed that of the Nereids, who prevailed on 
 Poseidon to visit the country by an inundation, and 
 a soa-monster. The oracle of Ammon promised 
 deliverance if Andromeda was given up to the 
 monster ; and Cepheus, obliged to yield to the 
 wishes of his people, chained Andromeda to a rock. 
 Here she was found and saved by Perseus, who 
 slew the monster and obtained her as his wife. 
 Andromeda had previously been promised to Phi- 
 neus, and this gave rise to the famous fight of 
 Phineus and Perseus at the wedding, in which the 
 former and all his associates were slain. (Ov. Met. 
 V. 1, seq.) After her death, she was placed among 
 the stars. 
 
 Andronicus ('Av5popi/cos). 1. Cyrrhestes, so 
 called from his native place, Cyrrha, probably lived 
 about B. c. 100, and built the octagonal tower 
 at Athens, vulgarly called " the tower of the 
 winds" (see Diet, of Ant. p. 616, 2d ed., where 
 a drawing of the building is given). — 3. Livius 
 Andronicus, the earliest Roman poet, was a 
 Greek, probably a native of Tarentum, and the 
 slave of M. Livius Salinator, by whom he was 
 manumitted, and from whom he received the 
 Roman name Livius. He obtained at Rome a 
 perfect knowledge of the Latin language. He 
 wrote both tragedies and comedies in Latin, and 
 we still possess the titles and fragments of at least 
 14 of his dramas, all of which were borrowed 
 from the Greek : his first drama was acted in b. c. 
 240. He also wrote an Odyssey in the Satumian 
 verse and Hymns. (See DUntzer, Livii Andronici 
 Fragmenta colleda, <&c. Berlin, 1835.) — 3. Of 
 Ehodes, a Peripatetic philosopher at Rome, about 
 B. c. 58. He published a new edition of the works 
 of Aristotle and Theophrastus, which formerly be- 
 longed to the library of Apellicon, and which were 
 brought to Rome by Sulla with the rest of Apelli- 
 con's library in B. c. 84. Tyrannic commenced 
 this task, but apparently did not do much towards 
 it. The arrangement which Andronicus made of 
 Aristotle''3 writings seems to be the one which 
 forms the basis of our present editions. He wrote 
 many commentaries upon the works of Aristotle ; 
 
 ANICETUS. 
 
 51 
 
 but none of these is extant, for the paraphrase of 
 the Nicomachean Ethics, which is ascribed to An- 
 dronicus of Rhodes, was written by some one else, 
 and may have been the work of Andronicus Cal- 
 listus of Thessalonica, who was professor in Italy, 
 in the latter half of the 15tli century. 
 
 Andropolis {'Aj/Spa}UTr6Ai5: Chcdjur)^ a city of 
 Lower Egypt, on the W. bank of the Canopic 
 branch of the Nile, was the capital of the Nomos 
 Andropolites, and, under the Romans, the station of 
 a legion, 
 
 Andros (^hvZpos : "hvZpios : Andro), the most 
 northerly and one of the largest islands of the Cy- 
 clades, S. E. of Euboea, 21 miles long and 8 broad, 
 early attained importance, and colonized Acanthus 
 and Stagira about e, c. 654. It was taken by 
 tlie Persians in their invasion of Greece, was after- 
 wards subject to the Athenians, at a later time to 
 the Macedonians, and at length to Attalus III., 
 king of Pergamus, on whose death (b. c. 133) it 
 passed with the rest of liis dominions to the Ro- 
 mans. It was celebrated for its wine, whence the 
 whole island was regarded as sacred to Dionj'sus. 
 Its chief town, also called Andros, contained a 
 celebrated temple of Dionysus, and a harbour of the 
 name of Gaureleon, and a fort Gam-ion. 
 
 Androtion (^hyZporttcv). 1. An Athenian ora- 
 tor, and a contemporary of Demosthenes, against 
 whom the latter delivered an oration, which is still 
 extant. ^ 2. The author of an Atthis, or a work 
 on the history of Attica. 
 
 Anemorea, afterwards Anemolea ('Ave/xdjpeia, 
 ^A^e/iwAetu : 'Af€/xwpieus), a town on a hill on the 
 borders of Phocis and Delphi. 
 
 Anemiirium (hv^fiovpiov ; Anamui\ Ru.), a 
 town and promontory at the S. point of Cilicia, op- 
 posite to Cj-pirus. 
 
 Angerona or Angeronia, a Roman goddess, re- 
 specting whom we have different statements, some 
 representing her as the goddess of silence, others 
 as the goddess of anguish and fear, that is, the god- 
 dess who not only produces this state of mind, but 
 also relieves men from it. Her statue stood in the 
 temple of Volupia, with her mouth, bound and 
 sealed up. Her festival, Angeronalia, was cele- 
 brated yearly on the 12th of December. 
 
 Angites {' Ayy ir yj s : Aiighista), a river in Ma- 
 cedonia, flowing into the Strymon. 
 
 Angilaa or Anguitia, a goddess worshipped by 
 the Marsians and Marrubians, who lived about the 
 shores of the lake Fucinus. 
 
 Angli or Anglii, a German people of the race 
 of the Suevi, on the left bank of the Elbe, after- 
 wards passed over with the Saxons into Britain, 
 which was called after them England. [Saxones.] 
 A portion of them appear to have settled in An- 
 geln in Schleswig. 
 
 Angrivarii, a German people dwelling on both 
 sides of the Visurgis (Tfeser), separated from the 
 Cherusci by an agger or mound of earth. The 
 name is usually derived from Angern^ that is, mea- 
 dows. They were generally on friendly terms 
 with the Romans, but rebelled in A. d. 16, and 
 were subdued. Towards the end of the first cen- 
 tury they extende(i their territories southwards, 
 and in conjunction with the Chamavi, took pos- 
 session of part of the territory of the Bructeri, S. 
 and E. of the Lippe, the Angaria or Engern of the 
 middle ages. 
 
 Anicetiis, a freedman of Nero, and formerly his 
 tutor, was employed by the emperor in the ezecu- 
 
 TS 2 
 
12 ANTCIUS. 
 
 tion of many of his crimes: he w;is aftcr'ivards 
 
 "banished to Sardinia wliere he died. 
 
 Anicius GtalluB. [Gallus.] 
 
 AnigTUS ("A-viypos : Mavro-Fotamo)^ a small 
 river in the Triphylian Elis, the Minj/ehis {Mt- 
 yv-^'ios) of Homer (IL x\. 721), rises in M. Lapi- 
 thas, and flows into the Ionian sea near Samiciim : 
 its waters have a disagreeable amell, and its fish 
 are not eatable. Near Samicura was a cave sacred 
 to the Nymphs Anigrides {'Aviypi^es or ^Aviyptd- 
 Ses), where persons with cutaneous diseases were 
 cured by the waters of the river. 
 
 Anio, anciently Anien. (hence Gen. Anienis : 
 Tcverone or VAniene), a river, the most celebrated 
 of the tributaries of the Tiber, rises in the moun- 
 tains of the Hernici near Treba {Trevi), flows first 
 N.W. arid then S.W". through narrow mountain- 
 valleys, receives the brook Digentia {Lieenza) 
 above Tibur, forms at Tibur beautiful water-falls 
 (hence praeceps Anio, Hor. Carm. i. 7. 13), and 
 flows, forming the boundary between Latium and 
 the land of the Sabines, into the Tiber, 3 miles 
 above Rome, where the town of Antemnae stood. 
 The water of the Anio was conveyed to Rome by 
 two Aqueducts, the Anio veius and Anio novus, 
 (See Diet, of Ant. pp. 110, 111, 2d ed.) 
 
 Anius ("Awos), son of Apollo by Creiisa, or 
 Khneo, and priest of Apollo at Delos. By Dryope 
 he had three daughters, Oeno, Spermo, and Elais, 
 to whom Dionysus gave the power of producing at 
 ■will any quantity of wine, com, and oil, — whence 
 they were called Oenotropae. With these neces- 
 saries they are said to have supplied the Greeks 
 during the first 9 years of the Trojan war. After 
 the fall of Troy, Aeneas was kindly received by 
 Aniug, 
 
 Anna, daughter of Belus and sister of Dido. 
 After the death of the latter, she fled from Carthage 
 to Italy, where she was kindly received by Aeneas. 
 Here she excited the jealousy of Lavinia, and 
 being warned in a dream by Dido, she fled and 
 threw herself into the river Numicius. Henceforth 
 she was worshipped as the nymph of that river 
 under the name of Anna Perenna. There are 
 various other stories respecting the origin of her 
 Tvorsliip. Ovid relates that she was considered by 
 some as Luna, by others as Themis, by others as 
 lo, daughter of Inachus, by others as the Anna of 
 Bovillae, who supplied the plebs with food, when 
 they seceded to the Mons Sacer. (Ov. Fast. iii. 
 523.) Her festival was celebrated on the 15th of 
 March. She was in reality an old Italian divinity, 
 ■who was regarded as the giver of life, health, and 
 plenty, as the goddess whose powers were most 
 manifest at the return of spring when her festival 
 was celebrated. The identification of this goddess 
 ■with Anna, the sister of DJdo, is undoubtedly of 
 late origin. 
 
 Anna Conmena, daughter of Alexis I, Comne- 
 nus (reigned A. D. 1081 — 1118), wrote the life of 
 her father Ak-xis in 15 books, which is one of the 
 most interesting and valuable histories of the By- 
 zantine literature. — Editions. By Possinus, Paris, 
 1651 ; by Schopen, Bonn, 1839. 
 
 Annalis, a cognomen of the Villia Gens, first 
 acquired by L. Villius, tribune of the plebs, in 
 E. c. 179, because he introduced a law fixing the 
 year {annus) at which it was lawful for a person 
 to be a candidate for each of the public offices. 
 
 M. Annelus, legate of M. Cicero during liis 
 government of Cilicia, a. c, 51. 
 
 ANTAEADUS. 
 
 T. AnnianuE, a Roman poet, lived in the time 
 of Trajan and Hadrian, and wrote Pcscenniue 
 verses. 
 
 Anniceris {^Aj/viKepis), a Cyrenaic philosopher,, 
 of whom the ancients have left us contradictory 
 accounts. Many modern writers have supposed 
 that there were two philosophers of this name, the 
 one contemporary with Plato, whom he is said to- 
 have ransomed for 20 minae from Dionysius of 
 Syracuse, and the other with Alexander the Great. 
 
 Anniu3 Cimber. [Cimber.] 
 
 Annius llililo. [Milo.] 
 
 Anser, a poet of the Augustan age, a friend of* 
 the triumvir M. Antonius, and one of the detractors 
 of Virgil. Hence Virgil plays upon his name {Ec'L 
 is. 36). Ovid {Trist. ii. 435) calls Kim provacc. 
 
 Anaibarii or Ampsivarii, a German people, 
 originally dwelt S. of the Bructeri, between' the- 
 sources of the Eras and the Weser: driven out of 
 their country by the Chauci in the reign of Nero 
 (a. d. 59), they asked the Romans for permission 
 to settle in the Roman territory' between tlie Rhinfr 
 and the Yssel, but when their request was refused 
 they wandered into the interior of the country to- 
 the Cherusci, and were at length extirpated, accord- 
 ing to Tacitus. We find their name, however,, 
 among the Franks in the time of Julian. 
 
 Antaeopolis {'AvTai6iro\is: nr. Gau-el-Kdir)., 
 an ancient city of Upper Egypt (the Tlieba'is), on 
 the E. side of the Nile, but at some distance from 
 the river, was the capital of the Nomos Antaeopo- 
 lites, and one of the chief seats of the worship of 
 Osiris. 
 
 Antaeus (^ Avraios), son of Poseidon and Ge, a, 
 mighty giant and wrestler in Libj'a, whose strength 
 was invincible so long as he remained in contact 
 with his mother earth. The strangers who came 
 to his coimtry were compelled to wrestle with him ; 
 the conquered were slain, and out of their skulls he 
 built a house to Poseidon. Hercules discovered 
 the source of his strength, lifted him from tlic earth,, 
 and crushed him in the air. The tomb of Antaeus 
 {Antad collis), which formed a moderate hill iit 
 the shape of a man stretched out at full length, 
 was shown near the town of Tingis in Maurctania;, 
 down to a late period. 
 
 Antagoras ('Ai'ray6pas)^ of Rhodes, flourished 
 about B. c. 270, a friend of Antigonus Gonataa 
 and a contemporary of Aratus. He wrote an epic 
 poem entitled Th^hais^ and also epigrams of which 
 specimens are still extant. 
 
 Antalcidas (*AfTa\(dSaj), a Spartan, son of 
 Leon, is chiefly known by the celebrated treaty 
 concluded with Persia in b. c. 387, usually called 
 the peace of Antalcidas, since it was the fruit of 
 his diplomacy. According to this treaty all the- 
 Greek cities in Asia Minor, together with Clazo- 
 menae and Cyprus, were to belong to the Persian 
 king: the Athenians were allowed to retain only 
 Lemnos, Imbros, and Scyros ; and all the othcr 
 Greok cities were to be independent. 
 
 Antander i^AvTav^po^)^ brother of Agathocles, 
 king of Syracuse, -wrote the life of his brother. 
 
 Antandrus {" Avrav^poz : 'Avrdv^pios: Antan- 
 dro), a city of Great Mysia, on the Adrarayttian 
 Gulf, at the foot of Mount Ida ; an Aeolian colony, 
 Virgil represents Aeneas as touching here after- 
 leaving Troy [Aen. iii. 106). 
 
 Antaradus ('AcrapaSos : Toiiosa), a town on 
 the N. border of Phoenicia, opposite the island qS 
 Aradus. 
 
ANTEA. 
 
 Antea or Antia ("Ai-Teia), daughter of the Ly- 
 cian king lobatcs, wife of Proetiis of Argos. She 
 ia also called Stheneboea. Respecting her love for 
 Bellerophontes, see Bellerofhontes. 
 
 Antemnae (Antemnas, -atis), an .indent Sabine 
 to^vn at tlie junction of the Anio and the Tiber, 
 destroyed by the Romans in, the earliest times. 
 
 Antenor ('AvTrji/cap). 1, A Trojan, son of Ae- 
 .■Bvetes and Cleomestra, and husband of Theano. 
 According to Homer, he was one of the wisest 
 among the elders at Troy : he received Menelaus 
 and Ulysses into his house when they came to 
 Troy as ambassadors, and advised his fellow-citizens 
 to restore Helen to Menelaus. Thus he is repre- 
 sented as a traitor to his countrj-, and when sent to 
 Agamemnon, just before the taking of Troy, to 
 negotiate peace, he concerted a plan of delivering 
 the city, and even the palladium, into the hands of 
 the Greeks. On the capture of Troy Antenor was 
 spared by the Greeks. His history after this event 
 is related differently. Some writers relate that he 
 founded a new kingdom at Troy ; according to 
 ■others, he embarked with Menelaas and Helen, 
 T\'as carried to Lib3'a, and settled at Cyrene ; while 
 a third account states that he went with the Heneti 
 to Thrace, and thence to the western coast of the 
 Adriatic, where the foundation of Patavium and 
 several tov/ns is ascribed to him. The sons and 
 descendants of Antenor were called AntP.nondae. 
 — 2. Son of Euphranor, an Athenian sculptor, 
 made the first bronze statues of Harmodius and 
 Aristogiton, which the Athenians set up in the 
 Ceramicus, B. c. 509. These statues were carried 
 oif to Susa by Xerxes, and their place was supplied 
 by others made either by Callias or by Praxiteles. 
 After the conquest of Persia, Alexander the Groat 
 Gent the statues back to Athens, where they were 
 again set up in the Ceramicus. 
 
 Anteros. [Eros.] 
 
 Antevorta, also called Porrima or Prorsa, to- 
 gether with Postvorta, are described either as the 
 two sisters or companions of the Roman goddess 
 Carmenta ; but originally they were only two at- 
 tributes of the one goddess Carmenta, the former 
 describing her knowledge of the future, and the 
 latter that of the past, analogous to the two-headed 
 O'anus. 
 
 Anthedon ('AvOtjBc^i/ : 'AvBtjBSi'ios : Luhisi ?), 
 ji town of Boeotia with a harbour, on the coast of 
 the Euboean sea, at the foot of M. Messapius, said 
 to have derived its name from a nymph Anthedon, 
 or from Anthedon, son of Giaucus, who was here 
 changed into a god. (Ov. Met. vii. 232, xiii. 905.) 
 The inhabitants chiefly lived by fishing. 
 
 Anth-emius, emperor of the "West, a. d. 467 — 
 472, was killed on the capture of Rome by Ricimer, 
 who made Olybrius emperor. 
 
 AntliemiiS ('Ai/Se^uoDs -ouvros : *Aj'0e/xoi'i7iO5), 
 a Macedonian town in Chalcidice. 
 
 Antliemiisia or Anthemus (*A^0e^outr£a), a 
 city of Mesopotamia, S.W. of Edessa, and a little 
 E."of the Euphrates. The surrounding district 
 was called by the same name, hut was generally 
 included under the name of Osrhoene. 
 
 Anthene (^AvB-rivri), a place in Cynuria, in the 
 Peloponnesus. 
 
 Anthylla {"AvQvWa)^ a considerable city of 
 Lower Egypt, near the mouth of the Canopic branch 
 of the Nile, below Naucratis, the revenues of which. 
 Tinder the Persians, were assigned to the wife of 
 £he satrap of Egj-pt, to provide her with shoes. 
 
 ANTIGONEA. 
 
 53 
 
 Antias, Q. Valerius, a Roman historian, flou- 
 rished about B. c. CO, and wrote the history of Rome 
 from the earliest times down to those of Sulla. He 
 is frequently referred to by Livy, who speaks of' 
 him as the most lying of nil the annalists, and sel- 
 dom mentions his name without terms of reproach : 
 there can be little doubt that Livy's judgment is 
 correct. 
 
 Anticlea (*AvTi/cA.€ia), daughter of Autolycus, 
 wife of Laertes, and mother of Ulysses, died of 
 grief at the long absence of her son. It is said 
 that before marrj'ing Laertes, she lived on intimate 
 terms with Sisyphus ; whence Euripides calls 
 Uiysscs a son of Sisyphus. 
 
 Anticlides (^ Avt iKKiiZT]s\ of Athens, lived after 
 the time of Alexander the Great, and was the 
 author of several works, the most important of 
 which was entitled Nosti (N(JjTot), containing an 
 accoimt of the return of the Greeks from their my- 
 thical expeditions. 
 
 Anticyra, more anciently Anticirrlia ('AvTi'- 
 Ki^^a, or ^AvTiKvpa.: ^AvriKvpevs^ 'AvTiKupa7os).' 
 1. (Aspra Spitia)^ a town in Phocis, with a harbour 
 on a peninsula on the W. side of the Sinus Anticy- 
 ranus, a bay of the Crissaean gulf, called in ancient 
 times Cyparissus. It continued to be a place of 
 importance under the Romans. ^2, A town in 
 Thessaly, on tlie Spercheus, not far from its mouth. 
 Both towns were celebrated for their hellebore, the 
 chief remedy in antiquity for madness : hence the 
 proverb, ^Avt iKip^as (re Set, when a person acted 
 senselessly, and Naviget A7iUcyram. {Hot. Sat. ii. 
 3. I66.J ^ 
 
 Antigenes ('AyriyeVijs), a general of Alexander 
 the Great, on whose death he obtained the satrapy 
 of Susiana, and espoused the side of Eumenes. On 
 the defeat of the latter in b. c. 31f), Antigenes fell 
 into the hands of his enemy Antigonus, and was 
 burnt alive by him. 
 
 Antigenidas (^Ai/Tiy^v'iZas\ a Thehan, a cele- 
 brated flute-player, and a poet, lived in the time of 
 Alexander the Great. 
 
 Antigone (^AvTi'y6vrf)y daughter of Oedipus by 
 his mother Jocaste, and sister of Ismenc, and of 
 Eteocles and Polynices. In the tragic story of 
 Oedipus Antigone appears as a noble maiden, ivith 
 a truly heroic attachment to her father and brothers. 
 When Oedipus had blinded himself, and was ob- 
 liged to quit Thebes, he was accompanied by An- 
 tigone, who remained with him till he died in Co- 
 lonus, and then returned to Thebes. After her 
 two brothers had killed each other in battle, and 
 Creon, the king of Thebes, woukl not allow Poly- 
 nices to be buried, Antigone alone defied the ty- 
 rant, and buried the body of her brother. Creon 
 thereupon ordered her to be shut up in a subterra- 
 neous cave, where she killed herself. Haenion, 
 the son of Creon, who was in love with her, killed 
 himself by her side. 
 
 Antigonea and -la (^AvTiy6v^ia^ ^AvTiyovia). 
 1. (Tt-pdeni), a town in Epims (Illyrlcum), at the 
 junction of a tributary with the Aous, and near a 
 narrow pass of the Acroceraunian mountains.— 3. 
 A Macedonian town in Chalcidice. — 3. See Man- 
 tinea.— 4. A town on the Orontes in Syria, 
 founded by Antigonus as the capital of his empire 
 (b. c. 306), but most of its inhabitants were trans- 
 ferred by Seleucus to Antiochia, which was built 
 in its neighbourhood. ^5. A town in Bithynia, 
 afterwards Nicaea. — 6. A town in the Troas. 
 [Alexandria, No. 2.J 
 
54 ANTIGONUS. 
 
 Antigonus {'Avrlyovos). 1. Kin,^ of Asia, 
 sumamed the One-eyed, son of Philip of Elymiotis, 
 and father of Demetrius Puliorcetes by Stra- 
 toulce. He was one of the genemls of Alexander 
 the Great, and in the division of the empire after 
 the death of the latter (b. c. 3'23), he received the 
 provinces of the Greater Phrygia, Lycia, and Pam- 
 phylia. On the death of the regent Antipater in 
 319, he aspired to the sovereignty of Asia. In 
 316 he defeated and put Eumenes to death, after 
 a struggle of nearly 3 years. From 315 to 311 
 he carried on war, with varying success, against 
 Seleucus, Ptolemy, Cassander, and Lysimachus. 
 By the peace made in 311, Antigonus w:ls allowed 
 to have the government of all Asia ; but peace did 
 not last more than a year. After the defeat of 
 Ptolemy's fleet in 306, Antigonus assumed the title 
 of king, and his example was followed by Ptolem}-, 
 Lysimachus, and Seleucus. In the same year 
 Antigonus invaded Egj'-pt, but was compelled to 
 retreat. His son Demetrius can-ied on the war with 
 success against Cassander in Greece ; but he was 
 compelled to return to Asia to the assistance of his 
 father, against whom Cassander, Seleucus, Ptolemy, 
 and Lysimachus, had formed a fresh confederacy. 
 Antigonus and Demetrius were defeated by Lysi- 
 machus at the decisive battle of Ipsus in Phrygia, in 
 301. Antigonus fell in the battle in the 81st year 
 of his age. — 3. Gonatas, son of Demetrius Po- 
 liorcetes, and grandson of the preceding. He as- 
 sumed the title of king of Macedonia after his father's 
 death in Asia in b. c. 2G3, but he did not obtain 
 possession of the throne till '277- He wns driven 
 out of his kingdom by Pyrrhus of Epiriisin273, but 
 recovered it in the following year : he was again 
 expelled h^-- Alexander, the son of Pyrrhus, and 
 again recovered his dominions. He attempted to 
 prevent tlie formation of the Achaean league, and 
 died in 2o0. He was succeeded by Demetrius 11. 
 His surname Gonatas is usually derived from Gon- 
 nos or Gonni in Thessaly - but some think that 
 Gonatas is a Macedonian word, signifying an iron 
 plate protecting the knee. — 3. Doson (so called 
 because he was always about to give but never 
 did), son of Demetrius of Cj'rene, and gi-andson of 
 Demetrius Poliorcetes. On the death of Deme- 
 trius II. in B. c. 229, he was left guardian of his 
 son Philip, but he married the widow of Demetrius, 
 and became king of Macedonia himself. He sup- 
 ported Aratus and the Achaean league against 
 Cleomenes, king of Sparta, whom he defeated at 
 Sellasia in 221, and took Sparta. On his return 
 to Macedonia, he defeated the lUyrians, and died a 
 few days afterwards, 220. —4. King of Judaea, 
 son of Aristobulus II., was placed on the throne by 
 the Parthians in b. c. 40, but was taken prisoner 
 by Sosius, the lieutenant of Antony, and was put 
 to death by the latter in 37. — 5. Of Caiystus, 
 lived at Alexandria about b. c. 250, and wrote 
 a work still extant, entitled Historiae Mirahlles^ 
 which is only of value from its preserving extracts 
 fi'om other and better works. — EJilions. By J. 
 Beckmann, Lips. 1791, and by Westermann in 
 his Paradoxograpld^ Bruns. 1039. 
 
 Antilibanus {"KvTiXiSavos : Jehcl-es-Shcikh or 
 Anti~Lebanon\ a mountain on the confines of Pa- 
 lestine, Phoenicia, and Syria, parallel to Libanus 
 (//cfianow), which it exceeds in height. Its highest 
 summit is M. Hermon (also Jcbel-es-Sheikh). 
 
 Antiloclius {'AyTiAoxos), son of Nestor and 
 Anaxibia or Eurydice, accompanied his father to 
 
 ANTIOCHIA. 
 
 Troy, and distinguished himself by his b^ave^J^ 
 He was slain before Troy by Memnon the Ethio- 
 pian, and was buried by the side of his friends 
 Achilles and Patroclus. 
 
 Antimachus (Ai/ti^uoxo?). 1. A Trojan, per- 
 suaded his countrymen not to surrender Helen to 
 the Greeks. He had three sons, two of whom 
 were put to death by Menelaus. — 2. Of Claros or 
 Colophon, a Greek epic and elegiac poet, was 
 probably a native of Claros, but was called a Co- 
 lophonian, because Claros belonged to Colophon. 
 {Clarius poeta, Ov. Tnst. i. 6. 1.) He flourished 
 towards the end of the Peloponnesian war ; his 
 chief work was an epic poem of great length called 
 Thehais {®i\Sais). Antimachus was one of the 
 forerunners of the poets of the Alexandrine school^ 
 who wrote more for the learned than for the public 
 at large. The Alexandrine grammarians assigned 
 to him the second place among the epic poets, and 
 the emperor Hadrian preferred his works even to 
 those of Homer. He also wrote a celebrated ele- 
 giac poem called Lydc, which was the name of his 
 wife or mistress, as well as other works. There 
 was likewise a tradition that he made a recension 
 of the text of the Homeric poems. 
 
 Antinoopolis {^A.vtip6ov -koKis or Ai/Tiro'eta r 
 Enseneh, Ku.), a splendid city, built by Hadrian, 
 in memory of his favourite Antinous, on the E, 
 bank of the Nile, upon the site of the ancient Besa, 
 in Middle Egypt (Heptanomis). It was the capi- 
 tal of the Nomos Antino'ites, and had an oracle of 
 the goddess Besa. 
 
 Antinous ('AfTiVoos). 1. Son of Eupithes of 
 Ithaca, and one of the suitors of Penelope, was 
 slain by Ulysses. — 3, A youth of extraordinary- 
 beauty, born at Claudiopolis in Bithynia, was the 
 favourite of the emperor Hadrian, and his com- 
 panion in all his journeys. He was drowned in 
 the Nile, a. d. 122, whether accidentally or on 
 purpose, is uncei-tain. The grief of the emperor 
 knew no bounds. Ho em'olled Antinous amongst 
 the gods, caused a temple to he erected to him at 
 Muntinea, and founded the city of Antinoopoli& 
 in honour of him. A large number of works of art 
 of all kinds were executed in his honour, and many 
 of them are still extant. 
 
 Aatiocliia and -ea i^huriox^f-o. : "Avnox^vs 
 and •6x^i-os, fem. 'Avrtox's and -ox'^o-a, Antioche- 
 nus), the name of several cities of Asia, 16 of 
 which are said to have been built by Seleucus I. 
 Nicator, and named in honour of his father An- 
 tiochus. 1. A. Epidaphnes, or ad Daphnem, or 
 ad Orontem ('A. iirl ^dcpvr) : so called from a 
 neighbouring grove; 'A. i-rl 'Opoi/Tj]: Antalday 
 Ru.), the capital of the Greek kingdom of Syria, 
 and long the chief city of Asia and perhaps of the 
 world, stood on the left bank of the Orontes, about 
 20 miles (geog.) from the sea, in a beautiful vallejv 
 about 10 miles long and 5 or 6 broad, enclosed by 
 the ranges of Amanus on the N.AY. and Casius on 
 the S.E. It was built by Seleucus Nicator, about 
 B. c. 300, and peopled chiefly from the neighbour- 
 ing city of Antigonia. It flourished so rapidly 
 as soon to need enlargement ; and other additions 
 were again made to it hy Seleucus II. Callinicus 
 (about B. c. 240), and Antiochus IV. Epiphanes 
 (about B. c, 170). Hence it obtained the name of 
 Tetrapolia (T6Tpair(iA.is, i. c. 4 cities). Besides 
 being the capital of the greatest kingdom of the 
 world, it had a considerable commerce, the Orontes 
 being navigable up to the city, and the high road be- 
 
ANTIOCHUS. 
 tween Asia and Europe passing through it. Under 
 the Romans it was the residence of the procon- 
 suls of Syria ; it was favoured and visited by 
 emperors ; and was made' a colonia with the Jus 
 Italicum by Antoninus Pius. It wiis one of the 
 earliest strongholds of the Christian faith ; the first 
 place where the Christian name was used (Acts, 
 xi. 26) ; the centre of missionary efforts in the 
 Apostolic age ; and the see of one of the four chief 
 "bishops, who were called Patriarchs. Though far 
 inferior to Alexandi'ia as a seat of learning, yet it 
 derived some distinction in this respect from the 
 teachmg of Libanius and other sophists ; and its 
 eminence in art is attested by the beautiful gems 
 and medals still found among its ruins. It was 
 destroyed by the Persian king Chosroes (a. d. 540), 
 but rebuilt by Justinian, who gave it the new name 
 of Theupolis (©eouTroAty). The ancient walls 
 "which still surround the insignificant modern town 
 are probably those built by Justinian. The name 
 of Antiochia was also given to the surrounding 
 district, i. e. the N.W. part of Syria, which bor- 
 dered upon Cilicia. ^ 2. A. ad Maeaudrum (*A. 
 Trphs MaiavSp^: nr. Yenishelir^ Ru.), a city of 
 Caria, on the Maeander, built by Antiochus J. 
 Soter on the site of the old city of Pythopolis. -— 
 3. A. Pisidiae or ad Pisidiam (*A. liiaihias or 
 ■jTpiy IlicnSia), a considerable city on the borders of 
 Phrygia Paroreios and Pisidia ; built by colonists 
 from Magnesia ; declared a free city by the Ro- 
 mans aftor their victory over Antiochus the Great 
 (B.C. 189) ; made a colony under Augustus, and 
 called Caesarea. It was celebrated for the wor- 
 ship and the great temple of Men Arcaeus (M'/^y 
 'Apfcaioy, the Phrygian Moon-god), which the 
 Romans suppressed. — 4. A. Margiana ('A. Map- 
 •yiavii : Meru Shah-Jeltun ?), a city in the Persian 
 province of Margiana, on the river Margus, founded 
 by Alexander, and at first called Alexandria ; de- 
 stroyed by the barbarians, rebuilt by Antiochus I. 
 Soter, and called Antiochia. It was beautifully 
 situated, and was surrounded by a wall 70 stadia 
 (about 8 miles) in circuit. Among the less im- 
 portant cities of the name were : (5.) A. ad Tau- 
 rum in Coramagene ; (6.) A. ad Cragum, and 
 (7.) A, ad Pyramum, in Cilicia. The following 
 Antiochs are better known by other names : A. ad 
 Samm [Adana] ; A. Cliaraceiies [Charax] ; 
 A. Callirrkoe [Edessa] ; A. ad Hippum [G^- 
 dara] ; A. Mygdoniae [Nisinis] ; in Cilicia 
 [Tarsus] ; in Caria or Lydia [Tralles]. 
 Antioclius (*A;/Tioxos). I. Kings ofSyiia. 
 1. Soter (reigned B. c. 280—261), was the 
 son of Seleucus I., the founder of the Syrian king- 
 dom of the Seleucidae. He married his step- 
 mother Stratonice, with whom he fell violently in 
 love, and whom his father surrendered to him. He 
 fell in battle against the Gauls in 261. — 2. Tlieos 
 (b. c. 261 — 246), son and successor of No. 1. The 
 Milesians gave him his surname of Tlteos, because 
 be delivered thera from their tyrant, Timarchns. 
 He carried on war with Ptolemy Philadelphus, 
 king of Egypt, which was brought to a close by 
 his putting away his wife Laodice, and marrying 
 Berenice, the daughter of Ptolemy. After the death 
 of Ptolemy, he recalled Laodice, but in revenge for 
 the insult she had received, she caused Antiochus 
 and Berenice to be murdered. Dui'ing the reign of 
 Antiochus, Arsaces founded the Parthian empire 
 (250), and Theodotus established an independent 
 kingdom at Bactria, He was succeeded by his 
 
 ANTIOCHUS. 
 
 55 
 
 son Seleucus Calllnicus. His younger son Antiochus 
 Hierax also assumed the crown, and carried on 
 war some years with his brother. [Seleucus II.] 
 — 3. The Great (b. c. 223—187), second son 
 of Seleucus Callinicus, succeeded to the throne on 
 the death of his brother Seleucus Ceraunus, when 
 he was only in his 15th yeai*. After defeating 
 (220) Molon, satrap of Media, and his brother Alex- 
 ander, satrap of Persis, who had attempted to make 
 themselves independent, he carried on war against 
 Ptolemy Philopator, king of Egypt, in order to 
 obtain Coele-Syria, Phoenicia, and Palestine, but 
 was obliged to cede these provinces to Ptolemy, in 
 consequence of his defeat at the battle of Raphia 
 near Gaza, in 217. He next marclied against 
 Achaeus, who had revolted in Asia Minor, and 
 whom he put to death, when he fell into his hands 
 in 214. [Achaeus.] Shortly after this he was 
 engaged for 7 3'ears (212 — 205) in an attempt 
 to regain the E. provinces of Asia, which had 
 revolted during the reign of Antiochus II. ; but 
 though he met with great success, he found it 
 hopeless to effect the subjugation of the Parthian 
 and Bactrian kingdoms, and accordingly concluded 
 a peace with them. In 205 he renewed his war 
 against Egypt with more success, and in 198 con- 
 quered Palestine and Coele-Syria, which he after- 
 wards gave as a dowiy with his daughter Cleopatra 
 upon her marriage with Ptolemy Epiphanes. In 
 196 ho crossed over into Europe, and took posses- 
 sion of the Thmcian Chersonese. This brought 
 him hito contact with the Romans, who commanded 
 him to restore the Chersonese to the Macedonian 
 king ; but he refused to comply with their demand ; 
 in which resolution he was strengthened by Han- 
 nibal, who arrived at his court in 195. Hannibal 
 urged him to invade Italy v/ithout loss of time ; 
 but Antiochus did not follow his advice, and it 
 was not till 192, that he crossed over into Greece. 
 In 191 he was dcft:ated by the Romans at Ther- 
 mopylae, and compelled to return to Asia : his fleet 
 was also vanquished in two engagements. In 1 90 
 he was again defeated by the Romans under L. 
 Scipio, at Mount Sipylus, near Magnesia, and 
 compelled to sue for peace, which was granted in 
 188, on condition of his ceding all his dominions 
 E. of Mount Taunis, paying 15,000 Euboicr 
 talents within 12 years, giving up his elephants. 
 and ships of war, and surrendering the Roman, 
 enemies ; but he allowed Haimibal to escape. In 
 order to raise the money to pay the Romans, he- 
 attacked a wealthy temple in Elymais, hut was- 
 killed by the people of the place (187). He was 
 succeeded by his son Seleucus Philopator, — - 4. 
 Epiplianes(B.c. 175— 1 64), son of Antiochus III., 
 was given as a hostage to the Romans in 188, 
 and was released from captivity in 175 through 
 his brother Seleucus Philopator, whom he suc- 
 ceeded in the same year. He carried on war 
 against Egypt from 171—168 with great success, 
 in order to obtain Coele-Syria and Palestine, which 
 had been given as a dowry with his sister, and he 
 was preparing to lay siege to Alexandria in 168, 
 when the Romans compelled him to retire. Pie 
 endeavoured to root out the Jewish religion and to 
 introduce the worship of the Greek divinities ; but 
 this attempt led to a rising of the Jewish people, 
 under Mattathias and his heroic sons the Macca- 
 bees, which Antiochus was unable to put down. 
 Heattempted to plunder a temple in Elymais in 164, 
 but he was repulsed, and died shortly afterwards 
 
56 
 
 ANTIOCHUS. 
 
 in a state of raving madness, which the Jews and 
 Greeks equall}'' attributed to his sacrilegious criniea. 
 His subjects gave him the name QiEpimanes (" the 
 madman") in parody of Epiphanes.^5. Eupa- 
 tor (b. c. 164 — 162), son and successor of £pi- 
 phanes, was 9 years old at his father's death, and 
 reigned under the guardianship of Lysias. He 
 was dethroned and put to death by Demetrius 
 Soter, the son of Seleucus Philopator, who had 
 liitlierto lived at Rome as a hostage. — 6, Tkeos, 
 son of Alexander Balas. He was brought forward 
 as a claimant to the crown in 144, against Deme- 
 trius Nicatorby Tryphon, but he was murdered by 
 the latter, who ascended the throne himself in 142. 
 
 — 7. Sidetes (b.c. 137—128), so called from 
 Side in Pamphylia, where he was brought up, 
 younger son of Demetrius Soter, succeeded Try- 
 phon. He married Cleopatra, wife of his elder 
 brother Demetrius Nicator, who was a prisoner 
 with the Parthians. He carried on war against 
 the Parthians, at first with success, but was after- 
 wards defeated and slain in battle inl28. — 8. 
 Grypus, or Hook-nosed (b.c. 125 — 96), second 
 son of Demetrius Nicator and Cleopatra. He was 
 placed upon the throne in 125 by his mother Cleo- 
 patra, who put to death, his eldest brother Seleu- 
 cus, because she wished to have the power in 
 her own hands. He poisoned his mother in 
 120, and subsequently caiTied on war for some 
 years with his half-brother A. IX. Cyzicenus. 
 At length, in 112, the tv/o brothers agreed to shore 
 the kingdom between them, A. Cyzicenus having 
 Coele- Syria and Phoenicia, and A. Giypus the re- 
 mainder of the provinces. Giypus was assassinated 
 in 96.^9. Cy2dcen"us, from Cyzious, where he 
 was brought up, son of A. VII. Sidetes and Cleo- 
 patra, reigned over Coele- Sj^ria and Phoenicia from 
 112 to 96, but fell in battle in 95 against Seleucus 
 Epiphanes, son of A. VITI. Grj-pus. — 10. Euae- 
 bes, son of A. IX. Cj'zicenus, defeated Seleucus 
 Epiphanes, who had slain his father in battle, and 
 maintained the throne agahist the brothers of Se- 
 leucus. He succeeded his father Antiochus IX. 
 in 95. — 11. Epiphanes, son of A. VIII. Gry- 
 pus and brother of Seleucus Epiphanes, carried on 
 war against A. X. Eusebes, but was defeated by 
 the latter, and drowned in the river Orontes. 
 
 — 12. Dionysus, brother of No. 11, held the 
 crown for a short time, but fell in battle against 
 Aretas, king of the Arabians. The Syrians, worn 
 out with the civil broils of the Seleucidae, olTered 
 the kingdom to Tigiunes, king of Armenia, who 
 united Syria to his own dominions in 83, and held 
 it till his defeat by tbe Romans in 69.^13. 
 Asiaticii3, son of A. X. Eusebes, became king 
 of Syria, on the defeat of Tigranes by Lucullus in 
 69 ; but he was deprived of it in 65 by Pompey, 
 who reduced Syria to a Roman province. In this 
 year the Seleucidae ceased to reign. 
 
 II. Kings of Commagene. 
 
 1. Made an alliance with the Romans, about 
 B. c. 64. He assisted Pompey with troops in 49, 
 and was attacked by Antony in 38. He wag 
 succeeded by Mithridates I. about 31. — 2. Suc- 
 ceeded Mithridates I., and was put to death at 
 Rome by August^^s in 29.-3. Succeeded Mith- 
 ridates il., and died in a. d. 17. Upon his death, 
 Commagene became a Roman province, and 
 remained so till a. d. 38.^4. Surnamed Epi- 
 phanes, apparently a son of Antiochus III., 
 
 ANTIPATER. 
 
 received his paternal domijiion from Caligula in 
 
 A. D. 38. He was subsequently deposed by Cali- 
 gula, but regained his kingdom on the accession 
 of Claudius in 41. He was a faithful ally of 
 the Romans, and assisted them in their wars 
 against the Parthians under Nero, and against the 
 Jews under Vespasian. At length in 72, he was 
 accused of conspiring with the Parthians against 
 the Romans, was deprived of his kingdom, and 
 retired to Rome, wliere he passed the remainder of 
 his life. 
 
 III. Literm-y. 
 
 1. Of Aegae in Cilicia, a sophist,or,ns he himself 
 pretended to be, a CjTiic philosopher. He flourished 
 about A. D. 200, durijig the reign of Severus and 
 Caracalla. During the war of Caracalla against the 
 Parthians, he deserted to the Parthians together 
 with Tiridates. He was one of the most distin- 
 guished rhetoricians of his time, and also acquired 
 some reputation as a writer, — 2. Of Ascalon, tlie 
 founder of the iifth Academy, was a friend of Lu- 
 cidlus and the teacher of Cicero during his studies 
 at Athens (b. c. 79) ; but he had a school at' Alex- 
 andria also, as well as in Syria, where he seems to 
 have ended his life. His principal teacher was 
 Philo, who succeeded Pluto, Arcesilas, and Car- 
 neadcs, as the founder of the fourth Academy. He 
 is, however, better known as the adversary than 
 the disciple of Philo ; and Cicero mentions a trea- 
 tise called SosuSj written by him against his master, 
 in which he refutes the scepticism of the Academics, 
 — 3. Of Syracuse, a Greek historian, lived about 
 
 B. c. 423, and wrote histories of Sicily and Italy. 
 Antiope (kuriSin}). 1. Daughter of Nycteus 
 
 and Polyxo, or of the river god Asopus in Bueotia, 
 became by Zeus the mother of Amphiou and Ze- 
 thus. [Ampiiion.] Dionysus threw her into a 
 state of madness on account of the vengeance which 
 her sons had taken on Dirce, In this condition 
 s'ne wandered through Greece, until Phocus, the 
 grandson of Sisyphus, cured and married her. — 
 2. An Amazon, sister of Hippolyte, wife of The- 
 seus, and mother of Hippolytus. 
 
 Antipater (' Avr iiraTpos). 1. The Macedonian, 
 an officer greatly tnisted by Philip and Alexander 
 the Great, was left by the latter regent in Mace- 
 donia, when he crossed over into Asia in B.C. 334. 
 In consequence of dissensions between Olympias 
 and Antipater, the latter was summoned to Asia in 
 324, and Craterus appointed to the regency of Ma- 
 cedonia, but the death of Alexander in the follow- 
 ing yeai' prevented these arrangements from taking 
 effect. Antipater now obtained Macedonia again, 
 and in conjunction with Craterus, who was asso- 
 ciated with him in the government, carried on war 
 against the Greeks, who endeavoured to establish 
 their independence. This war, usually called the 
 Lamian war, from Lamia, where Antipater was be- 
 sieged in 323, was terminated by Antipater's vic- 
 tory over the confederates at Crannon in 322. 
 This was followed by the submission of Athens and 
 the death of Demosthenes. In 321 Antipater 
 crossed over into Asia in order to oppose Perdiccas ; 
 but the murder of Perdiccas in Egypt put an end 
 to this war, and left Antipater supreme regent. 
 Antipater died in 319, after appointing Polysper- 
 chon regent, and his own son Cassandeu to a 
 subordinate position. — 2. Gi'andson of the pre- 
 ceding, and second son of Cassander and Thcssalo- 
 nica. After the death of his elder brother Philip 
 
ANTIPATER. 
 
 IV. (b. c. 295), great dissensions ensued between 
 Antipater and his younger brotlier Alexander, for 
 the kingdom of Macedonia. Antipater, "believing 
 that Alexander was favoured by his mother, put 
 her to death. The younger brother upon this ap- 
 plied for aid at once to Pyrrhns of Epirus and 
 Demetrius Pollorcetes. The remaining history is 
 related differently ; but so much is certain, that 
 both Antipater and Alexander were subsequently 
 put to death, either by Demetrius or at his insti- 
 gation, and that Demetrius became king of Mace- 
 donia.— 3. Father of Herod the Great, son of a 
 noble Idumaean of the same name, espoused the 
 cause of Hyrcanus against his brother Aristobulus. 
 He ingratiated himself vi'ith the Romans, and in 
 B.C. 47 was appointed by Caesar procurator of 
 Judaea, which appointment he held till his death 
 in 43, when he was carried off by poison which 
 Malichus, whose life he had twice saved, bribed 
 the cup-bearer of Hyrcanus to administer to him. 
 
 — 4. Eldest son of Herod the Great by his first 
 wife, Doris, brouglit about the death of his two 
 half-brothers, Alexander and Aristobulus, in b. c. 
 6, but was himself condemned as guilty of a con- 
 spiracy against his father's life, and was executed 
 five days before Herod's deatli.^5. Of Tarsus, 
 a Stoic philosopher, the successor of Diogenes 
 and the teaclier of Panaetius, about b, c. 144. 
 
 — 6. Of Tyre, a Stoic philosopher, died shortly 
 before B.C. 45, and wrote a work on Duties {de 
 Of/icns).^^. Of Sidon, the author of several epi- 
 grams in the Greek Anthology, floiirished about 
 B.C. lOi) — 100, and lived to a great age. — 8. Of 
 Thessalonica, the author of several epigrams in the 
 Greek Anthology, lived in the latter part of the 
 reign of Augustus. 
 
 Antipater, L. Caelius, a Roman jurist and 
 historian, and a contemporary of C. Gracchus (b. c. 
 123) and L. Crassus, the orator, wrote Annates^ 
 which were epitomized by Bmtus, and which con- 
 tained a valuable account of the 2nd Punic war. 
 
 Antipatria {'AfmrdTpta : Berat ?), a town in 
 Illyricum on the borders of Macedonia, on the left 
 bank of the Apsus. 
 
 Antiphanes ('Aj/Ti^ai/rjs). 1. A comic poet of 
 the middle Attic comedy, bom about e. c. 404, 
 and died 330. He wrote 365, or at the least 260 
 plays, which were distinguished by elegance of 
 language.^2. Of Berga in Thrace, a Greek writer 
 on marvellous and incredible things.— 3. An epi- 
 grammatic poet, several of whose epigrams are still 
 extant in the Greek Anthology, lived about the 
 reign of Augustus. 
 
 AntipKates ('Avri^drTjs), king of the mythical 
 Laestr}'gones in Sicily, who are represented as 
 giants and cannibals. They destroyed 11 of the 
 chips of Ulysses, who escaped with only one vessel. 
 
 Antiphellus ('AvTi<pe\\os: A7itip?nlo)j a, town 
 on the coast of Lycia, between Patara and Aperlae, 
 originally the port of Phellus. 
 
 Antipliemiis (^Aur'KpjjfjLos), the Rhodian, founder 
 of Gela in Sicily, B. c. 690. 
 
 Antiphilus {*AvTl(pt\os). 1. Of Byzantium, 
 an epigrammatic poet, author of several excellent 
 epigrams in the Greek Antholog)-, was a contem- 
 poraty of the emperor Nero. — 2, Of Egj'pt, a 
 distinguished painter, the rival of Apelles, painted 
 for Philip and Alexander tlie Great. 
 
 Antiphon {*Avri(pa}y). 1. The most ancient of 
 the 10 orators in the Alexandrine canon, was a 
 flon of Sophilus the Sophist, and born at Rhamnus 
 
 ANTISTHENES. 57 
 
 in Attica, in b. c. 400. He belonged to the oli- 
 garchical party at Athens, and took an active part 
 in the establisiiment of the government of the Four 
 Hundred (d. c. 411), after the overthrow of which 
 he was brought to trial, condemned, and put to death. 
 The oratorical powers of Antiphon are highly praised 
 by the ancients. He introduced great improvements 
 in public speaking, and was the first who laid 
 down theoretical laws for practical eloquence ; he 
 opened a school in which he taught rhetoric, and 
 the historian Thucydides is said to have been one 
 of his pupils. The orations which he composed 
 were written for others ; and the only time that he 
 spoke in public himself was when he was accused 
 and condemned to death. This speech, which was 
 considered in antiquity a master-piece of eloquence, 
 is now lost. (Thuc. viii. 68 ; Cic. Brut. 12.) We 
 still possess 15 orations of Antiphon, 3 of which 
 were written by him for others, and the remaining 
 12 as specimens for his school, or exercises on fic- 
 titious cases. They are printed in the collections 
 of the Attic orators, and separately, edited by 
 Baiter and Sauppe, Ziirich, 1838, and Matzner, 
 Berlin, 1838. — 2. A tragic poet, whom many 
 ■writers confoimd with the Attic orator, lived at 
 Symcuse, at the court of the elder Dionysius, by 
 whom he was put to death. — 3. Of Athens, a 
 sophist and an epic poet, wrote a work on the in- 
 terpretation of dreams, which is referred to by 
 Cicero and others. He is the same person as the 
 Antiphon who was an opponent of Socrates. (Xen, 
 Mem. i. 6.) 
 
 Antiplma CAvrKpos). 1. Son of Priam and 
 Hecuba, slain by Agamemnon. — 2. Son of Thes- 
 salus, and one of the Greek heroes at Troy. 
 
 Antipolis (^AvtlttoMs: .4n^i6es, pronounced by 
 the inhabitants Antiboul), a town in Gallia Nar- 
 boncnsis on the coast, in the territory of the De- 
 ciates, a few miles W. of Nicaen, was founded by 
 Massilia ; the muna, or salt pickle made of fish, 
 prepared at this town, was very celebrated. 
 
 Antirrhium {'Avri^piov : Casiello di Romelia\ 
 a promontory on the borders of Aetolia and Locris, 
 opposite Rhium {Castello di Morea) in Achaia, 
 with which it fonned the narrow entrance of the 
 Corinthian gulf: the straits are sometimes called 
 the Little Dardanelles. 
 
 Antissa (^Avri(r(r<x: ^ Avr itr (ratos : Kolas Lim~ 
 neonas), a town in Lesbos with a harbour, on the 
 W. coast between Methymna and the promontory 
 Sigrium, was originally on a small island opposite 
 Lesbos, which was afterwards united with Lesbos. 
 It was destroyed by the Romans, b. c. 168, and its 
 inhabitants removed to Methymna, because they 
 had assisted Antiochus. 
 
 A3itistheEes('AyTi(r0eV7js), an Athenian, founder 
 of the sect of the C3''nic philosophers. His mother 
 was a Thracian. In his youth he fought at Ta- 
 nagra (b. c. 426), and was a disciple first of Gorgias, 
 and then of Socrates, whom he never quitted, and 
 at whose death he was present. He died at Athens, 
 at the age of 70. He taught in the Cynosarges, a 
 gj'mnasium for the use of Athenians born of foreign 
 mothers ; whence probably his followers were 
 called Cynics {Kuumoi), though others derive their 
 name from their dog-like neglect of all forms and 
 usages of society. His writings were very nu- 
 merous, and chiefly dialogues ; his style was pure 
 and elegant ; and he possessed considerable powers 
 of wit and sarcasm. Two declamations of his are 
 preserved, named Ajax and Ulysses, which are 
 
58 
 
 ANTISTIUS. 
 
 purely rhetorical. He was an enemy to all specu- 
 lation, and thus was opposed to Plato, whom he 
 attacked fimously in one of his dialogues. His 
 philosophical system was confined almost entirely 
 to ethics, and he taught that virtue is the sole thing 
 necessary. He showed his contempt of all the 
 luxuries and outward comforts of life by his mean 
 clothing and hard fare. From his school the Stoics 
 subsequently sprung. In one of his works entitled 
 Physieus, he contended for the Unity of the Deity. 
 (Cic. de Nat. Deor. i. 13.) 
 
 Antistius, P., tribune of the plebs, b. c. 88, a 
 distinguished orator, supported the party of Sulla, 
 and was put to death by order of young Marius in 
 82. His daughter Antistia was man'ied to Pom- 
 peius Magnus. 
 
 Antistius Labeo. [Labeo.] 
 
 Antistius Vetus. [Vetus.] 
 
 Antitauras {'KvrWavpos : Ali-Dagh)^ a chain 
 of mountains, which strikes off N.E. from the main 
 chain of the Taurus on the S. border of Cappadocia, 
 in the centre of which district it turns to the E. 
 and runs parallel to the Taurus as far as the Eu- 
 phrates. Its average height exceeds that of the 
 Taurvis ; and one of its summits. Mount Argaeus, 
 nearMazaca, is the loftiest mountain of Asia Minor. 
 
 Antium (Antias : Torre or Porto d'' Anzo)^ a 
 very ancient town of Latium on a rocky promontory 
 running out some distance into the Tyrrhenian sea. 
 It was founded by Tyrrhenians and Pelasgians, and 
 in earlier and even later times was noted for its 
 piracy. Although united by Tarquinius Superbus 
 to the Latin League, it generally sided with the 
 Volscians against Rome. It was taken by the 
 Romans in b. c. 468, and a colony was sent thither, 
 but it revolted, was taken a second time by the 
 Romans in B. c. 338, was deprived of all its ships, 
 the beaks of which {Rostra) served to ornament the 
 platform of the speakers in the Roman forura, was 
 forbidden to have any ships in future, and received 
 another Roman colony. But it gradually recovered 
 its former importance, was allowed in course of 
 time again to be used as a seaport, and in the latter 
 times of the republic and xmder the empire, became 
 a favourite residence of many of the Roman nobles 
 and emperors. The emperor Nero was born here, 
 and in the remains of his palace the celebrated 
 Apollo Belvedere was found. Antium possessed a 
 celebrated temple of Fortime (0 Diva^ graiiim quae 
 regis Antium, Hor. Carm. i. 35), of Aesculapius, 
 and at the port of Ceno, a little to the E. of Antium, 
 a temple of Neptune, on which account the place 
 is now called Netiuno. 
 
 Antius Kestio. [Restio.] 
 
 Antonia. 1. Major^ elder daughter of M. An- 
 tonius and Octavia, husband of L. Domitius Aheno- 
 barbus, and mother of Cn. Domitius, the father of 
 the emperor Nero. Tacitus calls this Antonia the 
 younger daughter. — 2. Minor^ younger sister of 
 the preceding, husband of Drusus, the brother of 
 the emperor Tiberius, and mother of Germanicus, 
 the father of the emperor Caligula, of Livia or Li- 
 villa, and of the emperor Claudius. She died a. d. 
 38, soon after the accession of her grandson Cali- 
 gula. She was celebrated for her beauty, virtue, 
 and chastity. ^ 3. Daughter of the emperor Clau- 
 dius, married first to Pompeius Magnus, and after- 
 wards to Faustus Sulla. Nero wished to marry 
 her after the death of his wife Poppaea, a. d. GQ ; 
 and on her refusal he caused her to be put to death 
 on a charffe of treason. 
 
 ANTONIbfe. 
 
 Antonia Tunis, a castle on a rock at the N.W. 
 corner of the Temple at Jerusalem, which com- 
 manded both the temple and the city. It was at 
 first called Baris : Herod the Great changed its 
 name in honour of M. Antonius. It contained the 
 residence of the Procurator Judaeae. 
 
 Antonini Itinerarium, the title of an extant 
 ■work, which is a veiy valuable itinerary of the 
 whole Roman empire, in which both the principal 
 and the cross-roads are described by a list of all 
 the places and stations upon them, the distances 
 from place to place being given in Roman miles. 
 It is usually attributed to the emperor M. Aurelius 
 Antoninus, but it appears to have been commenced 
 by order of Julius Caesar and to have been com- 
 pleted in the reign of Augustus ; though it is pro- 
 bable that it received important additions and 
 revision under one or both of the Antonines. — Edi~ 
 tions : by Wesseling, Amst. 1735 ; by Parthey 
 and Pinder, Berlin, 1848. 
 
 Antoninopolis {'AvrajuivotroAis : -Ittjs, anus), a 
 city of Mesopotamia, between Edessa and Dara, 
 afl. Maximianopolis, and aft. Constantia. 
 
 Antoninus, M. Aurelius. [M. Aurelius.] 
 
 Antoninus Pius, Roman emperor, a, b. 138 — 
 161. His name in the early part of his life, at 
 full length, was Titiis Aurelius Fidvus Boionius 
 Arrius Antoninus. His paternal ancestors came 
 from Nemausus {Nismes) in Gaul ; but Antoninus 
 himself was boru near Lanuvium, September 19th, 
 a. d. 86. Fi'om an early age he gave promise of 
 his future worth. In 120 he was consul, and 
 subsequently proconsul of the province of Asia : 
 on his return to Rome he lived on terms of the 
 greatest intimacy with Hadrian, who adopted him 
 on Februai-y 25th, 1 38, Henceforward he bore the 
 name of T. Aeiius Iladnamts Antoninus Caesar y 
 and on the death of Hadrian, July 2nd, 138, he 
 ascended the throne. The senate conferred upon 
 him the title of Pius^ or the dutifally ajfectionate^ 
 because he persuaded them to grant to his father 
 Hadrian the apotheosis and the other honours 
 usually paid to deceased emperors, which they 
 had at first refused to bestow upon Hadrian. The 
 reign of Antoninus is almost a blank in history — 
 a blank caused by the suspension for a time of war, 
 violence, and crime. He was one of the best princes 
 that ever mounted a throne, and all his thoughts 
 and energies were dedicated to the happiness of his 
 people. No attempt was made to achieve new 
 conquests, and various insurrections among the 
 Germans, Dacians, Jews, Moors, Egyptians, and 
 Britons, were easily quelled by his legates. In all 
 the relations of private life the character of Anto- 
 ninus was without reproach. He was faithful to 
 his wife Faustina, notwithstanding her profligate 
 life, and after her death loaded her memory with 
 honours. He died at Lorium, March 7th, 161, in 
 his 75th year. He was succeeded by M. Aurelius, 
 whom he had adopted, when he himself was adopted 
 by Pladrian, and to whom he gave his daughter 
 Faustina in marriage. 
 
 Antoninus Liberalis, a Greek grammarian, 
 probably lived in the reign of the Antonines, about 
 A. D. 147, and wrote a work on Metamorphoses 
 {M€Taf.iop^u>(reo)U trvvayuryn) in 41 chapters, which 
 is extant. — Editions : by Verheyk, Lugd. Bat. 
 1774 ; by Koch, Lips. 1832 ; by Westermann, 
 hi his Paradoxographi, Brunsv. 1039. 
 
 Antonius. 1. M., the orator, born b. c. 143; 
 quaestor in 113 ; praetor in 104, when he fought 
 
ANTONIUS. 
 against the pirates in Cilicia ; consul in 99 ; and 
 censor in 97. He belonged to Sulla's party, and 
 ■vvas put to death by Marius and Cinna when they 
 entered Rome in 87 : his head was cut off and 
 placed on the Rostra. Cicero mentions him and L. 
 Crassus as the most distinguished orators of their 
 age ; and he is introduced as one of the speakers 
 in Cicero's De Ora/ore. — 2. M., surnamed Cre- 
 Ticus, elder son of the orator, and father of the 
 xriumvir, was praetor in 75, and received the com- 
 mand of the fleet and all the coasts of the Medi- 
 terranean, in order to clear the sea of pirates ; but 
 he did not succeed in his object, and used his power 
 to plunder the provinces. He died shortly after- 
 wards in Crete, and was called Creiicus in derision. 
 «— 3. C, younger son of the orator, and uncle of 
 the triumvir, was expelled the senate in 70, and 
 was the colleague of Cicero in the praetorship (65) 
 and consulship (63). He was one of Catiline's 
 conspirators, but deserted the latter by Cicero's 
 promising him the province of Macedonia. He 
 had to lead an army against Catiline, but unwilling 
 to fight against his former friend, he gave the com- 
 mand on the day of battle to his legate, M. Petreius. 
 At the conclusion of the war Antony went into his 
 province, which he plundered shamefully ; and on 
 his return to Rome in 59 was accused both of 
 taking part in Catiline's conspiracy and of extortion 
 in his province. He was defended by Cicero, but 
 was condemned, and retired to the island of Ce- 
 phallenia. He was subsequently recalled, probably 
 by Caesar, and was in Rome at the beginning of 
 44,-4. M,, the Triumvir, was son of No. 2. and 
 Julia, the sister of L. Julius Caesar, consul in 64, 
 and was born about 83. His father died while he 
 was still young, and he was brought up by Cornelius 
 Lentulus, Avho married his mother Julia, and who 
 was put to death by Cicero in 63 as one of Cati- 
 line's conspirators : whence he became a personal 
 enemy of Cicero. Antony indulged in his earliest 
 youth in every kind of dissipation, and his affairs 
 soon became deeply involved. In 58 he went to 
 Syria, where he served with distinction under A. 
 Gabinius. He took part in the campaigns against 
 Aristobulus in Palestine (57, 56), and in the re- 
 storation of Ptolemy Auletes to Egypt in 55. In 
 54 he went to Caesar in Gaul, and by the influence 
 of the latter was elected quaestor. As quaestor 
 (52) he returned to Gaid, and served under Caesar 
 for the next two years (52, 51). He returned to 
 Rome in 50, and became one of the most active 
 partizans of Caesar. He was tribune of the plcbs 
 in 49, and in January fled to Caesar's camp in 
 Cisalpine Gaul, after putting his veto upon the de- 
 cree of the senate which deprived Caesar of his 
 command. He accompanied Caesar in his victo- 
 rious march into Italy, and was left by Caesar in 
 the command of Italy, while the latter carried on 
 the war in Spain. In 48 Antony was present at 
 the battle of Pharsalia, where he commanded the 
 left wing ; and in 47 he was again left in the com- 
 mand of Italy during Caesar's absence in Africa. 
 In 44 he was consul with Caesar, when he offered 
 him the kingly diadem at the festival of the Luper- 
 calia. After Caesar's murder on the 15th of 
 March, Antony endeavoured to succeed to his 
 power. He therefore used every means to appear 
 as his representative ; he pronounced the speech 
 over Caesar's body and read his will to the people ; 
 and he also obtained the papers and private pro- 
 perty of Caesar. But he found a new and unex- 
 
 ANTONIUS. 
 
 50 
 
 pected rival in young Octavianus, the adopted son 
 and great-nephew of the dictator, who came from 
 ApoUonia to Rome, assumed the name of Caesar, 
 and at first joined the senate in order to crush 
 Antony. Towards the end of the year Antony 
 proceeded to Cisalpine Gaul, which had been 
 previously granted him by the senate ; but Dec, 
 Brutus refused to surrender the province to An- 
 tony and threw himself into Mutina, where he was 
 besieged by Antony. The senate approved of the 
 conduct of Brutus, declared Antony a public enemy, 
 and entrusted the conduct of the war against him 
 to Octavianus. Antony was defeated at the battle 
 of Mutina, in April 43, and was obliged to cross 
 the Alps. Both the consuls, however, had fallen, 
 and the senate now began to show their jealousy 
 of Octavianus. Meantime Antony was joined by 
 Lepidus with a powerful army : Octavianus be- 
 came reconciled to Antony ; and it was agreed 
 that the government of the state should be vested 
 in Antony, Octavianus, and liepidus, under the 
 title of Triumviri ReipvLlicae Consiituendae, for the 
 next 5 years. The mutual enemies of each were 
 proscribed, and in the numerous executions that 
 followed, Cicero, who had attacked Antony in 
 the most unmeasured manner in his Philippic 
 Orations, fell a victim to Antony. In 42 Antony 
 and Octavianus crushed the republican party by 
 the battle of Philippi, in which Brutus and Cassius 
 fell. Antony then went to Asia, wliicli he had 
 received as his share of the Roman world. In 
 Cilicia he met with Cleopatra, and followed her to 
 Egypt, a captive to her charms. In 41 Fulvia, the 
 wife of Antony, and his brother L. Antonius, made 
 war upon Octavianus in Italy. Antony prepared 
 to support his relatives, but the war was brought 
 to a close at the beginning of 40, before Antony 
 could reach Italy. The opportune death of Fulvia 
 facilitated the reconciliation of Antony and Octa- 
 vianus, which was cemented by Antony raarrj'ing 
 Octavia, the sister of Octavianus. Antony re- 
 mained in Italy till 39, when the triumvirs con- 
 cluded a peace with Sext. Pompej', and he after- 
 wards went to his provinces in the East. In this 
 year and the following Ventidius, the lieutenant 
 of Antony, defeated the Parthians. In 37 Antony 
 crossed over to Italy, when the triumvirate was 
 renewed for 5 years. He then returned to 
 the East, and shortly afterwards sent Octavia 
 back to her brother, and surrendered himself en- 
 tirely to the charms of Cleopatra. In 36 he in- 
 vaded Parthia, but he lost a great number of his 
 troops, and was obliged to retreat. He was more 
 successful in his invasion of Armenia in 34, for he 
 obtained possession of the person of Artavasdes, 
 the Annenian king, and carried him to Alexandria. 
 Antony now laid aside entirely the character of a 
 Roman citizen, and assumed the pomp and cere- 
 mony of an Eastern despot. His conduct, and the 
 unbounded influence which Cleopatra had acquired 
 over him, alienated many of his friends and sup- 
 porters ; and Octavianus thought that the time had 
 now come for crushing his rival. The contest was 
 decided by the memorable sea-fight off Actium, 
 September 2nd, 31, in which Antony's fleet was 
 completely defeated. Antony, accompanied by 
 Cleopatra, fled to Alexandria, where he put an 
 end to his own life in the following year (30), 
 when Octavianus appeared before the city. — 5. 
 C, brother of the triumvir, was praetor in Mace- 
 donia in 44, fell into the hands of M. Brutus in 
 
60 
 
 ANTONIUS. 
 
 43, and was put to death by Brutus in 42, to re- 
 venge the murder of Cicero. — 6, L., youngest 
 brother of the triumvir, wns consul in 41, when he 
 engaged in war against Octavianus at the instiga- 
 tion of Fulvia, his brother's wife. He was unable 
 to resist Octavianus, and threw himself into the 
 town of Perusia, which he was obliged to surrender 
 in the following year : hence the war ia usually 
 called that ot Perusia, His life was spared, and 
 he was afterwards appointed by Octavianus to the 
 command of Iberia. Cicero draws a frightful pic- 
 ture of Lucius' character. He calls him a gladiator 
 and a robber, and heaps upon him every term of 
 reproach and contempt. Much of this is of 
 course exaggeration. — « 7. M., called by the 
 Oreek writers Anti/lhis, which is probably only a 
 corrupt form of Antonillus (young Antonius), elder 
 son of the triumvir by Fulvia, was executed by 
 order of Octavianus, after the death of his father 
 in 30. — 8. Jiilti3, younger son of the trium^•i^ by 
 Fulvia, was brought up by his step-mother Octavia 
 at Rome, and received great marks of favour from 
 Augustus. He was consul in b. c. 1 0, but was put 
 to death in 2, in consequence of his adulterous in- 
 tercourse with Julia, the daughter of Augustus, 
 
 Antonius Feliz. [Felix.] 
 
 Antonius Musa. [Musa.] 
 
 Antonius Primus. [Primus.] 
 
 Antron (^Avrpdiv and ot "^AvTpuves : ^Aurpi^i/ios: 
 Fano), a to\vn in Phthiotis in Thessaly, at the en- 
 trance of the Sinu^ Maliacus. 
 
 Antunnacum {Andemach)^ a town of the Ubii 
 on the Rhine. 
 
 Anubis ("Arougis), an Egyptian divinity, wor- 
 shipped in the form of a hioman. being with a dog's 
 head- He was originally worshipped simply as 
 the representative of the dog, which animal, like 
 the cat, was sacred in Fgypt ; but his worship was 
 subsequently mixed up with other religious systems, 
 and Anubis thus assumed a symbolical or astrono- 
 mical character, at least with the learned. His 
 worship prevailed throughout Egypt, but he was 
 most honoured at Cynopolis in middle Egypt. Later 
 myths relate that Anubis was the son of Osiris and 
 Nephthys, born after the death of his father ; and 
 that Isis brought him up, and made him her guard 
 and companion, who thus performed to her the 
 same service that dogs perform to men. In the 
 temples of Egypt Anubis seems to have been re- 
 presented as the guard of other gods, and the place 
 in the front of a temple was particularly sacred to 
 him. The Greeks identified him with their own 
 Hermes, and thus speak of Hermanuphis in the 
 same manner as of Zeus Ammon, His worship 
 was introduced at Rome towards the end of the re- 
 public, and under the empire spread very widely 
 both in Greece and at Rome. 
 
 Anxur. [Tarkacina.] 
 
 Anxiirus, an Italian divinity, who was wor- 
 shipped in a grove near Anxur (Tarracina) together 
 with Feronia. He was regarded as a youthful Ju- 
 piter, and Feronia as Juno. On coins his name 
 appears as Axur or Anxur. 
 
 Anysis ("Ai/wcrts), an ancient king of Egypt, in 
 whose reign Egypt was invaded by the Ethiopians 
 Tinder their king Sabaco. 
 
 Anyte {'Avurt]), of Tegea, the authoress of se- 
 veral epigrams in the Greek Anthology, flourished 
 about B. c. 700, and not 300, as is usually sup- 
 posed. The epigrams are for the most part in the 
 lytyle of the ancient Doric choral songs. 
 
 APAMEA, 
 
 Anytus (^Ax'UToy), a wealthy Athenian, son of 
 Anthemion, the most influential and formidable of 
 the accusers of Socrates, b. c. 399 (hence Socrates 
 is called Ani/li reus, Hor. Sat. ii. 4. 3). He was a 
 leading man of the democratical party, and took an 
 active part, along with Thrasybulus, in the over- 
 throw of the 30 Tyrants. The Athenians, having 
 repented of their condemnation of Socrates, sent 
 Anytus into banishment. 
 
 Aon CAwv), son of Poseidon, and an ancient 
 Boeotian hero, from whom the Aones, an ancient 
 race in Boeotia, were believed to have derived 
 their name. Aoma was the name of the part of 
 Boeotia, near Phocis, in which were Mount Helicon 
 and tlie fountain Aganippe (Aoniae aquae^ Ov. 
 Fast. iii. 456). The Muses are also called Aonules, 
 since they frequented Helicon and the fountain of 
 Aganippe. (Ov. Met. v. 333.) 
 
 Aonides. [Aon.] 
 
 Aorsi {"Aopaoi) or Adorsi, a powerful people of 
 Asiatic Sarmatia, who appear to have had their ' 
 original settlements on the N.E. of the Caspian, but 
 are chiefly found between the Palus Maeotis {Sea 
 of Azof ) and the Caspian, to the S.E. of the river 
 Tanais {_Don)^ whence they spread far into Euro- 
 pean Sarmatia. They carried on a considerable 
 traffic in Babylonian merchandise, which they 
 fetched on camels out of Media and Armenia. 
 
 Aous or Aeas ('AoJos or Alas : Viosa, Viussa, 
 or Fovussa), the principal river of the Greek part 
 of lUyricum, rises in M. Lacmon,the N. part of Piu- 
 dus, and flows into the Ionian sea near ApoUonia. 
 
 Apamea or -ia (*A7ra/i.€ta ; 'ATra/Ateiis, Apameus, 
 -enus, -ensis), the name of several Asiatic cities, 
 three of which were founded by Seleucus I. Nica- 
 tor, and named' in honour of his wife Apama. 1. 
 A. ad Orontem {Famiah), the capital of the Sy- 
 rian province Apamene, and, under the Romans, of 
 Syria Secunda, was built by Seleucus Nicator on 
 the site of the older city of Pella, in a very strong 
 position on the river Orontes or Axius, the citadel 
 being on the left (W.) bank of the river, and the 
 city on the right. It was siurounded by rich pas- 
 tures, in which Seleucus kept a splendid stud of 
 horses and SCO elephants. — 2. In Osroene in 
 Mesopotamia {Balasir)^ a town built by Seleucus 
 Nicator on the E. bank of the Euphrates, opposite 
 to Zeugma, with which it was connected by a 
 bridge, commanded by a castle, called Seleucia. 
 In Pliny's time (a. d. 77) it was only a ruin. — 
 
 3. A. Cibotus or ad Maeandrum ('A. tJ KtSwroy, 
 or Tvphs yiaiavZpov), a great city of Phrj'uia, on 
 the Maeander, close above its confluence with the 
 Marsyas. It was built hy Antiochus I. Soter, 
 who named it in honour of his mother Apama, and 
 peopled it with the inhabitants of the neighbouring 
 Celaenae. It became one of the greatest cities of 
 Asia within the Euphrates ; and under the Romans 
 it was the seat of a Conventus Juridicus. The 
 surrounding country, watered by the Maeander 
 and its tributaries, was called Apamena Regio. — 
 
 4. A. Myrleon, in Bithynia. [MvnLEA.]^5." A 
 town built by Antiochus Soter, in the district of 
 Assyria called Sittacene, at the junction of the 
 Tigris with the Royal Canal which connected the 
 Tigris with the Euphrates, and at the N. extremity 
 of the island called Mesene, which was formed by 
 this canal and the 2 rivers. — 6. A. Mesenes 
 (A'orHct), in Babylonia, at the S. point of the same 
 ishind of Mesene, and at the junction of the Tigris 
 and Euphmtes. — 7. A. Ehagiana ('A. 7J irphs 'Pa- 
 
APELLES. 
 
 7a7s), a Greek city in the district of Choarene in 
 ParthJa (formerly in Media), S. of the Caspian 
 Gates. 
 
 Apelles ('ATreXATJs), the most celebrated of 
 Grecian painters, was born, most probably, at 
 Colophon in Ionia, though some ancient writers 
 call him a Coan and others an Ephesian. He was 
 the contemporary and friend of Alexander the 
 Great (b. c. 336 — 323), whom he probably ac- 
 companied to Asia, and who entertained so high 
 an opinion of him, that he was the only person 
 whom Alexander woidd permit to take his por- 
 trait. After Alexander's death he appears to hiwe 
 travelled through the western parts of Asia. Beinjj 
 driven by a storm to Alexandria, after the as- 
 sumption of the regal title by Ptolemy (b. c. 306), 
 wliose favour he had not gained while he was 
 with Alexander, his rivals laid a plot to ruin him, 
 which he defeated by an ingenious use of his skill 
 in drawing. We are not told when or where he 
 died. Throughout his life Apelles laboured to 
 improve himself, especially in drawing, which he 
 never spent a day without practising. Hence the 
 proverb Nulla dies sine linea. A list of his works 
 is given by Pliny (xxxv. 36). They are for the 
 most part single figures, or groups of a very few 
 figures. Of his portraits the most celebrated was 
 that of Alexander wielding a thunderbolt ; but the 
 most admired of all his pictures was the " Venus 
 Anadyomene " (t/ ai'a5yo;ieV7jt'Ac/>po5iTT7), or Venus 
 rising out of the sea. The goddess was wringing 
 her hair, and the falling drops of water formed a 
 transparent silver veil around her form. He com- 
 menced another picture of Venus, which he in- 
 tended should surpass the Venus Anadyomene, but 
 "which he left unfinished at his death. 
 
 Apellicon {'AweWiKoiv), of Teos, a Peripatetic 
 philosopher and great collector of books. His va- 
 luable library at Athens, containing the autographs 
 of Aristotle's works, was earned to Rome by Sulla 
 (B.C. S3) : Apellicon had died just before. 
 
 Apenninus Mens (o 'Air^vptvos and rh 'Arrev- 
 vivov opos, probably from the Celtic Pen " a 
 height "), the Apennines, a chain of mountains 
 which runs throughout Italy from N. to S., and 
 forms the backbone of the peninsula. It is a con- 
 tinuation of the Maritime Alps [Alpes], begins 
 near Genua, and ends at the Sicilian sea, and 
 throughout its whole course sends off numerous 
 branches in all directions. It rises to its greatest 
 height in the country of the Sabines, where one of 
 its points (now Monte C<ymo) is 9521 feet above 
 the sea ; and further S., at the boundaries of 
 Samnium, Apulia, and Lucania, it divides into two 
 main branches, one of which mns E. through Apu- 
 lia and Calabria, and terminates at the Salentine 
 promontory, and the other W. through Bnittium, 
 terminating apparently at Rhegium and the straits 
 of Messina, but in reality continued throughout 
 Sicily. The greater part of the Apennines is com- 
 posed of limestone, abounding in numerous caverns 
 and recesses, which in ancient as well as modern 
 times were the resort of numerous robbers : the 
 highest points of the mountains are covered with 
 snow, even during most of the summer [nivali ver~ 
 lice S6 aitoUens Apenninus, Virg. Aen. xii. 703). 
 
 M. Aper, a Roman orator and a native of Gaul, 
 rose by his eloquence to the rank of quaestor, tri- 
 bune, and praetor, successively. He is one of the 
 speakers in the Dialogiae de Oraioribus, attributed 
 to Tacitus. 
 
 APHRODITE. $} 
 
 Aper, Arrius, praetorian prefect, and scn-in- 
 law of the emperor Numerian, whom he was said 
 to have mmdered : he was himself put to death by 
 Diocletian on his accession in a. d. 284. 
 
 Aperantia, a town and district of Aetolia near 
 the Achelons, inhabited by the Aperantii. 
 
 Apesas {'ATreaas: Fuka"?), a mountain on tho- 
 borders of Phliasia and Argolis, with a temple of 
 Zeus, who was hence called Apesaniius, and to 
 whom Perseus here first sacrificed. 
 
 Aphaca (ra "A^a/ca ; Afta ?), a to^vn of Coele- 
 Syria, between Heliopolis and Byblus, celebrated 
 for the worship and oracle of Aphrodite Aphacltia 
 {'A<paKTTis). 
 
 Apharetis {'Acpapevs), son of the Messeniair 
 king Perieres and Gorgophone, and founder of the 
 town of Arene in Messenia, which he called after 
 his wife. His two sons Idas and Lynceus, the 
 Apliaretidae {AphartXa pi-oles, Qv. Met. viii. 304)^ 
 are celebrated for their fight with the Dioscuri^ 
 which is described by Pindar. {Nem. x. 111.) 
 ^2. An Athenian orator and tragic poet, flourished 
 B. c. 369—342. After the death of his father, his 
 mother married the orator Isocrates, who adopted 
 Aphareus as his son. He wrote 35 or 37 tragedies, 
 and gained 4 prizes. 
 
 Aphetae ('At^eVat and 'Acperal : 'A(peTaios), a 
 sea-port and promontory of Thessaly, at the en- 
 trance of the Sinus Maliacus, from which the ship 
 Argo is said to have sailed. 
 
 Aphidas {*A(l>d5as), son of Areas, obtained' 
 from his father Tegea and the surrounding terri- 
 tory. He had a son, Aleus. 
 
 Aphidna ( "A^iSx^a and "A^iSt/ai: 'Aipidpaias)^ 
 an Attic demus not far from Decelea, originally be- 
 longed to the tribe Aeantis, afterwards to Leontis^ 
 and last to Hadiianis. It was in ancient times oner 
 of the 12 towns and districts into which Cecrops is 
 said to have divided Attica : in it Theseus con- 
 cealed Helen, but her brothers Castor and Pollux 
 took the place and rescued their sister. 
 
 Aphrodisias {'Acppoditrias ; 'A^poSitrieiSs : Aphro- 
 disiensis), the name of several places famous for 
 the worship of Aphrodite. 1. A. Cariae [Gheira^ 
 Ru.), on the site of an old town of the Leleges, 
 named Ninoe : under the Romans a free city 
 and asylum, and a flourishing school of art.^2. 
 Veneris Oppidum (Poiio Cavaliere), a town, har- 
 bour, and island, on the coast of Cilicia, opposite 
 to Cyprus. — 3. A town, hai-bour, and island, on 
 the coast of Cyrenaica in N. Africa. — 4. See 
 Gades. 
 
 Aphrodite ('A^poSfrTj), one of thegreat divinities 
 of the Greeks, the goddess of love and beauty. In 
 the Iliad she is represented as the daughter of 
 Zeus and Dione, and in later traditions as a daughter 
 of Cronos and EuonjTne, or of Uranus and He- 
 mera ; but the poets most frequently relate that 
 she was sprung from the foam {6.(pp6s) of the sea^ 
 whence they derive her name. She is commonly 
 represented as the wife of Hephaestus ; but she 
 proved faithless to her husband, and was in love 
 with Ares, the god of war, to whom she bore 
 Phobos, Deimos, Harmonia, and, according to later 
 traditions, Eros and Anteroa also. She also loved 
 the gods Dionysu?, Hermes, and Poseidon, and the 
 mortals Anchises, Adonis, and Butes. She sur- 
 passed all the other goddesses in beauty, and hence 
 received the prize of beauty from Pai'ia. She like- 
 wise had the power of granting beauty and invincible 
 charms to others, and whoever wore her mngic girdle> 
 
-62 
 
 APHRODITOPOLIS. 
 
 imniediately became an object of love and desire. 
 In the vegetable kingdom the m^Ttle, rose, apple, 
 poppy, &c., were sacred to her. The animals sacred 
 .to her, which are often mentioned as drawing her 
 chariot or serving as her messengers, are the spar- 
 row, the dove, the swan, the swallow, and a bird 
 called i^Tix. The planet Venus and the spring- 
 month of April wore likewise sacred to her. The 
 principal places of her worship in Greece were the 
 islands of Cyprus and Cythera. The sacrifices 
 offered to her consisted mostly of incense and gar- 
 lands of flowers, but in some places animals were 
 sacrificed to her. Respecting her festivals, see 
 Diet, of Antiq. art, Adonia, Anagogia^ Aphro- 
 disia^ Caiagogia. Her worship was of Eastern ori- 
 gin, and probably introduced by the Phoenicians 
 to the islands of Cyprus, Cythera, and others, from 
 whence it spread all over Greece. She appears to 
 have been originally identical with Astarte, called 
 by the Hebrews Ashtoreth, and her connection 
 with Adonis clearly points to SjTia. Respecting 
 the Roman goddess Venus, see Venus. 
 
 Aphroditopolis ('A^poSirr;? t:6\is)^ the name 
 of several cities in Eg^-^pt. 1. In Lower Egypt : 
 (1) In the Noraos Leontopolites, in the Delta, be- 
 tween Arthribis and Leontopolis : ("3) {Chybi7i-el- 
 Kouni) in the Nomos Prosnpites, in the Delta, on 
 a navigable branch of the Nile, between Naucratis 
 and Sais ; probably the same as Atarbechis, which 
 is an Egyptian name of the same meaning as the 
 Greek Aphroditopolis. — 2. In Middle Egypt or 
 Heptanomis, {Aifyh) a considerable city on the E. 
 bank of the Nile ; the chief citj'' of the Nomos 
 Aphroditopolites. — 3. In Upper Egypt, or the 
 Theba'is : (1) Veneris Oppidum (TbcAta), a little 
 way from the \V. bank of the Nile ; the chief city 
 of the Nomos Aphroditopolis : (2) In the Nomos 
 Hermonthites {Deir, N.W. of Esneh), on the W. 
 bank of the Nile. 
 
 Aphtlionius i^ k<pB6vios)^ of Antioch, a Greek 
 rhetorician, lived about a. r». 315, and Avrote the 
 introduction to the study of rhetoric, entitled Pro- 
 gymnasniata (Trpoyv/j.uda/iara). It was constructed 
 on the basis of the Frogymnasmaia of Herraogenes, 
 and becam,e so popular that it waa used as the 
 common school-book in this branch of education 
 for several centuries. On the revival of letters it 
 recovered its ancient popularity, and during the 
 I6th and I7th centuries was used everywhere, but 
 more especially in Germany, as the text-buok for 
 rhetoric. The number of editions and translations 
 which were published during that period is greater 
 than that of any other ancient writer. The best 
 edition is in Walz's Rhetores G^-aeci^ vol i. Aph- 
 thonius also wrote some Aesopic fables, which are 
 extant. 
 
 Aphytis {^pL^vTiS'. Ailiyto)^ a town in the pen- 
 insula Pallene in Macedonia, with a celebrated 
 temple and oracle of Jupiter Ammon. 
 
 Apia ('A-Jrfa, sc. 777), the Apian hind., an ancient 
 name of Peloponnesus, especially Argolis, said to 
 have been so called from Apis, a mythical king of 
 Argos. 
 
 Apicata, wife of Sejanus, was divorced by him, 
 A. D. 23, after she had borne him three children, 
 and put an end to her own life on the execution of 
 Sejanus in 31. 
 
 Apicius, the name of three notorious gluttons. 
 ^1. The first lived in the time of Sulla, and is 
 said to have procured the condemnation of Rutilius 
 Rufus, B. c, 92.-2, The second and most re- 
 
 nowned, M. Gahius Apicius^ flourished under Ti- 
 berius. After squandering upwards of 800,000 
 pounds upon his stomach, he found that little more 
 than 80,000 remained ; upon which, despairing of 
 being able to satisfy the cravings of hunger from 
 such a pittance, he forthwith hanged himself. But 
 he was not forgotten. Sundry cakes {Apicia) and 
 sauces long kept alive his memory ; Apion, the 
 grammarian, composed a work upon his luxurious 
 labours, and his name passed into a proverb in all 
 matters connected with the pleasures of the table. 
 — 3. A contemporary of Trajan, sent to this em- 
 peror, when he was in Parthia, fresh oysters, pre- 
 served by a skilful process of his own. — The trea- 
 tise we now possess, bearing the title Caelii 
 Apicii de Opsoniis et Condimentis^ sive de Re Cidi- 
 naria, Libi-i decern^ is a sort of Cook and Confec- 
 tionery's Manual, containing a multitude of receipts 
 for cookery. It was probably compiled at a late 
 period by some one who prefixed the name of 
 Apicius, in order to insure the circulation of his 
 book. — Editions. By Alraeloveen, Amstelod. 1709, 
 and by Bernhold, Ansbach. 1800. 
 
 Apidanus ('A7ri5ai/tJs, Ion. *H7r(5aj/(jj), a river 
 in Thessaly, which flows into the Enlpeus near 
 Pharsalus. 
 
 Apiolae, a town of Latium, destroyed by Tar- 
 quinius Priscus. 
 
 Apion ('Attiwi/), a Greek grammarian, and a 
 native of Oasis in Egypt, studied at Alexandria, 
 and taught rhetoric at Rome in the reigns of Ti- 
 berius and Claudius. In the reign of Caligula he 
 left Rome, and in a. d. 38 he was sent by the in- 
 habitants of Alexandria at the head of an embassy 
 to Caligula to bring forward complaints against the 
 Jews residing in their city. Apion was the author 
 of many works, all of which are now lost. Of 
 these the most celebrated were upon the Homeric 
 poems. He is said not only to have made the 
 best recension of the text of the poems, but to 
 have written explanations of phrases and words in 
 the form of a Dictionary (Ae|e(s 'OixtjpiKai). He 
 also wrote a work on Egypt in 5 books, and a 
 work against the Jews, to which Josephus replied 
 in his treatise Against Apion. 
 
 Apion, Ptolemaeus. [Ptolemaeus, Apion.] 
 
 Apis (^Atris). 1. Son of Phoroneus and Lao- 
 dice, king of Argos, from whom Peloponnesus was 
 called Apia : he ruled tyrannically, and was killed 
 by Thelxion and Telchis.— 2. The Bull of Mem- 
 phis, worshipped with the greatest reverence as a 
 god among the Eg}'ptians. The Egyptians believed 
 that he was the offspring of a young cow, fructified 
 by a ray from heaven. There were certain signs 
 by which he was recognised to be the god. It was 
 requisite that he should be quite black, have a 
 white square mark on the forehead, on his back a 
 figure similar to that of an eagle, have two kinds of 
 hair in his tail, and on his tongue a knot resembling 
 an insect called canikarzts. When all these signs 
 were discovered, the animal was consecrated with 
 great pomp, and was conveyed to Memphis, where 
 he had a splendid residence, containing extensive 
 walks and courts for his amusement. His birth- 
 day, which was celebrated every year, was his 
 mogt solemn festival ; it was a day of rejoicing for 
 all Egypt. The god was allowed to live only a 
 certain number of years, probably 25. If he had 
 not died before the expiration of that period, 
 he was killed and buried in a sacred well, the 
 place of which was unknown except to the initiated. 
 
A PIS. 
 
 But if he died a natural death, he was buried pub- 
 licly and solemnly ; and as his birth filled all Egj-pt 
 with joy and festivities, so his death threw the 
 whole countiy into grief and mourning. The wor- 
 ship of Apis was originally nothing but the siuiple 
 worship of the bull ; but in the course of time the 
 bull, like other animals, was regarded as a symbol, 
 and Apis is hence identified with Osiris or the 
 Sun. 
 
 Apis (^ATTis), a city of Egypt, on the coast of 
 the Mediterranean, on the border of the country 
 towards Libya, about 1 stadia W. of Paraetonium ; 
 celebrated for the worship of the god Apis. 
 
 Apobatlimi ('A7ro&a0/joO, a place in Argolis 
 on the sea not far from Thyrea, where Danaus is 
 said to have landed. 
 
 Apodoti and Apodeotae ('ATrtSSwroi and "Atto- 
 SoTot), a people in the S.E. of Aetolia, between the 
 Evenus and Hylaethus. 
 
 Apollinaris, Sidonius. [Sidonius.] 
 
 Apollinis Pr. {'ATrdWcavos 6.Kpoj/ : C Zibech oi 
 V. Farina)^ a promontory of Zeugitana in N. Africa, 
 forming the W. point of the Gulf of Carthage. 
 
 Apollo ('ATTfiAAaii/), one of the great divinities 
 of the Greeks, son of Zeus and Leto and twin bro- 
 ther of Artemis, was bom in the island of Delos, 
 whither Leto had fled from the jealous Hera. 
 [Leto.] After 9 days'" labour, the god was 
 born under a palm or olive tree at the foot of 
 mount Cynthus, and was fed by Themis with am- 
 brosia and nectar. The powers ascribed to Apollo 
 are apparently of different kinds, but all are con- 
 nected with one another, and may be said to be 
 only ramifications of one and the same, as will 
 be seen from the following classification. He is — 
 L The <jod wTio punisJies, whence some of the an- 
 cients derived his name from airSWuiii, destroy. 
 (Aesch. ^^am. 1081.) As the god who punishes 
 te is represented with bow and arrows, the gift of 
 Hephaestus ; whence his epithets, eKaros, eKcte/ryos, 
 iKaT7}€6\os^ kAutoto|os-, and apyvp6To^os^ arcUe- 
 nens, &c. All sudden deaths were believed to be 
 the effect of the arrows of Apollo ; and with them he 
 sent the plague into the camp of the Greeks. — 2. 
 The god loJio affords help and wards off evil. As 
 he had the power of punishing men, so he was also 
 able to deliver men, if duly propitiated ; hence his 
 epithets, a/ceffioj, aKearojp^ dAe|i/ca«os, ffiarrip^ airo- 
 rpoiraios, iiriKovpios^ laTpo/j.dvTts, opifer, salutifer^ 
 &c. From his being the godwho afforded help, he is 
 the father of Aesculapius, the god of the healing art, 
 and was also identified in later times with Paeeon, 
 the god of the healing art in Homer. [Paeeon.] 
 — 3. TJie god of propliecy. Apollo exercised this 
 power in his numerous oracles, and especially in 
 that of Delphi. {Diet, of Ant. art. Oraculum.) He 
 had also the power of communicating the gift of 
 prophecy both to gods and men, and all the ancient 
 seers and prophets are placed in some relationship 
 to him. — 4. TJie god of song and music. "We find 
 him in the Iliad (i. 603) delightmg the immortal 
 gods with his phorminx ; and the Homeric bards 
 derived their art of song either from Apollo or the 
 IVIuses. Later traditions ascribed to Apollo even 
 the invention of the flute and lyre, while it is more 
 commonly related that he received the lyre from 
 Hennes. Respecting his musical contests, see 
 Maesyas, Midas. — 5. The god who protects ilie 
 flocks and cattle {v6fiios ^ehs, from vonhs or yofXT], 
 a meadow or pasture land). There are in Homer 
 only a few allusions to this feature in the character 
 
 APOLLQDOB..US. fi3 
 
 of Apollo, but in later writers it assumes a very 
 prominent form, and in the story of Apollo tending 
 the fi.ocks of Admetus at Pherae in Thessaly, the 
 idea reaches its height. — 6. The god who de.Hyhts 
 in ihe foundation of tovms and the estahlishmeiit of 
 civil constitutions. Hence a town or a colon}'- was 
 never founded by the Greeks without consulting an. 
 oracle of Apollo, so that in every case he became, as 
 it were, their spiritual leader. — 7. The god of the Sun. 
 In Homer, Apollu and Helios, or the Sun, are perfectly 
 distinct, and his identification with the Sun, though 
 almost universal among later writers, was the result 
 of later speculations and of foreign, chiefly Egyptian, 
 influence. — Apollo had more influence upon the 
 Greeks than any other god. It may safely be as- 
 serted, that the Greeks would never have become 
 what they were, without the worship of Apollo; in 
 him the brightest side of the Grecian mind is re- 
 flected. Respecting his festivals, see Did. of Ant. art. 
 ApoUonia, Thargelia^ and others. — In the religion 
 of the early Romans there is no trace of the wor- 
 ship of Apollo. The Romans became acquainted 
 with this divinity through the Greeks, and adopted 
 all their notions and ideas about him from the 
 latter people. There is no doubt that the Romans 
 knew of his worship among the Greeks at a ver^'" 
 early time, and tradition says that they consultea 
 his oracle at Delphi even before the expulsion of 
 the kings. But the first time that we hear of his 
 worship at Rome is in b. c. 430, when, for the pur- 
 pose of averting a plague, a temple was raised to 
 him, and soon after dedicated by the consul, C. 
 Julius. A second temple was built to him in 
 350. During the second Punic war, in 212, the 
 ludi ApoUinares were instituted in his honour. 
 {Diet, of Ant. art. Ludi ApoUinares.') His worship, 
 however, did not form a very prominent part in 
 the religion of the Romans till the time of Augus- 
 tus, who, after the battle of Actium, dedicated to 
 him a portiop, of the spoils, built or embellished his 
 temple at Actium, and founded a new one at Rome 
 on the Palatine, and instituted quinquennial games 
 at Actium. — The most beautiful and celebrated 
 among the extant representations of Apollo are the 
 Apollo Belvedere at Rome, which was discovered 
 in 1503 at Rettuno and the Apollino at Florence. 
 In the Apollo Belvedere, the god is represented 
 with commanding but serene majesty ; sublime in- 
 tellect and physical beauty are combined in the 
 most wonderful manner, 
 
 Apollocrates ('AjroAAoKpaTTjy), elder son of 
 Dionysius, the Younger, was left by his father in 
 command of the island and citadel of S3''racuse, but 
 was compelled by famme to surrender them to 
 Dion, about b. c. 354. 
 
 Apollodoms ('ATToAXtJSojpos). ^1. Of Amphi- 
 polis, one of the generals of Alexander the Great, 
 was intrusted in b. c. 331, together with Menes, 
 with the administration of Babylon and of all the 
 satrapies as far as Cilicia. — 3. Tyrant of Cas- 
 sandrea (formerly Potidaea) m the peninsula of 
 Pallene, obtamed the supreme power in b. c. 379, 
 and exercised it with the utmost cruelty. He wag 
 conquered and put to death by Aj^tigouus Gonatas. 
 —3. Of Carystus, a comic poet, probably lived 
 B.C. 300 — 260, and was one of the most distin- 
 guished of the poets of the new Attic comedy. It 
 was from him that Terence took his Hecyra and 
 Phonriio. — 4. Of Gela in Sicily, a comic poet 
 and a contemporary of Menander, lived b. c. 340 — 
 290. He is frequently confounded with ApoUodo- 
 
64 APOLLONIA. 
 
 rus of Carystus. ^ 5. A Grammarian of Athens, 
 son of Asclepiades, and pupil of Aristarchus and 
 Panaetius, flourished about b. c. 140. He wrote a 
 great number of works, all of which have perished 
 ■with the exception of his Bibliotheca. This work 
 consists of 3 books, and is by far the best among 
 the extant works of the kind. It contains a well- 
 arranged account of the mythology and the heroic 
 age of Greece : it begins with the origin of the 
 gods, and goes down to the time of Theseus, when 
 the work suddenly breaks off. — Editions. By 
 Heyne, Gottingen, 1803, 2d ed. ; by Clavier, Paris, 
 1805, with a French translation ; and by Wester- 
 mann in the MytltograpH^ Brunswick, 1843. Of the 
 many other works of Apollodorus, one of the most im- 
 portant was a chronicle in iambic verses, comprising 
 the history of 1040 years, from the destruction of 
 Troy (1184) down to his own time, B. c, 143.^ 6. Of 
 Pergamus, a Greek rhetorician, taught rhetoric at 
 Apoilonia in his advanced age, and had as a pupil the 
 young Octavius, afterwards the emperor Augustus. 
 —7. A painter of Athens, floiu-ished about b. c, 
 408, with whom commenced a new period in the 
 history of the art. He made a great advance in 
 colouring, and invented chiaroscuro. ^ 8. An ar- 
 chitect of Damascus, lived under Trajan and Ha- 
 drian, by the latter of whom he was put to death. 
 
 Apoilonia (^k-TroKKoivCa. ; 'ATroAAwwaTT/s). 1. 
 {Pollina or Pollona\ an important town in lUyria 
 or New Epirus, not far from the mouth of the Aous, 
 and 60 stadia from the sea. It was founded by 
 the Corinthians and Corcyraeans, and was equally 
 celebrated as a place of commerce and of learning ; 
 many distinguished Romans, among others the 
 young Octavius, afterwards the emperor Augustus, 
 pursued their studies here. Persons travelling from 
 Italy to Greece and the E., usually landed either at 
 Apoilonia or Dyrrhachium ; and the Via Egnatia, 
 the great high road to the East, commenced at 
 Apoilonia or, according to others, at Dyrrhachium. 
 [Egnatia Via.] ^2. {Polina)^ a town in Mace- 
 donia, on the Via Egnatia, between Thessalonica 
 and Amphipolis, and S. of the lake of Bolbe. ^3. 
 {Sizeboli), a town in Thrace on the Black Sea, with 
 two harbours, a colony of Miletus, afterwards called 
 Sozopolis, whence its modem name : it had a ce- 
 lebrated temple of Apollo, from which Lucullus 
 carried away a colossus of this god, and erected it 
 on the Capitol at Rome. — 4. A castle or fortified 
 town of the Locri Ozolae, near Naupactus. — 5. A 
 town in Sicily, on the N. coast, of uncertain site. 
 — 6. (Abullionie), a town in Bithynia on the 
 lake Apolloniatis, through which the river Rhjm- 
 dacus flows. — 7. A town on the borders of Mysia 
 and Lydia, between Pergamus and Sardis. — 8, 
 A town in Palestina, between Caesarca and 
 Joppa. — 9, A town in Assyria, in the district 
 of Apolloniatis, through which the Delas or Durus 
 {Diala) flows.— 10. (MarzaSusa)^ a town in Cy- 
 renaica and the harbour of Cyrene, one of the 5 
 towns of the Pentapolis in Libya: it was the birth- 
 place of Eratosthenes, 
 
 Apollottis CAttoKAuvis), a city in LydJa, be- 
 tween Pergamus and Sardis, named after ApoUonis, 
 the mother of king Eumeneg. It was one of the 
 12 cities of Asia, which were destroyed by an 
 earthquake in the reign of Tiberius (a. i). 17). 
 
 Apollonius ('ATToAAwi/ioy). 1. Of Alabanda 
 in Caria, a rhetorician, tauglit rhetoric at Rhodes, 
 about B. c. 100. He was a very distinguished 
 teacher of rhetoric, and used to ridicule and despise 
 
 APO LLONIU S. 
 
 philosophy. He was sumamed d MaAaffoy, and 
 must be distinguished from the following. — 2. 
 Of Alabanda, sumamed IIolo, likewise a rheto- 
 rician, taught rhetoric at Rhodes, and also dis- 
 tinguished himself as a pleader in the courts of 
 justice. In b. c. 81, when Sulla was dictator, 
 Apollonius came to Rome as ambassador of the 
 Rhodians, on which occasion Cicero heard him ; 
 Cicero also received instmction from Apollonius 
 at Rhodes a few years later. — 3. Son of Arch.e- 
 bnlus, a grammarian of Alexandria, in the first 
 century of the Christian aera, and a pupil of Didy- 
 mus. He wrote an Homeric Lexicon, which is 
 still extant, and though much interpolated, is a 
 work of great value.' — Editions. By Villoison, 
 Paris, 1773; by H. ToUius, Lugd. Bat. 1788; 
 and by Bekker, BeHin, 18.83.^4. Sumamed 
 Dyscolus, " the ill-tempered," a grammarian at 
 Alexandria, in the reigns of Hadrian and Anto- 
 ninus Pius (a. D. 117 — 161), taught at Rome as 
 well as Alexandria, He and his son Heiiodianus 
 are called by Priscian the greatest of all gramma- 
 rians. Apollonius was the first who reduced gram- 
 mar to any thing like a system. Of his numerous 
 works only 4 are extant. 1. Ilepl a-vi/Tci^eus tov 
 x6you {xepSiv^ " de Constructione Oracionis," or 
 " de Ordinatione sive Constructione Dictionum,*" in 
 4 books ; edited by Fr. Sylburg, Frankf. 1590, 
 and by L Bekker, Berlin, 1817. 2. Oepl av- 
 Tuvufxias^ " de Pronomine;" edited by I. Bekker, 
 Berlin, 1814. 3. liepi trvvBirr/iuy, "■ de Con- 
 junctionibus,'' and 4. Ilepl ^irippyifxaTtav^ " de Ad- 
 verijiis," printed in Bekker's Anecdot. ii. p. 477, 
 &c. Among the works asci^ibed to Apollonius by 
 Suidas there is one Trepl Kar^^^vtriiivris hroplas, 
 on fictitious or forged histories : this has been er- 
 roneously supposed to be the same as the extant 
 work 'ItTTop/ai ^avf^aaiai, which purports to be 
 written by an Apollonius (published by Wester- 
 mann, Paradoxogvaphi^ Brunswick, 1839); but it 
 is now admitted that the latter work was written 
 by an Apollonius who is' otherwise unknown.— 
 5. Pergaeus, from Perga in Pamphylia, one of 
 the greatest mathematicians of antiquity, commonly 
 called the " Great Geometer," was educated at 
 Alexandria under the successors of Euclid, and 
 flourished about b. c. 250 — 220. His most im- 
 portant work was a treatise on Conic Sections in 
 8 books, of which the first 4, with the com- 
 mentary of Eutocius, are extant in Greek ; and 
 all but the eighth in Arabic. We have also 
 introductory lemmata to all the 8, by Pappus. 
 Edited by Hallej', *' Apoll. Perg. Conic, lib. viii., 
 &c.," Oxon. 1710, fol. The eighth book is a 
 conjectural restoration founded on the introduc- 
 tory lemmata of Pappus, — 6. Ehodius, a poet and 
 grammarian, son of Sillens or Ulcus and Rhode, 
 was born at Alexandria, or, according to one state- 
 ment, at Naucratis, and flourished in the reigns of 
 Ptolfmy Fhilopator and Ptolemy Epipharies (b. c. 
 222—181). In his youth he was instructed by 
 Callimachus ; but they afterwards became bitter 
 enemies. Their tastes were entirely different ; for 
 Apollonius admired and imitated the simplicity of 
 tiie ancient epic poets, and disliked and despised 
 the artificial and learned poetry of Callimachus. 
 When Apollonius read at Alexandria his poem on 
 the Argonautic expedition (^Argonaidica), it did 
 not meet with the approbation of the audience : he- 
 nttributed its failure to the intrigues of Callima- 
 chus, and revenged himself by writing a bitter epi- 
 
APOLLONIUS. 
 
 gram on Ca^limachus which is still extant. {AntJi. 
 Grace, xi. 275.) Callimachus in return attacked 
 Apollonius in his Ibis, which was imitated by Ovid 
 HI a poem of the same name. Apollonius now left 
 Alexandria and went to Rhodes, where he taught 
 rhetoric with so much success, that the Rhodians 
 honoured him with thetr franchise: hence he was 
 ■called the " Rhodian." He afterwards returned 
 •to Alexandria, where he read a revised edition of 
 \\\s Argonautica with great applause. He succeeded 
 Eratosthenes as chief librarian at Alexandria, in 
 the reign of Ptolemy Epiphanes, about B.C. 104, 
 and appears to have held tins office till his death. 
 Tiie Argonautica, which consists of 4 books, and 
 is still extant, gives a straightforward and simple 
 descriptiou of the adventures of the Argonauts : it 
 is a close imitation of the Homeric language and 
 style, but exliibits marks of art and labour, and 
 thus forms, notwithstanding its many resemblances, 
 a contrast with the natural and easy flow of tlie 
 Homeric poems. Among the Romans the work was 
 mucii read, and F.Terentius VarroAtaclnus acquired 
 great reputation by his translation of it. The Argo- 
 nautica of Valerius Flaccus is only a free imitation of 
 it. — Editions. By Brunck, Argentorat. 1780 ; by 
 G. Schaefer, Lips. "1810—13 ; by Wellauer, Lips. 
 182ii. Apollonius wrote several other works which 
 are now lost. ^ 7. Tyanensia or Tyanaeus, i. e. 
 of Tyana in Cappadocia, a Pythagorean philosopher, 
 was born about 4 years before the Christian aera. 
 At a period when there was a general belief in 
 magical powers, it would appear that Apollonius 
 obtained great influence by pretending to them ; and 
 we may believe that his Life by Pliilostratus gives 
 a just idea of his character and reputation, how- 
 ever inconsistent in its facts, and absurd in its 
 marvels. Apollonius, according to Philostratus, 
 ■was of noble ancestr}-, and studied first under Eu- 
 thydemus, of Tarsus ; but, being disgusted at the 
 luxury of the inhabitants, he retired to the neigh- 
 bouring town of Aegae, where he studied the whole 
 circle of the Platonic, Sceptic, Epicurean, and Peri- 
 patetic philosophy, and ended by giving his pre- 
 ference to the Pythagorean. He devoted himself to 
 the strictest asceticism, and subsequently travelled 
 throughout the East, visiting Nineveh, Babylon, 
 and India. On his return to Asia Minor, we first 
 hear of his pretensions to miraculous power, founded, 
 as it would seem, on the possession of some divine 
 knowledge derived from the East. From Ionia he 
 crossed over into Greece, and from thence to Rome, 
 where he arrived just after an edict against magi- 
 cians had been issued by Nero. He accordingly 
 remained only a short time at Rome, and next 
 went to Spain and Africa ; at Alexandria he was 
 of assistance to Vespasian, who was preparing to 
 seize the empire. The last journey of Apollonius 
 was to Ethiopia, whence he returned to settle in 
 the Ionian cities. On the accession of Domitian, 
 Apollonius was accused of exciting an insurrection 
 against the tyrant : he voluntarily surrendered 
 himse/f and appeared at Rome before the emperor : 
 but as his destruction seemed impending, he escaped 
 ty the exertion of his supernatural powers. The 
 last years of his life were spent at Ephesus, where 
 he is said to have proclaimed the death of the ty- 
 rant Domitian at the instant it took pjace. Many 
 of the wonders, which Philostratus relates in con- 
 nection with Apollonius, curiously coincide with 
 the Christian miracles. The proclamation of the 
 birth of Apollonius to his mother by Proteus, and 
 
 APPIANUS. 
 
 es 
 
 the incarnation of Proteus himself, the chorus of 
 swans which sang for joy on the occasion, the cast- 
 ing out of devils, raising the dead, and healing the 
 sick, tlie sudden disappearances and reappearances 
 of Apollonius, his adventures in the cave of Tro- 
 phonius, and the sacred voice which called him at 
 his death, to which may be added his claim as a 
 teacher having authority to reform the world — 
 cannot fail to suggest the parallel passages in the 
 Gospel history. We know, too, that Apollonius 
 was one smong many rivals set up by the Eclectics 
 to our Saviour, an attempt renewed by the English 
 freetliinkers Blount and Lord Herbert. Still it 
 must be allowed that the resemblances are very 
 general, and on the whole it seems probable that 
 the life of Apollonius was not written with a con- 
 troversial aim, as the resemblances, although real, 
 only indicate that a fev/' things were borrowed, and 
 exhibit no trace of a systematic pai-allel. [Philo- 
 stratus.] — 8. Of Tyre, a Stoic philosopher, 
 who lived in tiie reign of Ptolemy Auletes, wrote 
 a history of the Stoic pliilosophy from tlie time 
 of Zeno. — 9. Apollonius and Tauriscua of 
 Tralles, were two brothers, and the sculptors of 
 the group which is commonly known as the Far- 
 nese bull, representing the punishment of^irce by 
 Zethus and Amphion. [DincE.] It was taken 
 from Rhodes to liome by Asinius PoUio, and after- 
 wards placed in the baths of Caracalla, where it 
 was dug up in the sixteenth century, and deposited 
 in the Farnese palace. It is now at Naples. Apol- 
 loniua and Tauriscus probablj' flourished in the 
 first century of the Christian aera. 
 
 Apolloplianes ('A-roWoipdyTjs), a poet of the 
 old Attic comedy, of whose comedies a few frag- 
 ments are extant, lived about B. c. 400. 
 
 Aponus or Aponi Fona {Abano\ warm medi- 
 cinal springs, near Patavium, hence called Aquae 
 Patavinae, were much frequented by the sick. 
 
 Appia or Apia ('Attttio, 'Attio), a city of Phrj'- 
 gia Pacatiana. 
 
 Appia Via, the most celebrated of the Roman 
 roads {regina viainim, Stat. Silv. ii, 2. 12), was 
 commenced by Ap. Claudius Caecus, when censor, 
 B. c. 312, and was the great line of communication 
 between Rome and southern Italy. It issued from 
 the Porta Capena, and passing through Aricia, 
 Tres Tabemae, Appii Forum^ Tarracina, Fundi^ 
 Formiae, Minturnae^ Sinuessa^ and Casilmum^ ter- 
 minated at Capua, but was eventually extended 
 through Calatia and Caudium to Benevenhtm, and 
 finally thence through Vcnusia, Turen{um,and Una, 
 to Brundusium. 
 
 Appianus ('ATTTriai'os), the Roman historian, 
 was bom at Alexandria, and lived at Rome during 
 the reigns of Trajan, Hadrian, and Antoninus Pius. 
 He wrote a Roman history ('Pw^ai'/co, or Pecjuai'KT; 
 iaropia), in 24 books, arranged not synchronisti- 
 cally, but ethnographically, that is, he did not 
 relate the history of the Roman empire as a whole 
 in chronological order ; but he gave a separate 
 account of the affairs of each country, till it was 
 finally incoi"porated in the Roman empire. The 
 subjects of the different books were : 1. The kingly 
 period. 2. Italy. 3. The Samnites. 4. The Gauls 
 or Celts. 5. Sicily and the other islands. 6. Spain. 
 7. Hannibal's wars. 8. Libya, Carthage, and Nu- 
 midia. 9. Macedonia. 10. Greece and the Greek 
 states in Asia Minor. 11. Syria and Parthia. 
 12. The war with Mithridates. 13—21. The civil 
 wars, in 9 books, from those of Marina and Sulla 
 
66 
 
 APPIAS. 
 
 to the battle of Actium. 22. 'EfcaToyTaeTia, com- 
 prised the history of a hundred years, from the 
 battle of Actium to the beginning of Vespasian's 
 reign. 23. The wars with lUyria. 24. Those with 
 Arabia. We possess only 11 of these complete ; 
 namely, the 6th, 7th, 8t]i, 11th, 12th, 13th, 14th, 
 15th, 16th, 17th, and 23rd: there are fragments 
 of several of the others. The Parthian history, 
 which has come down to us as part of the 11th 
 book, is not a work of Appian, but merely a com- 
 pilation from Plutarch's Lives of Antony and 
 Crassus. Appian's work is a compilation. His 
 style is clear and simple ; hut he possesses few 
 merits as an historian, and he frequently makes the 
 most absurd blunders. Thus, for instance, he 
 places Saguntum on the N. of the Iberus, and 
 states that it takes only half a day to sail from 
 Spain to Britain. The best edition is that of 
 Schweighauser, Lips. 1785. 
 
 Appias, a njTnph of the Appian well, which 
 ■was situated near the temple of Venus Genetrix in 
 the forum of Julius Caesar. It was surrounded by 
 statues of nymphs, called Appiacles. 
 Appu Forum. [Forum Appil] 
 Appiileius or ApiUeius, of Madura in Africa, 
 was bom* about ^. d. 130, of respectable parents. 
 He received the first rudiments of education at 
 Carthage, and afterwards studied the Platonic phi- 
 losophy at Athens. He next travelled extensively, 
 visiting Italy, Greece, and Asia, and becoming 
 initiated in most mysteries. At length he returned 
 home, but soon afterwards undertook a new journey 
 to Alexandria. On his way thither he was taken 
 ill at the town of Oea, and was hospitably received 
 into the house of a young man, Sicinius Pontianus, 
 whose mother, a very rich widow of the name of 
 Pudentilla, he maiTied, Her relatives, being in- 
 dignant that so much wealth should pass out of the 
 family, impeached Appuleius of gaining the affec- 
 tions of Pudentilla by charms and magic spells. The 
 cause was heard at Sabrata before Claudius Maxi- 
 mus, proconsul of Africa, a. d. 1 73, and the defence 
 spoken by Appuleius is still extant. Of his subse- 
 quent career we know little : he occasionally de- 
 claimed in public with great applause. TJie most 
 important of the extant works of Appuleius are : 
 I. Meiamorplioscon seu de Asino Aureo Libri AT/. 
 This celebrated romance, together with the Asinus 
 of Lucian, is said to have been founded upon a 
 work bearing the same title by a certain Lucius 
 of Patrae. It seems to have been intended simply 
 as a satire upon the hypocrisy and debauchery of 
 certain orders of priests, the frauds of juggling pre- 
 tenders to supernatural powers, and the general 
 profligacy of public morals. There are some, how- 
 ever, who discover a more recondite meaning, and 
 especially bishop Warburton, in his Divine Lega- 
 tion of Moses, who has at great length endeavoured 
 to prove, that the Gulden Ass was written with 
 the view of recommending the Pagan religion in 
 opposition to Christianity, and especially of incul- 
 cating the importance of initiation into the purer 
 mysteries. The well-known and beautiful episode 
 of Cupid and Psyche is introduced in the 4th, 5th, 
 and 6th books. This, whatever opinion we may 
 form of the principal narrative, is evidently an 
 allegory, and is generally understood to shadow 
 forth the progress of the soul to perfection. TI. 
 Florido-ntm Libri 1 V. An Anthology, containing 
 select extracts from various orations and disserta- 
 tions, collected probably by some admirer. III. De 
 
 APULIA. 
 
 Di'O Socraiis Liber. IV. De Dogmate Plaionis 
 Libri tres. The first book contains some account 
 of the speculative doctHnes of Plato, the second of 
 his morals, the third of his loyic. V. De Mundo 
 Liber. A translation of the work irepl k6(T^ov^ at 
 one time ascribed to Aristotle. VI. Apologia sive- 
 De Magia Liber. The oration desciibed above, 
 delivered before Claudius Maximus. The best 
 edition of the whole Avorks of Appuleius is by 
 Hildebi-and, Lips. 1842. 
 Appuleius Satuminus. [Saturninus.] 
 Apries {^AirpiTjs, ^Airptas), a king of Egypt, 
 the Pharaoh-Hophra of Scripture, succeeded his fa- 
 ther Psammis, and reigned B.C. 595 — 570. After 
 an unsuccessful attack against Cyrene he was de- 
 throned and put to death by Amasis. 
 
 Apronius. 1. Q, one of the worst instruments 
 of Verres in oppressing the Sicilians. ^2- L., served 
 under Drusus (a. d. 14) and Germanicus (15) in 
 Germany. In 20 he was proconsul of Africa, and 
 praetor of Lower Germany, where he lost his life 
 in a war against the Frisii. Apronius had two 
 daughters : one of whom was married to Plautius 
 Silvanus ; the other to Lentulus Gaetulicus, consul 
 in 26. 
 
 Apsilae ('A4't\at), a Scythian people in Col- 
 chis, N. of the river Phasis. 
 
 Apsines {'AipivT^s)^ of Gadara in Phoenicia, a 
 Greek sophist and rhetorician, taught rhetoric at 
 Athens about a. d. 235. Two of his works are 
 extant : Tlepl rwv fi^puv tov ttoXitlkou K6yov 
 T^X^V-, which is much interpolated ; and ITepi roj;' 
 e(TxvH-'^T^(^l-^^^^v irpoSXTjfj.dTwi'^ both of which are 
 printed in Walz. Rhetor. Graec. 
 
 Apsus (Crevasta)., a river in lllyria (Nova Epi- 
 rus), which flows into the Ionian sea. 
 Apsyrtus. [Absvrtus.] 
 Apta Julia (Apt), chief town of the Vulglentes 
 in Gallia Narbonensis, and a Roman colony. 
 
 Aptera {'Airrepa : 'A-rrrepaTos : Palaeokastron 
 on the G. of Suda), a town on the W. coast of 
 Crete, 80 stadia from Cydonia. 
 
 Apuani, a Ligurian people on the Macra, were 
 subdued by the Romans after a long resistance and 
 transplanted to Samnium, B. c. 180. 
 Apoleius. [App(jleios.] 
 Apulia (Apulus), included, in its widest signi- 
 fication, the whole of the S.E. of Italy from the 
 river Frento to the promontory lapygium, and 
 was bounded on the N. by the Frentani, on the E. 
 by the Adriatic, on the S. by the Tarentine gulf, 
 and on the W. by Samnium and Lucania, thus in- 
 cluding the modem provinces of Ban, Otranto, 
 and Capitanata, in the kingdom of Naples. Apulia 
 in its narrower sense was the country E. of Sam- 
 nium on both sides of the Aufidus, the Daunia 
 and Peucetia of the Greeks : the whole of the 
 S.E. part was called Calabria by the Romans. 
 The Greeks gave the name of Daunia to the N. 
 part of the country from the Frento to the Aufidus, 
 of Peucetia to the country from the Aufidus to Ta- 
 rentum and Brundusium, and of lapygia or Mes- 
 sapia to the whole of the remaining S. part : though 
 they sometimes included imder lapygia all Apulia 
 in its widest meaning. The N.W. of Apulia 
 is a plain, but the S. part is traversed by the E. 
 branch of the Apennines, and has only a small 
 tract of land on the coast on each side of the moun- 
 tains. The country was very fertile, especially in 
 the neighbourhood of Tarentum, and the mountains 
 afforded excellent pasturage. The population was 
 
AQUAE. 
 
 of a mixed nature : they were for the most part of 
 lUyrian ori^rin, and are said to have settled in the 
 country under the guidance of lapyx, Daunius, and 
 Peucetius, three sons of an lUyrian king, Lycaon. 
 Subsequently many towns were founded by Greek 
 colonists. The Apulians joined the Samnites against 
 the Romans, and became subject to the latter on 
 the conquest of the Samnites. 
 
 Aquae, the name given by the Romans to many 
 medicinal spring and bathing-places : — 1. Aure- 
 XIAE or CoLONiA AuRELiA Aquensis (Bitden- 
 Baden). 2. Calidae or SoLis (Bath) in Britjiin, 
 3. Cutiliae, mineral springs inSamniumnear the 
 ancient town of Cutilia, which perished in early 
 times, and E. of Reate. There was a celebrated 
 lake in its neighbourhood with a floating island, 
 ■which was regarded as the umbilicus or centre 
 of Italy. Vespasian died at this place. 4. 
 Mattiacae or Pontes Mattiaci (Wiesbaden), 
 in the land of the Mattiaci in Germany. 5. Pa- 
 TAVINAE [Aponi Fons]. 6. Sextiae {Aix)^ a 
 Roman colony in Gallia Narbonensis, founded by 
 Sextius Calvinus, b. c. 1 22 ; its mineral waters 
 were long celebrated, but were thought to have 
 lost much of their efficacy in the time of Augustus. 
 Near this place Marius defeated the Teutoni, B. c. 
 102. 7. Statiellae (Acqui), a town of the 
 Statielli in Liguria, celebrated for its wann baths. 
 
 Aq_uae, in Africa. 1. [Meriga, Ru.), in the in- 
 terior of Mauretania Caesariensis.^S. Camdae 
 {Gurhos or Hammam VEnf)^ on the gulf of Car- 
 thage. ^3. Regiae {Hammam Truzza), in the 
 N. part of Byzacena.^4. Tacapitanae {Ham- 
 mat el- Khahs)^ at the S. extremity of Byzacena, 
 close to the large city of Tacape (Khabs). 
 
 Aqtllla. 1. Of Pontus, translated the Old Tes- 
 tament into Greek, in the reign of Hadrian, pro- 
 bably about A. D. 130. Only a few fragments re- 
 main, which have been published in the editions 
 of the Hexapla of Origen. — 2. Julius Aquila, a 
 Roman jurist quoted in the Digest, probably lived 
 under or before the reign of Septimius Severus, a. d. 
 193— 198. — 3. L. Pontius Aquila, a friend of 
 Cicero, and one of Caesar's murderers, was killed 
 at the battle of Mutina, b. c. 43. — 4. Aquila Ro- 
 mauus, a rhetorician, who probably lived in the 
 third century after Christ, wrote a small work en- 
 titled De Figuris Sententiarum et Ehcutionis^ which 
 is usually printed with Rntilius Lupus. — Editions. 
 By Ruhnken, Lugd, Bat. 1768, reprinted with ad- 
 ditional notes by Frotscher, Lips. 1831. 
 
 Aquilaria (Alhowareah), a town on the coast 
 of Zeugitana in Africa, on the W. side of Her- 
 maeura Pr. ( C. Bon), the E. extremity of the 
 Gulf of Carthage. It was a good landing-place in 
 summer, 
 
 Aquileia (Aquileiensis : Aquileia or Aglar), a 
 town in Gallia Transpadana at the very top of the 
 Adriatic, between the rivers Sontlus and Natiso, 
 about 60 stadia from the sea. It was founded by 
 the Romans in B. c. 182 as a bulwark against the 
 N. barbarians, and is said to have derived its 
 name from the favourable omen of an eagle {aquila) 
 appearing to the colonists. As it was the key of 
 Italy on the N.E., it was made one of the strong- 
 est fortresses of the Romans. From its position it 
 became also a most flourishing place of commerce : 
 the Via Aemilia was continued to this town, and 
 from it all the roads to Rhaetia, Noricum, Panno- 
 nia, Istria, and Dalmatia branched off. It was 
 taken and completely destroyed by Attila in A. d. 
 
 ARABIA. 67 
 
 452 : its inhabitants escaped to the Lagoons, ^\ here 
 Venice was afterwards built. 
 
 Aquillia Via, began at Cojowa, and ran S. 
 through Nola and Nuceria to Salernum ; from 
 thence it ran through the very heart of Lucania and 
 Bruttii, passing Neridum, Interamnia^ Cosentia, 
 Vila., and Medina^ and terminated at Rhegium. 
 
 Aquillius or Aquilius. 1. M'., consul b. c. 
 129, finished the war against Aristonicus, son of 
 Eumenes of Pergamus. On his return to Rome he 
 was accused of maladministration in his province, 
 but was acquitted by bribing llie judges. — 3. M'., 
 consul in b. c. 101, conquered the slaves in Sicily, 
 who had revolted under Athenion. In 98 he was 
 accused of maladministration in Sicily, but was 
 acquitted. In 88 he went into Asia as one of the 
 consular legates in the Mithridatic war : he wag 
 defeated and handed over by the inhabitants of 
 Mytilene to Mithridates, who put him to death by 
 pouring molten gold down his throat. 
 
 Aquillius Gallus. [Gallus.] 
 
 Aquilonia (Aquilonus), a town of Samnium, E. 
 of Bovianum, destroyed by the Romans in the Sara- 
 nite wars. 
 
 Aquinum (Aquinas : Aquino), a town of the 
 Volscians, E. of the river Melpis, in a fertile coun- 
 try ; a Roman municipium and afterwards a colony ; 
 the birth-place of Juvenal ; celebrated for its 
 purple dye. (Hor. Ep. i. 10.27.) 
 
 Aquitania. 1. The country of the Aquitani, 
 extended from the Garumna {Garonne) to the Py- 
 renees, and from the ocean to Gallia Narbonensis : 
 it was first conquered by Caesar's legates, and again 
 upon a revolt of the inhabitants in the time of 
 Augustus. ^ 2. The Roman province of Aquitania, 
 formed in the reign of Augustus, was of much wider 
 extent, and was bounded on the N. by the Ligeris 
 {Loire), on the W. by the ocean, on the S, by the 
 Pyrenees, and on the E. by the Mons Ceveima,^ 
 which separated it from Gallia Narbonensis. — The 
 Aquita?ii were one of the three races which inha- 
 bited Gaul ; they were of Iberian or Spanish 
 origin, and differed from the Gauls and Belgians 
 in language, customs, and physical peculiarity. 
 
 Ara TTbiorum, a place in the neighbourhood of 
 Bonn in Germany, perhaps Godesberg : others sup- 
 pose it to be another name of Colonia Agrippina 
 {Cologjie). 
 
 Arabia {tj 'ApaS/a; ''Apai|/, pl.''Apa§€s, *'Apa- 
 §01, Arabs, Arabus, pi. Arabes, Arab! : Arabia), 
 a country at the S.W. extremity of Asia, forming 
 a large peninsula, of a sort of hatchet shape, bounded 
 on the W. by the Arabicus Sinus {Red Sea), on 
 the S. and S.E. by the Erythraeum Mare 
 {Gulf of Bab-el- Mandeb and Indian Ocea?i). and 
 on the N.E. by the Persicus Sinus {Persian Gudf). 
 On the N. or land side its boundaries were some- 
 what indefinite, but it seems to have included the 
 whole of the desert country between Egypt and 
 SjTia, on the one side, and the banks of the Eu- 
 phrates on the other ; and it was often considered 
 to extend even further on both sides, so as to in- 
 clude, on the E., the S. part of Mesopotamia along 
 the left bank of the Euphrates, and, on the W,, 
 the part of Palestine E. of the Jordan, and the 
 part of Egypt between the Red Sea and the E. 
 margin of the Nile valley, which, even as a part of 
 Egypt, was called Arabiae Nomos. In the stricter 
 sense of the name, which confines it to the penin- 
 sula itself, Arabia may be considered as bounded 
 on the N. by a line from the head of the Red Sea 
 
68 
 
 ARABIA. 
 
 (at Sitez) to the mouth of the Tigris (Shat-el-Arab) 
 ■which jnst ahout coincides with the pamllel of 30° 
 N. lat. It was divided into 3 parts : (1) Arabia Pe- 
 traea(7j ■!T€Tpaia''Apa€ia: N. W. -part o( £]l-Hejaz), 
 including the triangular piece of land between the 
 two heads of the Red Sea (the peninsula of M. 
 Sinai) and the country immediately to the N. and 
 N. E. ; and called from its capital Petra, while the 
 literal signification of the name " Rocky Arabia" 
 agrees also with the nature of the country : (*2) 
 Arabia Deserta {El-Jchel), including the great 
 Syrian Desert and a portion of the interior of the 
 Arabian peninsula : (3) Arabia Telix {EL-Nejed^ 
 El-FTfjaz^ El-Yemev^ El-Hadramaut, Omtni^ and 
 Ei-Hejer) consisted of the whole country not in- 
 cluded in the other two divisions ; the ignorance nf 
 the ancients respecting the interior of the peninsula 
 leading them to class it with Arabia Felix, although 
 it properly belongs to Arabia Deserta, for it con- 
 sists, 30 far as it is known, of a sandy desert of 
 steppes and table land, interspersed with Oases 
 {Wadis)^ and fringed with mountains, between 
 which and the sea, especially on the W. coast, lies 
 a belt of low land (called Tchdmah), intersected 
 by numerous mountain torrents, which irrigate the 
 strips of land on their banks, and produce that fer- 
 tility which caused the ancients to apply the epi- 
 thet of Felix to the whole peninsula. The width 
 of the Tchamah is, in some places on the W. coast, 
 as much as from one to two days' journey, but on 
 the other sides it is very narrow, except at the E. 
 end of the peninsula (about Mushit in Oman) 
 where for a small space its width is again a day's 
 jouniey. — The inhabitants of Arabia were of th** 
 race called Semitic or Aramaean, and closely re- 
 lated to the Israelites. The N.W. district (Arabia 
 Petraea) was inhabited by the various tribes which 
 constantly appear in Jewish history : the Ama- 
 lekites, Midianites, Edomites, Moabites, Ammo- 
 nites, &c. The Greeks and Romans called the 
 inhabitants by the name of Nabathaei, whose 
 capital was Petra. The people of Arabia Deserta 
 ■were called Arabes Scenitae (SfcijcTTai), from their 
 dwelling in tents, and Arabes Nomadae (No/,ta5ey), 
 ffom their mode of life, which was that of wander- 
 ing herdsmen, who supported themselves partly by 
 their cattle, and to a great extent also by the plun- 
 der of caravans, as their unchanged descendants, 
 the Bedouins or Bedaioee, still do. The people of 
 the Tehamah were (and are) of the same race ; but 
 their position led them at an early period to culti- 
 ■vate both agriculture and commerce, and to build 
 considerable cities. Their chief tribes were known 
 by the following names, beginning S. of the Na- 
 bathaei, on the W. coast : the Thamydeni and 
 Minaei (in the S. part of Hejaz) in the neighbour- 
 hood of Macoraba {Mecca) ; the Sabaei and Ho- 
 meritae in the S.W. part of the peninsula {Yemen) ; 
 on the S. E. coast, the Chatramolitae and Adra- 
 mitae (in El-Hadramaut^ a country very little 
 known, even to the present day) ; on the E. and 
 and N. E. coast the Omanitae and Daracheni (in 
 Oman^ and ELAhsa or El-Hejer).- — From the 
 earliest kno\vn period a considerable traffic was 
 carried on by the people in the N. (especially the 
 Nabathaei) by means of caravans, and by those on 
 the S. and E. coast by sea, in the productions of 
 their own country (chiefly gums, spices, and pre- 
 cious stones), and in those of India and Arabia. 
 Besides this peaceful intercourse with the neigh- 
 bouring countries, they seem to have made militar}'- 
 
 ARACHNE. 
 
 expeditions at an early period, for there can be no 
 doubt that the Hyksos or *' Shepherd- kings," who 
 for some time ruled over Lower Egypt, were Ara- 
 bians. On the other hand, they have successfully 
 resisted all attempts to subjugiite them. The al- 
 ledged conquests of some of the Assyrian kings 
 could only have affected small portions of tiie coun- 
 try on the N. Of the Persian empire we are ex- 
 pressly told that they were independent. Alex- 
 ander the Great died too soon even to attempt his 
 contemplated sclienie of circumnavigating the pe- 
 ninsula and suliduing the inhabitants. Tlie Greek 
 kings of Syria made unsuccessful attacks upon the 
 Nabathaei. Under Augustus, Aelius Galhis, as- 
 sisted by the Nabathaei, made an expedition into 
 Arabia Felix, but was compelled to retreat into 
 Egypt to save his army from famine and the cli- 
 mate. Under Trajan, Arabia Petraea was conquered 
 by A. Cornelius Palma (a, d. 107), and the country 
 of the Nabathaei became a Roman province. Some 
 partial and temporary footing was gained at a much 
 later period, on the S.W. coast by the Ethiopians ; 
 and both in this direction and from the N. Chris- 
 tianity was early introduced into the country, where 
 it spread to a great extent, and continued to exist 
 side by side with the old religion (which was Sa- 
 baeism, or the worship of heavenly bodies), and 
 with some admixture of Judaism, until the total 
 revolution produced by the rise of Mohammedanism 
 in 622. While maintaining their independence, 
 the Arabs of the Desert have also preserved to this 
 day their ancient form of government, which is 
 strictly patriarchal, under the heads of tribes and 
 families {Emirs and Sheiks). In the more settled 
 districts, the patriarchal authority passed into the 
 hands of kings ; a7id the people were divided into 
 the several castes of scholars, warriors, agriculturists, 
 merchants, and mechanics. The Mohammedan 
 revolution lies beyond our limits. 
 
 Arabicus Sinus (5 ''ApaSiKhs kcJAttos: Red 
 Sea), a long narrow gulf between Africa and Arabia, 
 connected on the S. with the Indian Ocean by the 
 Angnstiae Divae {Slrails of Bal-el-Mandeh), and 
 on the N. divided into two heads by the peninsula 
 of Arabia Petraea {Pcidns. of Sinai), the E. of 
 which was called Sinus Aelanites or Aelaniticus 
 {Gulf of AkaJio), and the W. Sinus Heroopolites 
 or Heroopoliticus {Gulf of Suez). The upper part 
 of the sea was known at a very early period ; but 
 it was not explored in its whole extent till the ma- 
 ritime expeditions of the Ptolemies. Respecting 
 its other name see Erythraeum Mare. 
 
 Arabis ("A/Ja^jy, also "Apd^ios, "ApSis, "ApraSis^ 
 and 'ApTd§tos : PooraUy or Aghor), a river of Ge- 
 drosia, falling into the Indian Ocean lOQO stadia 
 (100 geog. miles) W.of the mouth of the Indus, 
 and dividing the Orltae on its W. from the Ara- 
 bitae or Arbies on its E., who had a city named 
 Arbis on its E. bank, 
 
 Arabitae. [Arabis.] 
 
 Arachnaeum i^Apaxva-'^ov), a mountain forming 
 the boundary between Argolis and Corinthia. 
 
 Arachne, a Lydian maiden, daughter of Idmoa 
 of Colophon, a famous dyer in purple. Arachne 
 excelled in the art of weaving, and, proud of her 
 talent, ventured to challenge Athena to compete 
 with her. Arachne produced a piece of cloth in. 
 which the amours of the gods were woven, and as 
 Athena could find no fault with it, she tore the 
 work to pieces. Arachne in despair hung herself: 
 the goddess loosened the rope and saved her life, 
 
ARACHOSIA. 
 
 but the rope was changed into a cobweb and 
 Arachne herself into a spider (apaxfo), the animal 
 most odious to Athena. {Ov. jV/e^ vi. 1, seq.) This 
 fable seems to suggest the idea tliat man learnt the 
 art of weaving fxom the spider, and that it was in- 
 vented in Lydia, 
 
 Aracliosia (Apax^cia: *ApaxwTo.i or -wrai; 
 S, E. part of Afghanistan and iV. E. part of Bc- 
 loochistan), one of the extreme E. provinces of the 
 Persian (and afterwards of the Partliian) Empire, 
 bounded on the E. by the Indus, oil the N. by the 
 Paropaniisadae, on the W. by Drnngiana, and on 
 the S. by Gedrosia. It was a fertile country, wa- 
 tered by the river Arachotus {'ApdxojTos), some 
 distance from which stood a city of the same name. 
 Arachotus, which was said to have been built by 
 Semirarnis, and which was the capital of the pro- 
 vince until the foundation of Alexandria. The 
 shortest road £i"om Persia to India passed through 
 Aracbosia. 
 
 Arachotus. [Araciiosia.] 
 
 Arachtbus or Aretho ("ApaxBos or 'Apedc^v : 
 Aria), a river of Epirus, rises in M. Lacmon 
 or the Tymphean mountains, and Hows into the 
 Ambracian gulf, S. of Ambracia : it is deep and 
 difficult to cross, and navigable np to Ambracia. 
 
 Aracynth.us CApaKuvBos: ZUios)^ a mountain 
 on the S.W. coast of Aetolia near Pleuron, some- 
 times placed in Acarnania. Later writers erro- 
 neously make it a mountain between Boeotia and 
 Attica, and hence mention it in connection with 
 Amphion, the Boeotian hero. (Propert. iii. 13. 41 ; 
 Adaeo (i. e. Attico) Aracyntho, Virg. Ed. ii. 24.) 
 
 Aradns (*'Apa5os ; 'ApaStos-, AradTus : in 0. T. 
 Arvad : Ruad), an island off the coast of Phoenicia, 
 at the distance of 20 stadia (2 g'eog. miles), with a 
 city which occupied the whole surface of the island, 
 7 stadia in circumference, which was said to have 
 been founded by exiles from Sidon, and which was 
 a very flourishing place under its own kings, under 
 the Scleucidae, and under the Romans. It pos- 
 sessed a harbour on the mainland, called Anta- 
 
 RADUS. 
 
 Arae Philaenorum. [Philaenorum Arae.] 
 
 Araethyrea {'ApaiBup^a), daughter of Aras, an 
 autochthon who was believed to have built Arantea, 
 the most ancient town in Phliasia. After her 
 d'.'ath, her brother Aoris called the country of 
 Phliasia Araethj-rea, in honour of his sister. 
 
 AxSL^heJi {' Apa(pT}v : 'Apa<l>7)vioSy ' Apa<pr}i/oO€i/ : 
 Rafina)^ an Attic demus belonging to the tribe 
 Aegaeis, on the E. of Attica, N. of the river Era- 
 sinus, not far from its mouth. 
 
 Arar or Araris {Saone}^ a river of Gaul, rises in 
 the Vosges, receives the Duhis (Doiths) from the 
 E., after which it becomes navigable, and flows 
 with a quiet stream into the Rhone at Lugdunum 
 (^Lyon). In the time of Ammianus (a. d. 370) it 
 was also called Sauco7ma, and in the middle ages 
 Sanaona, whence its modern name Saone. 
 
 Araros {'Apapdis), an Athenian poet of the 
 Middle Comedy, son of Aristophanes, flourished 
 li.c. 375. 
 
 Aras. [Abaethyrea.] 
 
 Araspes {'ApdffirTjs), a Mede, and a friend of 
 the elder Cyrus, is one of the characters in Xeno- 
 phon's Cyropaedia. He contends witii Cyrus that 
 love has no power over him, but shortly afterwards 
 refutes himself by falling in love with Panthea, 
 whom Cyrus had committed to his charge. [Aera- 
 
 DATAS.j 
 
 ARAXES. 'ed- 
 
 Aratus ("Aparos). L The celebrated general 
 of the Achaeans, son of Clinias, was born at Sicyon, 
 B. c. 271. On tiie murder of his father by Aban- 
 TiDAS, Aratus, who was then a child, was con- 
 vej'ed to Aigos, where be was brought up. When 
 he had reached the age of 20 he gained possession 
 of bis native city, b. c. 251, deprived the usurper 
 Nicocles of his power, and united Sicyon to the 
 Achaean league, which gained in consequence a 
 great accession of power. [Achaei.] In 245 he 
 was elected general of the league, which office he 
 frequently held in subsequent years. Through his 
 influence a great number of the Greek cities joined 
 the league ; but he excelled more in negotiation 
 than in war, and in his war with the Aeto- 
 lians and Spartans he was often defeated. In 
 order to resist these enemies he cultivated the 
 friendship of Antigonus Doson, king of Macedonia, 
 and of his successor Philip ; but as Philip was 
 evidently anxious to make himself master of all 
 Greece, dissensions arose between him and Aratus, 
 and the latter was eventually poisoned in 213 by 
 the king's order. Divine honours were paid to 
 him by bis countrymen, and an annual festival 
 {'ApdreicL, see Diet of Antiq.) established. Aratus 
 wrote Commentaries, being a history of his own 
 thnes down to b. c. 220 : at which point Polybius 
 commenced his history. ^2. Of Soli, afterwards 
 Pompeiopolis, in Cilicia, or (according to one au- 
 thority) of Tarsus, flourished B, c. 270, and spent 
 all the latter part of his life at the court of Anti- 
 gonus Gouatas, king of Macedonia. He wrote 
 two astronomical poems, entitled Phaenomena (4"ai- 
 yo/j-iva)^ consisting of 732 verses, and Diosemeia 
 (A(oo"r7/i€ia), of 422. The design of the Phaenomena 
 is to give an introduction to the knowledge of the 
 constellations, with the rules for their risings and 
 settings. The Diosemeia consists of prognostics of 
 the weather from astronomical pliaenomena, with 
 an accpunt of its effects upon animals. It appears 
 to be an imitation of Hesiod,and to have been imi- 
 tiited by Virgil in some parts of the Georgics. The 
 style of these two poems is distinguished by ele- 
 gance and accuracy ; but it wants originality and 
 poetic elevation. That they became very popular 
 both in the Grecian and Roman world {cum sole et 
 luna semper Aratus erit^ Ov. Am. i. 15, 16), is 
 proved by tliu number of commentaries and Latin 
 translations. Parts of three poetical Latin transla- 
 tions are preserved. One written by Cicero when 
 very young, one by Caesar Germanicus, the grand- 
 son of Augustus, and one by Festus Avienus. — 
 Editions. By Voss, Heidelb. 1824, with a Ger- 
 man poetical version ; by Buttmann, Berol. 182G ; 
 and by Bekker, Berol. 1828. 
 
 Arauris {Heraidt)., erroneously' Rauraris in 
 Strabo, a river in Gallia Narbonensis, rises in M. 
 Cevenna,and flows into the Mediterranean. 
 
 Arausio {Orange)^ a town of thy Cavari or 
 Cavares, and a Roman colony, in Gallia Narbonen- 
 sis, on the road from Arelate to Vienna : it still 
 contains remains of an amphitheatre, circus, aque- 
 duct, triumphal arch, &c. 
 
 Araxes {'Ap6.iT\s\ the name of several rivers. 
 — L In Armenia Major {Erashh ov Arcis\ rises 
 in M. Aba or Abus (nr. Erzeroum), from the op- 
 posite side of which the Euphrates flows ; and, 
 after a great bend S.E. and then N.E., joins the 
 Cyrus (/koi/r), which flows down from the Cau- 
 casus, and falls with it into the Caspian by two 
 mouths, in about 39° 20' N. Lat. The lower part, 
 
 F 3 
 
-nr- 
 
 AP.AXUS. 
 
 past Artaxata, flows through a plain, Avhich was 
 called rh 'Apa^-qvhu Tr^dloy. The Araxes was 
 proverbial for the force of its current ; and hence 
 Virgil {Aen. viii. 720), says pontem indignatus 
 Ara-xes, with special reference to the failure of 
 both Xerxes and Alexander in throwinsr a bridge 
 over it. It seems to be the PJiasis of Xennphon. 
 —2. In Mesopotamia. [Aborrhas.] — 3. In 
 Persis {Dend-Eiiilr')^ tiie river on which Persepolis 
 stood, rises in the mountains E. of the head of the 
 Persian Gulf, and flows S.E. into a salt lake [Bahh- 
 tegan) not far below Persepolis. —4. It is doubtful 
 whether the Araxes of Herodotus is the same as 
 the Oxus, Jaxartes, or Vo/(;a.—5. The Pe- 
 NEus, in Thessaly, was called Araxes from the 
 violence of its torrent (fr. apdffcrco) 
 
 Araxus ("Apa^os : C. Papa), a promontory of 
 Achaia near the confines of Elis. 
 
 Axbaces {'ApSaKTjs), tlie founder of the Median 
 empire, according to Ctesias, is said to have taken 
 Nineveh in conjunction with Belesis, the Babylo- 
 nian, and to have destroyed the old Assyrian em- 
 pire under the reign of Sardanapalus, B. c. 876. 
 Ctesias assigns 28 years to the reign of Arbaces, 
 B. c. 876 — 848, and makes his dynasty consist 
 of 8 kings. This account differs from that of 
 Herodotus, who makes Deioces the first king of 
 Media, and assigns only 4 kings to his dynasty. 
 
 Arbela (Ta "Ap^i^Aa; Erhille)^ acityof Adia- 
 bene in Assyria, between the rivers Lycus and 
 Caprus ; celebrated as the head-quarters of Darius 
 Codoniannus, before the last battle in which he 
 was overthrown by Alexander (b. c. 331), which 
 is hence frequently called the battle- of Arbela, 
 though it wus really fought near Gaugasiela, 
 about 50 miles W. of Arbela. The district about 
 Arbela vvas called Arbelitis {'Ap€7}\'iTis). 
 Arbis. [Arabis.] 
 
 Arbucala or Arbocala (ViUa Fasila9), the 
 chief town of the Vaccaei in Hispania Tan-aconen- 
 sis, taken by Hannibal after a long resistance. 
 
 Arbusciila, a celebrated female actor in panto- 
 mimes in the time of Cicero. 
 
 Area or -as {"ApK-ri, ov -ai: Tell-Arhi), a very 
 ancient city in the N. of Phoenicia, not far from 
 the sea-coast, at the foot of M. Lebanon : a colony 
 under the Romans, named Area Caesarea or Cae- 
 sarea Libani : the birthplace of the emperor Alex- 
 ander Severus. 
 
 Arcadia ('ApfcaSia; "Ap/cccy, pi. 'Ap/cdSes), a 
 country in the middle of Peloponnesus, was bounded 
 on the E. by Argolis, on the N. by Achaia, on the 
 W. by Elis, and on the S. by Messenia and La- 
 conica. Next to Laconica it was the largest country 
 in the Peloponnesus : its greatest length was about 
 50 miles, its breadth from 35 to 41 miles. It was 
 surrounded on all sides by mountains, which lilcc- 
 wise traversed it in every direction, and it may be 
 regarded as the Switzerland of Greece. Its prin- 
 cipal mountains were Cyllene and Erymanthus in 
 the N., Artemisius in the E., and Parthenius, Mae- 
 nalus, and Lj'cacus in the S. and S.W. The Ache- 
 ious, the greatest river of Peloponnesus, rises in 
 Arcadia, and flows through a considerable part of 
 the countrj'-, receiving numerous affluents. The 
 N. and E. parts of the country were barren 
 and unproductive ; the W. and S. were more 
 fertile, with numerous valleys where corn was 
 grown. The Arcadians, said to be descended 
 from the eponymous hero Arcas, regarded them- 
 selves as the most ancient people in Greece : the 
 
 APvCESlLAUS. 
 
 Greek writers call them indigenous {ahrSx^oves) 
 and Pelasgians. In consequence of the physical 
 peculiarity of the country, they were chiefly era- 
 ployed in hunting and the tending of cattle, whence 
 their worship of Pan, who was especially the god 
 of Arcadia, and of Artemis. They were a people 
 simple in their habits and moderate in their de- 
 sires ; they were passionately fond of music, and 
 cultivated it with ^veaX &mccq&s {soli cantare penti 
 Arcades^ Virg. Eel. x, 32), which circumstance was 
 supposed to soften the natural roughness of their 
 character. The Arcadians experienced fewer 
 changes than any other people in Greece, and re- 
 tained possession of their country upon the conquest 
 of the rest of Pelopoimesus by the Dorians. Like 
 the other Greek peoples, they were originally go- 
 verned by kings, but are said to have abolished 
 monarchy towards the close of the second Messenian 
 war, and to have stoned to death their last king 
 Aristocrates, because he betrayed his allies the 
 Messenians. The different towns then became in- 
 dependent republics, of which the most important 
 were Mantinea, Tegea, Orchomenus, Psophis, 
 and Pheneos. Like the Swiss, the Arcadians 
 frequent]}' served as mercenaries, and in the Pe- 
 loponnesian war, they were found in the armies of 
 both the Lacedaemonians and Athenians. The 
 Lacedaemonians made many attempts to obtain 
 possession of parts of Arcadia, but these attempts 
 were finally frustrated by the battle of Leuctra 
 (B.C. 371); and in order to resist all future ag- 
 gressions on the part of Sparta, the Arcadians, upon 
 the advice of Epaminondas, built the city of Me- 
 galopolis, and instituted a general assembly of 
 the whole nation, called the Myrii (Mupioi, Diet 
 of Antiq. s. v.). They subsequently joined the 
 Achaean League, and finally became subject to the 
 Romans, 
 
 Arcadius, emperor of the East (a. d. 395 — 408), 
 elder son of Theodosius I., was bom in Spain, 
 A. D. 383. On the death of Theodosius, he became 
 emperor of the East, while the West was given to 
 his younger brother Honorius. Arcadius possessed 
 neither physical nor intellectual vigour, and was en- 
 tirely governed by unworthy favourites. At first 
 he was ruled by Rufinus, the praefect of the East ; 
 and on the murder of the latter soon after the ac- 
 cession of Arcadius, the government fell into the 
 hands of the eunuch Eutropius. Eutropius was 
 put to death in 399, and his power now devolved 
 upon Gainas, the Goth ; but upon his revolt and 
 death in 401 Arcadius became entirely dependent 
 upon his wife Eudoxia, and it was through her 
 influence that St. Chrysostom was exiled in 404. 
 Arcadius died on the 1st of May, 408, leaving the 
 empire to his son Theodosius II., who was a minor. 
 Arcanum. [Arpinum.] 
 Arcas ("ApKas), king and eponymous hero of the 
 Arcadians, son of Zeus and Callisto, grandson of 
 Lycaon and father of Aphidas and Elatus. Arcas was 
 the boy whose flesh his grandfather Lycaon placed 
 before Zeus, to try bis divine character. Zeus up- 
 set the table {rpdireCa.) which bore the dish, and 
 destroyed the house of Lycaon by lightning, but 
 restored Arcas to life. When Arcas had grown 
 up, he built on the site of his father's house the 
 town of Trapezus. Arcas and his mother were 
 placed by Zeus among the stars. 
 
 Arcesilaus or Arcesilas ('ApK€(T/\aos, 'Apwe- 
 (TiAas), a Greek philosopher, son of Seuthes or 
 Scythes, was bom at Pitane in AeoUs, and flou- 
 
AllCESILAUS. 
 
 rished about B.C. 250. Pie studied at first in his 
 native town under Autolycus, a matheniatician, 
 and afterwards went to Athens, where he became 
 the disciple first of Theopbrastus and next of Po- 
 lemo and of Grantor. He succeeded Crates about 
 B. c. 241 in the chair of the Academy, and became 
 the founder of the second or middle (/xcVtj) Aca- 
 demy. He is said to have died in his 76th year 
 from a fit of drunkenness. Plis philosophy was of 
 a sceptical character, though it did not go so far as 
 that of the followers of Pyrrhon. He did not 
 ■doubt the existence of truth in itself, only our ca- 
 pacities for obtaining it, and he combated most 
 strongly the dogmatism of the Stoics, 
 
 Arcesilaus ('Ap/<:€oi\ao5). 1. Son of Lycusand 
 Theobule, leader of the Boeotians in the Trojan 
 war, slain by Hector. ^ 2. The name of four kings 
 •of Cyrene. [BATTus"and Battiadae.] 
 
 Arcesius (*Ap/f€tV(os), son of Zeus and Euryo- 
 ■dia, father of Laertes, and grandfather of Ulysses. 
 Hence both Laertes and Ulysses are called Arce- 
 blades (^ApKei(ndB7}s). 
 
 Archaeopolis {'Apxa^^^oXis), the later capital 
 of Colchis ; near the river Phasis. 
 
 Arcliandropolia {'ApxdvSpov ttSkis), a city of 
 Lower Egypt, on the Nile, between Canopus and 
 Cercasorus. 
 
 Archedenms ( 'Apx^^vf-^os ; Dor. 'Apx^^o.f-os). 
 1. A popular leader at Athens, took the first step 
 against the generals who had gained the battle of 
 Arginusae, B. c. 406. The comic poets called liim 
 "blear-eyed" {yKdfxuv)^ Rud said that he was a 
 foreigner, and had obtained the franchise by fraud. 
 -^2. An Aetolian (called Archidamus by Livy), 
 commanded the Aetolian troops which assisted the 
 Romans in their war with Philip (s.c. 1.99 — 197). 
 He afterwards took an active part against the Ro- 
 mans, and eventually joined Perseus, whom he 
 accompanied in his flight after his defeat in 168. 
 — 3. Of Tarsus, a Stoic philosopher, mentioned by 
 Cicero, Seneca, and other ancient writers. 
 
 ArchediCtlS {'ApxeBmos), an Athenian comic 
 poet of the new comedy, supported Antipater and 
 the Macedonian party. 
 
 Archegetes ('Apx7IT^'''''J0i ^ surname of Apollo, 
 probably in reference to his being a leader of co- 
 lonies. It was also a surname of other gods. 
 
 Archelais (Apx^^aU). 1. In Cappadocia (AIc~ 
 serai), on the Cappadox, a tributary of the Halys, 
 a city founded by Archelaus, the last king of Cap- 
 padocia, and made a Roman colony by the emperor 
 Claudius. ^2, A town of Palestine, near Jericho, 
 founded by Archelaus, the son of Herod the Great. 
 
 Archelaus {'Apx^Xaos). 1. Son of Hekod the 
 Great, was appointed by his father as his successor, 
 and received from Augustus Judaea, Samaria, and 
 Idumaea, with the title of ethnarch. In conse- 
 quence of his tyrannical government, the Jews ac- 
 cused him before Augustus in the 10th year of his 
 reign (a. d. 7) : Augustus banished him to Vienna 
 in Gaul, where he died. — 3. King of Macedonia 
 (e.g. 413 — 'd99), an illegitimate son of Perdiccas 
 II., obtained the throne by the murder-of his half- 
 brother. He improved the internal condition of 
 his kingdom, and was a warm patron of art and 
 literature. His palace was adorned with magni- 
 ficent paintings by Zeuxis ; and Euripides, Aga- 
 thon, and other men of eminence, were among his 
 guests. According to some accounts Archelaus 
 ■was accidentally slain in a hunting party by his 
 favourite, Craterus or Crateuas ; but according to 
 
 ARCHESTRATUS. 
 
 n 
 
 other accounts he was murdered by Craterus. — 3. 
 A distinguished general of Mithridates. In 
 B. c. 87 he was sent into Greece by Mithridates 
 with a large fleet and army ; at first he met with, 
 considerable success, but was twice defeated by 
 Sulla in ii6, near Clmeroiiea and Orchomenos in 
 Boeotia, with immense loss. Thereupon he was 
 commissioned by Mithridates to sue for peace, 
 which he obtained : but subsequently being sus- 
 pected of treachery by the king, he deserted to the 
 Romans just before the commencement of the second 
 Mithridatic war, B.C. 81.^4. Son of the pre- 
 ceding, was raised by Pompey, in B.C. 63, to the 
 dignity of priest of the goddess (Enyo or Bellona) 
 at Coniana in Pontus or Cappadocia. In 56 or 55 
 Archelaus became king of Egypt by mariying 
 Berenice, the daughter of Ptolemy Auletes, who 
 after the expulsion of her father had obtained the 
 sovereignty of Egypt. Archelaus, however, was 
 king of Egypt only for 6 months, for Gabinius 
 marched with an army into Egypt in order to re- 
 store Ptolemy Auletes, and in the battle which 
 ensued, Archelaus perished. -^ 5. Son of No. 4, 
 and his successor in the office of liigh-priest of Co- 
 mana, wjis deprived of his dignity by Julius Caesar 
 in 47. —6. Son of No. 5., received from Antony, 
 in B. c. 36, the kingdom of Cappadocia — a favour 
 which he owed to the channs of his mother Gla- 
 phyra. After the battle of Actium Octavianus not 
 onlj"- left Archelaus in the possession of his king- 
 dom, but subsequently added to it a part of Cilicia 
 and Lesser Armenia. But having incurred the en- 
 mity of Tiberius by the attention which he had 
 paid to C. Caesar, he was summoned to Rome soon 
 after the accession of Tiberius and accusedof treason. 
 His life was spared, but he was obliged to remain at 
 Rome, where lie died soon after, A. D. 17. Cappa- 
 docia was then made a Roman province. — 7. A 
 philosopher, probably born at Athens, though others 
 make him a native of Miletus, flourished about B.C. 
 450. The philosophical sj'stem of Archelaus is 
 remarkable, as forming a point of transition from 
 the older to the newer form of philosophy in Greece. 
 As a pupil of Anaxagoras he belonged to the Ionian 
 school, but he added to the physical system of his 
 teacher some attempts nt moral speculation. — 8. 
 A Greek poet, in Egypt, lived under the Ptolemies, 
 and wrote epigrams, some of which are still extant 
 in the Greek Anthology. — 9. A sculptor of Priene, 
 son of Apollonius, made the marble bas-relief re- 
 presenting the Apotheosis of Homer, which formerly 
 belonged to the Colonna family at Rome, and is 
 now in the Townley Gallery' of the British Museum. 
 He probably lived in the reign of Claudius. 
 
 Arcliemorus {^Apxe/j-opos), or Opheltes, son 
 of the Nemean king Lycurgus and Eurydice. 
 When the Seven heroes on their expedition against 
 Thebes stopped at Nemea to obtain water, Hypsi- 
 pyle, the nurse of the child Opheltes, while show- 
 ing the way to the Seven, left the child alone. In 
 the meantime, the child was killed by a dragon, 
 and buried by the Seven, But as Amphiaraus saw 
 in this accident nn omen boding destruction to him 
 and his companions, they called the child Arche- 
 morus, that is, '• Forerunner of Death," and insti- 
 tuted the Nemean games in honour of him. 
 
 Archestratus {'Apx^o'Tparos), of Gela or Syra- 
 cuse, about B. 0. 350, wrote a poem on the Art of 
 Cookery, which was imitated or translated by 
 Ennius in his Carmina Hcdypatheiica or Hedy 
 patkica (from TJSun-o^eta). 
 
 F 4 
 
72 ARCHIAS. 
 
 Archias CApx'tas). 1. An Heraclid of Corinth, 
 left his country in consequence of the death of 
 ACTAEON, and founded Synicnse, a c 734, by 
 command of the Delphic onicle.— 2. A Licinius 
 Arcbias, a Greek poet, born at Antioch in Syria, 
 about B. c. 120, very early obtained celebrity 
 by his verses. In 102 he came to Rome, and 
 ivas received in the most friendly way by many of 
 the Roman nobles, especially by the LucuUi, from 
 "whom he afterwards obtained the gentile name of 
 Licinius. After a short stiy at Rome he accompanied 
 L.LucuUus, the elder, to Sicily, and followed him, in 
 the banishment to which he was sentenced for his 
 management of the slave war in thatisland, to Hera- 
 clea in Lucania, in which town Archias was enrolled 
 as a citizen ; and as this town was a state united 
 ■with Rome b}'' a foedus, he subsequently obtained 
 the Roman franchise in accordance with the lex 
 Plautia Papiria passed in e. c. l]9. At a later time 
 he accompanied L. Lucullus the younger to the 
 Mithridatic war. Soon after his return, a charge 
 "was brought against him in 61 of assuming the 
 citizenship illegally, and the trial came on before 
 Q. Cicero, who was praetor this year. He was de- 
 fended by his friend jM. Cicero in the extant speech 
 Pro ArcJiia, in which the orator, after briefly dis- 
 cussing the legal points of tlie case, rests the de- 
 fence of his client upon his surpassing merits as a 
 poet, which entitled him to the Roman citizenship. 
 We may presume that Archias was acquitted, 
 though we have no formal statement of the fact 
 Archias wrote a poem on the Cimbric war in 
 honour of Marius ; another on the Mithridatic war 
 in honour of Lucullus ; and at the time of his trial 
 was engaged on a poem in honour of Cicero's con- 
 sulship. No fragments of these works are ex- 
 tant ; and it is doubtful whether the epigrams pre- 
 served under the name of Archias in the Greek 
 Anthology were really written by him. 
 
 Arcbidanius ('Apx'^SafMos), the name of 5 kings 
 of Sparta. 1. Son of Anaxidamus, contemporary 
 with the Tegeatan war, which followed soon after 
 the second Messenian, b. c. 660.— 2. Son of Zeuxi- 
 damus, succeeded his grandfather Leotychides, and 
 reigned B. c 469 — 427. During his reign, B.C. 
 464, Sparta was made a heap of ruins by a tremen- 
 dous earthquake ; and for the next 10 years he 
 ■was engaged in war against the revolted Helots 
 and Messenians. Towards the end of liis reign 
 the Peloponncsian war broke out : be recommended 
 his countrymen not nishly to embark in the war, 
 and he appears to have taken a more correct view 
 of the real strength of Athens than any other 
 Spartan. After the war had been declared (b. c. 
 431) he invaded Attica, and held the supreme 
 command of the Peloponnesian forces till his deatli 
 in 429.^3. Grandson of No. 2, and son of Agesi- 
 laus IT., reigned b. c. 361 — 330. During the life- 
 time of liis father he took an active part in resist- 
 ing the Thebans and the various other enemies of 
 Sparta, and in 367 he defeated the Arcadians and 
 Argivcs in the " Tearless Battle," so called be- 
 cause he had won it without losing a man. In 
 362 he defended Sparta against Epaminondas. In 
 the third Sacred war (b. c. 356 — 346) he assisted 
 the Phocmns. In S3C he went to Italy to aid the 
 Tarentines against the Lucanians, .ind there fell in 
 battle.— 4. Grandson of No. 3, and son of Eudu- 
 midas L, was king in b, c, 296, when lie was de- 
 feated by Demetrius Poliorcetes.— 5. Son of Euda- 
 midas II.j and the brother of Agis IV. On the 
 
 ARCHIMEDES. 
 
 murder of AgIs, in b. c, 240, Arcliidamus fled from 
 Sparta, but afterwards obtained the throne by 
 means of Ai*atus. He was, however, slain almosfi 
 immediately after his return to Sparta. He was 
 the last king of the Eurypontid race. 
 
 Archigenes ('Apxty^vv^)-, i"i eminent Greek 
 physician, born at Apamea in Syria, practised at 
 Rome in the time of Trajan, a. i>. 90 — 117. He 
 published a treatise on the pulse, on which Galen 
 wrote a Commentar}'. He was the most eminent: 
 physician of the sect of the Eclectici, and is men- 
 tioned by Juvenal as well as by other writers. 
 Only a few fragments of his works remain. 
 
 Archiloclnis {'Apxi^^oxos), of Paros, was one 
 of the earliest Ionian lyric poets, and the first 
 Greek poet who composed Iambic verses according 
 to fixed rules. He flourished about b. c. 714 — 676. 
 He was descended from a noble family, who held 
 the priesthood in Paros. His grandfather was 
 Tellis, his father Telesicles, and his mother a 
 slave, named Enipo. In the flower of his age 
 (between B.C. 710 and 700), Archilochus went 
 from Paros to Thasos with a colony, of which one 
 account makes him the leader. The motive for 
 this emigration can only be conjectured. It was 
 most probably the result of a political change, to 
 which cause was added, in the case of Archilochus, 
 a sense of personal wrongs. He had been a suitor 
 to Neobule, one of the daughters of Lycambes^ 
 who first promised and afterwards refused to giver 
 his daughter to the poet. Enraged at this treat- 
 ment, Archilochus attacked the whole family in am 
 Iambic poem, accusing Lycambes of perjury, and 
 his daughters of the most abandoned lives. Tho 
 verses were recited at the festival of Demeter, and 
 produced such an effect, that the daughters of Ly- 
 cambes are said to have hung themselves through 
 shame. The bitterness which he expresses in his 
 poems towards his native island seems to have 
 arisen in part also from the low estimation in 
 which he was held,^ as being the son of a slave, ' 
 Neither was he more happy at Thasos, He draws 
 the most melancholy picture of his adopted coun- 
 try, which he at length quitted in disgust. While 
 at Thasos, he incmTed the disgrace of losing his 
 shield in an engagement with the Thraclans of the 
 opposite continent; but, instead of being ashamed 
 of the disaster, he recorded it in his verse. At 
 length he returned to Paros, and in a war 
 between the Parians and the people of Naxos, 
 he fell by the hand of a Naxian named Ca- 
 londas or Corax. Archilochus shared with hia 
 contemporaries, Thaletas and Terpander, in the 
 honour of establishing lyric poetry throughout 
 Greece. The invention of the elegy is ascribed 
 to him, as well as to Callinus ; but it ■\vas on his 
 satiric Iambic poetry that his fame was founded. 
 His Iambics expressed the strongest feelings in the 
 most unmeasured language. The licence of Ionian 
 democracy and the bitterness of a disappointed 
 man were united with the highest degree of 
 poetical power to give them force and point. The 
 emotion accounted most conspicuous in his verses 
 was " rage," " Archilochum proprio rabies armavit 
 iambo." (Hor. Ar. Poet. 79.) The fragments of 
 Archilochus are collected in Bergk's PueL Lj/rici 
 G-'raec, and by Liebel, Archilocld Reliquiae^ Lips. 
 1012, 8vo. 
 
 Archimedes ('ApX'w-^St^s), of Syracuse, the 
 most famous of ancient mathematicians, ■was born 
 B. c. 207. He was a friend, if not a kinsman, of 
 
ARCHINUS. 
 Hiero, though his actual condition in life does not 
 seem to have been elevated. In the early part of 
 liis life he travelled into Egypt, where he studied 
 under Conon the Saniian, a mathematician and 
 astronomer. After visiting other countries, he 
 retorned to Syracuse. Here he constructed for 
 Hiero various engines of war, which, many years 
 afterwards, were so far effectual in the defence of 
 Syracuse against Marcellus, as to convert the siege 
 into a blockade, and delay the taking of the city 
 for a considerable time. The accounts of the per- 
 formances of these engines are evidently exng- 
 geratcd ; and the story of the burning of the 
 Roman ships by the reflected rays of the sun, 
 though very current in later times, is probably 
 a fiction. He supermtended the building of a 
 ship of extraordinary size for Hiero, of which a 
 description is given in Athenaeus (v. p. "206, d.), 
 where he is also said to have moved it to the sea 
 by the help of a screw. He invented a machine 
 called, from its form, Cochlea, and now known as 
 the water-screw of Archimedes, for pumping the 
 water out of the hold of this vessel. His most ce- 
 lebrated performance was the construction of a 
 spltei-e ; a kind of orrery, representing the move- 
 ments of the heavenly bodies. When Syracuse 
 was taken (b, c. 212), Archimedes was killed by 
 the Roman soldiers, being at the time intent upon a 
 mathematical problem. Upon his tomb was placed 
 the figure of a sphere inscribed in a cylinder. 
 When Cicero was quaestor in Sicily (7o) he found 
 this tomb near one of the gates of the city, almost 
 hid amongst briars, and forgotten by the Syracusaus. 
 The intellect of Archimedes was of the very highest 
 order. He possessed, in a degree never exceeded, 
 unless by Newton, the inventive genius which dis- 
 covers new provinces of inquiry, and finds new 
 points of view for old and familiar objects ; the 
 clearness of conception which ia essential to the re- 
 solution of complex phaenoraeua into their consti- 
 tuent elements ; and the power and habit of intense 
 and persevering thought, without which other in- 
 tellectual gifts are comparatively fruitless. Tlie fol- 
 lowing works of Archimedes have come down to 
 us : 1, On Equiponderants and Centres of Gravity, 
 2. The Quadrature of Vie Parabola. 3. On tlie 
 Sphere and Cylinder. 4. On Dimension of the 
 Circle. 5. On Spirals. 6. On Conoids and Sphe- 
 roids. 7. The Arenarius, 8. On Floating Bodies. 
 f). Lemmata. The best edition of his works is by 
 Torelli, Oxon. 1792. There is a French translation 
 of his works, with notes, by F. Peyrard, Paris, 
 1808, and'an English translation of the Arena- 
 rius by G. Anderson, London, 1784. 
 
 Arcliinus ('Apxt'^oj), one of the leading Athe- 
 nians, who, with Thrasybulas and Anytus, over- 
 threw the government of the Thirty, b. c. 403. 
 
 Archippus (''Apx'^''"os), an Athenian poet of 
 the old comedy, about b. c, 415. 
 
 Arcliytas ('Apx'^'^"^)' !• Of AraphIssn,aGreek 
 epic poet, flourished about B. c. 300. — 2. Of Ta- 
 rentum, a distinguished philosopher, mathematician, 
 general, and statesman, probably lived about b. c. 
 400, and onwards, so that he was contemporary 
 with Plato, whose life he is said to have saved by 
 his influence with the tyrant Dionysius. He was 
 7 times the general of his city, and he com- 
 manded in several campaigns, in all of which he 
 was victorious. After a life which secured to him 
 a place among the very greatest men of antiquity, 
 he was drowned while upon a voyage on the 
 
 ARCTOS. 73 
 
 Adriatic. (Hor. Carm. i. 28.) Asa philosopher; 
 he belonged to the Pythagorean school, and he ap- 
 pears to have been himself the founder of a new 
 sect. Like the Pythagoreans in general, he paid 
 much attention to mathematics. Horace calls him 
 maris el ttrrae numeroqiie carentis arenae MeTisorem. 
 To his theoretical science he added the skill of a 
 practical mechanician, and constructed various 
 machines and automatons, among which his wooden 
 flying dove in particular was the wonder of anti- 
 quity. He also applied mathematics with success 
 to musical science, and even to metaphysical philo- 
 soph3^ His influence as a philosopher was so great, 
 that Plato was undoubtedly indebted to him for 
 some of liis views ; and Aristotle is thought by 
 some writers to have borrowed the Idea of his cate- 
 gories, as well as some of his ethical principles, 
 from Archytas. 
 
 Arconnesus {*ApK6vj/r}a-os : 'ApKovvfia-ios). 1. 
 An island off tlie coast of Ionia, near Lebedus, also 
 called Aspis and Afacris. ^2. {Orak Ada), an is- 
 land off the coast of Caria, opposite Halicarnassus, 
 of which it formed the harbour. 
 
 Arctinus {'AptcrTvos), of Miletus, the most dis- 
 tinguished among the cyclic poets, probably lived 
 about B. c. 776. Two epic poems were attributed 
 to him. 1. The Aethiopis, which was a kind of 
 continuation of Homer's Iliad: its chief heroea 
 were Memnon, king of the Ethiopians, and Achillea, 
 who slew him. 2. The Destructioii of Ilion, which 
 contained a desci'iption of the destruction of Troy, 
 and the subsequent events until the departure of 
 the Greeks. 
 
 Arctophylax. [Arctos-I 
 Arctos ("AfjKTos), "the Bear,'' two constella- 
 tions near the N. Pole. 1. The Great Beak 
 (^ApKTOs fj.iydK7j : Ursa Major), also called the 
 Waggon {c.fj.a^a: plauslrian). The ancient Italian 
 name of this constellation was Septem Triones, that 
 is, the Seven Ploughing O^'en^ also Septejitrio, and 
 with the epithet Major to distinguish it from the 
 SepientHo Afinar, or Lesser Bear : hence Virgil 
 {Aen. iii. 356) speaks o{ geminosqiie Triones. The 
 Great Bear was also called Helice {kKiKi}) from its 
 sweeping round in a curve. ^2. The Lesser or 
 Little Bear ("Ap/cTos p^iKpa : Ursa Minor\ 
 likewise called the Waggon, was first added to the 
 Greek catalogues b}' Tliales, by whom it was pro- 
 bably imported from the East. It was also called 
 Phoenice {^oivIkt}), from the circumstance that it 
 was selected by the Phoenicians as the guide 
 by which they shaped their course at sea, the 
 Greek mariners with less judgment employing- 
 the Great Bear for the pui-pose ; and Cynosures 
 (Kui/tifToupa), dog^s tail, from the resemblance 
 of the constellation to the upturned curl of a 
 dog's tail. The constellation before the Great 
 Bear was called Bootes (Bocvttjs), Arclophylax 
 {JApKTo<pv\a^), or Arcturiis {^ApKToipos from oZpos, 
 guard) ; the two latter names suppose the con- 
 stellation to represent a man upon the watch, 
 and denote simply the position of the figure in re- 
 ference to the Great Bear, while Bootes, which is 
 found In Homer, refers to the Waggon, the imagi- 
 nary figure of Bootes being fancied to occupy the 
 place of the driver of the team. At a later time 
 Arctophylax became the general name of the con- 
 stellation, and tlie word Arciwus was confined to 
 the chief stiir in it. All these constellations are 
 connected in mythology with the Arcadian uyraph 
 Callisto, the daughter of Lycaon. Metamor- 
 
74 
 
 ARCTUKUS. 
 
 phosed by Zeus upon the earth into a she-bear, 
 Callisto was puvsued by her son Areas in the chase, 
 and when he was on the point of killing her, Zeus 
 placed them both among the stars, Callisto be- 
 coming the Great Bear and Areas the Little Bear 
 or Bootes. In the poets the epithets of these stars 
 have constant reference to the family and country 
 of Callisto : thus we 'find them called Lycaonis 
 Arctos : Mavnalia Arclos and j\ la enalis Ursa{ii:om 
 M. Maenalus in Arcadia) : ErTfmanthis Ursa (from 
 JM. Erymanthus in Arcadia) : PaiThasides stdlae 
 (from the Arcadian town Parrhasia). — Though 
 most traditions identified Bootes with Areas, others 
 pronounced him to be Icai-us or his daughter Eri- 
 gone. Henee the Septentriones are called Boves 
 IcaHi. (See Diet, of A ntiq. pp. 1 47, 1 4 G, 1 59,2nd ed.) 
 
 Arcturus. [Arctos.] 
 
 Ardea (Ardeas, -atis: Anha). 1. The chief 
 town of the Rutuli in Latium, a little to the left 
 of the river Nuraicus, 3 miles from the sea, was 
 situated on a rock suri'ounded by marshes, in an 
 unhealthy district. It was one of the most ancient 
 places in Italy, and was said to have been the ca- 
 pital of Turnus. It was conquered and colonized 
 by the Romans, b. c. 442, from which time its im- 
 portance declined. In its neighbourhood was the 
 Latin Aphrodisium or temple of Venus, which was 
 imder the superintendence of the Ardeates. — 2. 
 {Ardekan ?), an important town in Persis, S.AV. of 
 Persepolis. 
 
 Arduenna Silva, the Ardennes^ a vast forest, in 
 the N.W. of Gaul, extended from the Rhine and 
 the Treviri to the Nervii and Remi, and N. as 
 far as the Scheldt : there are still considerable re- 
 mains of this forest, though the greater piu't of it 
 has disappeared. 
 
 Ardys ("ApSus), son of Gyges, king of Lydia, 
 reigned e. c, 678 — 629 : he took Priene and made 
 war against Miletus. 
 
 Area or Aretias (^Apeia or 'A/JTjTi'as vtJo-oj, i.e. 
 the island of Ares : Kerasimt Ada)^ also called 
 Chalceritis, an island oif the coast of Pontus, close 
 to Phamacea, celebrated in the legend of the Argo- 
 nauts. 
 
 Axeitbous {^Ap-qidoos), king of Arne in Boeotia, 
 and husband of Pliiloniedusa, is cUled in the Iliad 
 (vii. 8) icopvpT]rT}s^ because he fought with a club : 
 he fell by the hand of the Arcadian Lycurgus. 
 
 Arelate, Arelas, or Arelatum (Arelatensis : 
 Arles)^ a town in Gallia Narbonensis at the head 
 of the delta of the Rhone on the left bank, and a 
 Roman colony founded by the soldiers of the sixth 
 legion, Colonia Arelath Sextanorum, It is first 
 mentioned by Caesar, and under the emperors it 
 became one of the most flourishing towns on this 
 aide of the Alps. Constantine the Great built an 
 extensive suburb on the right bank, which he con- 
 nected with the original city by a bridge. The 
 Roman remains at At'les attest the greatness of the 
 ancient city: there are still to be seen an obelisk 
 of granite, and the ruiAs of an aqueduct, theatre, 
 amphitheatre, palace of Constantine, and a large 
 Roman cemetery. 
 
 Aremorica. [Armorica.] 
 
 ArenacTim {Amluiim or AertT)^ a town of the 
 Batavi in Gallia Belgica. 
 
 Areopagus. [Athenae.] 
 
 Ares (^ApTjs), the Greek god of war and one 
 of the great Olympian gods, is represented as 
 the son of Zeus and Hera. The character of 
 Ares in Greek mythology will be best understood 
 
 ARETAS. 
 
 by comparing it with that of other divinities who 
 are likewise in some way connected with war. 
 Athena represents thoughtfulness and wisdom in 
 the affairs of war, and protects men and their ha- 
 bitations during its ravages. Ares, on the other 
 hand, is nothing but the personification of bold 
 force and strength, and not so much the god of 
 war as of its tumult, confusion, and horrors. His 
 sister Eria calls forth war, Zeus directs its course, 
 but Ares loves war for its own sake, and delights 
 in the din and roar of battles, in the slaughter of 
 men, and the destruction of towns. He is not even 
 influenced by party-spirit, but sometimes assists 
 tlie one and sometimes the other side, just as his 
 inclination may dictate ; whence Zeus calls him 
 aWoTTp6(Ta\Kos. {It. v. 889.) This savage and 
 sanguinary character of Ares makes him hated by 
 the other gods and by his own parents. It was 
 contrary to the spirit of the Greeks to represent a 
 being like Ares, with all his overwhelming physical 
 strength, as always victorious ; and when he comes 
 in contact with higher powers, he is usually con- 
 quered. He was wounded by Diomedes, who was 
 assisted by Athena, and in his fall he roared like 
 ten thousand warriors. The gigantic Aloidae had 
 likewise conquered him, and kept liim a prisoner for 
 13 months, until he was delivered by Hermes. He 
 was also conquered by Hercules, with whom he fought 
 on account of his son Cycnus, and was obliged to re- 
 turn to Olympus. This fierce and gigantic, but withal 
 handsome god loved and was beloved by Aphrodite. 
 [Aphrodite.] When Aphrodite loved Adonis, 
 Ares in his jealousy metamorphosed himself into a 
 bear, and killed bis rival. [Adonis.] According to 
 a late tradition. Ares slew Halirrhothius, the son of 
 Poseidon, when he was on the point of violating 
 Alcippe, the daughter of Ares. Hereupon Posei- 
 don accused Ares in the Areopagus, where the 
 Olympian gods were assembled in court. Ares was 
 acquitted, and this event was believed to have 
 given rise to the name Areopagus. The warlike 
 character of the tribes of Thrace led to the belief 
 that the god''s residence was in that country, and 
 here and in Scythia were the principal seats of his 
 worship. In Scythia he was worshipped under the 
 form of a sword, to which not only horses and other 
 cattle, but men also were sacrificed. In Greece 
 itself the worship of Ares was not very general. 
 All the stories about Ares and his worship in the 
 countries N. of Greece seem to indicate that his 
 worship was introduced into the latter country from 
 Thrace. The Romans identified tlieir god Mars 
 with the Greek Ares. [Mars.] * 
 
 Arestor ('Apeo-rajp), father of Argus, the guar- 
 dian of lo, who is therefore called Arestoridcs. 
 
 Aretaeus ('ApeTaioy), the Cappadocian, one of 
 the most celebrated of the ancient Greek physicians, 
 probably lived in tlie reign of Vespasian. He wrote 
 in Ionic Gi'eek a general treatise on diseases in 8 
 books, which is still extant. The best edition is 
 by C. G. Kuhn, Lips. 1828. 
 
 Aretas ('Aperoy), the name of several kings of 
 Arabia Petraea. 1. A contemporary of Pompey, 
 invaded Judaea in b. c. Qb, in order to place Hyr- 
 canus on the throne, but was driven back by the 
 Romans, who espoused the cause of Aristobulus. 
 His dominions were subsequently invaded by 
 Scaurus, the lieutenant of Pompey. ^2. The 
 father-in-law of Herod Antipas, invaded Judaea, 
 because Herod had dismissed the daugliter of 
 Aretas in consequence of his connection with He- 
 
ARETE. 
 
 rod'as. This Aretas seems to liave been the same 
 who had possession of Damascus at the time of the 
 conversion of the Apostle Paul, A. D. 31. 
 
 Arete ('ApiiTT)). L Wife of Alcinous, king of 
 the Phaeacians, received Ulysses with hospitality. 
 ^ 2. Daughter of the elder Dionysius and Aris- 
 tomache, wife of Thearides, and after hia death 
 of her uncle Dion. After Dion had fled from 
 Syracuse, Arete was compelled by her brother 
 to marry Tiraocrates, one of his friends ; but she 
 was again received by Dion as his wife, when he 
 liad obtained possession of Syracuse and expelled 
 the younger Dionysius. After the assassination of 
 Dion in 353, she was drowned by his enemies. — 
 3. Daughter of Aristippus, the founder of the Cy- 
 renaic school of philosophy, was instructed by him 
 in the principles of his system, which she trans- 
 mitted to her son the younger Aristippus- 
 
 Arethusa CApedovaa), one of the Nereids, and 
 the nymph of the famous fountain of Arethusa in 
 the island of Ortygia near Syracuse. For details, 
 see Alpheus. Virgil [Edog. iv, 1, x. 1) reckons 
 her among the Sicilian nymphs, and as the divinity 
 who inspired pastoral poetry. — There wefe several 
 other fountains in Greece, which bore the name of 
 Arethusa, of which the most important was one in 
 Ithaca, now Lebado, and another in Euboea near 
 Chalcis. 
 
 Arethusa (^ kpidovffa \ Er-Resticn),a. town and 
 fortress on the Orontes, in Syria : in Strabo's time 
 the seat of a petty Arabian principality. 
 
 Aretias, [Area.] 
 
 Aretium. [Arretium.] 
 
 Areua (Apeiis), two kings of Sparta. 1. Suc- 
 ceeded his grandfather, Cleomenes II., since his 
 father Acrotatus had died before him, and reigned 
 E. c. 309 — '265. He made several unsuccessful 
 attempts to deliver Greece from the dominion of 
 Antigonus Gonatas, and at length fell in battle 
 against the Macedonians in 265, and was succeeded 
 by his son Acrotatus. ^2. Grandson of No. 2, 
 reigned as a child for 8 years under the guardian- 
 ship of his uncle Leonidas XL, who succeeded him 
 about B. c. 256. 
 
 Arevacae or Arevaci, the most powerful tribe 
 of the Celtiberians in Spain, near the sources of 
 the Tagus, derived their name from the river Areva 
 (Arlanzo), a tributary of the Darius {Duero). 
 
 Argaeus (^hpyatos). 1. King of Macedonia, 
 son and successor of Perdiccas I., the founder of 
 the dynasty. — ,2. A pretender to the Macedonian 
 crown, dethroned Perdiccas II. and reigned 2 
 years 
 
 Argaeus Mons {^Apyaios : Erdjish)^ a lofty 
 snow-capped mountain nearly in the centre of Cap- 
 padocia ; an offset of the Anti-Taurus. At its 
 foot stood the celebrated city of Mazaca or Caesarea. 
 
 Arganthonius {' ApyavQ^vius)^ king of Tartes- 
 sus in Spain, in the 6th century b. c, is said to 
 have reigned 80 years, and to have lived 120. 
 
 Arganthoiuus or Arganthus Mons (rb Ap- 
 ■yavQdiviQV opos; Katirli)^ a mountain in Bithynia, 
 running out into the Propontis, forming the Prom. 
 Posidium (C. Bouz), and separating the bays of 
 Cios and Astacus. 
 
 ArgennTun or Arginum (^Apyewoy, ^Apy7uov -. 
 C.Blanco), a promontory on the Ionian coast, op- 
 posite to Chios. 
 
 Argenteus, a small river in Gallia Narbonensis, 
 whicii flows into the Mediterranean near Forum 
 Julii. 
 
 ARGUNAUTAE. 
 
 75 
 
 Argentoratum or -tus {Slrasshurff)^ an impor- 
 tant town on the Rhine in Gallia Belgica, the 
 head-quarters of the 8th legion, and a Roman mu- 
 nicipium. In its neighbourhood Julian gained a 
 brilliant victory over the Alemanni, a. d. 357. It 
 was subsequently called Strateburgum and Straiis- 
 buryum^ whence its modem name. 
 
 Arges. [Cyclopes.] 
 
 Argia {'Ap7fiaJ, daughter of Adrastus and Am- 
 phitliea, and wife of Polynices. 
 
 Argia {'Apy^ia). [Argos.] 
 
 Argiletum, a district in Rome, which ex- 
 tended from the S. of the Quii-inal to the Capitoline 
 and the Forum. It was chiefly inliabited by me- 
 chanics and booksellers. The origin of the name 
 is uncertain : the most obvious derivation is from 
 argilla '■'■ potter's claj"- ; " but the more common ex- 
 planation in antiquity was Argi letum, " death of 
 Argus,"" from a hero Argus who was buried there. 
 
 Argllus {"ApyiXos : 'Apyi\iox), a town in Bi- 
 saltia, the E. part of Mygdonia in Macedonia, be- 
 tween Amphipolis and Bromiscus, a colony of 
 Andros. 
 
 Arginusae (^Apyivova-aL or 'Apytyova-aai), 3 
 small islands off the coast of Aeolis, opposite My- 
 tilene in Lesbos, celebrated for the naval victory of 
 the Athenians over the Lacedaemonians under 
 Callicratidas, b. c. 406. 
 
 Argiphontes {'Apy€L(}>6vTr}s), " the slayer of 
 Argus," a surname of Hermes. 
 
 Argippaei CApynmaioi)^ a Scythian tribe in 
 Sarmatia Asiatica, who appear, from the description 
 of them by Herodotus (iv. 23), to have been of 
 the Calmuck race. 
 
 Argissa. [Argura.] 
 
 Argith.ea, thechief town of Atharaaniain Epirug. 
 
 Argiva, a surname of Hera or Juno from Argos, 
 where, as well as in the whole of Peloponnesus, 
 she was especially honom-ed. [Argos.] 
 
 Argivi. [Argos.] 
 
 Argo. [Argonautae.] 
 
 Argolis. [Argos.] 
 
 Argonautae {' Apyovavrat), the Argonauts, "the 
 sailors of the Argo,^' were the heroes who sailed 
 to Aea (afterwards called Colchis) for the purpose 
 of fetching the golden fleece. The story of the 
 Argonauts is variously related by the ancient wri- 
 ters, but the common tale ran as follows. In lolcus 
 in Thessaly reigned Pelias, who had deprived his 
 half-brother Aeson of the sovereignty. In order to 
 get rid of Jason the son of Aeson, Pelias persuaded 
 Jason to fetch the golden fleece, which was suspended 
 on an oak-tree in the grove of Ares in Colchis, and 
 was guarded day and night by a dragon. Jason 
 willingly undertook the enterprize, and commanded 
 Argus, the son of Phrixus, to build a ship with 
 50 oars; which was called Argo ('Ap7ci) after 
 the name of the builder. Jason was accompanied 
 by all the great heroes of the age, and their num- 
 ber is usually said to have been 50. Among these 
 were Hercules, Castor and Pollux, Zetes and Ca- 
 lais, the sons of Boreas, the singer Orpheus, the 
 seer Mopsus, Philammon, Tydeus, Theseus, Am- 
 phiaraus, Peleus, Nestor, Admetua, &c. After 
 leaving lolcus they first landed at Lemnos, where 
 they united themselves with the women of the is- 
 land, who had just before murdered their fathers 
 and husbands. From Lemnos they sailed to the 
 Dolionea at Cyzicus, where king Cyzicus received 
 them hospitably. They left the country during 
 the night, and being thrown back on the coast by 
 
76 
 
 ARGON AUTAE. 
 
 a contrary wind, they were taken for Pelasgians, 
 the enemies of the Doliones, and a struggle ensued, 
 in which Cyzicus was slain ; hut being recognised 
 by the Argonauts, they buried him and mourned 
 over his fate. They next landed in Mysia, where 
 they left behind Hercules and Polyphemus, who 
 had gone into the country in search of Hylas, whom 
 a nymph had carried off while he was fetching 
 water for his companions. In the country of the 
 Bebryces, king Amycus challenged the Argonauts 
 to fight with him ; and when Pollux was killed by 
 him, the Argonauts in revenge slew many of the 
 Bebryces, and sailed to Salmydessus in Thrace, 
 where the seer Phineus was tormented by the 
 Harpies. When the Argonauts consulted him 
 about their voyage, he promised his advice on con- 
 dition of their delivering him from the Harpies. 
 This was done by Zetes and Calais, two sons of 
 Boreas ; and Phineus now advised them, before 
 sailing through the Symplegades, to mark the flight 
 of a dove, and to judge from its fate what they 
 themselves would have to do. When they ap- 
 proached the Symplegades, they sent out a dove, 
 which in its rapid flight between the rocks lost only 
 the end of its tail. The Argonauts now, with the 
 assistance of Hera, followed the example of the 
 dove, sailed quickly between the rocks, and suc- 
 ceeded in passing without injury to their ship, with 
 the exception of some ornaments at the stern. 
 Henceforth the Symplegades stood immoveable in 
 the sea. On their arrival at the Mariandyni, the 
 Argonauts were kindly received by their king, Ly- 
 ons. The seer Idmon and the helmsman Tiphys 
 died here, and the place of the latter was supplied 
 by Ancaeus. They now sailed along the coast 
 until they arrived at the mouth of the river Phasis. 
 The Colchian king Aeetes promised to give up the 
 golden fleece, if Jason alone would yoke to a plough 
 two fire-breathing oxen with brazen feet, and sow 
 the teeth of the dnagon which had not been used by 
 Cadmus at Thebes, and which he had received 
 from Athena. The love of Medea furnished Jason 
 with means to resist fire and steel, on condition of 
 his taking her as his wife ; and siie taught him 
 how he was to kill the warriors that were to spring 
 up from the teeth of the dragon. While Jason 
 ■was engaged upon his task, Aeetes formed plans 
 for burning the ship Argo and for killing all the 
 Greek heroes. But Medea's magic powers sent to 
 sleep the dragon who guarded the golden fleece ; 
 and after Jason had taken possession of the trea- 
 sure, he and his Argonauts, together with Medea 
 and her young brother Absyrtus, embarked by 
 night and sailed away. Aeetes pursued them, but 
 before he overtook them, Medea murdered her 
 brother, cut him into pieces, and threw his limbs 
 overboard, that her father might be detained in his 
 pursuit by collecting tiie limbs of his child. Aeetes 
 at last returned home, but sent out a great number 
 of Colchians, threatening them with the punish- 
 ment intended for Medea, if they returned without 
 her. While the Colchians were dispersed in all 
 directions, the Argonauts had already reached the 
 mouth of the river Eridanus. But Zeus, angry at 
 the murder of Absyrtus, raised a storm which cast 
 the ship from its course. When driven on the 
 Absyrtian islands, the ship began to speak, and 
 declared that the anger of Zeus would not cease, 
 unless they sailed towards Ausonia, and got puri- 
 fied by Circe. They now sailed along the coasts 
 of the Ligyans and Celts, and through the sea of 
 
 ARGOS. 
 
 Sardinia, and continuing their course along the 
 coast of Tyrrhenia, they arrived in the island of 
 Aeaea, where Circe purified them. When they 
 were passing by the Sirens, Orpheus sang to pre- 
 vent the Argonauts being allured by them. Butes, 
 however, swam to them, but Aphrodite carried 
 him to Lilybaeum. Thetis and the Nereids con- 
 ducted them through Scylla and Charybdis and 
 between the whirling rocks (ireVpa: vXajKTal) ; 
 and sailing by the Trinacian island with its oxen 
 of Helios, they came to the Phaeacian island of 
 Corcyra, where they were received by Alcinous. 
 In the meantime, some of the Colchians, not being' 
 able to discover the Argonauts, had settled at the 
 foot of the Ceraunian mountains ; others occupied 
 the Absyrtian islands near the coast of Illyricuni ; 
 and a third band overtook the Argonauts in the 
 island of the Phaeacians. But as their hopes of 
 recovering Medea were deceived by Arete, the 
 queen of Alcinous, they settled in tiie island, and 
 the Argonauts continued their voyage. During- 
 the night they were overtaken by a storm ; but 
 Apollo sent brilliant flashes of lightning which 
 enabled them to discover a neighbouring island, 
 which they called Anaphe, Here they erected an 
 altar to Apollo, and solemn rites were instituted, 
 wliicli continued to be observed down to very late 
 times. Their attempt to land in Crete was pre- 
 vented by Talus, who guarded the island, but was 
 killed by the artifices of Medea. From Crete 
 they sailed to Aegina, and from thence between 
 Euboea and Locris to lolcus. Respecting the 
 events subsequent to their arrival in lolcus, see 
 Aeson, Medea, Jason, Pelias. The story of 
 the Argonauts probably arose out of accounts of 
 commercial enterprises which the wealthy Minyans, 
 who lived in the neighbourliood of lolcus, made to 
 the coasts of the Euxine. The expedition of the 
 Argonauts is related by Pindar in tiie 4th Pythian 
 ode, by ApoUonius Rhodius in his Argo7iautica, 
 and by his Roman imitator Valerius Flaccus. 
 
 Argos (t6 "Apyos^ -foy), is said by Strabo (p. 
 372) to have signified a plain in the language of 
 the Macedonians and Thessalians, and it may 
 therefore contain the same root as the Latin word 
 ager. In Homer we find mention of the Peiasgic 
 Argos, that is, a town or district of Thessaly, and 
 of, the Achaean Argos, by which he means some- 
 times the whole Peloponnesus, sometimes Aga- 
 memnon's kingdom of Argos of which Mycenae was 
 the capital, and sometimes the town of Argos. As 
 Argos frequently signifies the whole Peloponnesus, 
 the most important part of Greece, so the 'ApyeToi 
 often occur in Homer as a name of the whole body 
 of the Greeks, in which sense the Roman poets 
 also use Argivi.^X. Argos, a district of Pelopon- 
 nesus, called Argolis (?) 'kpyoKis) by Herodotus, 
 but more frequently by other Greek writers either 
 ArgoSj Argia (rf 'Apyeta), or Argolice (i? 'Apyo- 
 >^iK7]). Under the Romans Argolis became the 
 usual name of the country, while the word Argos or 
 Argi was confined to the town. Argolis under the 
 Romans signified the country bounded on the N. 
 by the Corinthian territorj^ on the W. by Arcadia, 
 on the S. by Laconia, and included towards the E. 
 the whole Acte or peninsula between the Saronic 
 and Argolic gulfs : but during the time of Grecian 
 independence Argolis or Argos was only the 
 country lying round tlie Argolic gulf^ bounded on 
 the W. by the Arcadian mountains, and separated 
 on the N. by a range of mountains from Corinth, 
 
ARGOS. 
 
 Cleonae, and Phlius. Argolis, as understood by 
 the Romans, was for the most part a mountainous 
 nnd unproductive country : the only extensive plain 
 adapted for agriculture was in the neighbourhood 
 of the city of Argos. Its rivers were insignificant 
 and mostly dry in summer : the most important 
 ■was the Inachus. The country was divided into 
 the districts of Argia or Argos proper, Epidauria, 
 Troezenia, and Hermionis. The original in- 
 habitants of the country were, according to mytho- 
 logy, the Cynuiii ; but the main part of the popu- 
 lation consisted of Pelasgi and Achaei, to whom 
 Dorians were added after the conquest of Pelopon- 
 nesus by the Dorians. See below, No. 2.^2. 
 Argos, or Argi, -orum, in the Latin writers, now 
 Ar(/o^ the capital of Argolis, and, next to Sparta, 
 the most important town in Peloponnesus, situated 
 in a level plain a little to the W. of the Inachus. 
 It had an ancient Pelasgic citadel, called Larissa, 
 and another built subsequently on another height 
 {duas arces liahent Argi, Liv, xxxiv. 25). It pos- 
 sessed numerous temples, and was particularly ce- 
 lebrated for the worship of Hera, whose great 
 temple, Heraeum, lay between Argos and Mycenae. 
 The remains of the Cyclopian walls of Argos are 
 still to be seen. The city is said to have been 
 built by Inachus or hissonPHORONEUs, or grand- 
 son Argus. The descendants of Inachus, who 
 may be regarded as the Pelasgian kings, reigned 
 over the country for 9 generations, but were at 
 length deprived of the sovereignty by Danaus, 
 who is said to have come from Egypt. The de- 
 scendants of Danaus were in their time obliged to 
 submit to the Achaean race of the Pelopidae. 
 Under the nile of the Pelopidae Mycenae became 
 the capital of the kingdom, and Argos was a de- 
 pendent state. Thus Mycenae was the royal resi- 
 dence of Atreus and of his son Agamemnon ; but 
 under Orestes Argos again recovered its supremacy. 
 Upon the conquest of Peloponnesus by the Dorians 
 Argos fell to the share of Temenus, whose de- 
 scendants ruled over the country ; but the great 
 bulk of the population continued to be Achaean. 
 All these events belong to mythology ; and Argos 
 first appears in history about b. c. 750, as the chief 
 state of Peloponnesus, under its ruler Phidon. 
 After the time of Phidon its power declined, and 
 it was not even able to maintain its supremacy over 
 the other towns of Argolis. Its power was greatly 
 ■weakened by its wars with Sparta. The two states 
 long contended for the district of Cynuria, which 
 lay between Argolis and Laconia, and which the 
 Spartans at length obtained by the victory of their 
 300 champions, about b. c. 550. In b. c. 524 
 Cleomenes, the Spartan king, defeated the Argives 
 ■with such loss near Tiryns, that Sparta was left 
 without a rival in Peloponnesus. In consequence 
 of its weakness and of its jealousy of Sparta, Argos 
 -took no part in the Persian war. In order to 
 strengthen itself, Argos attacked the neighbouring 
 towns ofTiiyns, Mycenae, &c., destroyed them, 
 and transplanted their inhabitants to Argos. The 
 introduction of so many new citizens was followed 
 by the abolition of royalty and of Doric institutions, 
 and by the establishment of a democracy, which 
 continued to be the form of government till later 
 times, when the city fell under the power of tyrants. 
 In the Peloponnesian war Argos sided with Athens 
 against Sparta. In b. c. 243 it joined the Achaean 
 League, and on the conquest of the latter by the 
 Romans, 146, it became a part of the Roman pro- 
 
 ARTADNE. ^^ 
 
 vinoe of Achaia. At an early time Argos was 
 distinguished by its cultivation of music and poetry 
 [Sacadas ; Telesilla] ; but at the time of the 
 intellectual greatness of Athens, literature and 
 science seem to have been entirely neglected at 
 Argos. It produced some great sculptors, of whom 
 Ageladas and Polycletus arc the most ce- 
 lebrated. 
 
 Argos AmphiloclucTim ("Apyos rh *A/x(piXoxi- 
 icoi'), the chief town of Amphilochia in Acarnania, 
 situated on the Ambracian gulf, and founded by 
 the Argive Amphilochus. 
 
 Argos Hippiuia. [Arpi.] 
 
 Argous Portus (Foiio Fct-raio), a town and 
 harbour in tlie island of Ilva [lUlba). 
 
 Argnra (^Apyovpa), a town in Pelasgiotia in 
 Thessaly, called Argissa by Homer (//. ii. 73U). 
 
 Argus {"Apyos). 1. Son of Zeus and Niobe, 
 3rd king of Argos, from whom Aigos derived its 
 name. ^2. Surnnmed Faiiojjtes, *' the alUseeing,*** 
 because tie had a hundred eyes, son of Agenor, 
 Arestor, Inachus, or Argus. Hera appointed him 
 guardian of the cow into which lo had been meta- 
 morphosed ; but Hermes, at the command of Zeus, 
 put Argus to death, either by stoning him, or by 
 cutting otf his head after sending him to sleep by 
 the sweet notes of his flute. Hera transplanted 
 his eyes to the tail of the peacock, her favourite 
 bird. ^3. The builder of the Argo, son of 
 Phrixus, Arestor, or Polybus, was sent by Aeetes, 
 his grandfatiier, after the death of Phrixus, to take 
 possession of his inheritance in Greece. On his 
 voyage thither he suffered shipwreck, was found 
 by Jason in the island of Aretias, and carried back 
 to Colchis. 
 
 Argyra (^Apyvpu), a town in Achaia near Pa- 
 trae, with a fountain of the same name. 
 
 Ajgyripa. [Arpl] 
 
 Aria ('Apeia, 'Apia.'. "Apeios, "Apios: the E. 
 pari of Khorassan^ and the W. and NW. part of 
 Afghanistan)^ the most important of the E, pro- 
 vinces of the ancient Persian Empire, was bounded 
 on the E. by the Paropamisadae, on the N. by 
 Margiana and Hyrcania, on the W. by Parthia, and 
 on the S. by the great desert of Carmania. It was 
 a vast plain, bordered on the N. and E. by moun- 
 tains, and on the W. and S. by sandy deserts ; and, 
 though forming a part of the great sandy table- 
 land, now called the Desert of Iran, it contained 
 several very fertile oases, especially in its N, part, 
 along the base of the Sariphi {Kohistan and Ha- 
 zarah) mountains, which was watered by the river 
 Ariua or -as (Heiirood), on which stood the later 
 capital Alexandria {Herat). The river is lost in 
 the sand. The lower course of the great river 
 Etymandrus (Helmund) also belonged to Aria, 
 and the lake into which it falls was called Aria 
 lacus (Ziirrah). From Aria was derived the 
 name under which all the E. provinces were in- 
 cluded. [Ariana.] 
 
 Aria lacus. [Aria.] 
 
 Ariabignes {'ApiaSiyvijs), son of Darius Hys- 
 taspis, one of the commanders of the fleet of 
 Xerxes, fell in the battle of Salamis, B. c. 480. 
 
 Ariadne ('Apiddvn), daughter of Minos and Pa- 
 fiiphae or Creta, fell in love with Theseus, when he 
 was sent by his father to convey the tribute of the 
 Athenians to Minotauru8,and gave him the clue of 
 thread by means of which he found his way out of 
 the Labyrinth, and which she herself had received 
 from Hephaestus. Theseus in return promised to 
 
"7B 
 
 ARIAEUS. 
 
 marry her, and she accordingly left Crete with him ; 
 but on their arrival in the island of Dia (Naxos), 
 she was killed by Artemis- This is the Homeric 
 account {Od. xi. 32*2) ; but the more common tra- 
 dition related that Theseus left Ariadne in Naxo3 
 alive, either because he was forced by Dionysus to 
 leave her, or because he was ashamed to bring a 
 foreign wife to Athens. Dionysus found her at 
 Naxos, made her his wife, and placed among the 
 stars the crown which he gave her at their mar- 
 riage. There are several circumstances in the 
 story of Ariadne which offered the happiest sub- 
 jects for works of art, and some of tlie finest ancient 
 "works, on gems as well as paintings, are still ex- 
 tant, of which Ariadne is the subject. 
 
 Ariaeus ('Apmror) or Aridaeus ('Api5a"os), the 
 friend of Cyrus, commanded the left wing of the 
 army at the battle of Cunaxa, b. C. 401. After 
 the death of Cyrus he purchased his pardon from 
 Artaxerxes by deserting the Greeks. 
 
 Ariamnes ('ApidjUi'Tjs), the name of two kings 
 of Cappadocia, one the father of ArJarathes I., and 
 the other the son and successor of Ariarathes II. 
 
 Axi&na {^ApiavT} : /?■««), derived from Aria, 
 from the specitic sense of which it must be carefully 
 distinguished, was the general name of the E. pro- 
 vinces of the ancient Persian Empire, and included 
 the portion of Asia bounded on the W. by an 
 imaginary line drawn from the Caspian to the 
 mouth of the Persian Gulf, on the S. by the Indian 
 Ocean, on the E. by the Indus, and on the N. by 
 the great chain of mountains called by the general 
 name of the Indian Caucasus, embracing the pro- 
 vinces of Parthia. Aria, the Paropamisadae, Ara- 
 chosia, Drangiana, Gedrosia, and Carmania (Kko- 
 rassan, J/ffJianistan, Beloochistan, and Kiriiian). 
 But the name was often extended to the country 
 as far W. as the margin of the Tigris-valley, so 
 aa to include Media and Persis, and also to 
 the provinces N. of the Indian Caucasus, namely 
 Bactria and Sogdiana (Bokluira). The knowledge 
 of the ancients respecting the greater part of this 
 region was confined to what was picked up in the 
 expeditions of Alexander and the wars of the 
 Greek kings of Syria, and what was learned from 
 merchant caravans. 
 
 Ariaratbes {''ApiapddTjs), the name of several 
 kings of Cappadocia,^!. Son of Ariamnes I., as- 
 sisted Ochus in the recovery of Egypt, B. c. 350. 
 Ariarathes was defeated by Perdiccas, and crucifi.'d, 
 322. Eumenes then obtained possession of Cappa- 
 docia.— 2. Son of Holophernes, and nephew of 
 AriaratbesI.,recoveredCappadociaafterthe death of 
 Eumenes, B c. 315. He was succeeded by Ariamnes 
 II.— 3. Son of Ariamnes II., and grandson of No, 2, 
 married Stratonlce, daughter of Antiochus II., king 
 ofSyria.— 4. Son of No. 3, reigned B.C. 220 — 162. 
 He married Antiochis, the daughter of Antiochus 
 HI., king of Syria, and assisted Antiochus in his 
 war against the Romans, After the defeat of An- 
 tiochus, Ariarathes sued for peace in 188, which 
 he obtained on favourable terms. In 183 — 179. he 
 assisted Eumenes in his war against Phurnaces.— 5. 
 Son of No. 4, previously called Mithridates, reigned 
 B.C. 163 — 130. He was surnanied PhJlopator, 
 and was distinguished by the excellence of his 
 character and his cultivation of philosophy and the , 
 liberal arts. He assisted the liomans in their war 
 against Ai'istonicus of Pergamus, and fell in this , 
 vi^ar, 13U.— 6. Son of No. 5, reigned B.C. 130 — | 
 96. He married Laodice, sister of Mithridates ' 
 
 ARIMI. 
 
 VI. 1 king of Pontus, and was put to death by 
 Mithridates by means of Gordius. On his death 
 the kingdom was seized by Nicomedes, king of 
 Bithynia, who married Laodice, the widow of the 
 late king. But Nicomedes was soon expelled by 
 Mithridates, who placed upon the throne,— 7. Son 
 of No. 6. He was, however, also murdered by 
 Mithridates in a short time, who now took posses- 
 sion of his kingdom. The Cappadocians rebelled 
 against Mithridates, and placed upon the throne,. 
 ^8. Second son of No. 6 ; but he was speedily 
 driven out of the kingdom by Mithridates, and 
 shortly afterwards died. Both Mithridates and 
 Nicomedes attempted to give a king to the Cap- 
 padocians ; but the Romans allowed the people ta 
 choose whom they pleased, and their choice fell upon 
 Ariobarzanes.^S. Son of Ariobarzanes IT.,reigned 
 B. c. 42 — 36. He was deposed and put to death by 
 Antony, who appointed Archelaus as his successor. 
 
 Ariaspae or Agriaspae (' Afjiao-Trai, * Ay pida-n-ai), 
 a people in the S. part of the Persian province of 
 Drangiana, on the very borders of Gedrosia, with 
 a capital city, Ariaspe CApida-ivq). In return for 
 the services which they rendered to the army of 
 Cyrus the Great, when he marched through the 
 desert of Carmania, they were honoured with th& 
 name of Euep^eVai, and were allowed by the Per- 
 sians to retain their independence, which was con- 
 firmed to them by Alexander as the reward of 
 similar services to himself. 
 
 Alicia (Ariclnus : Ai-iccia or iJtccza), an ancient 
 town of Latium at the foot of the Alban Mount, 
 on the Appian Way, 16 miles from Rome. It 
 was a member of the Latin confederacy, was sub- 
 dued by the Romans, with the other Latin towns, 
 in B.C. 338, and received the Roman franchise. 
 In its neighbourhood was the celebrated grove and 
 temple of Diana Aricina, on the borders of th& 
 Lacus Nemorensis (A'ismz). Diana was worshipped 
 here with barbarous customs : her priest, called rea? 
 nemorejisisy was always a run -away slave, who ob- 
 tained his office by killing his predecessor in single 
 combat. The priest was obliged to fight with any 
 slave who succeeded in breaking off a branch of a 
 certain tree in the sacred grove. 
 
 Ai-idaeus. [Ariaeus ; Arrhidaeuh.] 
 
 Arii, is the name applied to the inhabitants of 
 the province of Aria, but it is probably also a 
 firm of the generic name of the whole Persian 
 race, derived from the root ar, which means noble, 
 and which forms the first syllable of a great num- 
 ber of Persian names. [Comp. Artaei.] 
 
 Arimaspi ('Api/^acnroi), a people in the N. of 
 Scythia, of whom a fabulous account is given by 
 Herodotus (iv. 27). The germ of the fable is 
 perhaps to be recognised in the fact that the Ural 
 Mountains abound in gold. 
 
 Arimazes (Apifxd^ris) or Ariomazes {'ApLo- 
 /jd^Tis)^ a chief in Sogdiana, whose fortress waa 
 taken by Alexander in b. c. 328. In it Alexander 
 found Roxana, the daughter of the Bactrian chief,. 
 Oxy antes, whom he made his wife. 
 
 Arimi (''Api^uoi) and Arima (t^ "Apt^a sc. optj),. 
 the names of a mythical people, district, and range 
 of mountains in Asia Minor, which the old Greek 
 poets made the scene of the punishment of the 
 monster Typhoeus. Virgil (Aen. ix, 716) has- 
 misunderstood the flu *AplfMOts of Homer (//. ii. 
 783), and made Typhoeus lie beneath Inarime, an 
 island off the coast of Italy, namely, Pithecusa or 
 Aenaria {IscJtia). 
 
Ariminum (Ariminensis: Himini), a town in 
 Umbria on the coast at the mouth of the little 
 river Ariiiiinus (Murocchia). It was originally 
 inhabited by Umbrians and Pclasgiana, was after- 
 wards in the possession of the Senones, and was 
 colonised by the Romans in b. c. 268, from which 
 time it appears as a flourishing place. After 
 leaving Cisalpine Gaul, it was the first town which 
 a person arrived at in the N. E. of Italia proper. 
 
 Ariobaxzanes {'ApioSap^dmjs). I. Kings or 
 Sati'aps of Pontus., — 1. Betrayed by his son Mi- 
 thridatfis to the Persian king, about e. c. 400.^2. 
 Son of Mithridates I., reigned b. c. 363—337. He 
 revolted from Artaxerxes in 362, and may be re- 
 garded as the founder of the kingdom of Pontus. 
 —3. Son of Mithridates III., reigned 2C6— 240, 
 and was succeeded by Mithridates IV. — II. Kings 
 ofCappadocia. — 1. Sumamed Philoromaeus^ reigned 
 B. c. 93 — 63, and was elected king by the Cappado- 
 cians, under the direction of the Romans. He was 
 several times expelled from his kingdom by Mithri- 
 dates, but was finally restored by Pompey in 63, 
 shortly beforehisdeath. — 3. Surnamed Philopator, 
 succeeded his father in 63, The time of his death 
 is not known ; but it must have been before 51, in 
 which year his son was reigning. — 3. Surnamed 
 Eusebes and PUloromaeus, son of No. 2, whom he 
 succeeded about 51. He assisted Pompey against 
 Caesar in 43, but was nevertheless pardoned by 
 Caesar, who even enlarged his territories. He was 
 slain in 42 by Cassius, because he was plotting 
 against him in Asia. 
 
 Arioa f^Kpiwv). 1. Of Methymna in Lesbos, 
 an ancient Greek bard and a celebrated player on the 
 cithara, is called the inventor of the dithyrambic 
 poetry, and of the name dithyramb. He lived 
 about B. c. 625, and spent a great part of his life at 
 the court of Periander, tyrant of Corinth. Of his 
 life scarcely any thing is known beyond the beau- 
 tiful story of his escape from the sailors with whom 
 he sailed from Sicily to Corinth. On one occasion, 
 thus runs the story, Arion went to Sicily to take 
 part in some musical contest. He won the prize, 
 and, laden with presents, he embarked in a Co- 
 rinthian ship to return to his friend Periander. 
 The rude sailors coveted his treasures, and medi- 
 tated his murder. After trying in vain to save his 
 life, he at length obtained permission once more to 
 play on the cithara. In festal attire he placed him- 
 self in the prow of the ship and invoked the gods 
 in inspired strains, and then threw himself into the 
 sea. But many song-loving dolphins had assembled 
 round the vessel, and one of them now took the 
 bard on its back and carried him to Taenarus, 
 from whence be returned to Corinth in safety, and 
 related his adventure to Periander. Upon the 
 arrival of the Corinthian vessel Periander inquired 
 of the sailors after Arion, who replied that he had 
 remained behind at Tarentum ; but when Arion, 
 at the bidding of Periander, came forward, the 
 sailors owned their guilt, and were punished accord- 
 ing to their desert. In the time of Herodotus and 
 Pausanias there existed at Taenarus a brass monu- 
 ment, representing Arion riding on a dolphin. 
 Arion and his cithara (lyre) were placed among the 
 stars. A fragment of a hymn to Poseidon, ascribed 
 to Arion, is contained in Bergk's Poetae Lyrici 
 Graeci, p. 566^ &c.-*2. A fabulous horse, which 
 Poseidon begot by Demeter ; for, in order to escape 
 from the pursuit of Poseidon, the goddess had meta- 
 morphosed herself into a mare, and Poseidon de- 
 
 ARISTARCflUS. 
 
 79 
 
 ceived her by assuming the figure of a horse. There 
 were many other traditions respecting tlie origin of 
 this horse, but all make Poseidon its lather, though 
 its mother is different in the various legends. 
 
 Ariovistus, a German chief, wlio crossed the 
 Rhine at the request of the Sequani, when they 
 were hard pressed by the Aedui. He subdued the 
 Aedui, but appropriated to himself part of the terri- 
 tory of the Sequani, and threatened lo take still 
 more. The Sequani now xmited with the Aedui 
 in imploring the help of Caesar, who defeated Ario- 
 vistus about 50 miles from the Rhine, b. c. 58. 
 Ariovistus escaped across the river in a small boat. 
 
 Aristaen.etus{'A/)i(rTaiVeTos),the reputed author 
 of 2 books of Love-Letters, taken almost en- 
 tirely from Plato, Lucian, Philostratus, and Plu- 
 tarch. Of the author nothing is known. The 
 best edition is by Boissonade, Paris, 1822. 
 
 Aristaenus {^Apiaraij/os), of Megalopolis, some- 
 times called Aristaeneius, was frequently strategus 
 or general of the Achaean league from b, c. 198 to 
 185. He was the political opponent of Philo- 
 poemen, and a friend of the Romans. 
 
 Aristaeus (^Apto-ToTos), a divinity worshipped 
 in various parts of Greece, was once a mortal, who 
 became a god through the benefits he had conferred 
 upon mankind. The different accounts about liim 
 seem to have arisen in different places and inde- 
 pendently of one another, so that they referred to 
 several distinct beings, who were subsequently 
 identified and united into one. He is described 
 either as a son of Uranus and Ge, or, according to 
 a more general tradition, as the son of Apollo and 
 Cyrene. His mother Cyrene had been carried off 
 by Apollo from mount Pelion to Libya, where she 
 gave birth to Aristaeus. Aristaeus subsequently 
 went to Thebes in Boeotia ; but after the unfortu- 
 nate death of his son Actaeon, he left Thebes and 
 visited almost all the Greek colonies on the coasts 
 of the Mediterranean. Finally he went to Thracey 
 and after dwelling for some time near mount Hae- 
 mus, where he founded the town of Aristaeon, he 
 disappeared. Aristaeus is one of the most benefi- 
 cent divinities in ancient mythology : he was wor- 
 shipped as the protector of flocks and shepherds, of 
 vine and olive plantations ; he taught men to keep 
 bees, and averted from the fields the burning heat 
 of the sun and other causes of destruction. 
 
 Aristagoras CApta-raySpas), of Miletus, brother- 
 in-law of Histiaeus, was left by the latter during 
 his stay at the Persian court, in charge of the go- 
 vernment of Miletus. Having failed in an attempt 
 upon Naxos (b. c. 501), which he had promised to 
 subdue for the Persians, and fearing the conse- 
 quences of his failure, he induced the Ionian cities 
 to revolt from Persia. He applied for assistance to 
 the Spartans and Athenians : the former refused, 
 but the latter sent him 20 ships and some troops. 
 In 499 his army captured and burnt Sardis, but 
 was finally chased back to the coast. The Athe- 
 nians now departed ; the Persians conquered most 
 of the Ionian cities ; and Aristagoras in despair 
 fled to Thrace where he was slain by the Edo- 
 nians in 497. 
 
 Aristander (^A/jIo-TorSpos), the most celebrated 
 soothsayer of Alexander the Great, wrote a work 
 on prodigies. 
 
 Aristarclius ('Apla-Tapxos). 1. An Athenian, 
 one of the leaders in the revolution of the " Four 
 Hundred," b. c. 411. He was afterwards put to 
 death by the Athenians, not later than 406,^2. 
 
^-^0- ARISTEAS. 
 
 A Liicedaemonian, succeeded Cleandcr as harmost 
 of Byzantium in 400, and in various ways iil 
 treated the Cyrean Greeks, who had recently re- 
 turned from Asia. — 3. Of Tegea, a tragic poet 
 at Athens, contemporary with Euripides, flourished 
 about B. c. 454, and wrote 70 tragedies. ^4. Of 
 Samos, an eminent mathematician and astronomer 
 at Ale.tandria, flourished between B.C. 280 and 264. 
 He employed himself in the determination of some 
 of the most important elements of astronomy ; but 
 none of his works remain, except a treatise on the 
 magnitudes and distances of the sun and moon 
 (ir€p\ /j.eyedci>v koi a.Troo'TTjiJ.dTcavTJKiou Kal (Te\T}V7]s). 
 Edited, by "VVallis, Oxon, 16B!i, and reprinted in 
 vol.iii. of his works. There is a French trans- 
 lation, and an edition of the text, Paris, 1810.^5. 
 Of Samothrace, the celebrated grammarian, flou- 
 rished B.C. 156. He was educated in the school of 
 Aristoplianes of Byzantium, at Alexandria, where 
 he himself founded a grammatical and critical 
 school. At an advanced age he left Alexandria, 
 and went to Cyprus, where he is said to have died 
 at the age of 7'2, of voluntary starvation, because 
 he was suffering from incurable dropsy. Aristar- 
 chus was the greatest critic of antiquity. His 
 labours were chiefly devoted to the Greek poets, 
 but more especially to the Homeric poems, of which 
 he published a recension, which has been the basis 
 cf the text from his time to the present day. The 
 great object of his critical labours was to restore 
 the genuine text of the Homeric poems, and to 
 clear it of all later interpolations and corruptions. 
 He marked those verses which he thought spurious 
 with an obelos, and those which he considered as 
 particularly beautiful with an asterisk. He divided 
 the Iliad and Odyssey into 24 books each. He 
 did not confine himself to a recension of the text, 
 but also explained and interpreted the poems: he 
 opposed the allegorical interpretation which was 
 then beginning to find favour, and which at a later 
 time became very general. His grammatical prin- 
 ciples were attacked by many of his contemporaries : 
 the most eminent of his opponents was Crates of 
 Mall us. 
 
 Aristeas ('ApioTeas), of Proconnesus, an epic 
 •poet of whose life we have only fabulous accounts. 
 His date is quite uncertain : some place him in the 
 time of Croesus and Cynxs ; but other traditions 
 Eiake him earlier than Homer, or a contemporary 
 and teacher of Homer. The ancient writers re- 
 present him as a magician, who rose after his 
 ■death, and whose soul could leave and re-enter its 
 feody according to its pleasure. He was connected 
 ■with the worship of Apollo, which he was said to 
 have introduced at Metapontum. He is said to 
 have travelled through the countries N. and E. of 
 the Euxine, and to have visited the Issedones, 
 Arimaspae, Cimmerii, Hyperborei, and other my- 
 thical nations, and after his return to have written 
 an epic poem in 3 books, called The Ainsmaspta 
 (to. 'ApijuaffTrem). This work is frequently men- 
 tioned by the ancients, but it is impossible to say 
 ■who was the real author of it. 
 
 Aristeas or Aristaeus, an officer of Ptolemy 
 Philadelphus (b. c, 206 — 247), the reputed author 
 of a Greek work, giving an account of the manner 
 in which the translation of the Septuagint was 
 executed, but which is generally admitted by the 
 best critics to be spurious. Printed at Oxford, 
 Z692, 8vo. 
 
 Aristides ('AptoretSTjs). 1, An Athenian, son of 
 
 Lysimnchua, surnamed the "Just," was of an an- 
 cient and noble family. He was the political disciple 
 of Clisthenes, and partly on that account, partly from 
 personal character, opposed from the first to The- 
 mistocles. Aristides fought as the commander of his 
 tribe at the battle of Marathon, e. c. 490 ; and next 
 year, 409, he was archon. In 483 or 482 he suffered 
 ostracism, probably in consequence of the triumph 
 of the maritime and democratic policy of his rival. 
 He was still in exile in 480 at the battle of Salamis, 
 where he did good service by dislodging the enemj-", 
 with a band raised and armed by himself, from the 
 islet of Psyttaleia. He was recalled from banish- 
 ment after the battle, was appointed general in the 
 following year (479), and commanded the Athe- 
 niLtns at tlie battle of Plataea. In 477, when the 
 allies had become disgusted with the conduct of 
 Pausanias and the Spartans, he and his colleague 
 Cimon had the glory of obtaining for Athens the 
 command of the maritime confederacy: and to 
 Aristides was by general consent entrusted the 
 task of drawing up its laws and fixing its assess- 
 ments. This first tribute (tpopos) of 460 talents, 
 paid into a common treasury at Delos, bore his 
 name, and was regarded by the allies in after 
 times, as marking their Saturnian age. This is 
 his last recorded act. He died after 471, the year 
 of the ostracism of Themistocles, and very likely 
 in 460. He died so poor that he did not leave 
 enough to pay for his funeral : his daughters were 
 portioned by the state, and his son Lysimachus 
 received a grant of land and of money. — ■ 2. The 
 author of a work entitled Milesuica, whicli was 
 probably a romance, having Miletus for its scene. 
 It was written in prose, and was of a licentious 
 character. It was translated into Latin by L. 
 Cornelius Sisenna, a contemporary of Sulla, and 
 it seems to have become popular with the Romans, 
 Aristides is reckoned as the inventor of the Greek 
 romance, and the title of his work gave rise to the 
 term Milesian^ as applied to works of fiction. His 
 age and country are unknown, but the title of his 
 work is thought to favour the conjecture that he was 
 a native of Miletus. — 3. Of Thebes, a celebrated 
 Greek painter, flourished about b. c. 360 — 330. The 
 point in which he most excelled was in depicting the 
 feelings, expressions, and passions which may be ob- 
 served in common life. His pictures were so mucli 
 valued that long after his death Attains, king of Per- 
 gamus, oflTered 600,000 sesterces for one of them. ^ 
 4. P. Aelius Aristides, surnamed Theodorus, a 
 celebrated Greek rhetorician, was bom at Adriani 
 in Mysia, in a. d. 117. He studied under Herodea 
 Atticus at Athens, and subsequently travelled 
 through Egypt, Greece, and Italy. The fame of 
 his talents and acquirements was so great that 
 monuments were erected to his honour in several 
 towns which he had honoured with his presence. 
 Shortly before his return he was attacked by an 
 illness which lasted for 13 years, but this did not 
 prevent him from prosecuting his studies. He subse- 
 quently settled at Smyrna, and when this city was 
 nearly destroyed by an earthquake in 178, he used 
 his influence with the emperor M. Aurelius to in- 
 duce him to assist in rebuilding the town. The 
 Smyrnaeans showed their gratitude to Aristides 
 by offering him various honours and distinctions, 
 most of which he refused: he accepted only the 
 oflice of priest of Asclepius, which he held until 
 his death, about a. d. ISO. Tiie works of Aristides 
 which have come down to us, are 55 orations and 
 
ARISTION. 
 
 declamations, and 2 treatises on rhetorical sub- 
 jects of little value. His orations are mucli supe- 
 rior to those of the rhetoricians of his time. His 
 admirers compared him to Demosthenes, and even 
 Aristides did not think himself much inferior. 
 This vanity and self-sufficiency made him enemies 
 and opponents ; but the number of his admirers 
 was far greater, and several learned grammarians 
 wrote commentaries on his orations, some of which 
 are extant The best edition of Aristides is by 
 W. Dindorf, Lips. 1829. ^5. Quintilianus Aris- 
 tides, the author of a treatise in 3 books on 
 music, probably lived in the 1st century after 
 Christ. His work is perhaps the most valuable of 
 all the ancient musical treatises : it is printed in 
 the collection of Meibomius entitled Anliquae Mu- 
 sicae Auctores Septem^ Arast. 1652. 
 
 Aristion ('Apiurfwi/), a philosopher either of the 
 Epicurean or Peripatetic school, made himself ty- 
 rant of Athens through the influence of Mithridates. 
 He held out against Sulla in b. c. 87; and when 
 the city was taken by storm, he was put to death 
 by Sulla's orders. 
 
 Aristippus ('ApffTTiTTTros). 1. Son of Aritjides, 
 bom at Cyrene, and founder of the Cyrenaic school 
 of Philosophy, flourished about b. c. 370. The fame 
 of Socrates brought him to Athens, and he remained 
 with the latter almost up to the time of his execu- 
 tion, B. c. 399. Though a disciple of Socrates, he 
 wandered both in principle and practice very far 
 from the teaching and example of his great master. 
 He was luxurious in his mode of living: he in- 
 dulged in sensual gratifications and the society of 
 the notorious Lais ; and he took money for his 
 teaching (being the first of the disciples of Socrates 
 who did so). He passed part of his life at the 
 court of Dionysius, tyrant of Syracuse ; but he 
 appears at last to have returned to Cyrene, and 
 there to have spent his old age. The anecdotes 
 which are told of him, however, do not give us the 
 notion of a person who Wtas the mere slave of his 
 passions, but rather of one who took a pride in ex- 
 tracting enjojTuent from all circumstances of every 
 kind, and in controlUng adversity and prosperity 
 alike. They illustrate and confirm the two state- 
 ments of Horace {Ep. i. 1. lU), that to observe the 
 precepts of Aristippus is viihi res, non mc rebus 
 siifiju7t(jere, and (i. 17. 23) that, omjiis ArUtip- 
 pum decuit color ct status et res. Thus when 
 reproaclied for his love of bodily indulgences, he 
 answered, that there was no shame in enjoying 
 them, but that it would be disgraceful if he could 
 not at any time give them up. To Xenophon and 
 Plato be was very obnoxious, as we see from the 
 Memorahilia (ii. 1.) where he maintains an odious 
 discussion against Socrates in defence of voluptuous 
 enjoyment, and from the Phaedo, where his ab- 
 sence at the death of Socrates, though he was only 
 at Aegina, 200 stadia from Athens, is doubtless 
 mentioned as a reproach. He imparted his doc- 
 trine to his daughter Arete, by whom it was com- 
 municated to her son, the younger Aristippus. — 
 2. Two tyrants of Argos, in the time of Antigonus 
 Gonatas. See Aristomachus, Nos. 3 and 4. 
 
 Aiisto, T., a distinguished Roman jurist, lived 
 under the emperor Trajan, and was a friend of the 
 Younger Pliny. His works are occasionally men- 
 tioned in the Digest, but there is no direct extract 
 from any of them in that compilation. He wrote 
 notes on the LibH Posteriorum of Labeo, on 
 Cassius, whose pupil he had been, and on Sabinus. | 
 
 ARISTOCLES. 81 
 
 Aristo. [Ariston.] 
 Aristobiiltis (^ KpKrroSovXos)^ princes of Judaea. 
 
 1. Eldest son of Joannes Hyrcanus, assumed the 
 title of king of Judaea, on the death of his father 
 in B. c. 107. He put to death his brother Anti- 
 gonus, in order to secure his power, but died in 
 the following year, 106. —2. Younger son of 
 Alexander Jannaeus and Alexandra. After the 
 death of his mother in b. c. 70, there was a civil 
 war for some years between Aristobulus and his 
 brother Hyrcanus, for the possession of the crown. 
 At length in B.C. 63, Aristobulus was deprived of 
 the sovereignty by Porapey and carried away as a 
 prisoner to Rome. In 57, he escaped from his 
 confinement at Rome, with his son Antigonus, and, 
 returning to Judaea, renewed the war ; but he was 
 taken prisoner, and sent back to Rome by Gabinius, 
 In 49, he was released by Julius Caesar, who sent 
 him into Judaea, but he was poisoned on the way 
 by some of Pompey^'s party. —3. Grandson of No. 
 
 2, son of Alexander aud brother of Herod's wife 
 Mariamne. He was made high-priest by Herod, 
 when he was only 17 years old, but was afterwards 
 drowned at Jericho, by order of Herod, b. c. 35, 
 — 4. Son of Herod tlie Great by Mariamne, was 
 put to death in b. c. 6, with his brother Alexander, 
 by order of their father, whose suspicions had been 
 excited against them by their brother Antipater, 
 —5. Sumamed " the Younger," son of Aristobulus 
 and Berenice, and grandson of Herod the Great. 
 He was educated at Rome with his two brothers, 
 Agrippa I. and Herod the future king of Chalcia. 
 He died, as he had lived, in a private station.— 
 6. Son of Herod king of Chalcis, grandson of No, 
 4, and great-grandson of Herod the Great. In a. d. 
 ^5, Nero made him king of Armenia Minor, and 
 in 61 added to his dominions some portion of the 
 Greater Armenia which had been given to Tigranes. 
 He joined the Romans in the war against An- 
 tiochus, king of Commagene, in 73. 
 
 Aristobulus. 1. Of Cassandrea, served \mder 
 Alexander the Great in Asia, and wrote a history 
 of Alexander, which was one of the chief sources 
 used by Arrian in the composition of his work.— 
 2. An Alexandrine Jew, and a Peripatetic philo- 
 sopher, lived b. c. 170, under Ptolemy VI, Philo- 
 metor. He is said to have been the author of 
 commentaries upon the books of Moses, the object 
 of which was to prove that the Greek philosophy 
 was taken from the books of Moses ; but it is now 
 admitted that this work was written by a later 
 writer, whose object was to induce the Greeks to 
 pay respect to the Jewish literature. 
 
 Aristocles ('ApkttokAtjs). 1. Of Rhodes, a 
 Greek grammarian and rhetorician, a contemporary 
 of Strabo. ^2. Of Pergamus, a sophist and rhe- 
 torician, and a pupil of Herodes Atticus, lived 
 under Trajan and Hadrian. ■— 3. Of Messene, a 
 Peripatetic philosopher, probably lived about the 
 beginning of the 3rd century after Christ. He 
 wrote a work on philosophy, some fragments of 
 which are preserved by Eusebius. — 4. Sculptors. 
 There were two sculptors of this name: Aristocles 
 the elder, who is called both a Cydonian and a 
 Sicyonian, probably because he was born at Cy- 
 donia and practised his art in Sicyon ; and Aris- 
 tocles the younger, of Sicyon, grandson of the 
 former, son of Cleoetas, and brother of Canachus. 
 These artists founded a school of sculpture at 
 Sicyon, which sfecured an hereditary reputation, 
 and of which we have the heads for 7 genera- 
 
 a 
 
82 
 
 ARISTOCKATES. 
 
 tions, namely, Aristocles, Cleoetas, Aristocles and 
 Canachus, Synnoon, Ptolichus, Sostratus, and Pan- 
 tiaa. The elder Aristocles probably lived about 
 B.C. 600—568 ; the younfrer about 540—508. 
 
 Aristocrates {'ApL(noicpdTT}s). 1, Last king 
 of Arcadia, was the leader of the Arcadians in 
 the 2nd Messeniau war, when they assisted the 
 Messenians against the Spartans. Having been 
 bribed by the Spartans, he betrayed the Messe- 
 nians, and was in consequence stoned to death by 
 the Arcadians, about B.C. 668, who now abolished 
 the kingly office. — 2. An Athenian of wealth and 
 influence, son of Scellias, was one of the Athenian 
 generals at the battle of Arginusae, b. c. 406, and 
 on his return to Athens was brought to trial and 
 executed. 
 
 Aristodemus CApta-TSS-qfios). 1. A descendant 
 of Hercules, son of Ari stomach us, and father of 
 Eurysthenes and Procles. According to some tra- 
 ditions Aristodemus was killed at Naupactus by a 
 flash of lightning, just as he was setting out on his 
 expedition into Peloponnesus ; but a Lacedaemo- 
 nian tradition related, that Aristodemus himself 
 came to Sparta, was the first king of his race, and 
 died a natural death.— 2. A Messenian, one of 
 the chief heroes in the first Messenian war. As 
 the Delphic oracle had declared that the* preser- 
 vation of the Messenian state demanded that a 
 maiden of the house of the Aepytids should be 
 sacrificed, Aristodemus offered his own daughter. 
 In order to save her life, her lover declared that 
 she was with child by him, but Aristodemus, en- 
 raged at this assertion, murdered his daughter and 
 opened her body to refute the calumny. Aristo- 
 demus was afterwards elected king in place of 
 Euphaes, who had fallen in battle against the 
 Spartans. He continued the war against the Spar- 
 tans, till at length, finding further resistance hope- 
 less, he put an end to his life on the tomb of his 
 daughter, about b. c. 723. -^3. Tyrant of Cumae in 
 Campania, at whose court TarquiniusSuperbus died, 
 B.C. 496.-4. One of the 300 Spartans at Ther- 
 mopylae (b. c. 480), was not present at the battle 
 in which his comrades fell, either in consequence of 
 sickness, or because he had been sent on an errand 
 from the camp. The Spartans punished him with 
 Atimia, or civil degradation. Stung with this 
 treatment he met his death at Plataea in the follow- 
 ing year (479), after performing the wildest feats 
 of valour. -^S. A tragic actor of Athens in the 
 time of Demosthenes, took a prominent part in the 
 political afltairs of his time, and advocated peace 
 with Macedonia, He was employed by the Athe- 
 nians in their negotiations with Philip, with whom 
 he was a great favourite. ^6. Of Miletus, a friend 
 and flatterer of Antigonus, king of Asia, who sent 
 him into Greece in B.C. 315, in order to promote 
 his interests there. —7. There were many literary 
 persons of this name referred to by the ancient 
 grammarians, whom it is difficult to distinguish 
 from one another. Two were natives of Nysa in 
 Caria, both grammarians, one a teacher of Pompey, 
 and the other of Strabo. There was also an Aris- 
 todemus of Elis, and another of Thebes, who are 
 quoted as writers. 
 
 Aristogiton ('Apio-ToyeiTcor). 1. The conspi- 
 rator against the sons of Pisistratus. See Har- 
 MODiUS. — 2. An Athenian orator and adversary 
 of Demosthenes, Hyperides, and Dinarchus. He 
 was often accused hy Demosthenes and others, and 
 defended himself in a number of orations which 
 
 AKlbTUN. 
 
 are lost. Among the extant speeches of Demo» 
 sthenes there are 2 against Aristogiton, and among 
 those of Dinarclius there is one. 
 
 Aristomaclie {'ApiaTOfj.dxT})i daughter of Hip- 
 parinus of Syracuse, sister of Dion, and wife of the 
 elder Dionysius, who mai'ried her and Doris of 
 Lncri on the same day. She afterwards perished 
 with her daughter Arete. 
 
 Aristomaclius ['Api<rT6txaxos). 1. Son of Talaus 
 and brother of Adrastus. ^2. Son of Cleodemus 
 or Cleodaeus, grandson of Hyllus, great-grandson 
 of Hercules, and fatlier of Teraenus, Cresphontes, 
 and Aristodemus. He fell in battle when he in- 
 vaded Peloponnesus ; but his three sons were more 
 successful and conquered Peloponnesus. —3. Ty- 
 rant of Argoa, under the patronage of Antigonus 
 Gonatas, was assassinated, and succeeded by Aris- 
 tippus n. — 4. Tyrant of Ai'gos, succeeded Aris- 
 tippns IL : he resigned his power upon the death 
 of Demetrius in b. c. 229, and induced Argos to 
 join the Achaean league. He afterwards deserted 
 the Achaeans, and again assumed the tyranny of 
 Argos ; but the city having been taken by Anti- 
 gonus Doson, Aristomachus fell into the hands of 
 the Achaeans, and was b}' them put to death. 
 
 Aristomenea CApi<Troii4vT}s). 1. The Messe- 
 nian, the hero of the 2nd war with Sparta, belongs 
 more to legend than to history. He was a native 
 of Andania, and was sprung from the royal line of 
 Aepytus. Tired of the yoke of Sparta, he began 
 the war in B. c. 685, 39 years after the end of 
 the 1st war. Soon after its commencement he so 
 distinguished himself by his valour, that he was 
 offered the throne, but refused it, and received the 
 office of supreme commander. After tte defeat of 
 the Messenians in the 3rd year of the war, through, 
 the treachei-y of Aristocrates, the Arcadian leader, 
 Aristomenes retreated to the mountain fortress of 
 Ira, and there maintained the war for 11 years, 
 constantly ravaging the land of Laconia. In 
 one of his incursions, however, the Spartans 
 ovei'powered him with superior numbers, and car- 
 rying him with 50 of his comrades to Sparta, 
 cast them into the pit (KeaSas) where condemned 
 criminals were thrown. The rest perislied ; not 
 so Aristomenes, the favourite of the gods ; for 
 legends told how an eagle bore him up on its wings 
 as he fell, and a fox guided him on the 3rd day 
 from the cavern. But having incurred the anger 
 of the Twin Brothers, his country was destined to 
 ruin. Tiie city of Ira, which he bad so long suc- 
 cessfully defended, fell into the hands of the Spar- 
 tans ; Aristomenes, after performing prodigies of 
 valour, was obliged to leave his countr}', which. 
 was again compelled to submit to the Spartans, B. c. 
 668. He afterwards settled at lalysus in Rhodes, 
 where he died. Damagetus, king of lalysus, had 
 been enjoined by the Delphic oracle " to marry the 
 daughter of the best of the Greeks," and he there- 
 fore took to wife the daughter of Aristomenes, who 
 accompanied him to Rhodes. The Rhodians ho- 
 noured Aristomenes as a hero, and from him were 
 descended the illustrious family of the Diagoridae. 
 — 2. An Acamanian, who governed Egypt with 
 justice and wisdom during the minority of Ptolemy 
 V. Epiphanes, but was put to death by Ptolemy in 
 192. ^3. A comic poet of Athens, flourished dur- 
 ing the Peloponnesian war, 
 
 Aristou {^Aplcrcov). 1. Of Chios, a Stoic phi- 
 losopher, and a disciple of Zeno, flourished about 
 B.C. 260. Though he professed himself a Stoic, 
 
ARISTONAUTAE. 
 
 yet he differed from Zeno in several points, and 
 l;ecame the founder of a small school. He is said 
 to have died of a coup de soleil. ^ 2. A Peripatetic 
 philosopher of Julis in the island of Ceos, succeeded 
 Lycon aa head of the Peripatetic school, about b. c. 
 230. He wrote several philosophical works which 
 are lost. ^3. Of Alexandria, a Peripatetic philo- 
 fiopher and a contemporary of Strabo, wrote a work 
 on the Nile, 
 
 Aristonautae {^ Kpi(Trovavrai\ a tovra. in Achaia, 
 the harbour of Pallene. 
 
 Aristonicus {^hpi(Tr6uiKos), 1. A natural son 
 of Eumenes II. of Pergamus. Upon the death of 
 his brother Attains III., B.C. 133, who left his 
 kingdom to the Romans, Aristonicus laid claim to 
 the crown. At first he met with considerable suc- 
 cess. He defeated in 131 the consul P. Licinius 
 Crassus ; but in 130 he was defeated and taken pri- 
 soner by M. Perpema, was carried to Rome by 
 M'. Aquillius in 1 29, and was there put to death. 
 — 3. An Alexandrine grammarian, a contemporary 
 of Strabo, and the author of several works, most of 
 which related to the Homeric poems. 
 
 Aristouymus ('ApiffT&JwjUos), a comic poet and 
 contemporary of Aristophanes and Amipsias. 
 
 Aristophanes {""Apiarocpdirfis). 1. The celebrated 
 comic poet, was born about B. c. 444 and probably 
 at Athena. His father Philippus had possessions in 
 Aegina, and may originally have come from that 
 island,whence a question arose whether Aristophanes 
 was a genuine Athenian citizen : his enemy Cleon 
 brought against him more than one accusation to 
 deprive him of his civic rights (lei'Ias ypacpai), but 
 without success. He had three sons, Philippus, 
 Araros, and Nicostratus, but of his private history 
 we know nothing. He probably died about b. c. 
 380. The comedies of Aristophanes are of the 
 highest historical interest, containing as they do an 
 admirable series of caricatures on the leading men 
 of the day, and a contemporary commentary on the 
 evils existing at Athens. Indeed, the caricature is 
 the only feature in modem social life which at all 
 resembles them. Aristophanes was a hold and 
 often a wise patriot. He had the strongest affection 
 for Athens, and longed to see her restored to the 
 state in which she was flourishing in the previous 
 generation, and almost in his own childhood, before 
 Pericles became the head of the government, and 
 when the age of Miltiades and Axiatides had but 
 just passed away. The first great evil of his own 
 time against which he inveighs, is the Peloponne- 
 sian war, which he regards aa the work of Pericles. 
 To this fatal war, among a host of evils, he ascribes 
 the influence of demagogues like Cleon at Athens. 
 Another great object of his indignation was the re- 
 cently adopted system of education which had been 
 introduced by the Sophists, acting on the specula- 
 tive and inquiring turn given to the Athenian 
 mind by the Ionian and Eleatic philosophers, and 
 the extraordinary intellectual development of the 
 age following the Persian war. The new theories 
 introduced by the Sophists threatened to overthrow 
 the foundations of morality, by making persuasion 
 and not truth the object of man in his intercourse 
 with his fellows, and to substitute a universal 
 scepticism for the religious creed of the people. 
 The worst effects of such a system were seen in 
 Alcibiades, who combined all the elements which 
 Aristophanes most disliked, heading the war party 
 in politics, and protecting the sophistical school in 
 philosophy and also in literature. Of this latter 
 
 ARISTOPHANES. 
 
 83 
 
 school — the literary and poetical Sophists — Euri- 
 pides was the chief, whose works are full of that 
 fi€T€o}poao(pia which contrasts so offensively with 
 the moral dignity of Aeschylus and Sophocles, and 
 for which Aristophanes introduces him as soaring 
 in the air to write his tragedies. Another feature 
 of the times was the excessive love for litigation at 
 Athens, the consequent importance of the dicasts, 
 and disgraceful abuse of their power ; all of which 
 enormities are made by Aristophanes objects of 
 continual attack. But though he saw what were 
 the evils of his time, he had not wisdom to find a 
 remedy for them, except the hopeless and unde- 
 sirable one of a movement backwards ; and tliere- 
 fore, though we allow him to have been honest and 
 bold, we must deny him the epiihet of great. The 
 following is a list of his extant comedies, with the 
 year in which they were performed: — 425. Achar- 
 nians. Produced in the name of Callistratus. First 
 prize. — 424. 'iTrirers, Knights or Horsemen. The 
 first play produced in the name of Aristophanes 
 himself. First prize; second Cratinus. — 423. 
 Clouds. First prize, Cratinus ; second, Amipsias. 
 — 422. Wasps. Second prize. — Clouds (second 
 edition), failed in obtaining a prize. Some writers 
 place this b. g. 411, and the whole subject is very 
 uncertain. — 419. Peace. Second prize; Eupolis 
 first. — Birds. Second prize ; Amipsias, first ; 
 Phrynichus, third, — 411. Lysistrata. — TJiesmo- 
 plioriazusae. During the Oligarchy. — 408. First 
 Fluius. — 405, Frogs. First prize; Phrynichus, 
 second ; Plato, third. Death of Sophocles. — 392. 
 Ecclesiazusae. — 388, Second edition of the Plutus. 
 — The last two comedies of Aristophanes were the 
 Aeolosieon and Cocalus^ produced about B. c. 387 
 (date of the peace of Antalcidas) by Araros, one of 
 his sons. — Suidas tells us, that Aristophanes was 
 the author, in all, of 54 plays. As a poet Aristo- 
 phanes possessed merits of the highest order. His 
 works contain snatches of lyric poetry which are 
 quite noble, and some of his chorusses, particularly 
 one in the Knights, in which the horses are repre- 
 sented as rowing triremes in an expedition against 
 Corinth, are written with a spirit and humour un- 
 rivalled in Greek, and are not very dissimilar to 
 English ballads. He was a complete master of the 
 Attic dialect, and in his hands the perfection of 
 that glorious language is wonderfully shown. No 
 flights are too bold for the range of his fancy: 
 animals of every kind are pressed into his service ; 
 frogs chaunt chorusses, a dog is tried for stealing 
 a cheese, and an iambic verse is composed of the 
 grunts of a pig. — Editions. The best of the col- 
 lective plays are by Invemizzi, completed by 
 Beck and Dindorf, 13 vols. Lips. 1794—1826, 
 and by Bekker, 6 vols. 8vo-, London, 1829.^ 
 2. Of Byzantium, son of Apelles, and one of the 
 most eminent Greek grammarians at Alexandria. 
 He was a pupil of Zenodotus and Eratosthenes, 
 and teacher of the celebrated Aristarchus, He 
 lived about b. c. 264, in the reign of Ptolemy II. 
 and Ptolemy III., and had the supreme manage- 
 ment of the library at Alexandria, Aristophanes 
 was the first who introduced the use of accents in 
 the Greek language. He devoted himself chiefly 
 to the criticism and interpretation of the Greek 
 poets, and more especially of Homer, of whose 
 works he made anewand critical edition (5i(if)0wcris). 
 The philosophers Plato and Aristotle likewise en- 
 gaged his attention, and of the former, as of several 
 of the poets, he made new and critical editions. 
 
 o 2 
 
84 
 
 ARISTOPHON. 
 
 All we possess of his numerous works consists of 
 fragments scattered through the Scholia on the 
 poets, some arguraenta to the plaj^s of the tragic 
 poets and of Aristophanes, and a part of his Ae|Eis-, 
 •which is printed in Boissonade's edition of He- 
 rodian's Partitiofies^ London, 1819, pp. 283 — 289. 
 
 Ariatophon ('Apiordf &)»/). 1, Of the deraus of 
 Azenia in Attica, one of the moat distinguished 
 Athenian orators about the close of the Peloponne- 
 sian war. The number of laws which he proposed 
 may be inferred from hisownstatement,as preserved 
 by Aeschines, that he was accused 75 times of 
 having made illegal proposals, but that he had al- 
 ways come off victorious. In B. c. 354 he accused 
 Iphicrates and Timotheus, and in the same year 
 he came forward in the assembly to defend the law 
 of Leptines. against Demosthenes, The latter 
 treats him with great respect, and reckons him 
 among the most eloquent orators. ^ 2. Of the de- 
 mus of Colyttus, a contemporary of Demosthenes, 
 and an orator of great distinction and influence. 
 It was this Aristophon whom Aeschines served as 
 a clerk, and in whose service he was trained for 
 his public career. [Aeschines.] ^3. A comic 
 poet of the middle comedy. — 4. A painter of 
 some distinction, son and pupil of Aglaophon, and 
 brother of Polygnotus. 
 
 Aristoteles (^ApttXTOTeXrjs)^ the philosopher, was 
 born at Stagira, a town in Chalcidice in Macedonia, 
 B. 0. 384. His father, Nicomachus, was physician 
 in ordinary to Amyntas II., king of Macedonia, 
 and the author of several treatises on subjects 
 connected with natural science : his mother, 
 Phaestis (or Phaestias), was descended from a 
 Chalcidian family. The studies and occupation of 
 his father account for the early inclination ma- 
 nifested by Aristotle for the investigation of nature, 
 an inclination which is perceived throughout his 
 whole life. He lost his father before he had at- 
 tained his 17th year, and he was entrusted to the 
 guardianship of one Proxenus of Atameus in My- 
 sia, who was settled in Stagira. In 367, he went to 
 Athens to pursue his studies, and there became a 
 pupil of Piato upon the return of the latter from 
 Sicily about 365. Plato soon distinguished him 
 above all his other disciples. He named him the 
 " intellect of his school,"" and his house, the house 
 of the "reader." Aristotle lived at Athens for 20 
 years, till 347- During the whole of this period 
 the good understanding which subsisted between 
 teacher and scholar continued, with some trifling 
 exceptions, undisturbed ; for the stories of the dis- 
 respect and ingratitude of the latter towards the 
 former are nothing but calumnies invented by his 
 enemies. During the last 10 years of his first re- 
 sidence at Athens, Aristotle gave instruction in 
 rhetoric, and distinguished himself by his opposition 
 to Isocrates. It was at this time that he published 
 his first rhetorical writings. Upon the death of Plato 
 (347) Aristotle left Athens, perhaps he was of- 
 fended by Plato having appointed Speusippus as 
 his successor in the Academy. He Brst repaired 
 to his friend Hermias at Atanieus, where he mar- 
 ried Pythias, the adoptive daughter of the prince. 
 On the death of Hermias, who was killed by the 
 Persians (344), Aristotle fled from Atameus to 
 Mytilene. Two years afterwards (342) he ac- 
 cepted an invitation from Philip of Macedonia, to 
 undertake the instruction of his son Alexander, 
 then 13 years of age. Here Aristotle was treated 
 with the most marked respect. His native city, 
 
 ARISTOTELES. 
 
 Stagira, which had been destroyed by Philips was 
 rebuilt at his request, and Philip caused a gj-mna'- 
 sium (called Nymphaeum) to be built there in a 
 pleasant grove expressly for Aristotle and his 
 pupils. Several of the j'ouths of the Macedonian 
 nobles were educated by Aristotle along with 
 Alexander. Aristotle spent 7 years in Macedonia ; 
 but Alexander enjoyed his instruction without in- 
 terruption for only 4, Still with such a pupil 
 even this short period was sufficient for a teacher 
 like Aristotle to fulfil the highest purposes of 
 education, and to create in his pupil that sense of 
 the noble and great, which distinguishes Alexander 
 from all those conquerors who have only swept like 
 a hurricane through the world. On Alexander's 
 accession to the throne in 335, Aristotle returned 
 to Athens. Here he found his friend Xenocra- 
 tes president of the Academy. He himself had 
 the Lyceum, a gynmasium sacred to Apollo Ly- 
 ceus, assigned to him by the state. He soon 
 assembled round him a large number of dis- 
 tinguished scholars, to whom he delivered lectures 
 on philosophy in the shady walks {Trep'nraroi) 
 which surrounded the Lyceum, while walking up 
 and down (irepiTraTw*'), and not sitting, whicli was 
 the general practice of the philosophers. From one 
 or other of these circumstances the name Peripate- 
 tic is derived, which was afterwards given to his 
 school. He gave two different courses of lectiu:es 
 every day. Those which he delivered in the morn- 
 ing (^kuiQivos Trepi-jraTos) to a nan'ower circle oF 
 chosen (esoteric) hearers, and which were called 
 acroamatic or acroaiic^ embraced subjects connected 
 with the more abstruse philosophy (theology), 
 physics, and dialectics. Those which he delivered 
 in the afternoon (Z^iKivos TrepiTraToy) and intended 
 for a more promiscuous circle (which accordingly 
 he called exoteric), extended to rhetoric, sophistics, 
 and politics. He appears to have taught not so- 
 much in the way of conversation, as in regulaj; 
 lectures. His school soon became the most cele- 
 brated at Athens, and he continued to preside over 
 it for 13 years (335 — 323). During this time he 
 also composed the greater part of his works. Ir 
 these labours he was assisted by the truly kiiigly 
 liberality of his former pupil, who not only pre- 
 sented him with 800 talents, but also caused large 
 collections of natural curiosities to be made for him, 
 to which posterity is indebted for one of his most 
 excellent works, the History of Animals. Mean- 
 while various causes contributed to throw a cloud 
 over the latter years of the philosopher's life. In 
 the first place, he felt deeply the death of his wife 
 Pythias, who left behind her a daughter of the 
 same name : he lived subsequently with a friend 
 of his wife's, the slave Herpyllis, who bore him a 
 son, Nicomachus. But a source of still greater 
 grief was an interniption of the friendly relation in 
 which he had hitherto stood to his royal pupiL 
 This was occasioned by the conduct of Callis- 
 THBNES, the nephew and pupil of Aristotle, wha 
 had vehemently and injudiciously opposed the 
 changes in the conduct and policy of Alexander. 
 Still Alexander refrained from any expression of 
 hostility towards his former instructor, although 
 their former cordial connection no longer subsisted 
 undisturbed. The story that Aristotle had a share 
 in poisoning the king, is a fabrication of a later 
 age ; and moreover it is certain that Alexander 
 died a natural death. After the death of Alex- 
 ander (323) Aristotle was looked upon with suspi- 
 
ARISTOTELES. 
 
 clon at Athens as a friend of Macedonia ; but as 
 it was not easy to bring any political accusation 
 against him, be was accused of impiety (ao-e§eias) 
 by the hierophant Eun'medon. He withdrew 
 from Athens before his trial, and escaped in the 
 beginning of 322 to Chalcis in Euboea, where he 
 died in the course of the same year, in the 63rd 
 year of his age, of a chronic disease of tlie stomach. 
 His body was transported to his native city Sta- 
 ^ira, and his memory was honoured there, like that 
 of a hero, by yearly festivals. He bequeathed to 
 Theophitistus his well-stored library and the ori- 
 ginals of his writings. In person Aristotle was 
 ^hort and of slender make, with small eyes, and a 
 lisp in his pronunciation, using L for Tt^ and with 
 a sort of sarcastic expression in his countenance- 
 He exhibited remarkable attention to external ap- 
 pearance, and bestowed much care on his dress 
 and person. He is described as having been of 
 wcalc health, which, considering the astonishing 
 extent of his studies, shows all the more the energy 
 of his mind. — The numerous works of Aristotle 
 may be divided into the following classes according 
 to the subjects of which they treat : we only men- 
 tion the most important in each class. I. Dia. 
 XECTics AND LoGic. — The extant logical "writings 
 are comprehended as a whole under the title Orga- 
 non {"Opyavov, i. e. instrument of science). They 
 are occupied with the investigation of the method 
 by wliich man arrives at knowledge. An insight 
 into the nature and formation of conclusions and of 
 proof by means of conclusions, is the common aim 
 and centre of all the separate 6 works composing 
 the Oi'ganon : these separate works are, 1. Kott;- 
 yoplai^ Praedicammla^ in which Aristotle treats of 
 the (10) comprehensive generic ideas, under which 
 all the attributes of things may be subordinated as 
 species, 2. Uepl kp/xTjueias^ De Interprctaiione^ 
 concerning the expression of thought by means of 
 speech, 3, 4. *Ava\vTiKa irporepa and ocTTepct, 
 Analyiica, each in 2 books, on the theory of con- 
 clusions, so called from the resolution of the con- 
 clusion into its fundamental component parts. 5. 
 ToTTiKo, De Locis, iu 8 books, of the general points 
 of view (tcJttoi), from which conclusions may be 
 drawn. 6. Ilepl (roipicrTiKwv ixiyx'^v^ concerning 
 the fallacies which only apparently prove some- 
 thing. The best edition of the Organon is by 
 Waitz, Lips. 1844. — II. Theoretical Philo- 
 SOPHV, consisting of Mciaph/sics, Mai/icmalics^ and 
 flimsies, on all of which Aristotle wrote works. 1. 
 The Metaphysics, \n 14 books(Tc»J;' ^era to (pvaiica)^ 
 originally consisted of distinct treatises, independent 
 of one another, and were put together as one work 
 after Aristotle's death. The title also is of late 
 origin, and was given to the work from its being 
 placed c^er (fiera) the Physics (to (pvaiKcL). The 
 best edition is by Brandis, Berol. 1823. — 2. In 
 Mathematics we have 2 treatises by Aristotle : (1.) 
 Tiepl h.T6y.u}U ypaixfj-cau, i. e. concerning indivisible 
 lines ; 2. ^IrixaviKa ■trpoSKrj^j.ara, Mechanical Pro- 
 blems. — 3. In Physics, we have, — (1). Physics 
 lipvaucT} aKpoaffis, called also by others Trept apx^*'), 
 in 8 books. In these Aristotle develops the general 
 principles of natural science. (Cosmology.) (2.) 
 Cmcerning the Heaven {trepX ovpauov), in 4 books. 
 (3.) On Production and Destmction (Trepl yeveVewr 
 Kttl (pdopas, de Generatione ei Corruptione), in 2 
 books, develop the general laws of production and 
 destruction. (4.) On Meteorology (fj-^reupoKoyiKti, 
 deMeteoTzs), in 4 books. (5.) On ilie Universe (-rrepl 
 
 ARISTOTELES. 
 
 85 
 
 k6(tij.ou, de Mimdo), a letter to Alexander, treats 
 the subject of the last 2 works in a popular tone 
 and a rhetorical style altogether foreign to Aris- 
 totle. The whole is probably a translation of a 
 work with the same title by Appuleius. (6.) 77ie 
 History of Animals {irepX ^uwv iffropia), in 9 books, 
 treats of all the peculiarities of this division of the 
 natural kingdom, according to genera, classes, and 
 species ; especially giving all the characteristics of 
 each animal according to its external and internal vi- 
 tal functions ; according to the manner of its copula- 
 tion, its mode of life, and its character. The best 
 edition is by Schneider, Lips. 1811, Theobserva- 
 tions in this work are the triumph of ancient saga- 
 city, and have been confirmed by the results of the 
 most recent investigations. (Cuvier.) (7.) On the 
 parts of Animals (Trepl ^utav i-Lopioiv), in 4 books, 
 in which Aristotle, after describing the phaenomena 
 in each species, develops the causes of these phaeno- 
 mena by means of the idea to be formed of the 
 purpose which is manifested in the formation of the 
 animal. (0.) On the Gejieration of Animals (irepl 
 ^oiuiv y€v4crews), in 5 books, treats of the generation 
 of animals and the organs of generation. (9.) De 
 Ijicessu Animalium (irepl (uiwv Tropeias). (10.) 
 Three hooks on the Soul (Trepl -^^ivxfis), Aristotle 
 defines the soul to be " the internal formative prin- 
 ciple of a body which may be perceived by the 
 senses, and is capable of life." Best edition by 
 Trendelenburg, Jenae, 1C33. Several anatomical 
 works of Aristotle have been lost. He was the first 
 person who in any especial manner advocated ana- 
 tomical investigations, and showed the necessity of 
 them for the study of the natural sciences. He fre- 
 quently refers to investigations of his own on the sub- 
 ject. — III. PiiACTicAL Philosophy or Politics. 
 — All that falls within the sphere of practical philo- 
 sophy is comprehended in three principal works : 
 the Ethics, the Politics, and the Oeconomics. 1. The 
 Nicomachean Ethics ('H^iko; l^iicofxax^io.), in 10 
 books. Aristotle here begins with the highest and 
 most universal end of life, for the individual as well 
 as for the community in the state. This is hap- 
 piness (evoatnovla') ; and its conditions are, on the 
 one hand, perfect virtue exhibiting itself in the 
 actor, and on the other hand, corresponding bodily 
 advantages and favourable external circumstances. 
 Virtue is the readiness to act constantly and con- 
 sciously according to the laws of the rational nature 
 of man {opOhs \6yos). The nature of virtue shows 
 itself in its appearing as the medium between two 
 extremes. In accordance with this, the several 
 virtues are enumerated and characterized. Best 
 editions by Zell, Heidelb. 1820; Corais, Paris, 
 1822 ; Cardwell, Oxon. 1828 ; Michelet, Berol. 
 1828,-2. 77^6 Eudemean Ethics (*H0iKa Eu5^'- 
 /ieta), in 7 books, of which only books i. ii.iii. and 
 vii. are independent, while the remaining books iv, 
 V. and vi. agree word for word with books v. vi, and 
 vii. of the Nicomachean Ethics. This ethical work 
 is perhaps a recension of Aristotle's lectures, edited 
 by Euderaus. — 3. *H0itta Me7a\a, in 2books. — 4. 
 Politics (UoKiTtKa), in 8 books. The Ethics con- 
 duct us to the Politics. The connection between 
 the two works is so close, that in the Ethics by the 
 word vffrepov reference is made by Aristotle to the 
 Politics, and in the latter by TrpSrepov to the 
 Ethics. The Politics show how happiness is to be 
 attained for tlie human community in tJie state ; for 
 the object of the state is not merely the external 
 preservation of life, but " happy life, as it is at- 
 
 r. ^ 
 
86 ARISTOTELES. 
 
 tained by means of virtue " (aperrj, perfect deve- 
 lopment of the whole man). Hence also ethics form 
 the first and most general foundation of political 
 life, because the state cannot attain its highest 
 object, if mnmlity does not prevtiil among its 
 citizens. The house, the family, is the element of 
 the state. Accordingly Aristotle begins with the 
 doctrine of domestic economy, then proceeds to a 
 description of the different forms of government, 
 after which he gives a delineation of the most im- 
 portant Hellenic constitutions, and then investigates 
 which of the constitutions is the best (the ideal of 
 a state). The doctrine concerning education, as 
 the most important condition of this best state, 
 forms the conclusion. Best editions, by Schneider, 
 Francof. ad Viadr. 1809; Corais, Paris, 1821 ; 
 Gdttling, Jenae, 1824 ; Stahr, with a German 
 translation, Lips. 1837 ; Barthelt?my St. Hilaii'e, 
 with a French translation, Paris. 1837. — 5. Oeco- 
 nomics {oiKovofiiKa), in 2 books, of which only the 
 first is genuine. — IV. "Works on Art, which 
 have for their subject the exercise of the creative 
 faculty, or Art. To these belong the Poetics and 
 liJietonc. 1. The Poetics {Xl^pi iron^rtKris). Aris- 
 totle penetrated deeper than any of the ancients 
 into the essence of Hellenic art. He is the father 
 of the aestltetics of poetry^ as he is tlie completer of 
 Greek rhetoric as a science. The greatest part of 
 the treatise contains a theory of Tragedy ; nothing 
 else is treated of, with the exception of the epos ; 
 comedy is merely alluded to. Best editions by 
 Tyrwhitt, Oxon. 1794; Hermann, Lips. 1802; 
 Grafenhan, Lips. 1821 ; Bekker, Berol. 1832 ; 
 Ritter, Colon. 1839. — 2. The PJietoric (t^x^v pv~ 
 TopLK-f])^ in 3 books. Rhetoric, as a science, accord- 
 ing to Aristotle, stands side by side with Dialectics. 
 The only thing which makes a scientific treatment 
 of rhetoric possible is the argumentation which 
 awakens conviction: he therefore directs his chief 
 attention to the theory of oratorical argumentation. 
 The second main division of the woric treats of the 
 production of that favourable disposition in the 
 hearer, in consequence of which the orator appears 
 to him to be worthy of credit. The third part 
 treats of oratorical expression and arrangement. — 
 According to a story current in antiquity Aristotle 
 bequeathed his library and MSS. to Theophrastus, 
 his successor in the Academy. On the death of 
 Theophrastus, the libraries and MSS. both of 
 Aristotle and Theophrastus are said to have come 
 into the hands of his relation and disciple, Ne- 
 leu3 of Scepsis. This Neleus sold both libraries 
 to Ptolemy II., king of Egypt, for the Alexan- 
 drine library ; but he retained for liimself, as an 
 heirloom, the original MSS. of the works of 
 these two philosophers. The descendants of Ne- 
 leus, who were subjects of the king of Pergamus, 
 knew of no other way of securing them from the 
 search of the Attiili, who wished to rival the Pto- 
 lemies in forming a large libraiy, tlian concealing 
 them in a cellar, where for a couple of centuries 
 they were exposL'd to the ravages of damp and 
 worms. It was not till the beginning of the cen- 
 tury before the birth of Christ that a wealthy book- 
 collector, the Athenian Apellicon of Teos, traced 
 out these valuable relics, bought them from the ig- 
 norant heirs, and prepared from them a new edition 
 of Aristotle's works. After the capture of Athens, 
 Sulla conveyed Apellicon's library to Rome, b. c. 
 84. [Apellicon.] From this story an error 
 arose, which has been hauded down from the time ( 
 
 ARMENIA. 
 
 of Strabo to the present day. It was concluded 
 from this account, that neither Aristotle nor Theo- 
 phrastus had published their writings, with the ex- 
 ception of some exoteric works, which had no im- 
 portant bearing on their system ; and that it was 
 not till 200 years later that they were brought ta 
 light by the above-mentioned Apellicon, and pub- 
 lished to the philosophical world. That, however,, 
 was by no means the case. Aristotle indeed did 
 not prepare a complete edition, as we call it, of his 
 writings. Nay, it is certain that death overtook 
 him before he could finish some of his works and 
 put the finishing hand to others. Nevertheless it 
 cannot be denied that Aristotle destined all his 
 works for publication, and published several in his 
 life-time. This is indisputably certain with regard 
 to the exoteric writings Those which had not 
 been published by Aristotle himself, were given to 
 the world by Theophrastus and his disciples in a 
 complete form. — Editions. The best edition of 
 the complete works of Aristotle is by Bekker, 
 Beriin, 1831 — 1840, 4to. text, 2 vols., and a Latin 
 translation in one volume. This edition has been 
 reprinted at Oxford in 11 vols. 8vo. There is a 
 stereotyped edition published byTauchnitz, Leipzig, 
 1832, 16mo, in 16 vols., and another edition of the 
 text by Weise, in one volume, Leipzig, 1843. 
 
 Aristoxenus ('Apio-Tofej/os), of Tarentum, a 
 Peripatetic philosopher and a musician, flourished 
 about B.C. 318. He was a disciple of Aristotle, 
 whom he appears to have rivalled in the variety of 
 his studies. According to Suidas, he produced 
 works to the number of 4.53 upon music, philosophy, 
 history, in short every department of literature. 
 We know nothing of his philosophical opinions, ex- 
 cept that he held the soul to be a harmony of 
 the body (Cic. Tusc. 1. 10), a doctrine which had 
 been already discussed by Plato in the Phaedo. 
 Of his numerous works the only one extant is his 
 Elements of Harmony [apfiofiKa (TT0ix^7a\ in S 
 books : edited by Meibomius, in tiie Antiqiiae Mu~ 
 sicoG Auciores Sejiteni^ Amst. 1652. 
 
 Aristus ("Apiaros). 1. Of Salamis in CypmSy 
 v.-rote a history of Alexander the Great. — 2. An 
 Academic philosopher, a contemporaiy and firiend 
 of Cicero, and teacher of M. Brutus. 
 
 Arius, river. [Aria.] 
 
 Ariusia (tJ 'Apiovata X'^fa), a district on the N.. 
 coast of Chios, where the best wine in the island 
 was gro^vn {Ariusiiim Vinum^ ^'^S' Eel. v. 71). 
 
 Armene i^kpixivq^ or ~-r]vrf : AJdiman), a town 
 on the coast of Paphlagonia, where the 10,000 
 Greeks, during their retreat, rested 5 days, enter- 
 tained by the people of Sinope, a little to the W- 
 of which Armene stood. 
 
 Armenia ('AoiLiez/ta : 'Ap^eVior, Armenius : Ar- 
 menia)^ a countiy of Asia, lying between Asia 
 Minor and the Caspian, is a lofty table- land, 
 backed by the chain of the Caucasus, watered by 
 the rivers Cyrus and Araxes, containing the sources 
 also of the Tigris and of the Euphrates, the latter 
 of which divides the country into 2 unequal parts, 
 which were called Major and Minor. 1. Armenia 
 Major or Propria ('A. if fi^yd^rj or t) iS/ws Ka\ov- 
 (tte'^Tj ; Erzenmm, Kajs, Van^ and Eriva?i)^ was 
 bounded on the N.E. and N. by the Cynis (A'ar), 
 which divided it from Albania and Iberia ; on the 
 N.W. and W. by the Moschici mountains (the pro- 
 longation of the chain of the Anti-Taurus), and the 
 Euphrates (Frat), which divided it from Colchis 
 and Armenia Minor ; and on the S. and S.E. 
 
ARMENIA. 
 
 by the mountains called Masius, Niphates, and 
 Gordiaei (the prolongation of the Taunia), and the 
 loTver course of the Araxes, which divided it 
 from Mesopotamia, Assyria, and Media : on the 
 E. the country comes to a point at the confluence 
 of the CjTua and Araxes. It is intersected by 
 chains of mountains, between which run the two 
 great rivers Araxes, flowing E. into the Caspian, 
 and the Arsj^nias or S. branch of the Euphrates 
 (Murad), flowing W. into the main stream (Frat) 
 just above M. Masius. The E. extremity of the 
 chain of mountains which separates the basins 
 of these two rivers, and which is an offshoot of 
 the Anti-Taurus, forms the Ararat of Scripture. 
 In the S. of the country is the great lake of Van, 
 Arsissa Palus, enclosed by mountain cliains which 
 connect Ararat with the S. range of mountains. — 
 2. Armenia Minor ('A. ixiKpti or ^pax^repa), was 
 bounded on the E. by the Euphrates, which divided 
 it from Armenia Major, on the N. and N.W. by 
 the mountains Scodlses, Paryadres, and Anti- 
 Taurus, dividing it from Pontus and Cappadocia, 
 and on the S. by the Taurus, dividing it from 
 Commagene in N. Syria, so that it contained the 
 country E. and S. of the cityoiSiwas (the ancient 
 Cabira or Sebaste) as far as the Euphrates and the 
 Taurus. The boundaries between Armenia Minor 
 and Cappadocia varied at different times ; and in- 
 deed the whole comitry up to the Euphrates is 
 sometimes called Cappadocia, and, on the other 
 hand, the whole of Asia Minor E. of the Halys 
 seems at one time to have been included under the 
 name of Armenia. — The people of Armenia claimed 
 to be aboriginal ; and there can be little doubt 
 that they were one of the most ancient families of 
 that branch of the human race which is called 
 Caucasian. Their language, though possessing 
 some remarkable peculiarities of its own, was nearly 
 allied to the Indo-Germanic family ; and their 
 manners and religious ideas were similar to those 
 of the Medes and Persians, but with a greater 
 tendency to the personification of the powers of 
 nature, as in the goddess Anaitis, whose worship 
 was peculiar to Armenia. They had commercial 
 dealings with Assyria and Phoenicia. In the time 
 of Xenophon they had preserved a great degree of 
 primitive simplicity, but 400 years later Tacitus 
 gives an unfavourable view of their character. — 
 The earliest Armenian traditions represent the 
 country as governed by native kings, who had per- 
 petually to maintain their independence against 
 attacks from Assyria. They were said to have 
 been conquered by Semiramis, but again threw off 
 the yoke at the time of the Median and Babylonian 
 revolt. Their relations to the Medes and Persians 
 seem to have varied between successful resistance, 
 unwilling subjection, and friendly alliance. A body 
 of Armenians formed a part of the army which 
 Xerxes led against Greece ; and they assisted 
 Darius Codomannus against Alexander, and in 
 this war they lost their king, and became subject 
 to the Macedonian empire (b. c. 328). After 
 another interval of successfiil revolt (b.c. 317 — 
 274), they submitted to the Greek kings of Syria ; 
 but when Antiochus the Great was defeated by the 
 Romans (b.c. 190), the country _ again regained 
 its independence, and it was at this period that it 
 was divided into the two kingdoms of Armenia 
 Major and Minor, under two different dynasties, 
 founded respectively by the nobles who headed 
 the revolt, Artaxias and Zariadras. Ultimately, 
 
 ARNOBIUS. 87 
 
 Armenia Minor was made a Roman province by 
 Trajan ; and Armenia Major, after being a perpe- 
 tual object of contention between the Romans and 
 the Parthians, was subjected to the revived Persian 
 empire by its first king Artaxerxes (Ardeshir) in 
 A. D. 226 
 
 Armenius Kons (rh 'Apfiiviov opos), a branch 
 of the Anti-Taurus chain in Armenia Minor. 
 
 Arminius (the Latinized form oi Hermann, " the 
 chieftain"), son of Sigiraer, " the conqueror," and 
 chief of the tribe of the Chemsci, who inhabited 
 the country to the north of the Hartz mountains, 
 now forming the S. of Hanover and Brunswick. 
 Pie was born in b. c. 18 ; and in his youth, he led 
 the warriors of his tribe as auxiliaries of the Ro- 
 man legions in Germany, where he learnt the lan- 
 guage and military discipline of Rome, and was 
 admitted to the freedom of the city, and enrolled 
 amongst the equites. In a. d. 9, Arminius, who 
 was now 27 yeai-s old, apd had succeeded his 
 father as chief of his tribe, persuaded his country- 
 men to rise against the Romans, who were now 
 masters of this part of Germany, and which 
 seemed destined to become, like Gaul, a Roman 
 province. His attempt was crowned with success. 
 Quintilius Varus, who was stationed in the country 
 with 3 legions, was destroyed with almost all 
 his troops [Varus] ; and the Romans had to re- 
 linquish all their possessions beyond the Rhine. 
 In 14, Arminius had to defend his country against 
 Germanicus. At first he was successful ; the 
 Romans were defeated, and Germanicus withdrew 
 towards the Rhine, followed by Arminius. But 
 having been compelled by his uncle, Ingulomer, 
 against his own wishes, to attack the Romans 
 in their entrenched camp, his army was routed, 
 and the Romans made good their retreat to the 
 Rhine. It was in the course of this campaign that 
 Thusnelda, the wife of Arminius, fell into the 
 hands of the Romans, and was reserved with the 
 infant boy to whom she soon after gave birth in 
 her captivity, to adorn the triumph of Germanicus 
 at Rome. In 16, Arminius was again called upon 
 to resist Germanicus, but he was defeated, and his 
 country was probably only saved from subjection 
 by the jealousy of Tiberius, who recalled Germa- 
 nicus in the following year. At length Arminius 
 aimed at absolute power, and was in consequence 
 cut off by his own relations in the 37th year of his 
 age, A. D. 1 9. 
 
 Armorica or Aremorica, the name of the N.W. 
 coast of Gaul from the Ligeris (Loire) to the Se- 
 quana {Seine), derived from the Celtic «r, air, 
 " upon,'" and ?khzV, 7n6r, " the sea." The Ai-ino- 
 ricae civitates are enumerated by Caesar (B. G. 
 vii. 75). 
 
 Ama (Amas, -atis : Civitclla d'Ao-no), a town 
 in Umbria near Perusia. 
 
 Amae (/Apvai), a town in Chalcidice in Mace- 
 donia, S. of Aulon and Bromiscus. 
 
 Ame ("Apvn), a town in Boeotia mentioned by 
 Homer (iL ii. 507), supposed by Pansanias to be 
 the same as Chaeronea, but placed by others near 
 Acraephium on the E. of the lake Copais. 
 
 Arnissa ("Apviaffa : Oslrova ?), a town in Eor- 
 daea in Macedonia. 
 
 Amobius. 1. The elder, a native of Afi-ica, 
 lived about A. d. 300, in the reign of Diocletian. 
 He was at first a teacher of rhetoric at Sicca in 
 Africa, but afterwards embraced Christianity; and 
 to remove all doubts as to the reality of his con 
 
88 ARNON. 
 
 version, he wrote, while yet a catechumen, his 
 celebrated work against tlie Pagans, in 7 books 
 {LibH septan adversus Genics), which we still pos- 
 sess. The best edition is by Orelli, Lips, lijlfj. 
 — 2. The Younger, lived about a. d. 460, and 
 ■was probably a bishop or presbyter in Gaul. He 
 ■wrote a commentary on the Psalms, still extant, 
 which shows that he was a Semi- Pelagian. 
 
 Amon (^Apycav: )Vad-el Mojlb), a considerable 
 river of E. Palestine, rising in the Arabian Desert, 
 and flowing W. through a rocky valley into tlie 
 Lacus Asphaltites {Dead Sea). The surrounding 
 district was called Amonas ; and in it the Romans 
 had a military station, called Castra Arnonensia. 
 
 Amus {Anio)j the chief river of Etruria, rises 
 in the Apennines, flows by Pisae, and falls into the 
 Tyrrhenian sea. It gave the name to the Tril)us 
 A.rniensis^ formed li, c. 387. 
 
 Aroa ('Aprfa or 'AptJjy), the ancient name of 
 Patrae. 
 
 Aromata (ra 'Ap'i',uaTa, ^Apuixdraiv &Kpov : 
 Cape Guardafai)^ the E.-most promontory of Africa, 
 ■at the S. extremity of the Arabian Gulf: also the 
 surrounding district was called Aromata or Aroraa- 
 tophora Regio, with a town * ApwfiaTcjju iixirSpiov : 
 so named from the abundance of spices which the 
 •district produced. 
 
 Arpi (Arpanus : Arpi\ an inland town in the 
 Daunian Apulia, founded, according to tradition, by 
 Diomedes, who called it Apyos 'Ctt-kiov^ from which 
 its later names oi Argyrippa ov Arg^ripa and^rpz 
 are said to have arisen {[Ue (Diomedes) urhem 
 Argyripam, patnae cognomine gcniis, Virg. Aen. xi. 
 246). During the time of its independence it was 
 a flourishing commercial town, using Salapia as its 
 harbour. It was friendly to the Romans in the 
 Samnite wars, but revolted to Hannibal after the 
 battle of Cannae, b. c. 216: it was taken by the 
 Romans in 213, deprived of its independence, and 
 never recovered its former prosperity. 
 
 Arpinimi (Arpinas, -atis : Aipi/io)^ a town, of 
 Latium on the small river Fibrenus {Fibreno\ ori- 
 ginally belonging to the Volscians and afterwards 
 to the Samnites, from whom the Romans wrested 
 at, was a Roman muuicipium, and received the jus 
 suffragii^ or right of voting in the Roman comitia, 
 B. a 188. It was the birthplace of Marias and 
 ■Cicero, the latter of whom was bom in his father's 
 villa, situated on a small island formed by the river 
 Fibrenus. Cicero's brother Quintus had an estate 
 S. of Arpinum, called Arcamtm. 
 
 Arretium or Aretium (Arretlnus: Arczzo), one 
 of the most important of the 12 cities of Etruria, 
 was situated in the N. E. of the country at the 
 foot of the Apennines, and possessed a fertile terri- 
 tory near the sources of the Arnus and the Tiber, 
 producing good wine and corn. It was thrice 
 colonised by the Romans, whence we read of 
 Arretini Vcteres^ Fidenales, Julienses. It was par- 
 ticularly celebrated for its potterj', which was of 
 red ware. The Cilnli, from whom Maecenas was 
 descended, were a noble family of Arretium. The 
 ruins of a city 2 or 3 miles to the S. E. of Arezzo, 
 on a height called Poggio diSan Coi'nelio, or Custel 
 Secco^ are probably the remains of the ancient Ar- 
 retium. 
 
 Arrhapachitis ('A/J^aTraxtTfs), a district of 
 Assyria, between the rivers Lycus and Choatras. 
 
 Arrhibaeus {'Appi€a7os)^ chieftain of the Mace- 
 donians of Lyncus, revolted against king Perdiccas 
 in the Peloponneaian war. It was to reduce him 
 
 ARRIANUS. 
 that Perdiccas sent for Brasidas (b. c. 424), and 
 against him took place the unsuccessful joint ex- 
 pedition, in which Perdiccas deserted Brasidas, and 
 Brasidas effected his bold and skilful retreat, 
 
 Arrhidaeus ('Ap;5i5a?ot) or Aridaeus ('Apt- 
 Saws). 1. A half-brother of Alexander the Great, 
 son of Philip and a female dancer, Philinna of 
 Larissa, was of imbecile understanding. He was 
 at Babylon at the time of Alexander's death, e. c. 
 323, and was elected king under the name of 
 Philip. The young Alexander, the infant sou of 
 Roxana, was associated with him in the govern- 
 ment. In 322, Arrhidaeus married Eurydice. On 
 their return to Macedonia, Eurydice attempted to 
 obtain the supreme power in opposition to Poly- 
 sperchon ; but Arrhidaeus and Eurydice were made 
 prisoners, and put to death by order of Ol^inpias, 
 317. ^ 2. One of Alexander's generals, obtained 
 the province of the Hellespontine Phrygia, at the 
 division of the provinces in 321 at Triparadisus, 
 but. was deprived of it by Antigonus in 319. 
 
 Arria. 1. Wife of Caecina Paetus. When 
 her husband was ordered by the emperor Claudius 
 to put an end to his life, A. d. 42, and hesitated to 
 do so, Arria stabbed herself, handed the dagger to 
 her husband, and said, " Paetus, it does not pain 
 me.^^S. Daughter of the preceding, and wife of 
 Thrasea. 
 
 Arrianus ('Ap^iav6s). 1. Of Nicoraedia in BI- 
 thynia, bom about a. d. 90, was a pupil and friend 
 of Epictetus, and first attracted attention as a phi- 
 losopher by publishng at Athens the lectures of 
 his master. In 124, he gained the friendship of • 
 Hadrian dui'ing his stay in Greece, and received 
 from the emperor the Roman citizenship ; from this 
 time he assumed the name of Flavius. In 136, 
 he was appointed praefect of Cappadocia, which, 
 was invaded the year after by the Alani or Mas- 
 sagetae, whom he defeated. Under Antoninus 
 Pius, in 140, Anian was consul ; and about 150 
 he withdrew from public life, and from this time 
 lived in his native town of Nicomodia, as priest of 
 Demeter and Persephone. He died at an advanced 
 age in the reign of M. Aui-elius. Arrian was one 
 of the most active and best writers of his time. 
 He was a close imitator of Xenophon both in the 
 subjects of his works and in the style in which 
 they were written. He regarded his relation to 
 Epictetus as similar to that of Xenophon to So- 
 crates ; and it was his endeavour to carry out that 
 resemblance. With this view he published, 1. the 
 philosophical lectures of his master (AiarpL^al 
 'EiriKTTjTov) in 8 books, the first half of which is 
 still extant. Edited in SchweighUuser's Epictetea& 
 Philosophiae Monumeuta^ vol. iii., and in Coraes* 
 Tla.pBpya 'ZWtjv. Bl§\io9. vol. viii. — 2. An ab- 
 stract of the practical philosophy of Epictetus 
 {'Eyx^ip'i'Siov 'ETriKTTjTou), which is still extant. 
 This celebrated work maintained its authority for 
 many centuries, both with Christians and Pagans. 
 The best editions are those of Sehweigbiiuser and 
 Coraes, in the collections above referred to. He 
 also published other works relating to Epictetus, 
 which are now lost. His original works are : — ■ 
 3. A treatise on the chase {Kuvqy-qTiKds), which 
 forms a kind of supplement to Xenophon''3 work 
 on the same subject, and is printed in most editions 
 of Xenophon's works. — 4. The History of the 
 Asiatic expedition of Alexander the Great ('Ara- 
 Sacris ''AAe^dvdpoii), in 7 books, the most important 
 of Arrian's works. This great work reminds the 
 
ARKIBAS. 
 
 reader of Xenophon's Anabasis, not only by its 
 title, but also by the ease and clearness of its style. 
 It is also of great value for its historical accuracy, 
 being based upon the most trustworthy histories 
 written by the contemporaries of Alexander, espe- 
 cially those of Ptolemy, the son of Lagus, and of 
 Aristobulus, the son of Aristobulus. • — 5. On India 
 i^lvdiKT] or TO. 'Ii/Si/ca), which may be regarded as 
 a continuation of the Anabasis, at the end of which 
 it is usually printed. This work is written in the 
 Tonic dialect, probably in imitation of CtesJaa of 
 Cnidus, whose work on the same subject Arrian 
 •wished to supplant by amore trustworthy and correct 
 account. The best editions of the Anabasis are by 
 Ellendt, Regimontii, 1832, and by C. W. Krliger, 
 Berlin, ISiio ; of the Indica by Schmieder, Halle, 
 1798. — 6. A description of a voyage round the 
 coasts of the Euxine (TrepiTrXouy -KSvrov Eu|e(i'ou), 
 ■which had undoubtedly been made by Arrian him- 
 self during his government of Cappadocia. This 
 Periplus has come down to us together with a 
 Periplus of the Erv'thraean, and a Periplus of the 
 Euxine and the Palus Maeotis, both of which also 
 tear tiie name of Arrian, but they belong undoubt- 
 edly to a later period. The best editions are in 
 Hudson's Geographi Minores, vol. i., and in Gail's 
 and Hoffmann's collections of the minor Geogra- 
 phers. — 7. A work on Tactics (Atfyos raKTi/cbs or 
 rex^v raicTiKTi), of which we possess at present 
 only a fragment : printed in Blancard's collection 
 of the minor works of Arrian. Arrian also wrote 
 numerous other works, all of which are now lost. 
 ^2. A Roman jurisconsult, probably lived under 
 Trajan, and is perhaps the same person with the 
 orator Arrianus, who corresponded with the younger 
 Pliny. He wrote a treatise de Intcrdiciis, of which 
 the 2d book is quoted in the Digest. 
 
 Arribas, Airybas, Arymbas, or Tliarrytas 
 (^A^piSas, 'A^pvSas, 'Apv/iSas^or &appvras)^ a de- 
 scendant of Achilles, and one of the early kings of 
 the Molossians in Epirus. He is said to have been 
 educated at Athens, and on his return to his native 
 country to have framed for the Molossians a code of 
 laws, and established a regular constitution. 
 
 Q. Arrixis. 1 Praetor, b. c. 72, defeated Crixus, 
 the leader of the runaway slaves, but was after- 
 wards conquered by Spai'tacus. In 71, Arrius was 
 to have succeeded Verres as propraetor in Sicily, 
 hut died on his way to Sicily. ^3. A son of the 
 preceding, was an unsuccessful candidate for the 
 consulship, b. c. 59. He was an intimate friend 
 of Cicero. 
 
 Arrius Aper. [Aprr.] 
 
 L. Arruntius. 1. Proscribed by the triumvirs 
 in B. c. 43, but escaped to Sext, Pompey in Sicily, 
 and was restored to the state with Pompey. He 
 subsequently commanded the left wing of the fleet 
 of Octavianus at the battle of Actiura, 31, and was 
 consul in 22.-2. Son of the preceding, consul 
 A. D. 6. Augustus declared in his last illness, that 
 Amintius was notunworthy of theempire, and would 
 liave boldness enough to seize it, if an opportunity 
 presented. This rendered him an object of sus- 
 picion to Tiberius. He was charged in A. d. 37, 
 as an accomplice in the crimes of Albucilla, and 
 put an end to his own life. 
 
 Ajsa {Azunga)^ a town in Hispania Baetica, 
 
 Arsaces {'Apa-aK-rjs), the name of the founder of 
 the Parthian empire, which was also borne by all 
 hia successors, who were hence called the Arsacidae. 
 1. He was of obscure origin, and seems to have 
 
 ARSACES. 
 
 89 
 
 come from the neighbourhood of the Ochus. He 
 induced the Parthians to revolt from the Syrian 
 empire of the Seleucidae, and he became the first 
 monarch of the Parthians. This event probably 
 took place about e. c. 250, in the reign of Antiochus 
 II. ; but the history of the revolt, as well as of 
 the events which immediately followed, is stated 
 very differently by different historians. Arsaces 
 reigned only 2 years, and was succeeded by his 
 brother Tiridatea. — 2. Tiridates, reigned 37 
 years, B.C. 248 — 211, and defeated Seleucus Cal- 
 linicus, the successor of Antiochus 11.^3. Arta- 
 banus I., son of the preceding, was attacked by 
 Antiochus III. (the Great), who, however, was 
 unable to subdue his country, and at length recog- 
 nised him as king, about 210. — 4. Priapatius, 
 son of the preceding, reigned 15 years, and left 3 
 sons, Phraates, Mithridates, and Artabanus. — 5. 
 Phraates I., subdued the Mardi, and, though he 
 had many sons, left the kingdom to his brother 
 Mithridates. — 6. Mitjiridates I., son of Arsaces 
 IV., greatly enlarged the Parthian empire by his 
 conquests. He defeated Demetrius Nicator, king 
 of Syria, and took him prisoner in 138. Mithri- 
 dates treated Demetrius with respect, and gave 
 him his daughter Rhodogune in marriage. Mith- 
 ridates died during the captivity of Demetrius, 
 between 138 and 130. — 7. Phraates II., son of 
 the preceding, carried on war against Antiochus 
 VII. Sidetes, whom Phraates defeated and slew 
 in battle, b. c. 128. Phraates himself was shortly 
 after killed in battle by the Scythians, who had 
 been invited by Antiochus to assist him against 
 Phraates, but who did not arrive till after the 
 fall of the former. ^8. Artabanus II- , youngest 
 brother of Arsaces VI., and youngest son of Ar- 
 saces IV., fell in battle against the Thogarii or 
 Tochari, apparently after a short reign. — 9. Mith- 
 ridates II., son of the preceding, prosecuted many 
 wars with success, and added many nations to the 
 Parthian empire, whence he obtained the surname 
 of Great. It was in his reign that the Romans 
 first had any official communication with Parthia. 
 Mithridates sent an ambassador to Sulla, who had 
 come into Asia E. c. 92, and requested allianca 
 with the Romans. ^10. (Mnascires ^) Nothing 
 is known of the successor of Arsaces IX. Even 
 his name is uncertain. ^11. Sanatroces, reigned 7 
 years, and died about B.C. 70.— 12. Phraates III., 
 son of the preceding. He lived at the time of the 
 war between the Romans and Mithridates of Pon- 
 tus, by both of whom he was courted. He con- 
 tracted an alliance with the Romans, but he took 
 no part in the war. At a later period misunder- 
 standings arose between Pompey and Phraates, 
 but Pompey thought it more prudent to avoid a 
 war with the Parthians, although Phraates had 
 invaded Armenia, and Tigranes, the Armenian 
 king, implored Pompey's assistance. Phraates 
 was murdered soon afterwards by his 2 sons, 
 Mithridates and Orodes.— 13. Mithridates III., 
 son of the preceding, succeeded his father during 
 the Armenian war. On his return from Armenia, 
 Mithridates was expelled from the throne, on ac- 
 count of his cruelty, and was succeeded by his 
 brother Orodes. Mithridates afterwards made 
 war upon his brother, but was taken prisoner and 
 put to death. —14. Orodes I., brother of the pre- 
 ceding, was the Parthian king, whose general 
 Surenas defeated Crassus and the Romans, b. c. 
 53. [Crassus.] After the death of Crassug, 
 
90 
 
 AKSACES. 
 
 Orodes gave the command of the anny to his son 
 Pacoms, who entered Syria in 51 with a small 
 force, but was driven back by Cassiua. In 50 
 Pacoras again crossed the Euphrates with a much 
 larger army, and advanced as far as Antioch, but 
 was defeated near Antigonea by Cassius. The 
 Parthians now remained quiet for some years. In 
 40 they crossed the Euphrates again, under the 
 command of Paconis and Labienus, the son of T. 
 Labienus. They overran Syria and part of Asia 
 Minor, but were defeated in 39 by Veutidius 
 Bassus, one of Antonym's legates : Labienus was 
 slain in the flight, and the Parthians retired to 
 their own dominions. In 38, Pacorus again in- 
 vaded S}Tia, but was completely defeated and fell 
 in the battle. This defeat was a severe blow to 
 the aged king Orodes, who shortly afterwards sur- 
 rendered the crown to his son, Phraates, during 
 his life-time. ^15. Phraates IV., commenced his 
 reign by murdering his father, his 30 brothers, and 
 his own son, who was grown up, that there might 
 be none of the royal family whom the Parthians 
 could place upon the throne in his stead. In con- 
 sequence of his cruelty many of the Parthian 
 nobles fled to Antony (37), who invaded Parthia 
 in 36, but was obliged to retreat after losing 
 a great part of his army. A few yenrs after- 
 wards the cruelties of Phraates produced a rebellion 
 against him ; he was driven out of the countrj'", 
 and Tiridates proclaimed king in his stead. Phraa- 
 tes, however, was soon restored by the Scythians, 
 and Tiridates fled to Augustus, carrying with him 
 the youngest son of Phraates. Augustus restored 
 his son to Phraates, on condition of his surrender- 
 ing the Roman standards and prisoners taken in 
 the war with Crassus and Antony. They were 
 given up in 20 : their restoration caused universal 
 joy at Rome, and was celebrated not only by the 
 poets, but by festivals and commemorative monu- 
 ments. Phraates also sent to Augustus as hostages 
 his 4 sons, with their wives and children, who were 
 carried to Rome. In a. d. "2, Phraates was poi- 
 soned by his wife Thermusa, and her son Phraata- 
 ces. — 16. Phraataces, reigned only a short time, 
 as he was expelled by his subjects on account of 
 his crimes. The Parthian nobles then elected as 
 king Orodes, who was of the family of the Arsa- 
 cidae. —17. Orodes II., also reigned only a short 
 time, as he was killed by the Parthians on account 
 of his cruelty. Upon his death the Parthians ap- 
 plied to the Romans for Vonones, one of the sons 
 of Phraates IV., who was accordingly granted to 
 them. ^18. Vonones I., son of Phraates IV., 
 was also disliked by his subjects, who therefore 
 invited Artabanus, king of Media, to take posses- 
 sion of the kingdom. Artabanus drove Vonones 
 out of Parthia, who resided first in Armenia, next 
 in Syria, and subsequently in Cilicia. He was put 
 to death in a. d. 19, according to some accounts 
 by order of Tiberius on account dfhis great wealth. 
 ^19. Artabanus IIL, obtained the Parthian 
 kingdom soon after the expulsion of Vonones, 
 about A. D. 16. Artabanus placed Arsaces, one 
 of his sons, over Armenia, and assumed a hostile 
 attitude towards the Romans. His subjects, whom 
 he oppressed, despatched an embassy to Tiberius 
 to beg him to send to Parthia Phraates, one of the 
 sons of Phraates IV. Tiberius willingly complied 
 with the request ; but Phx-aates upon arriving in 
 Syria was carried ofl" by a disease, a. d. 35. As 
 soon as Tiberius heard of his death, he set up Ti- 
 
 ARSACES. 
 ridates, another of the Arsacidae, as a claimant to 
 the Parthian throne : Artabanus was obliged to 
 leave his kingdom, and to fly for refuge to the 
 Hyrcanians and Carmanians. Hereupon Vitellius, 
 the governor of Syria, crossed the Euphrates, and 
 placed Tiridates on the throne. Artabanus was, how- 
 ever, recalled next year (36) by his fickle subjects. 
 Pie was once more expelled by his subjects, and 
 once more restored. He died soon after his last 
 restoration, leaving two sons, Bardanes and Gotar- 
 zes, whose civil wars are related differently by 
 Josephus and Tacitus. — 20. Gotarzes, succeeded 
 his father, Artabanus III., but was defeated by 
 his brother Bardanes and retired intoHyrcania. — 
 
 21. Bardanes, brother of the preceding, was put 
 to death by his subjects in 47, whereupon Gotarzes 
 again obtained the crown. But as he ruled with 
 cruelty, the Parthians secretly begged the emperor 
 Claudius to send them from Rome Meherdates, 
 grandson of Phraates IV. Claudius complied with 
 their request, and commanded the governor of Sj'ria 
 to assist Meherdates, but the latter was defeated 
 in battle, and taken prisoner by Gotarzes. — 
 
 22. Vonones II., succeeded Gotarzes about 50. 
 His reign was short. — 23. Vologeses I., son of 
 Vonones 11. or Artabanus III. Soon after his 
 accession, he conquered Armenia, which he gave 
 to his brother Tiridates. In 55 he gave up Ar- 
 menia to the Romaqs, but in 50 he again placed 
 his brother over Annenia and declared war against 
 the Romans. This war terminated in favour of the 
 Romans : the Parthians were repeatedly defeated 
 by Doraitius Corbulo, and Tiridates was driven 
 out of Armenia. At length, in C2, peace was con- 
 cluded between Vologeses and the Romans on con- 
 dition that Nero would surrender Armenia to Ti- 
 ridates, provided the latter would come to Rome 
 and receive it as a gift from the Roman emperor. 
 Tiridates came to Rome in G3, where he was re- 
 ceived with extraordinary splendour, and obtained 
 from Nero the Armenian crown. Volugeses after- 
 wards maintained friendly relations with Vespasian, 
 and seems to have lived till the reign of Domitian. 
 — 24. Pacorus, succeeded his father^ Vologeses 
 I., and vias a contemporary of Domitian and Tra- 
 jan.— 25. Choeroes or Osroes, succeeded his 
 brother Pacorus during the reign of Trajan. His 
 conquest of Armenia occasioned the invasion of Par- 
 thia by Trajan, who stripped it of many of its pro- 
 vinces, and made the Parthians for a time subject to 
 Rome. [Trajanus.] Upon the death of Trajan 
 in A. D. 117, the Parthians expelled Parthamas- 
 pates whom Trajan had placed upon the throne, 
 and recalled their former king, Chosroes. Hadrian 
 relinquished the conquests of Trajan, and made the 
 Euphrates, as before, the eastern boundary of the 
 Roman empire. Chosroes died during the reign 
 of Hadrian. ^26. Vologeses II., succeeded his 
 father Chosroes, and reigned from about 122 to 
 149. — 37. Vologeses III., began to reign in 149. 
 He invaded Syria, in 162, but the generals of the 
 emperor Verus drove him back into his own domi- 
 nions, invaded Mesopotamia and Assyria, and took 
 Seleucia and Ctesiphon ; and Vologeses was obliged 
 to purchase peace by ceding Mesopotamia to the 
 Romans. From this time to the downfall of the 
 Parthian empire, there is great confusion in the 
 list of kings. ^ 28. Vologeses IV., probably as- 
 cended the throne in the reign of Commodus. His 
 dominions were invaded by Septimius Severus, who 
 took Ctesiphon in 199. On the death of Volo- 
 
ARSACIA. 
 
 geses IV., at the iDeginning of the reign of Cara- 
 calla, Parthia was torn asunder by contests for the 
 crown between the sons of Vologeses. ^ 39. Volo- 
 geses v., son of Vologeses IV., was attacked by 
 Caracalla in 215, and about the same time was 
 dethroned by his brother Artabanus. — 30. Arta- 
 banus IV., the last king of Parthia. The war 
 commenced by Caracalla against Vologeses, was 
 continued against Artabanus ; but Macrinus, the 
 successor of Caracalla, concluded peace with the 
 Parthiang. In this war Artabanus had lost the 
 best of his troops, and the Persians seized the op- 
 portimity of recovering their long-lost independ- 
 ence. They were led by Ajtaxerxes (Ardshir), 
 the son of Sassan, and defeated the Parthians in 
 three great battles, in the last of which Artabanus 
 was taken prisoner and killed, a. d. 22G. Thus 
 ended the Parthian empire of the Arsacidae, after 
 it had existed 476 years. The Parthians were 
 now obliged to submit to Artaxerxes, the founder 
 of the dynasty of the Sassanidae, which continued 
 to reign till a. d. 651. 
 
 Arsacia {^Apa-aKia : Ru. S.E. of Teheraji)^ a 
 great city of Media, S. of the Caspiae Portae, ori- 
 ginally named Rhagae ('Po7ai) ; rebuilt by Se- 
 leucus Nicator, and called Europus [Evpic-nSs) ; 
 again destroyed in the Parthian Wars and rebuilt 
 by Arsaces, who named it after himself. 
 
 Arsacidae, the name of a dynasty of Parthian 
 kings. [Arsaces.] It was also the name of a 
 djTiasty of Armenian kings, who reigned in Ar- 
 menia from B.C. 149 to a. d. 428. This dynasty 
 was founded by Artaxias I., who was related 
 to the Parthian Arsacidae. 
 
 Arsamosata ('Ap(ra/i(«;(raTa,also wrongl}"" abbrev. 
 'ApfMuaaTa : SJiemshat), a town and strong fortress 
 in AiTQenia Major, between the Euphrates and the 
 sources of the Tigris, near the most frequented pass 
 of the Taurus. 
 
 Arsanaas, -ius, or -us {'Apa-avias^ &c.), the 
 name of two rivers of Great Armenia. —1. {Murad ), 
 the S. arm of the Euphrates. [Armenia.] —2. 
 {Arslan ?),asmall stream rising near the sources of 
 the Tigris, and flowing W. into the Euphrates near 
 Melitene. 
 
 Arsenaria, or-enn- (^Apcrrjuapia: Arzaw,'Ru.)^ 
 a town in Mauietania Caesariensis, 3 miles (Rom.) 
 from the sea ; a Roman colony. 
 
 Arseue. [Arzanene.] 
 
 Arses, Narses, or Oaxses ("Apa-rfs^ Napo-rjs, or 
 OaptTTjy), youngest son of king Artaxerxes III. 
 Ochus, was raised to the Persian throne by the 
 eunuch Bagoas after he had poisoned Artaxerxes, 
 B, c. 339, but he was murdered by Bagoas in the 3rd 
 year of his reign, when he attempted to free himself 
 from the bondage in which he was kept. After the 
 death of Arses, Bagoas made Darius III. king. 
 
 Arsia (Arsa), a river in Istria, forming the 
 boundary between Upper Italy and Illyricum, with 
 a town of the same name upon it. 
 
 Arsia Silva, a wood in Etruria celebrated for 
 the battle between the Tarquins and the Romans. 
 
 ArsinoeCApffiPiii?). \. Mythological. 1. Daughter 
 of Phegeus, and wife of Alcmaeon. As she disap- 
 proved of the murder of Alcmaeon, the sons of 
 Phegeus put her into a chest and carried her to 
 Agapenor at Tegea, where they accused her of 
 having killed Alcmaeon. [Alcmaeon, Agenor.] 
 — 2. Nurse of Orestes, saved the latter from the 
 hands of Clyteranestra, and carried him to Strophius, 
 father of Pylades. Some accounts call her Lao- 
 
 ARTABANUS. 
 
 Q{ 
 
 damia. -^ 3. Daughter of Leucippus and Philodice, 
 became by Apollo mother of Eriopis and Aescula- 
 pius. — II. Historical. 1. Mother of Ptolemy I., 
 was a concubine of Philip, father of Alexander the 
 Great, and married Lagus, while she was pregnant 
 with Ptolemy. — 2. Daughter of Ptolemy I. and 
 Berenice, married Lysimachus, king of Thrace, in 
 B. c. 300 ; after the death of Lysimachus in 281, 
 she married her half-brother, Ptolemy Ceraunus, 
 who miu-dered her children by Lysimachus ; and, 
 lastly, in 279, she married her own brother Pto- 
 lemy II. Philadelphus. Though Arsinoe bore 
 Ptolemy no children, she was exceedingly beloved 
 by him ; he gave her name to several cities, called 
 a district {voixds) of Egypt Arsino'ites after her, 
 and honoured her memory in various ways. ^3. 
 Daughter of Lysimachus, married Ptolemy II. 
 Philadelphus soon after his accession, b. c. 285. 
 In consequence of her plotting against her name- 
 sake [No. 2], when Ptolemy fell in love with her, 
 she was banished to Coptos in Upper Egypt. She 
 had by Ptolemy three children, Ptolemy III. Ever- 
 getes, Lysimachus, and Berenice, ^4. Also called 
 Eurijdice and Cleopatra^ daughter of Ptolemy III. 
 Evergetes, wife of her brother Ptolemy IV. Philo- 
 pator, and mother of Ptolemy V. Epiphanes. She 
 was killed by Philammon by order of her husband. 
 — 5. Daughter of Ptolemy XI. Auletes, escaped 
 from Caesar, when he was besieging Alexandria 
 in B. c. 47, and was recognised as queen by the 
 Alexandrians. After the capture of Alexandria 
 she was carried to Rome by Caesar, and led in 
 triumph by him in 46. She was afterwards dis- 
 missed by Caesar, and returned to Alexandria ;, 
 but her sister Cleopatra persuaded Antony to have 
 her put to deatli in 41. 
 
 Arsinoe i^ApcxivSt] : 'Aptrtyoeus, or -otjttjs), the 
 name of several cities of the times of the successors 
 of Alexander, each called after one or other of the 
 persons of the same name (see above). — 1, In 
 Aetolia, formerly Kw^wTra. — 2, On the N. coast 
 of Cyprus, on the site of the older city of Marium 
 (Mdptoi/), which Ptolemy I. had destroyed.— 3 
 A port on the W. coast of Cyprus. ■— 4. {Faina- 
 gosta\ on tlie S.E. coast of Cyprus, between Sa- 
 lamis and LeucoUa, — 5. In Cilicia, E. of Ane- 
 murium. — 6. (Ajeroud or Suez), in the Nomos 
 Heroopolites in Lower Egypt, near or upon the 
 head of the Sinus Heroopolites or "VV. branch of 
 the Red Sea {Gulf of Sitcz). It was afterwards 
 called Cleopatris. ^7. {Medinet-el-Faioum^ Kn.), 
 the chief city of the Nomos Arsinoites in the Hepta- 
 nomis or Middle Egypt [Aeoyptus, p. 15, b.] ; 
 formerly called Crucrodllopolis {Kpoi<oSei\oji/ tto- 
 Ai?), and the district Nomos Ciocodilopolites, from 
 its being the chief seat of the Egyptian worship of 
 the crocodile. This nomos also contained the Lake 
 Moeris and the labyrinth. — 8. In Cyrenaica, also 
 called Taucheira. — 9. On the coast of the Tro- 
 glodytae on the Red Sea, E. of Egypt. Its pro- 
 bable position is a little below the parallel of 
 Thebes. — Some other cities called Arsinoe are 
 better known by other names, such as Ephesus in 
 Ionia and Patara in Lycia. 
 
 Arsissa or Mantiana CApaiacra^ tJ Mavnavf} : 
 Va7i)^ a great lake, abounding in fish, in the S. of 
 Armenia Major. [Armenia.] 
 
 Artabanus (^AprdSavos), 1. Son of Hystaspes 
 and brother of Darius, is frequently mentioned in 
 the reign of his nephew Xerxes, as a wfse and 
 frank counsellor. —2. An Hyrcanian, commander 
 
02 ARTABAZUS. 
 
 of the body-guard of Xerxes, assassinated this king 
 in B. c. 465, with the view of setting himself upon 
 the throne of Persia, but was shortly afterwards 
 killed by Artaxerxes. — 3. I. II. III. IV., kings 
 of Parthia. [Arraces, III. VIII. XIX. XXXI.] 
 
 Artabazus ('Apra^a^os). 1. A Mede, acts a 
 prominent part in Xenophon''3 account of Cyrus the 
 Elder.^2. A distinguished Persian, a son of Phar- 
 naces, commanded the Parthians and Choasmians, 
 in the expedition of Xerxes into Greece, b. c. 480. 
 He served under Mardonius in 479, and after the 
 defeat of the Persians at Plataea, he fled with 
 40,000 men, and reached Asia in safety.— 3. A 
 general of Artaxerxes I., fought against Inanis in 
 Egypt, B.C. 4C'2.^4. A Persian general, fought 
 under Artaxerxes II., against Datames, satrap of 
 Cappadocici, B. c. 362. Under Artaxerxes III., 
 Artabazus, who was then satrap of W. Asia, re- 
 volted in B.C. 356, but was defeated and obliged 
 to take refuge with Philip of Macedonia. He was 
 afterwards pardoned by Artaxerxes, and returned 
 to Persia ; and he was one of the most faithful 
 adherents of Darius III. Codoraannus, who raised 
 him to high honours. On the death of Darius 
 (330) Artabazus received from Alexander the sa- 
 trapy of Bactria. One of his daughters, Barsine, 
 became by Alexander the mother of Hercules ; a 
 second, Ai'tocama, married Ptolemy son of Lagus ; 
 and a third, Artonis, married Eumenes. 
 
 Artabri, afterwards Axotrebae, a Celtic people 
 in the N. W. of Spain, near the Promontory Ne- 
 rium or Celticura, also called Artabrmn after them 
 (C.I^imslerre). 
 
 Artace (^kprdK-q : AriaU), a sea-port town of 
 the peninsula of Cj'zicus, in the Propontis : also a 
 mountain in the same peninsula. 
 
 Artachaees ('ApToxai?;?), a distinguished Per- 
 sian in the army of Xerxes, died while Xerxes 
 was at Athos. The mound which the king raised 
 over him is still in existence. 
 
 Artacoana ('Apr aK(iara, or -tcdwa : SehJivan $), 
 the ancient capital of Aria, not far from the site 
 of the later capital, Alexandria. 
 
 Artaei ('ApraTot), was, according to Herodotus 
 (vi. 61), the old native name of the Persians. It 
 signifies noble^ and appears, in the form Apra, as 
 the first part of a lai-ge number of Persian proper 
 names. [Comp. Ami.] 
 
 Artanes (^AprdvTjs), 1. A river in Thrace, 
 falling into the Ister. — 2. A river in Bithynia. 
 
 Artaphemea (Aprai^eprTjs). 1. Son of Hys- 
 taspes and brother of Darius. He was satrap of 
 Sardis at the time of the Ionian revolt, b. c. 500. 
 See Aristagoras. — 2. Son of the former, com- 
 manded, along with Datis, the Persian army of 
 Darius, which was defeated at the battle of Mara- 
 thon, B. c. 490. Axtaphernes commanded the Ly* 
 dians and Mysians in the invasion of Greece by 
 Xerxes in 480. 
 
 Artarmum {Sallurg near Horaburg ?), a Roman 
 fortress in Germany on M. Taunus, built by Drusus 
 and restored by Germanicus. 
 
 Artavasdes ("ApraoutiffffTjs or 'ApTagaffSTjs) or 
 Artabazes ('AproffafTjy). 1. King of the Greater 
 Armenia, succeeded his father Tigranes. In the ex- 
 pedition of Crassus against the Parthians, b. c. 54, 
 Artavasdes was an ally of the Romans ; but after the 
 defeat of the latter, he concluded a peace with the 
 Parthian king. In 36 he joined Antony in his 
 campaign against the Parthians, and persuaded him 
 to invade Media, because he wa3 at enmity with 
 
 ARTAXERXES. 
 
 his namesake Artavasdes, king of Media ; but he 
 treacherously deserted Antony in the middle of the 
 campaign. Antony accordingly invaded Armenia in 
 34, contrived to entice Artavasdes into his camp, 
 wliere he was immediately seized, carried him to 
 Alexandria, and led him in triumph. He remained 
 in captivity till 30, when Cleopatra had hira killed 
 after the battle of Actium, and sent his head to 
 his old enem3', Artavasdes of Media, in hopes of 
 obtaining assistance from the latter. This Arta- 
 vasdes was well acquainted with Greek literature, 
 and wrote tmgedies, speeches, and historical works. 
 —3. King of Armenia, probably a grandson of 
 No. 1, was placed upon the throne by Augustus, 
 but was deposed by the Armenians.— 3. King of 
 Media Atropatene, and an enemy of Artavasdes I., 
 king of Armenia. Antony invaded his country 
 in 36, at the instigation of the Armenian king, but 
 he was obliged to retire with great loss. Arta- 
 vasdes afterwards concluded a peace with Anton}-, 
 and gave his daughter lotape in marriage to Alex- 
 ander, the son of Anton}'. Artavasdes was subse- 
 quently engaged in wars with the Parthians and 
 Armenians. He died shortly before 20. 
 
 Artaxata or -ae (ra 'Apra^ara, or -|taTa : Ru. 
 above Nalisliivan)^ the later capital of Great Ar- 
 menia, built by Artaxias, under the advice of, 
 Hannibal, on a peninsula, suiTounded by the river 
 Araxes. After being burnt by the Romans under 
 Corbulo (a. d. 58), it was restored by Tiridates^ 
 and called Neroniana. It was still standing in 
 the 4th century. 
 
 Artaxerxes orArtoxerxes (*ApTafep|?js or'Ap- 
 to|6p|t7s), the name of 4 Persian kings, is com- 
 pounded of Atia^ which means *' honoured," and 
 JCerires, which is the same as the Zend, ksathra, 
 "a king;" consequently Artaxerxes means "the 
 honoured king." — 1. Sumamed Long'imanus, 
 from the circumstance of his right hand being longer 
 than his left, reigned b. c. 465 — 425. He ascended 
 the throne after his father, Xerxes T., had been mur- 
 dered by Artabanus, and after he himself had put 
 to death his brother Darius on the instigation of Ar- 
 tabanus. His reign was disturbed by several dan- 
 gerous insurrections of the satraps. The Egyptians 
 also revolted in 460, under Inarus, who was sup- 
 ported by the Athenians. The first army which 
 Artaxerxes sent under his brother Achaemenes was 
 defeated and Achaemenes slain. The second army 
 which he sent, under Artabazus and Megabyzus, 
 was more successful. Inarus was defeated in 456 
 or 455, but Amyrtaeus, another chief of the insur- 
 gents, maintained himself in the marshes of Lower 
 Egypt. At a later period (449) the Athenians 
 under Cimon sent assistance to Amyrtaeus ; and 
 even after the death of Cimon, the Athenians gained 
 two victories Over the Persians, one by land and 
 the other by sea, in the neighbourhood of Salamis 
 in Cyprus. After this defeat Artaxerxes is said to 
 have concluded peace with the Greeks on terms 
 very advantageous to the latter. Artaxerxes was 
 succeeded by his son Xerxes II. — 3. Sumamed 
 Mnemon, from his good memory, succeeded his 
 father, Darius II., and reigned b. c. 405 — 359. 
 Cyrus, the younger brother of Artaxerxes, whi/ 
 was satrap of W. Asia, revolted against his brother, 
 and, supported by Greek mercenaries, invaded 
 Upper Asia. In the neighbourhood of Cunaxa, near 
 Babylon, a battle was fought between the armies 
 of the two brothers, in which Cyrus fell, B. c. 401. 
 [Cyrus.] Tisaaphernes was appointed satrap of, 
 
AllTAXIAS. 
 
 \V. Asia in tTie place of Cynis, and was actively 
 engaged in -wars with the Greeks. [Thimbron ; 
 Dercyllidas ; Agesila US.] Notwithstanding 
 these pei-petual conflicts with the Greeks, the Per- 
 sian empire maintained itself by the disunion 
 among the Greeks themselves, which was fomented 
 and kept up by Persian money. The peace of An- 
 talcidaa, in b. c. 388, gave the Persians even 
 greater power and influence than they had pos- 
 sessed before. [Antalcidas.] But the empire 
 was suffering from internal disturbances, and Ar- 
 taxerxes had to carry on frequent wars with tribu- 
 tary princes and satraps, who endeavoured to make 
 themselves independent. Thus he maintained a 
 long struggle against Evagoras of Cyprus, from 305 
 to 376 ; he also had to carry on war against the 
 Cardusians, on the shores of the Caspian sea ; and 
 his attempts to recover Egypt were unsuccessful. 
 Towards the end of his reign he put to death his 
 eldest son Darius, who had formed a plot to assas- 
 sinate him. His last days were still further em- 
 bittered by the unnatural conduct of his son Ochus, 
 who caused the destruction of two of his brothers, 
 in order to secure the succession for himself. Ar- 
 taxerxes was succeeded by Ochus, who ascended 
 the throne under the name of Artaxerxes III.—- 3. 
 Also called Ochus, reigned b. c. 359 — 338. In 
 order to secure his throne, he began his reign with 
 a merciless extii-pation of the members of his fa- 
 mily. He himself was a cowardly and reckless 
 despot ; and the great advantages which the Per- 
 sian arms gained during his reign, were owing only 
 to his Greek generals and mercenaries. These ad- 
 vantages consisted in the conquest of the revolted 
 satrap Artabazus [Autabazus, No. 4], and in the 
 reduction of Phoenicia, of several revolted towns in 
 Cyprus, and of Egypt, 350. The reins of govern- 
 ment were entirely in the hands of the eunuch 
 Bagoas, and of Mentor the Rhodian. At last he 
 was poisoned by Bagoas, and was succeeded by his 
 youngest son, Arses. — 4. The founder of the dy- 
 nasty of the Sassanidae. 
 
 Axtaxias CApra^ias) or Artaxes ('ApTa|T]s), 
 the name of 3 kings of Armenia. ^1. The founder 
 of the Armenian kingdom, was one of the generals 
 of Antiochus the Great, but revolted from him 
 about B.C. 180, and became an independent so- 
 vereign. Hannibal took refuge at the coiu:t of 
 Artaxias, and he superintended the building of 
 Autaxata, the capital of Annenia. ArtaxJas was 
 conquered and taken prisoner by Antiochus IV. 
 Epiphanes, about 1G5.— 2. Son of Artavasdes, 
 was made king by the Armenians when his father 
 was taken prisoner by Antony in 34. In 20 Au- 
 gustus, at the request of the Armenians, sent Ti- 
 berius into Armenia, in order to depose Artaxias 
 and place Tigranes on the throne, but Artaxias was 
 put to death before Tiberius reached the country. 
 Tiberius, however, took the credit to himself of a 
 successful expedition: whence Horace [Epist i. 
 12. 26) says, Claudi viiiutc Ncronis Armenias ceci- 
 dit. — 3. Son of Polemon, king of Pontus, was pro- 
 claimed king of Annenia by Germanicus, in a. d. 
 18. He died about 35. 
 
 Artayctes ('ApraiSKTTjs), Persian governor of 
 Sestus on the Hellespont, when the town was taken 
 by the Greeks in e.c. 478, met with an ignomi- 
 nious death on account of the sacrilegious acts which 
 he had committed against the tomb of the hero 
 frotesilaus. 
 
 Artemidorus (*ApTejj.idwpos). 1. Siimamed 
 
 ARTEMIS. 
 
 93 
 
 Aristophanius, from his being a disciple of the 
 celebrated grammarian Aristophanes, was himself 
 a grammarian, and the author of several works now 
 lost. ^2. Of Cuidus, a friend of Julius Caesar, 
 was a rhetorician, and taught the Greek language 
 at Rome. — 3. Baldianus, a native of Ephesus, 
 but called Daldianus, from Daldis in Lydia, his 
 mother's birth-place, to distinguish him from the 
 geographer Artemidorus. He lived at Rome in the 
 reigns of Antoninus Pius and M. Aurelius (a. d. 1 38- 
 — 180), and wrote a work on the interpretation of 
 dreams {'OvupoKpiTiKo), in 5 books, which is still 
 extant. The object of the work is to prove, that, 
 the future is revealed to man in dreams, and to 
 clear the science of interpreting them from the- 
 abuses with which the fashion of the time had sur- 
 rounded it. The style is simple, coiTect, and ele- 
 gant. The best edition is by Reiff, Lips. 1805. 
 — 4. Of Ephestis, a Greek geographer, lived 
 about B.C. 100. He made voyages round the- 
 coasts of the Mediterranean, in the Red Sea, and 
 apparently even in the S. ocean. He also visited 
 Iberia and Gaul. The work, in which he gav& 
 the results of his investigations, consisted of 11 
 books, of which Marcianus afterwards made an 
 abridgement. The original work is lost ; but we 
 possess fragments of Marcianus"" abridgement, which 
 contain the periplus of the Pontus Euxinus, and 
 accounts of Bithynia and Paphlagonia. These 
 fi-agments are printed in Hudson's Geograpld Mi~^ 
 nores^ vol. i. 
 
 Artemis (*'ApTe/uts), one of the great divinities 
 of the Greeks. According to the most ancient 
 account, she was the daughter of Zeus and Leto, 
 and the twin-sister of Apollo, born with him in 
 the island of Delos. She was regarded in various 
 points of view by the Greeks, which must be care- 
 fully distinguished. — 1. AHemis as tltc sister of 
 ApoUo, is a kind of female Apollo, that is, she as a 
 female divinity represented the same idea that 
 Apollo did as a male divinity. As sister of Apollo, 
 Artemis is like her brother armed with a bow, 
 (juiver, and arrows, and sends plagues and death 
 among men and animals. Sudden deaths, but 
 more especially those of women, are described as 
 the eflFect of her arrows. As Apollo was not only 
 a destructive god, hut also averted evils, so Artemis 
 likewise cured and alleviated the sufferings of 
 mortals. In the Trojan war she sided, like Apollo, 
 with the Trojans. She was more especially the 
 protectress of the young ; and from her watching 
 over the young of females, she came to be regarded 
 as the goddess of the flocks and the chase. In this 
 manner she also became the huntress among the 
 immortals. Artemis, like Apollo, is unmarried ; 
 she is a maiden- divinity never conquered by love- 
 She slew Orion with her arrows, according to one 
 account, because he made an attempt upon her 
 cliastity ; and she changed Actaeon into a stag,, 
 simply because he had seen her bathing. With, 
 her brother Apollo, she slew the children of Niobe, 
 who had deemed herself superior to Leto. When 
 Apollo was regarded as identical with the sun 
 or Helios, nothing was more natural than that his 
 sister should be regarded as Selene or the moon, 
 and accordingly the Greek Artemis is, at least in 
 later times, the goddess of the moon. Hence 
 Artemis is represented in love with the fair youth 
 Endymion, whom she kissed in his sleep, but this 
 legend properly relates to Selene or the ^ioon, and 
 is foreign to the character of Artemis, who, -.*.yjp_ 
 
94 
 
 ARTEMISIA. 
 
 have observed, was a goddess unmoved by love. — 
 2. TJie Arcadian Artemisia a goddess of the nymphs, 
 and was worshipped as such in Arcadia in very early 
 times. She hunted, with her nymphs on the Ar- 
 cadian mountains, and her chariot was dra\vn by 
 4 stags with golden antlers. There was no con- 
 nection between the Arcadian Artemis and Apollo, 
 — 3. Tlie Tanrian Artemis, The worship of this 
 goddess was connected, at least in early times, with 
 human sacrifices. According to the Greek legend 
 there was in Tauris a goddess, whom the Greeks 
 for some reason identified with their own Artemis, 
 and to whom all strangers thrown on the coast of 
 Tauris were sacrificed. Iphigenia and Orestes 
 brought her image from thence, and landed at 
 Brauron in Attica, whence the goddess derived the 
 name of Brauronia. The Brauronian Artemis was 
 worshipped at Athens and Sparta, and in the latter 
 place the boys were scourged at her altar till it was 
 besprinkled with their blood. This cruel ceremony 
 was believed to have been introduced by Lycurgus, 
 instead of the human sacrifices which had until 
 then been offered to her. Iphigenia, who was at 
 first to have been sacrificed to Artemis, and who then 
 became her priestess, was afterwards identified with 
 the goddess, who was worshipped in some parts of 
 Greece, as at Hermione, under the name of Iphi- 
 genia. Some traditions stated that Artemis made 
 Iphigenia immortal, in the character of Hecate, the 
 igoddess of the moon. ■ — 4. The EpJiesian Artemis, 
 was a divinity totally distinct from the Greek god- 
 dess of the same name. She seems to have been 
 the personification of the fructifying and all-nourish- 
 ing powers of nature. She was an ancient Asiatic 
 divinity whose worship the Greeks found esta- 
 blished in Ionia, when they settled there, and to 
 whom they gave the name of Artemis. Her ori- 
 ginal character is sufficiently clear from the fact, 
 that her priests were eunuchs, and that her image 
 in the magnificent temple of Ephesus represented 
 her with vian^ breasts (TroAufxaaThs). The repre- 
 sentations of the Greek Artemis in works of art 
 are different according as she is represented either 
 as a huntress, or as the goddess of the moon. As 
 the huntress, she is tall, nimble, and has small 
 hips ; her forehead is high, her eyes glancing 
 freely about, and her hair tied up, with a few locks 
 floating down her neck ; her breast is covered, 
 and the legs up to the knees are naked, the rest 
 being covered by the chlarays. Her attributes 
 are the bow, quiver, and arrows, or a spear, stags, 
 and dogs. As the goddess of the moon, she wears 
 a long robe which reaches down to her feet, a veil 
 covers her head, and above her forehead rises the 
 crescent of the moon. In her hand she often ap- 
 pears holding a torch. The Romans identified their 
 goddesa Diana with the Greek Artemis, 
 
 Artemisia ('Apre/xio-ia). 1, Daughter of Lyg- 
 damis, and queen of Halicarnassus in Caria, accom- 
 panied Xerxes in his invasion of Greece, with 5 
 ahips, and in the battle of Salamis (b, g. 480) 
 greatly distinguished herself by her prudence and 
 courage, for which she was afterwards highly ho- 
 noured by the Persian king. — 3. Daughter of 
 Hecatomnus, and sister, wife, and successor of the 
 Garian prince Mausolus, reigned b. c. 352 — 350. 
 She is renowned in history for her extraordinary 
 grief at the death of her husband Mausolus. She 
 is said to have mixed his ashes in her daily drink ; 
 and to perpetuate his memory she built at Hali- 
 carnassus the celebrated monument, Mattsoleicm, 
 
 AKXUAiNDA. 
 
 which was regarded as one of the 7 wonders of the 
 world, and whose name subsequently became the 
 generic term for any splendid sepulchral monument. 
 
 ArtemisiTUU. (jApTeiila-ioi/), properly a temple of 
 Artemis. 1. A tract of country on the N. coast of 
 Euboea,opposite Magnesia, so called from the temple 
 of Artemis belonging to the town of Hestiaea : oflf 
 this coast the Greeks defeated the fleet of Xerxes, 
 B. c. 480,-3. A promontory of Caria near the 
 gulf Glaucus, so called from the temple of Artemia 
 in its neighbourhood. 
 
 Artemita (^AprejutTa). — 1. {Shereban9) a city 
 on the Sillas, in the district of ApoUoniatis in 
 Assyria. — 2. A city of Great Armenia, S. of the 
 lake Arsissa. 
 
 ArtemSn (jApTe/iiav), a Lacedaemonian, built 
 the military engines for Pericles in his war against 
 Samos in B.C. 441. — There were also several 
 writers of this name, whose works are lost. 
 
 M. Artorius, a physician at Rome, was the 
 friend and physician of Augustus, whom he at- 
 tended in his campaign against Brutus and Cassius, 
 B. c. 42. He was drowned at sea shortly after the 
 battle of Actium, 31. 
 
 Arvemi, a Gallic people in Aquitania in the 
 country of the M. Cebenna, in the modern Au- 
 vergne. In early times they were the most 
 powerful people in the S. of Gaul : they were 
 defeated by Domitius Ahenobarbus and Fabius 
 Maximus in B.C. 121, but still possessed consider- 
 rable power in the time of Caesar (58). Their ca- 
 pital was Nemossus, also named Augustonemetum 
 or Arverni on the Elaver {Allier\ with a citadel, 
 called at least in the middle ages Clams Mons, 
 whence the name of the modem town, Clermont. 
 
 Arvina, a cognomen of the Cornelia gens, borne 
 by several of the Comelii, of whom the most im- 
 portant was A. Cornelius Cossus Arvina, consul 
 B. c. 343 and 322, and dictator 320. He com- 
 manded the Roman armies against the Samnites, 
 whom he defeated in several battles. 
 
 Anms, an Etrascan word, was regarded by the 
 Romans as a proper name, but perhaps signified a 
 younger son in general. ^1. Younger brother of 
 Lucumo, i. e. L. TarquiniusPriscus. — 2. Younger 
 brother of L. Tarquinius Superbus, was murdered 
 by his wife. ^3. Younger son of Tarquinius Su- 
 perbus, fell in combat with Brutus. — 4. Son of 
 Porsena, fell in battle before Aricia. — 5. Of Clu- 
 sium, invited the Gauls across the Alps. 
 
 Arnntius. [Arrunttus.] 
 
 Arusianus, Messus or Messius, a Roman gram- 
 marian, lived about a. d. 450, and wrote a Latin 
 phrase-book, entitled Quadriga^ vel Exem-pJa Elo- 
 cuiionum ex Virgilio^ Sallusiio, 'ferentio, et Cicerone 
 •per litems digesta. It is called Quadriga from its 
 being composed from 4 authors. The best edition 
 is by Lindemann, in his Corpus Grammaticomtm 
 Latin, vol. i. p. 199. 
 
 Arxata ('Aplara: Nalcshivan), the capital of 
 Great Annenia, before the building of Artaxata, 
 lay lower down upon the Araxes, on the confines of 
 Media. 
 
 Aryandes {^ApvdySfjs), a Persian, who was ap- 
 pointed by Cambyses governor of Egypt, but was 
 put to death by Darius, because he coined silver 
 money of the purest metal, in imitation of the gold 
 money of that monarch. 
 
 Axycanda (ApvKavda), a small town of Lycia, 
 E. of Xanthus, on the river Arj-'candus, a tributary 
 of the Limyrus. 
 
Aizanene (^' Ap^avqvrj), a district of Armenia 
 Major, bounded on the S. by the Tigris, on the W. 
 by the Nymphius, and containing in it the lake 
 Arsene {*ApaT]i"l} : Erzen). It formed part of 
 
 GORDYENE. 
 
 Arzen or -es, or Atranutzin (^Kp^iiv, "hpQes, 
 *Arpa.vovr^iv : Erzeroum)^ a strong fortress in Great 
 Armenia, near the sources of the Euphrates and 
 the Araxes, founded in the Sth century. 
 
 Asaei ('Acraroi), a people of Sarmatia Asiatica, 
 near the mouth of the Tana'is {Don). 
 
 Asander (^Acraydpos). 1. Son of Philotas, bro- 
 ther of Parmenion, and one of the generals of Alex- 
 ander the Great. After the death of Alexander in 
 323 he obtained Caria for his satrapy, and took an 
 active part in the wars which followed. He joined 
 Ptolemy and Cassander in their league against 
 Antigonus, but was defeated by Antigonus in 313, 
 ^ 2. A general of Phamaces II., king of Bos- 
 porus. He put Pharnaces to death in 47, after the 
 defeat of the latter by Julius Caesar, in hopes of 
 obtaining the kingdom. But Caesar conlerred the 
 kingdom upon Mithridates of Pergamus, with whom 
 Asander carried on war. Augustus afterwards 
 confirmed Asander in the sovereignty. 
 
 Asbystae QAdSiiarai)^ a Libyan people, in the 
 N. of Cyrenaica. Their country vras called 'Air- 
 
 Asca (*A(rKa), a city of Arabia Felix, 
 
 Ascalabus, son of Misme, respecting whom the 
 same story is told, which we also find related of 
 Abas, son of Metanlra. [Abas. No. 1.] 
 
 Ascalapbus ('AtrKa\ct(f>os). 1. Son of Ares and 
 Astyoche, led, with his brother lalmenug, the Mi- 
 nyans of Orchomenos against Troy, and was slain 
 by De'iphobus. ^ 2. Son of Acheron and Gorgyra 
 or Orphne. When Persephone was in the lower 
 world, and Pluto gave her permission to return to 
 the upper, provided she had not eaten anything, 
 Ascalaphus declared that she had eaten part of a 
 pomegranate. Demeter punished him by burying 
 him tmder a huge stone, and when this stone was 
 subsequently removed by Hercules, Persephone 
 changed him into an owl (atr/cdAaf^os), by sprink- 
 ling him with water from the river Phlegethon, 
 
 Ascalon {'AtTKahuv : 'AffKaKuveirTjs : Askaldn), 
 one of the chief cities of the Philistines, on the 
 coast of Palestine, between Azotus and Gaza. 
 
 Ascania (^ 'AaKuvla \lfjLvri), 1. (Lalce oflznik), 
 in Bithynia, a great fresh-water lake, at the E. 
 end of which stood the city of Nicaea (Iznik). The 
 surrounding district was also called Ascania. — 2. 
 (Lake of Btirdur), a salt-water lake on the borders 
 of Phrygia and Pisidia, which supplied the neigh- 
 bouring country with salt. 
 
 Ascanius ('Acrxtti'ios), son of Aeneas by Creusa. 
 According to some traditions, Ascanius remained 
 in Asia after tlie fall of Troy, and reigned either 
 at Troy itself or at some other town in the neigh- 
 bourhood. According to other accounts he accom- 
 panied his father to Italy. Other traditions again 
 gave the name of Ascanius to the son of Aeneas 
 and Lavinia. Livy states that on the death of his, 
 father Ascanius was too young to undertake the 
 government, and that after he had attained the 
 age of manhood, he left Lavinium in the hands of 
 his mother, and migrated to Alba Longa. Here 
 he was succeeded by his son Silvius. Some writers 
 relate that Ascanius was also called Ilus or Julus. 
 The gens Julia at Rome traced its origin &om 
 Julus or Ascanius. 
 
 ASUUKia. 
 
 95 
 
 Asciburgium {Ashurg near M'ors), an ancient 
 place on the left bank of the Rhine, founded, ac- 
 cording to fable, hy Ulysses. 
 
 Ascii (fiiTKioi, i. e. shadowless)^ a term applied 
 to the people living about the Equator, between the 
 tropics, who have, at certain times of the year, the 
 sun in their zenith at noon, when consequently 
 erect objects can cast no shadow. 
 
 .Asclepiiadae, the reputed descendants of Aes- 
 culapius. ^ [Aesculapius.] 
 
 Asclepmdea ("Ao-KAijTridSTjs). 1. A lyric poet, 
 who is said to have invented the metre called after 
 him (Metrum Asclepiadeujii), but of whose life no 
 particulars are recorded.^2. Of Tragilus in Thrace, 
 a contemporary and disciple of Isocrates, about B- c. 
 360, wrote a work called TpaytjiSov/xeva in 6 books, 
 being an explanation of the subjects of the Greek 
 tragedies.— 3. Of Myrlea in Bithynia, in the middle 
 of the first century B. c, wrote several grammatical 
 works. -^ 4. There were a great many physicians 
 of this name, the most celebrated of whom was a 
 native of Bithynia, who came to Rome in the 
 middle of the first century B. C-, where he acquired 
 a great reputation by his successful cures. Nothing 
 remains of his writings but a few fragments pub- 
 lished by Oum]/eTt, Asdepiadis Bithyni Fragmenta, 
 Vinar. 17.94. 
 
 Asclepiodoms (*A{r/cA?j7r((J5&jpos). 1. A general 
 of Alexander the Great, afterwards made satrap of 
 Persia by Antigonus, B. c. 317.^2. A celebrated 
 Athenian painter, a contemporary of Apelles. 
 
 Asolepius. [Aesculapius.] 
 
 Q. Asconius Pedianus, a Roman gralmmarian, 
 bom at Patavium (Padua), about B. c. 2, lost his 
 sight in his 73rd year in the reign of Vespasian, 
 and died in his 85th year in the reign of Domi- 
 tian. His most important work was a Commentary 
 on the speeches of Cicero, and we still possess frag- 
 ments of his Commentaries on the Divinatio, the 
 first 2 speeches against Verres, and a portion of 
 the third, the speeches for Cornelius (i. ii.), the 
 speech In toga Candida, for Scaurus, against Piso, 
 and for Milo. They are written in very pure lan- 
 guage, and refer chiefly to points of history and 
 antiquities, great pains being bestowed on the 
 illustration of those constitutional forms of the se- 
 nate, the popular assemblies, and the courts of 
 justice, which were fast falling into oblivion under 
 the empire. This character, however, does not 
 apply to the notes on the Verrine orations, which 
 were probably written by a later grammarian. 
 Edited in the 5th volume of Cicero's works by 
 Orelli and Baiter. There is a valuable essay on 
 Asconius by Madvig, Hafniae, 1828. 
 
 Aacordus, a river in Macedonia, which rises in 
 M. Olympus and flows between Agassa and Dium 
 into the Thermaic gulf. 
 
 Ascra ('Aa-xpa : 'A<rKpa7os), a to^vn in Boeotia 
 on M. Helicon, where Hesiod resided, who had 
 removed thither with his father from Cyme in 
 Aeolis, and who is therefore called Ascraeus. 
 
 Asciilum. 1. Picenum (Asculanus; Ascoli), 
 the chief toivn of Picenum and a Roman munici- 
 pium, v/as destroyed by the Romans in the SociaJ 
 War (b. c. 89), but was afterwards rebuilt. — 2. 
 Apulum (Asculinus : Ascoli di Satriano), a town of 
 Apulia in Daunia on the confines of Samnium, 
 near which the Romans were defeated by Pyrrhus, 
 B. c. 279. 
 
 Ascuris (&e;-o), a lake in M. Olympus in 
 Perrhaebia in Thessaly, near Lapathua 
 
S6 
 
 ASDRUBAL. 
 
 Asdrubal. [Hasdrub.al.] 
 
 Asea (7; 'Acreo), a town in Arcadia, not far 
 from Megalopolis. 
 
 Asellio, P. Sempronius, tribune of the soldiers 
 under P. Scipio Africanus at Numantia, b. c. 133, 
 ■wrote a Roman history from the Punic wars in- 
 clusive to the times of the Gracchi, 
 
 Asellus, Tib. Claudius, a Roman eques, was 
 deprived of his horse by Scipio Africanus Minor, 
 when censor, B.C. 142, and in his tribuneship of 
 the plebs in 139 accused Scipio Africanus before 
 the people. 
 
 Aaia. (Atr/a), daughter of Oceanus and Tethys, 
 ■wife of lapetus, and mother of Atlas, Prometheus, 
 and Epimetheus. According to some traditions, 
 the continent of Asia derived its name from her. 
 
 Asia CAaia: 'Atneur, -toftfy, -(aTT^y, -ar iko s : 
 Asia), also in the poets Asis ('otr/s), one of the 3 
 great divisions which the ancients made of the 
 known world. It is doubtful whether the name 
 is of Greek or Eastern origin ; but, in either case, 
 it seems to have been first used by the Greeks for 
 the W. part of Asia Minor, especially the plains 
 Tvatered by the river Cayster, where the Ionian 
 colonists first settled ; and thence, as their geogra- 
 phical knowledge advanced, they extended it to 
 the whole country E., N.E., and S.E. The first 
 knowledge which the Greeks possessed of the op- 
 posite shores of the Aegean Sea dates before the 
 earliest historical records. The legends respecting 
 the Argonautic and the Trojan expeditions, aud o^her 
 mythical stories, on the one hand, and the allusions 
 to commercial and other intercourse with the peo- 
 ple of Asia Minor, Syria, and Egypt, on the other 
 hand, indicate a certain degree of knowledge of the 
 coast from the mouth of the Phasis, at the E. ex- 
 tremity of the Black Sea, to the mouth of the 
 Kile. This knowledge was improved and increased 
 'by the colonization of the W., N., and S. coasts of 
 Asia Minor, and by the relations into which these 
 Greek colonies were brought, first with the Lj'dian, 
 and then with the Persian empires, so that, in the 
 middle of the 5th century b. c, Herodotus was able 
 to give a pretty complete description of the Persian 
 empire, and some imperfect accomits of the parts 
 beyond it ; while some knowledge of S. Asia was 
 obtained by way of Egypt ; and its N. regions, 
 ■with their wandering tribes, formed the subject of 
 marvellous stories which the traveller heard from 
 the Greek colonists on the N. shores of the Black 
 Sea. The conquests of Alexander, besides the 
 personal acquaintance which they enabled the 
 Greeks to fonn with those provinces of the Persian 
 empire hitherto only known to them by report, 
 extended their knowledge over the regions watered 
 by the Indus and its 4 great tributaries {tJie Pun- 
 jab and Scinde) ■ the lower course of the Indus 
 and the shores between its mouth and the head of 
 the Persian Gulf were explored by Nearchus ; and 
 some fuither knowledge was gained of the nomad 
 tribes which roamed (as they still do) over the 
 vast steppes of Central Asia by the attempt of 
 Alexander to penetrate on the N.E. beyond the 
 Jaxartes {Silcoun) ; while, on all points, the Greeks 
 ■were placed in advanced positions from which to 
 acquire further information, especially at Alexan- 
 dria, whither voyagers constantly brought accounts 
 of the shores of Arabia and India, as far as the is- 
 land of Taprobane, and even beyond this, to t!ie 
 Malay peninsula and the coasts of Cochin China. 
 On the E. and N, the wars and commerce of the 
 
 ASIA. 
 
 Greek kingdom of Syria carried Greek knowledge 
 of Asia no further, except in the direction of India 
 to a small extent, but of course more acquaintance 
 was gained with the countries already subdued, 
 until the conquests of the Parthians shut out the 
 Greeks from the country E. of the Tigris-valley ; 
 a limit which the Romans, in their turn, were 
 never able to pass. They pushed their arms, how- 
 ever, further N. than the Greeks had done, inta 
 the mountains of Armenia, and they gained in- 
 formation of a great caravan route between India 
 and the shores of the Caspian, through Bactria, 
 and of another commercial track leading over Cen- 
 tral Asia to the distant regions of the iSeres. This 
 brief sketch will show that all the accurate know- 
 ledge of the Greeks and Romans respecting Asia 
 was confined to the countries which slope down 
 S.-wards from the great mountain-chain foi-med by 
 the Caucasus and its prolongation bej-^ond the Cas- 
 pian to the Himalayas ; of the vast elevated steppes 
 between these mountains and the central range of 
 the Altai (from which the N. regions of Siberia 
 again slope down to the Arctic Ocean) they only 
 knew that they were inhabited by nomad tribes, 
 except the country directly N. of Ariana, where 
 the Persian empire had extended beyond the 
 mountain- chain, and where the Greek kingdom of 
 Bactria had been subsequently established. — The 
 notions of the ancients respecting the size and form 
 of Asia were such as might be inferred from what 
 has been stated. Distances computed from the ac- 
 counts of travellers are always exaggerated ; and 
 hence the S. part of the continent was supposed to 
 extend much further to the E. than it really does 
 (about 60" of long, too much, according to Pto- 
 lemy), while to the N. and N.E. parts, which 
 were quite unknown, much too small an extent was 
 assigned. However, all the ancient geographers, 
 except Pliny, agreed in considering it the largest 
 of the 3 divisions of the world, and all believed it 
 to be surrounded by the ocean, with the curious 
 exception of Ptolemy, who recurred to the early 
 notion, which we find in the poets, that the E. 
 parts of Asia and the S.E. parts of Africa were 
 united by land which enclosed the Indian Ocean on 
 the E. and S. The different opinions about the 
 boundaries of Asia on the side of Africa are men- 
 tioned under Africa : on the side of Europe the 
 boundary was formed by the river Tanais (Don)^ 
 the Palus Macotis {Sea of Azof), Pontus Euxinus 
 {Black Sea), Propontis (Sea of Marmora), and 
 the Aegean {AreUpclago). — The most general 
 division of Asia was into 2 parts, which were 
 diiferent at different times, and kno\vn by different 
 names. To the earliest Greek colonists the river 
 Halys, the E. boundary of the Lydian kingdom, 
 formed a natural division between Upper and 
 Loiver Asia (77 S-yea A., or ra 6.1/0} 'AtriT^s, and t\ 
 KOLTui 'A,, or ra Karco rfjy Act/tji, or *A. tj ivrhs 
 "A\uos TTora^oD) ; and afterwards the Euphrates 
 was adopted as a more natural boundai"}-. Another 
 division was made by the Tauras into A. intra 
 Taurum, i. e. the part of Asia N. and N.W. of tlie 
 Taurus, and .4. ej-;7-a Taimun, all the rest of the 
 continent ('A. ivr^s rov Tavpou, and A. ^Krhs rod 
 Tavpov). The division ultimately adopted, but 
 apparently not till the 4th century of our ern, was 
 that of A. Major and A . Minor. — -1. Asia Major 
 ('A. tJ fjLeyd\-n) was the part of the continent E. of 
 the Tanais, the Euxine, an imaginary line drawn 
 from the Euxine at Trapezua {J'rGJrixond) to the 
 
ASINARUS 
 
 Gulf of Issus, and tlie Mediterranean : thus it in- 
 cluded the countries of Sarmatica Aslatica with all 
 the Scythian tribes to the E., Colchis, Iberia, Al- 
 bania, Armenia, Syria, Arabia, Babylonia, Meso- 
 potamia, Assyria, Media, Susiana, Persis, Ariana, 
 Hyrcania, Margiana, Bactriana, Sogdiana, India, 
 the land of the Sinae and Serica ; respecting which, 
 see the several articles. — 2. Asia Hinor ('Aala r) 
 fj.iicpd: A7iatolia\ was the peninsula on the extreme 
 W. of Asia, bounded by the Euxine, Aegean, and 
 MediteiTanean on the N., W., and S. ; and on the 
 E. by the moimtains on the W. of tlie upper course 
 of the Euphrates. It was for the most part a fer- 
 tile country, intersected with mountains and rivers, 
 abounding in minerals, possessing excellent har- 
 bours, and peopled, from the earliest known period, 
 by a variety of tribes from Asia and from Europe. 
 For particulars respecting the countr}', the reader 
 is referred to the separate articles upon the parts 
 into which it was divided by the later Greeks, 
 namely, Mysia, Lydia, and Caria, on the W., Ly- 
 cia, Pamphylia, and Cilicia, on the S. ; BIthynia, 
 Paphlagonia, and Pontus, on the E. ; and Phrygia, 
 Pisidia, Galatia, and Cappadocia, in the centre : 
 see also the articles Troas,Aeolij\, Ionia, Boria, 
 Lycaonia, PergamuSiHalvs, SangariuSjTau- 
 Kus, &c. ^ 3. Asia Propria ('A. tj iZ'ms KaKov- 
 iJ.^VT}\ or simply Asia, the Roman province, formed 
 ■out of the kingdom of Pergamus, which was be- 
 queathed to the Romans by Attalus III. (b. c. 
 130), and the Greek cities on the W. coast, and the 
 tidjacent islands, with Rhodes. It included the 
 districts of Mysia, Lydia, Caria, and Phrygia; and 
 "was governed at first by propraetors, afterwards by 
 proconsuls. Under Constantine the Great, a new 
 division was made, and Asia only extended along 
 the coast from the Prom. Lectum to the mouth of 
 the Maeander. 
 
 Asinarus (*Ao-iVopoj: Fiume diNoio or Fred- 
 do ?), a river on the E. side of Sicily, on which the 
 Athenians were defeated by the Syracusans, b. c. 
 413: the Syracusans celebrated here an annual 
 festival called Asinaria. 
 
 Asiue (^Kffivri: 'AaivaTos). 1. A town in La- 
 conica on the coast between Taenarum and Gy- 
 thium.^2. A town in Argolis, W. of Hermione, 
 was built by the Dryopes, who were driven out of 
 the town by the Argives after the first Messenian 
 ■war, and built No. 3.-3. (Sara(za9% an important 
 town in Messenia, near the Promontory Acritas, 
 on the Messenian gulf, which was hence also called 
 the Asinaean gulf. 
 
 Asinia Gens, plebeian, came from Teate, the 
 chief town of the Marrucini ; and the first person 
 of the name mentioned is Herius Asinius, the leader 
 of the Marrucini in the Marsic war, u. c. 90. The 
 Aainii are given under their surnames, Gallus 
 and PoLLio. 
 
 Asius ("Afftos). 1. Son of Hyrtacus of Arisbe, 
 and father of Acaraas and Phaenops, an ally of the 
 Trojans, slain by Idomeneus. — 2. Son of Dymas 
 and brother of Hecuba, whose form Apollo assumed 
 when he roused Hector to fight against Patroclus. 
 — 3. Of Samos, one of the earliest Greek poets, 
 lived probably about b. c. 700. He wrote epic 
 and elegiac poems, which have perished with the 
 exception of a few fragments. 
 
 Asmiraea, a district and city of Serica in the N. 
 of Asia, near mountains called Asmiraei lUtontes, 
 which are supposed to be the AUai range, and the 
 city to be Khaviil, in the centre of Chinese Tartary. 
 
 ASP ASIUS. 
 
 97 
 
 Asopus (^AcrccirSs). 1. (BitsiWios)^ a river in 
 Peloponnesus rises near Phlins, and flows through 
 the Sicyonian territory into the Corinthian gulf, 
 Asopus, the god of this river^ was son of Oceanus 
 and Tethvs, husband of Metope, and father of 
 Evadne, Euboea, and Aegina, each of whom was 
 therefore called Asopis ('Acranris). When Zeus 
 carried off Aegina, Aesopus attempted to fight 
 with him, but he was smitten by the thunderbolt 
 of Zeus, and from that time the bed of the river 
 contained pieces of charcoal. By Aegina Asopus 
 became the grandfather of Aeacus, who is there- 
 fore called A.sopiades.^2. (Asopo)^ a river in 
 Boeotia, forms the N. boundar}' of the territory of 
 Plataeae, flows through the S. of Boeotia, and falls 
 into the Euboean sea near Delphinium in Attica. 
 — 3. A river in Phthiotis in Thessaly, rises m 
 M. Oeta, and flows into the Maliac gulf near 
 Thermopylae. ^ 4. A river in Phrj'gia, flows past 
 Laodicea into the Lycus. ^5. A town in Laconica 
 on the E, side of the Laconian gulf. 
 
 Aspadana CAa-JraSdva : Ispahaji?), a town of 
 the district Paraetacene in Persis. 
 
 Asparagium, (Isoarpar\ a town in the terri- 
 tory of Dyrrhachium in Illyria. 
 
 Aspasia CAa-iraa-ia). 1. The elder, of Miletus, 
 daughter of Axiochus, the most celebrated of the 
 Greek Hetaerae (see Diet. o/Antlq. s. v.), came to 
 reside at Athens, and there gained and fixed the 
 afltections of Pericles, not more by her beauty than 
 by her high mental accomplishments. Having 
 parted with his wife, Pericles attached himself to 
 Aspasia during the rest of his life as closely as was 
 allowed by the law, which forbade marriage with a 
 foreign woman imder severe penalties. The enemies 
 of Pericles accused Aspasia of impiety (acregeia), 
 and it required all the personal influence of Pericles, 
 who defended her, and his most earnest entreaties 
 and tears, to procure her acquittal. The house of 
 Aspasia was the centre of the best literary' and 
 philosophical society of Athens, and was frequented 
 even by Socrates. On the death of Pericles (b. c. 
 429), Aspasia is said to have attached herself to 
 one Lysicles, a dealer in cattle, and to have made 
 him by her instructions a first-rate orator. The 
 son of Pericles by Aspasia was legitimated by a 
 special decree of the people, and took his father's 
 name. — 2. The Younger, a Phocaean, daughter of 
 Hermotimiis, was the favourite concubine of Cynia 
 the Younger, who called her Aspasia after the 
 mistress of Pericles, her previous name having been 
 Milto. After the death of Cyrus at the battle of 
 Cunaxa (b. c. 401), she fell into the hands of Ar- 
 taxerxes, who likewise became deeply enamoured 
 of her. When Darius, son of Artaxerxes, was ap- 
 pomted successor to the throne, he asked his father 
 to surrender Aspasia to him. The request could 
 not be refused as coming from the king elect ; 
 Artaxerxes, therefore, gave her up ; but he soon 
 after took her away again, and made her a priestess 
 of a temple at Ecbatana, where strict ce^bacy waa 
 requisite. 
 
 Aspasii. [Aspii.] 
 
 Aspasius CAa-Trda-Los). 1. A peripatetic philo- 
 sopher, lived about a . d. 80, and wrote commentaries 
 on most of the works of Aristotle. A portion of 
 his commentaries on the Nicomachean Ethics is 
 still preserved. ^ 2. Of Byblus, a Greek sophist, 
 lived about a. d. 180, and wrote commentaries on 
 Demosthenes and Aeschines, of which a few ex- 
 tracts are preserved. 
 
98 
 
 ASPENDUS. 
 
 Aspendus {"Ao-irevdos: 'AcTTreVSioy, Aspendius: 
 Dashashkehr or Alanaugut), a strong and flourishing 
 city of Pamphylia, on the small navigable river 
 Eurymedon, 60 stadia (6 geog. miles) from its 
 mouth : said to have been a colony of the Argives. 
 Asper, Aemilius, a Roman grammarian, who 
 wrote commentaries on Terence and Virgil, must 
 be distinguished from another grammarian, usually 
 called Asper Junior^ the author of a small work 
 entitled Ars Grammatical printed in the Grammat. 
 Lat. Auciores, by Putschius, Hanov. 1605. 
 
 Asphaltites Lacus or Mare Mortuum ('Ac^aA- 
 TiTjy or ^odofUTis \i/x*''7, or rj ^aKcurtra ?} ycKpa), 
 the great salt and bituminous lalce in the S.E. of 
 Palestine, which receives the water of the Jordan. 
 It has no visible outlet, and its surface is consi- 
 derably below the level of the Mediterranean. 
 The tales about fish not living in it and birds 
 dropping down dead as they fly over it, are now 
 proved to be fabulous. 
 
 Aspii or Aspasii {"Affirioi, *A(r7rd(noi), an Indian 
 tribe, in the district of the Paroparaisadae, between 
 the rivers Choes (Kama) and Indus, in the N.E. 
 of Afghanistan and the N.W. of the Punjab. 
 
 Aspis (*Ao-7riy). 1. Clypea {Klibiah)^ a city 
 on a promontory of the same name, near the N.E. 
 point of the Carthaginian territory, founded by 
 Agathocles, and taken in the first Punic War by 
 the Romans, who called it Clypea, the translation 
 of 'Atr^ris^. — 2. {Marsa-Zafran^ Ru.), in the 
 African TripoHtana, the best harbour on the coast 
 of the GreatSyrtis.^3. [Arconnesus.] 
 
 Aspledon ('AcTrATjScii' ; ^PL<nr\r\Z6vf.Qs), or Sple- 
 don, a town of the Minyae in Boeotia on the river 
 Melas, near Orchoraenus ; built by the mythical 
 Aspledon, son of Poseidon and Midea, 
 
 Assa CAo-tra : *Ao"(ratoy), a town in Chalcidice 
 in Macedonia, on the Singitic gulf. 
 
 Assaceni fAo-croKTii'of), an Indian tribe, in the 
 district of the Paropamisadae, between the rivers 
 Copheu {Cabool) and Indus, in the N.W. of the 
 Punjab. 
 
 Assaracus ('Acro'apaKos), king of Troy, son of 
 Tros, father of Capys, grandfather of Anchises, and 
 great-grandfather of Aeneas. Hence the Romans, 
 as descendants of Aeneas, are called domus Assa- 
 raci (Virg. Aen. i. 284). 
 
 AsBesua ('Atro-rjo'tJs), a town of Ionia near Mi- 
 
 -""etus, with a temple of Athena sumamed 'Aaffriffia. 
 
 AsSQTCMB {'A(raQ}p6s OT^Affffcaptov ; 'Aa-a-upTuos: 
 
 Asaro), a small town in Sicily between Enna and 
 
 Agyrium. 
 
 Assus ("Aaaros : "Aa-ffios^ 'AttTeus: Asso, Ru., 
 near Berani)^ a flourishing city in the Troad, on 
 the Adramyttian Gulf, opposite to Lesbos : after- 
 wards called Apollonia : the birthplace of Cleanthes 
 tlie Stoic- 
 Assyria (*A(r<Tvpia : ^Acravpio^^ Assyrius ; Kur- 
 distan). 1. The country properly so called, in the 
 narrowest sense, was a district of W. Asia, extend- 
 ing along the E. side of the Tigris, which divided 
 it on the W. and N.W. from Mesopotamia and 
 Babylonia, and bounded on the N. and E. by M. 
 Niphates and M. Zagrus, which separated it from 
 Armenia and Media, and on the S.E. by Susiana. 
 It was watered by several streams, flowing into the 
 Tigris from the E. ; two of which, the Lycus or 
 Zabatus [Great Zab), and the Caprus or Zabas or 
 Anzabas [LittleZab]^ divided the country into three 
 parts : that between the Upper Tigris and the Lycus 
 was called Aturia (a mere dialectic variety of 
 
 ASTACUS. 
 
 Assyria), was probably the most ancient seat of the 
 monarchy, and contained the capital, Nineveh or 
 NiNUS: that between the Lycus andthe Caprus was 
 called Adiabene: and the part S.E. of the Caprus 
 contained the districts of Apolloniatis and Sittacene. 
 Another division into districts, given by Ptolemy, 
 is the following; Arrhapachitis, Calacine, Adiabene, 
 Arbelitis, Apolloniatis and Sittacene. — 2, In a 
 wider sense the name was applied to the whole 
 country watered by the Euphrates and the Tigris, 
 between the mountains of Armenia on the N.. those 
 of Kurdistan on the E., and the Arabian Desert 
 on the W., so as to include, besides Assyria Proper, 
 Mesopotamia and Babylonia ; nay, there is some- 
 times an apparent confusion between Assyria and 
 Syria, which gives ground for the supposition that 
 the terms were originally identical. ^ 3. By a 
 further extension the word is used to designate the 
 Assyrian Empire in its widest sense. The early 
 history of this great monarchy is too obscure to be 
 given here in any detail ; and indeed it is only 
 just now that new means of investigating it are 
 being acquired. The germ of this empire was one 
 of the first great states of whicli we have any re- 
 cord, and was probably a powerful and civilized 
 kingdom as early as Egypt. Its reputed founder 
 was Ninus, the builder of the capital city * and in 
 its widest extent it included the countries just 
 mentioned, with Media, Persis, and portions of 
 the countries to the E. and N.E., Armenia, Syria, 
 Phoenicia, and Palestine, except the kingdom of 
 Judah ; and, beyond these limits, some of the 
 Assyrian kings made incursions into Arabia and 
 Egj'pt. The fruitless expedition of Sennacherib 
 against the latter country and the miraculous de- 
 struction of his army before Jerusalem (b. c. 714), 
 so weakened the empire, that the Medes revolted 
 and formed a separate kingdom, and at last, in 
 B. c. 606, the governor of Babylonia united with 
 Cyaxares, the king of Media, to conquer Assyria, 
 which was divided between them, Assyria Proper 
 falling to the share of Media, and the rest of the 
 empire to Babylon. The Assyrian king and all 
 his family perished, and the city of Ninus was 
 rased to the ground. [Comp. Babylon and Me- ■ 
 DiA.] It must be noticed as a caution, that some 
 writers confound the Assyrian and Babylonian em- 
 pires under the former name. 
 
 Asta (Astensis). L {Asti in Piedmont), an in- 
 land town of Liguria on the Tanarus, a Roman 
 colony. ^2. {Mesa de Asia), a town in Hispania 
 Baetica, near Gades, a Roman colony with the sur- 
 name Hegia. 
 
 Astaboras (^ A(TTa.S6pas : Aibarc^ or Tacazza) 
 and Astapus (^Ao-raTrous, BaJir-el-Azak or Blue 
 Nile), two rivers of Aethiopia, having their sources 
 in the highlands of Abyssinia, and unitmg in about 
 17° N. Lat. to form the Nile. The land enclosed 
 by them was the island of Meroe. 
 
 Astacus {"AaraKos), fether of Ismarus, Leades, 
 Asphodicus, and Melanippus. 
 
 Astacus ("AffToKos: 'A<rraK7)v6s). 1. (Dra^ 
 gomestre)^ a city of Acamania, on the Acheloiis.— 
 2, A celebrated city of Bithynia, at the S.E. comer 
 of t\iQ Sinus Astacenus (^ AtrraKijuhs /ctJAiros), a bay 
 of the Propontis, was a colony from Megara, but 
 afterwards received fresh colonists from Athens, 
 who called the place Olbia COKSla), It was de- 
 stroyed by Lysimachus, but rebuilt onanelghbour- 
 ing site, at the N.E. comer of the gulf, by Nico- 
 medes I., whc named his new city Nicomedia. 
 
ASTAPA. 
 Astapa (Esiepa), a town in Hispania Baetica. 
 
 AstapUS. [ASTABORAS.] 
 
 Astarte. [ApHaoniTE and Syria Dea.] 
 
 Astelcphus {^A(TT€\ecpos\ a river of Colchis, 
 120 stadia ( 12 geog. miles) S. of Sebastopolis. 
 
 Asteria ('Ao-repia), daughter of the Titan Coeus 
 and Phoebe, sister of Leto (Latona), wife of Parses, 
 and mother of Hecate. In order to escape the em- 
 braces of Zeus, she is said to have taken the form 
 of a quail {ortyx^ oprv^), and to have thrown herself 
 doAvn from heaven into the sea, where she was 
 metamorphosed into the island Asteria (the island 
 which had fallen from heaven like a star), or Ortygia, 
 afterwards called Delos. 
 
 Asterion or Astenus (^Aareplwv or 'Aa-repLos). 
 1. Son of Teutamus, and king of the Cretans, mar- 
 ried Europa after she had been carried to Crete by 
 Zeus, and brought up the three sons, Minos, Sar- 
 pedon, and Rhadamanthys, whom she had by the 
 father of the gods. — 2. Son of Cometes, Pyremus, 
 or Priscus, by Antigone, daughter of Pheres, was 
 one of the Argonauta. 
 
 Asteris or Asteria {'Aarepis, 'AcTepia), a small 
 island between Ithaca and Cephallenia. 
 
 Asteritun {*A<TT4ptoy)j a town in Magnesia in 
 Thessaly. 
 
 Asteropaeus QAa-TepoTraios}^ son of Pelegon, 
 leader of the Paeonians, and an ally of the Trojans, 
 was slain by Achilles. 
 
 Aatigi, a town in Hispania Baetica on the river 
 Singulis, a Roman colony with the surname Aii^ 
 ffusia Firma. 
 
 Astraea (^A<TTpaXa\ daughter of Zeus and 
 Themis, or, according to others, of Astraeiis and 
 Eos. During the golden age, this star-bright 
 maiden lived on earth and among men, whom she 
 blessed ; but when that age had passed away, 
 Astraea, who tarried longest amongst men, with- 
 drew, and was placed among the stars, where 
 she was called XiapQivos or Virgo. Her sister 
 AiSoJs or Pudicitia, left the earth along with her 
 (ad superos Astraea recessit^ hoc {Pudicitia) comite^ 
 Juv. vi. 19). 
 
 Astraeus (^Ao-TpoTos), a Titan, son of Crius and 
 Eurybia, husband of Eos (Aurora), and father of 
 the winds Zephyrus, Boreas, and Notus, Eosphorus 
 (the morning star) and all the stars of heaven. 
 Ovid (Met. xiv. 545) calls the winds Astraei (adj.) 
 fraires^ the " Astraean brothers." 
 
 Astiira. 1. {La Stura), a river in Latium, rises 
 in the Alban mountains, and flows between Antium 
 and Circeii into the Tyrrhenian sea. At its mouth 
 it formed a small island with a town upon it, also 
 called Astura {Torre rf' Astura) : here Cicero had 
 an estate. —2. {Ezla), a river in Hispania Tar- 
 raconensis, flowing into the Durius. 
 
 Astiires, a people in the N. W. of Spain, 
 bounded on the E. by the Cantabri and Vaccaei, 
 on the W. by the Gallaeci, on the N. by the 
 Ocean, and on the S. by the Vettones, thus inha- 
 biting the modem Asturias and the northern part of 
 Leon and Valladolid. They contained 22 tribes and 
 240,000 freemen, and were divided into the Au- 
 gustani and Transmontani, the former of whom 
 dwelt S. of the mountains as far as the Durius, 
 and the latter N. of the mountains down to the 
 sea-coast- The country of the Astures was moun- 
 tainous, rich in minerals and celebrated for its 
 torses : the people themselves were rude and war- 
 like. Their chief town was Asturica Augusta 
 (Astorga). 
 
 ATABYRIS. 
 
 SQ 
 
 Astyages {^Aarvayrii)^ son of Cyaxares, last 
 king of Media, reigned b. c. 594 — Bh9. Alarmed 
 by a dream, he gave his daughter Mandane in 
 marriage to Cambyses, a Persian of good family. 
 Another dream induced him to send Harpagus to 
 destroy the offspring of this marriage. The child, 
 the future conqueror of the Medes, was given to a 
 herdsman to expose, but he brought it up as his 
 own. Years afterwards, circumstances occurred 
 which brought the young Cyrus under the notice of 
 Astyages, who, on inquiry, discovered his parentage. 
 He inflicted a cruel punishment on Harpagus, who 
 waited his time for revenge. When Cyrus had 
 grown up to man's estate, Harpagus induced him 
 to instigate the Persians to revolt, and, having been 
 appointed general of the Median forces, he deserted 
 with the greater part of them to Cyrus. Astyages 
 was taken prisoner, and Ci-rus mounted the throne. 
 He treated the captive monarch with mildness, hut 
 kept him in confinement till his death. This is 
 the account of Herodotus, and is to be preferred 
 to that of Xenophon, who makes Cyrus the 
 grandson of Astyages, but says, that Astyages was 
 succeeded by his son Cyaxares II., on whose 
 death Cyrus succeeded peaceably to the vacant 
 throne. 
 
 Astyanax (*A(rTuaya|), son of Hector and An- 
 dromache : his proper name was Scamandrius, but 
 he was called Aatyanax or *'lord of the city " by 
 the Trojans, on account of the services of his father. 
 After the taking of Troy the Greeks hurled him 
 down from the walls, that he might not restore the 
 kingdom of Troy. 
 
 Astydamas ('AffTySti/xas), a tragic poet, son of 
 Morsimus and of a sister of the poet Aeschylus, 
 and a pupil of Isocrates, wrote 240 tragedies, and 
 gained the prize 15 times. His first tragedy was 
 acted B. c. 399. 
 
 Astydamia ('Ao-ruSajueia). 1. Daughter of 
 Amyntor and mother of Tlepolemus by Hercules* 
 ^2. Wife of AcASTUS. 
 
 Astynome ('AcrTuvtS/^Tj), daughter of Chryses, 
 better known under her patronymic Chryseis. 
 
 Astyoche or Astyochia i^AffrvSxn or 'Ao-tucJ- 
 Xeta). L Daughter of Actor, by whom Ares begot 
 Ascalaphus and Jalmenus. — 2. Daughter of Phy- 
 las, king of Ephyra in Thesprotia, became by Her- 
 cules the mother of Tlepolemus. 
 
 Astyoclius ('AffTuoxos), the Lacedaemonian ad- 
 miral in B. c. 412, commanded on the coast of Asia 
 Minor, where he was bribed by the Persians to 
 remain inactive. 
 
 AstypaXaea {^AtrrvirdKaia ; *Ao"TU7roA.ai€ys,*A(r- 
 TvitdKai6.TT\s : Siampalia), one of the Sporades in 
 the S. part of the Grecian archipelago, with a 
 town of the same name, founded by the Megarians, 
 which was under the Romans a libera civitas. 
 {Astypaleia regno,, i. e. Astypalaea^ Ov. Met. vii. 
 461.) The inhabitants worshipped Achilles. 
 
 Astyra (ra "AcTvpa), a town of Mysia, N.W. 
 of Adramyttium, on a marsh connected with the 
 sea, with a grove sacred to Artemis sumamed 
 
 'A<TTVpiV7} or •7}V'h' 
 
 Asychis ("Atrux")* an ancient king of Egypt, 
 succeeded Mycerinus. 
 
 Atabiilus, the name in Apulia of the parching 
 S. E. wind, the Sirocco, which is at present called 
 AUino m Apulia. 
 
 Atahyris or Atabyrium {'ATa€vpiov'),ihe high- 
 est mountain in Rhodes on the S.W. of that island, 
 on which was a celebrated temple of Zeus Ataby- 
 
 H 2 
 
100 
 
 ATAGIS. 
 
 rius, said to Tuive been founded by Althaemenes, 
 the grandson of Minos. 
 
 Atagis. [Athesis.] 
 
 Atalanta {' ArahavT-n). 1. The A rcadiaii Ata- 
 lanta, was a daughter of lasus (lasion or laaius) 
 and Clymene. Her father, who had wished for a 
 Bon, was disappointed at her birth, and exposed her 
 on the Parthenian (virgin) hill, where she was 
 suckled by a she-bear, the symbol of Artemis, 
 After she had grown up sbe lived in pure maiden- 
 hood, slew the centaurs who pursued her, and took 
 part in the Calydonian hunt. Her father subse- 
 quently recognised her as his daughter ; and when 
 he desired her to marry, she required every suitor 
 "who wanted to win her, to contend with her first 
 in the foot-race. If he conquered her, he was to 
 be rewarded with her hand, if not, he was to be 
 put to death. This she did because she was the 
 most swift-footed of mortals, and because the 
 Delphic oracle had cautioned her against marriage. 
 She conquered many suitors, but was at length 
 overcome by Milanion with the assistance of 
 Aphrodite. The goddess had given him 3 golden 
 apples, and during the race he dropped them one 
 after the other : their beauty charmed Atalanta so 
 much, that she could not abstain from gathering 
 them, and Milanion thus gained the goal before 
 her. She accordingly became his wife. They 
 ■were subsequently both metamorphosed into lions, 
 because they had profaned by their embraces the 
 sacred grove of Zeus. — 2. The Boeotian Atalanta. 
 The same stories are related of her as of the Arca- 
 dian Atalanta, ezcept that her parentage and the 
 localities are described differently. Thus she is 
 said to have been a daughter of Schoenus, and to 
 have been married to Hippomenes. Her foot-race 
 is transferred to the Boeotian Onchestus, and the 
 sanctuary which the newly married couple profaned 
 by their love, was a temple of Cybele, who meta- 
 morphosed them into lions, and yoked them to her 
 chariot. 
 
 Atalante {'AraXdvrT] : ' AraXavraios'). 1. A 
 small island in the Euripus, on the coast of the 
 Opuntian Locri, with a small town of the same 
 name. ^2. A town of Macedonia on the Asius, in 
 the neighbourhood of Gort3Tiia and Idomene. 
 
 Atarantes {'ATdpavTes)^ a people in the E. of 
 Libya, described by Herodotus (iv. 184). 
 
 Atarbechis. [Aphroditopolis.] 
 
 Atarneus (^Arapvei/s: Dikeli), a city on M. 
 Cane, on the coast of Mysia, opposite to Lesbos : a 
 colony of the Chiana : the residence of the tyrant 
 Eermias, with whom Aristotle resided some time : 
 destroyed before the time of Pliny. 
 
 Ataulphus, Athaulphus, AdaiUphus (z.cAtha- 
 ulf, " sworn helper," the same name as that which 
 appears in later history under the form of Adolf or 
 Adolphus), brother of Alaric's wife. He assisted 
 Alaric in his invasion of Italy, and on the deatli of 
 that monarch in A, D. 410, he was elected king of 
 the Visigoths. He then made a peace with the 
 Komans, married Placidia, sister of Honorius, re- 
 tired with his nation into the S. of Gaul, and 
 finally withdrew into Spain, where he was mur- 
 dered at Barcelona. 
 
 Atax (Aude), originally called Narbo, a river 
 in Gallia Narbonensis, rises in the Pyrenees, and 
 flows by Narbo Martius into the Lacus Rubresus 
 or Rubrensis, which is connected with the sea. 
 From this river the poet P. Terentiiis Varro ob- 
 tained the surname Atacinus. [Varro.J 
 
 ATHANAGIA. 
 
 Ate ("Att]), daughter of Eris or Zeus, was an 
 ancient Greek divinity, who led both gods and 
 men into rash and inconsiderate actions. She once 
 even induced Zeus, at the birth of Hercules, to take 
 an oath by which Hera was afterwards enabled to 
 give to Eurystheus the power which had been 
 destined for Hercules. When Zens discovered his 
 rashness, he hurled Ate from Olympus and ba- 
 nished her for ever from the abodes of the gods. 
 In the tragic writers Ate appears in a different 
 light : she avenges evil deeds and inflicts just pu- 
 nishments upon the offenders and their posterlt)', 
 so that her character is almost the same as that of 
 Nemesis and Erinnys. She appears most pro- 
 minent in tlie dramas of Aeschylus, and least in 
 those of Euripides, with whom the idea of Dike 
 (justice) is more fully developed. 
 
 Ateius, sumamed Praetcatatus^ and Philologus, 
 a celebrated grammarian at Rome, about b. c. 40, 
 and a friend of Sallust, for whom he drew up an 
 Epitome (Sreviarium) of Roman History. After 
 the death of Sallust Ateius lived on intimate terms 
 with Asinius Pollio, whom he assisted in his literary 
 pursuits. 
 
 Ateius Caplto. [Capito.] 
 
 Atella (Atellanus ; Aversa\ a town in Cam- 
 pania between Capua and Neapolis, originally in- 
 habited by the Oscans, afterwards a Roman muni- 
 cipium and a colony. It revolted to Hannibal 
 (B.C. 216) after the battle of Cannae, and the 
 Romans in consequeuce transplanted its inhabitants 
 to Calatia, and peopled the town by new citizens 
 from Nuceria. Atella owes its celebrity to the 
 Atellanae Fahulae or Oscan farces, which took their 
 name from this town. {Diet. o/Antiq. p. 347, 2d ed.) 
 
 Atemum (Pescara), a town in central Italy 
 on the Adriatic, at the mouth of the river Atemus 
 (Pescara), was the common harbour of the Vestini, 
 Marracini, and Peligni. 
 
 Atemus. [Atehnum.] 
 
 Ateste (Atestinus : Este\ a Roman colony in 
 the country of the Veneti in Upper Italy. 
 
 Athacus, a to^vn in Lyncestis in Maci^donia. 
 
 Athamania (^ AQayiavia'. 'A^a^uayj-Svoy), a moun- 
 tainous country in the S. of Epirus, on the W. side 
 of Pindus, of which Argithea was the chief town. 
 The Athamanes were a Thessalian people, who 
 had been driven out of Thessaly by the Lapithae. 
 They were governed by independent princes, the 
 last of whom was Amvnandeb. 
 
 Athamas ('A9a/£as), son of Aeolus and Enarete, 
 and king of Orchomenus in Boeotia. At the com- 
 mand of Hera, Athamas married Nephele, by whom 
 he became the father of Phrixus and Helle. But 
 he was secretly in love with the mortal Ino, the 
 daughter of Cadmus, by whom he begot Learchus 
 and Melicertes ; and Nephele, on discovering that 
 Ino had a gi'eater hold on his affections than her- 
 self, disappeared in anger. Having thus incurred 
 the anger both of Hera and of Nephele, Athamas 
 was seized with madness, and in this state killed his 
 own son, Learchus: Ino threw herself with Meli- 
 certes into the sea, and both were changed into 
 marine deities, Ino becoming Leucothea, and Meli- 
 certes Palaemon. Athamas, as the murderer of 
 his son, was obliged to flee from Boeotia, and settled 
 in Thessaly. — Hence we have AthamantXMes, 
 son of Athamas, i.e. Palaemon ; znH Athamantisj 
 daughter of Athamas, i. e. Helle. 
 
 Athauagia (Jfjramunt^), the chief town of 
 the Uergetes in Hispania Tarraconensis. 
 
ATHANARICUS. 
 
 Athanaricus, king of the Visi^GotTis during 
 their stay in Dacia. In a. d. 367 — 369 he carried 
 on war with the emperor Valens, with whom he 
 finally concluded a peace. In 374 Athanaric was 
 defeated by the Huns, and, after defending himself 
 for some time In a stronghold in the mountains of 
 Dacia, was compelled to fly in 380, and take refuge 
 in the Rom.an territory. He died in 381. 
 
 Atlianasius {^A6avd<nos), St., one of the most 
 celebrated of the Christian fathers, was born at 
 Alexandria about A. D. 296, and was elected arch- 
 bishop of the city on the death of Alexander in 
 326. The history of his episcopate is full of stii-ring 
 incidents and strange transitions of fortune. He 
 was the great champion of the orthodox faith, as it 
 had been expounded at the council of Nice in 
 325, and was thereforer exposed to persecution 
 whenever the Arians got the upper hand in the 
 state. He was thrice driven from his see into 
 exile, and thrice recalled. He died in 373. The 
 Athanasian creed was not composed by Athanasius : 
 its real author is unkno\vn. The best edition of 
 his works is by Montfaucon, Paris, 1698, reprinted 
 at Padua* 1777. 
 
 Atliena ('ASt^i'tj or 'AOtjvS), one of the great 
 divinities of the Greeks. Homer calls her a daugh- 
 ter of Zeus, without any allusion to the manner of 
 her birth ; but later traditions related that she was 
 born from the head of Zeus, and some added that 
 she sprang forth with a mighty war-shout and in 
 complete annour. The most ancient tradition, as 
 preserved by Hesiod, stated that Metis, the first 
 wife of Zeus, was the mother of Athena, but that 
 Metis, when pregnant with her, was, on the advice 
 of Gaea and Uranus, swallowed up by Zeus, and 
 that Zeus afterwards gave birth himself to Athena, 
 who sprang from his head. Another set of traditions 
 regarded her as the daughter of Pallas, the winged 
 giant, whom she afterwards killed on account of 
 his attempting to violate her chastity ; and a third 
 set carried her to Libya, and called her a daughter 
 of Poseidon and Tritonis. These various traditions 
 about Athena arose, as in most other cases, &ora 
 local legends and from identifications of the Greek 
 Athena with other divinities. But according to 
 the general belief of the Greeks, she was the 
 daughter of Zeus ; and if we take Metis to have 
 been her mother, we have at once the clue to the 
 character which she bears in the religion of Greece ; 
 for, as her father was the most powerful and her 
 mother the wisest among the gods, so Athena was 
 a combination of the two, a goddess in whom power 
 and wisdom were harmoniously blended. From 
 this fundamental idea may be derived the various 
 aspects under which she appears in the ancient 
 writers. She seems to have been a divinity of a 
 purely ethical character ; her power and wisdom 
 appear in her being the preserver of the state and of 
 everything which gives to the state strength and pros- 
 perity. — As the protectress of agriculture, Athena is 
 represented as Inventing the plough and rake : she 
 created the olive tree (see below), taught the people 
 to yoke oxen to the plough, took care of the breeding 
 of horses, and instructed men how to tame them 
 by the bridle, her own invention. Allusions to this 
 feature of her character are contained in the epithets 
 ^oudeia, poapfxia, aypi(pa, lirtria, or X'^^^^^'is. She 
 is also represented as the patron of various kinds 
 of science, industry, and art, and as inventing 
 numbers, the trumpet, the chariot and navigation. 
 She was furtlier believed to have invented nearly 
 
 ATHENA, 
 
 101 
 
 every kind of work in which women were em- 
 ployed, and she herself was skilled in such work. 
 Hence we have the tale of the Lydian maiden 
 Arachne, who ventured to compete with Athena in 
 the art of weaving. [Arachne,] Athena is in 
 fact the patroness of both the useful and elegant arts. 
 Hence she is called ^pyavrj^ and later writers make 
 her the goddess of all wisdom, knowledge, and art, 
 and represent her as sitting on the right hand of her 
 father Zeus, and supporting him with her counsel. 
 She is therefore characterized by various epithets and 
 surnames, expressing the keenness of her sight or the 
 vigour of her intellect, such as otrriKeTis, 6<p6a\fii- 
 Tis, (J|u5epK7}y, yKavKuiris, ttoKvSovKos, TroKvfirjTis, 
 and [j.7]xapiTis. — As the patron divinity of the state, 
 she was at Athens the protectress of the phratries 
 and houses which formed the basis of the state. 
 The festival of the Apaturia had a direct reference 
 to this particular point in the character of the god- 
 dess. (Did. of Ant. art. Apaturia,^ She also main- 
 tained the authority of the law, justice, and order 
 in the courts and the assembly of the people. This 
 notion was as ancient as the Homeric poems, in 
 which she is described as assisting Ulysses against 
 the lawless conduct of the suitors. {Od. xiii. 394.) 
 She was believed to have instituted the ancient 
 court of the Areopagus, and in cases where the 
 votes of the judges were equally divided, she gave 
 the casting one in favour of the accused. The 
 epithets which have reference to this part of the 
 goddess's character are h.^i6Troivos^ the avenger, 
 ^ouAaTo, and aryvpata. — As Athena promoted the 
 internal prosperity of the state, so she also pro- 
 tected the state from outward enemies, and thus 
 assumes the character of a warlike divinity, though 
 in a very different sense from Ares, Eris, or Enyo. 
 According to Homer she does not even keep arms, 
 but borrows them from Zeus ; she preserves men 
 from slaughter when prudence demands it, and 
 repels Ares's savage love of war, and conquers him. 
 The epithets which she derives from her warlike 
 character are a7e\€ia, Kaippla^ aKKiixaxrii ?^a6(r(roo?^ 
 and others. In times of war, towns, fortresses, 
 and harbours, are under her especial care, whence 
 she is designated as ipvaiTrroKis, aXaXicofxeuTfi's, 
 TToAiay, ira\iovxos, aKpaia, d/fp/a, kXt/Soi'XOS', ttu- 
 AaiTis, '!rpop.ax6p{J.a^ and the like. In the war of 
 Zeus against the giants, she assisted her father and 
 Hercules with her counsel, and also took an active 
 part in it, for she buried Enceladus under the island 
 of Sicily, and slew Pallas. In the Trojan war she 
 sided with the Greeks, though on their return home 
 she visited them with storms, on account of the 
 manner in which the Locrian Ajax had treated 
 Cassandra in her temple. As a goddess of war 
 and the protectress of heroes, Athena usually ap- 
 pears in armour, with the aegis and a golden staff. 
 ■ — The character of Athena, as we have here traced 
 it, holds a middle place between the male and 
 female, whence she is a virgin divinity, v/hose heart 
 is inaccessible to the passion of love. Tlrcsias was 
 deprived of sight for liaving seen her in the bath ; 
 and Hephaestus, who had made an attempt upon 
 her chastity, was obliged to take to flight. For this 
 reason, the ancient traditions always describe the 
 goddess as dressed ; and when Ovid makes her 
 appear naked before Paris, he abandons the genuine 
 story. — Athena was worshipped in all parts of 
 Greece. Her worship was introduced from the 
 ancient towns on the lake Copais at a very early 
 period Into Attlcii, where she became the great 
 
102 
 
 ATHENAE. 
 
 national divinity of the city and the country. Here 
 she was regarded aa the i&ea (T<*}Tetpa^ vyhia, and 
 iraiuvia. The tale ran that in the reign of Cecrops 
 both Poseidon and Athena contended for the pos- 
 session of Athens. The gods resolved that which- 
 ever of them produced a gift most useful to mortals 
 should have possession of the land. Poseidon struck 
 the ground with his trident and straightway a 
 horse appeared. Athena then planted the olive. 
 The <jods thereupon decreed that the olive was more 
 useful to man than the horse, and gave the city to 
 the goddess, from whom it was call Athenae. At 
 Athens the magnificent festival of the Panathenaca 
 was celebrated in honour of the goddess. At this 
 festival took place the grand procession, which was 
 represented on the frieze of the Parthenon. {Did. 
 of Ant. art. PoTiathenaea.) At Lindus in Rhodes 
 her worship was likewise yery ancient. Respecting 
 its introduction into Italy, and the modifications 
 which her character underwent there, see Minerva. 
 Among the things sacred to her we may mention 
 the owl, serpent, cock, and olive-tree, which she was 
 snid to have created in her contest with Poseidon 
 about the possession of Attica. The sacrifices oflFered 
 to her consisted of bulls, rams, and cows. Athena 
 was frequently represented in works of art, in 
 which we generally find some of the following 
 characteristics: — 1. The helmet, which she usually 
 wears on her head, but in a few instances carries 
 in her hand. It is generally omaraented in the 
 most beautiful manner with griffins, heads of rams, 
 horses, and sphinxes. 2. The aegis, which is re- 
 presented on works of art, not as a shield, but as a 
 goat-skin, covered with scales, set with the appal- 
 ling Gorgon's head, and surrounded with tassels. 
 (Did. of Ant. art. Aegis.) 3, The round Argolic 
 shield, in the centre of which the head of Medusa 
 likewise appears. 4. Objects sacred to her, such 
 as an olive branch, a serpent, an owl, a cock, and 
 a lance. Her garment is usually the Spartan tunic 
 without sleeves, and over it she wears a cloak, the 
 peplus, or, though rarely, the chlarays. 
 
 Athenae ('AS^i'ai, also ^AdTtvT} in Homer : 'A^tj- 
 paios^ tJ 'AdT}vaia^ Atheniensis : Athens), the capital 
 of Attica, about 30 stadia from the sea, on the 
 S. W. slope of Mount Lycabettus, between the 
 small rivers Cephissus on the W. and Ilissus on 
 the E., the latter of which flowed through the 
 to^vn. The most ancient part of it, the Acropolis^ 
 is said to have been built by the mythical Cecrops, 
 but the city itself is said to have owed its origin 
 to Theseus, who united the 12 independent states 
 or townships of Attica into one state, and made 
 Athens their capital. The city was burnt by 
 Xerxes in b. c. 480, but was soon rebuilt imder 
 the administration of Themistocles, and was adorned 
 with public buildings by Cimon and especially by 
 Pericles, in whose time (b. c. 460 — 429) it reached 
 its greatest splendour. Its beauty was chiefly 
 owing to its public buildings, for the private houses 
 were mostly insignificant, and its streets badly laid 
 out. Towards the end of the Peloponnesian war, 
 it contained 10,000 houses (Xen, Mem. iii. 6. 
 § 14), which at the rate of 12 inhabitants to a 
 house would give a population of 120,000, though 
 some writers make the inhabitants as many as 
 1*80,000. Under the Romans Athens continued 
 to be a great and flourishing city, and retained 
 many privileges and immunities when S- Greece 
 waa fonned into the Roman province of Achaia. 
 It Buffered greatly on its capture by Sulla, 
 
 ATHENAE, 
 
 B. c 8G, and was deprived of many of its 
 privileges. It was at that time, and also during 
 the early centuries of the Christian aera, one of the 
 chief seats of learning, and the Romans were ac- 
 customed to send their sons to Athens, as to an 
 University, for the completion of their education. 
 Hadrian, who was very partial to Athens and fre- 
 quently resided in the city (a. d. 122, 1 28), adorned 
 it with many new buildings, and his example was 
 followed by Herodes Atticus, who spent large sums 
 of money upon beautifying the city in the reign of 
 M. Aiirelius. — Athens consisted of 2 distinct 
 parts: I. Tlie City {rh ^IiTtu), properly so called, 
 divided into, 1. The Upper City or Acropolis (t} ^vw 
 TTfJAis, a.Kp6iroXis)j and, 2. The Lower City (tJ koltu 
 TTcJAts), surrounded with walls by Themistocles. 
 II. The 3 bar boiu*- towns of Piraeus, Munychia, 
 and Phalerum, also surrounded with walls by 
 Themistocles, and connected with the city by 
 means of the long walls (ra fiaKpct retxi?), built 
 under the administration of Pericles. The long 
 walls consisted of the wall to Phalenim on the 
 E., 35 stadia long (about 4 miles), and of the wall 
 to Piraeus on the W., 40 stadia long (about 4^ 
 miles) ; between these two, at a short distance 
 from the latter and parallel to it, another wall was 
 erected, thus making 2 walls leading to the Pi- 
 raeus (sometimes called ra (TkeAtj), with a narrow 
 passage between them. There were therefore 3 
 long walls in all ; but the name of £owgr Walls 
 seems to have been confined to the two leading to 
 the Piraeus, while the one leading to Phalerura 
 was distinguished by the name of the Pkaleria^i 
 Wall {rh ^aA7]piKhp re/xos). The entire circuit of 
 the walls was 174^ stadia (nearly 22 miles), of 
 which 43 stadia (nearly 5^ miles) belonged to the 
 city, 75 stadia (9^ miles) to the long walls, and 56^ 
 (7 miles) to Piraeus, Munychia, and Phalerum. — 
 1. Topo^aphy of the Acropolis or Upper City. 
 The Acropolis, also called Ceeropia from its re- 
 puted foimder, was a steep rock in the middle of 
 the city, about 150 feet high, 1150 feet long, and 
 500 broad : its sides were naturally scarped on all 
 sides except the W. end. It was originally sur- 
 rounded by an ancient Cyclopian wall said to have 
 been built by the Pelasgians ; at the time of the 
 Peloponnesian war only the N. part of this wall 
 remained, and this portion was still called the Pe- 
 lasgic Wall; while the S. part, which had been 
 rebuilt by Cimon, was called the Cimonian Wall. 
 On the W. end of the Acropolis, where access is 
 alone practicable, were the magnificent Propyl aea, 
 " the Entrances," built by Pericles, before the right 
 wing of which was the small temple of nTki; 
 "AirTepoT. The summit of the Acropolis was co- 
 vered with temples, statues of bronze and marble, 
 and various other works of art. Of the temples, 
 the grandest was the Parthenon, sacred to the 
 " Virgin" goddess Athena ; and N. of the Parthe- 
 non was the magnificent Erechtheum, containing 
 3 separate temples, one of Athena Polias (IloAfas), 
 or the " Protectress of the State," the Erechtheum 
 proper, or sanctuary of Erechtheus, and the Pan- 
 lirosium, or sanctuary of Pandrosos, the daughter of 
 Cecrops. Between the Parthenon and Erechtheum 
 was the colossal statue of Athena Promachos 
 (Up6fxaxos), or the " Fighter in the Front," whose 
 helmet and spear was the first object on the 
 Acropolis visible from the sea. — 2. Topography 
 of the Lower City. ^ The lower city was built 
 in the plain round the Acropolis, but this plain 
 
ATHENAE. 
 
 also contained several hills, especially in the S.W. 
 part. — "Walls. The ancient walls embraced a 
 much greater circuit than the modem ones. On 
 the W. they included the hill of the NjTnphs and 
 the Pnyx, on the S. they extended a little beyond 
 the Ilissus, and on the E. they crossed the Ilissus, 
 near the Lyceum, which was outside the walls. — 
 Gates. Their number ia unknown, and the posi- 
 tion of many of them is uncertain ; but the follow- 
 ing list contains the most important. On the W. 
 side were : — 1 . Dipyluvi {Ak-kvKov^ more anciently 
 ©piatriai or K6pa;ti/cai), the moat frequented gate 
 of the city, leading from the inner Ceramicus to 
 the outer Ceramicus, and to the Academy. — 2. 
 T/ie Sacred Gate (ai 'lepol ITuAai), where the sacred 
 road to Eleusis began. — 3. 77ie KnighVs Gate (ot 
 *l7r7ra5es tt.), probably between the hill of the 
 NjTnphs and the Pnyx. — 4. Tlie Piraean Gate 
 (?) rietpaiK^ TT.), between the Pnyx and the Mu- 
 seum, leading to the carriage road (ajua|iTos) be- 
 tween the Long Walls to the Piraeus. — 5. Tlie 
 Mditian Gate (ai MeAiTtSes ir.), so called because 
 it led to the demus Melite, within the city. On 
 the S. side, froing from W. to E. : — 6. Tlte Gate of 
 the Dead {al 'Hpiai tt.) in the neighbourhood of the 
 Museum, placed by many authorities on the N. 
 side. — 7. TJie Jtonian Gate (at Iron/iai tt.), near the 
 Ilissus, where the road to Phalerum began. On 
 the E. side, going from S. to N. : — 8. TJie Gate 
 of Diochares {aX Atox^povs ir.), leading to the 
 Lyceum. — 9. Tlte Diomean Gate (?) Aid/xeia ir.), 
 leading to Cynosarges and the demus Diomea. On 
 the N. side, — 10. TheAcltamian Gate (at 'Axap- 
 viKal TT.), leading to the demus Acharnae. — Chief 
 Districts. The inner Ceramicus {Kepafiernds), or 
 ^* Potter's Quarter," in the W. of the city, extend- 
 ing N, as far as the gate Dipylum, by which it 
 was separated from the outer Ceramicus ; the S. 
 part of the inner Ceramicus contained the Ayora 
 (dyopa), or " market-place," the only one in the city 
 (for there were not 2 market-places, as some sup- 
 pose), lying S-W, of the Acropolis, and between 
 the Acropolis, the Areopagus, the Pnyx, and the 
 Museum. The demus Melite, S. of the inner 
 Ceramicus, and perhaps embracing the hill of the 
 Museum. The demus Scambonidae, W. of the 
 inner Ceramicus, between the Pnyx and the hill 
 of the Nymphs. The Co^jrtws, S. of Melite. Coele, 
 a district S. of Collytus and the Museum, along 
 the Ilissus, in which were the graves of Cimon 
 and Thucydides. Limnae, a district E. of Melite 
 and Collytus, between the Acropolis and the 
 Ilissus. Diomea, a district in the E. of the city, 
 near the gate of the same name and the Cyno- 
 sarges. Agrae^ a district S. of Diomea. -^ Hills. 
 The Areopagus CApeiov irdyos or ''Apeios Tra^os), 
 the "Hill of Ares," W. of the Acropolis, which 
 ^ve its name to the celebrated council that held 
 its sittings there (Did. of Ant. s. v.), was accessible 
 on the S. side by a flight of steps cut out of the 
 rock. The Bill of the Nymphs, N.W. of the 
 Areopagus. ThePni/x {Uyv^)j a semicircular hill, 
 S.W. of the Areopagus, where the assemblies of 
 the people were held in earlier times, for afterwards 
 the people usually met in the Theatre of Dionysus. 
 (See Diet, of Ant. p. 440, b, 2d ed.) The Museum, 
 S. of the Pnyx and the Areopagus, on which was 
 the monument of Philopappus, and where tlie 
 Macedonians built a fortress. — Streets. Of these 
 we have little information. We read of the Piraean 
 
 ATHENAE. 
 
 103 
 
 Agora ; of the Street of the Hermae, which ran 
 along the Agora between the Stoa Baaiieos and 
 Stoa Poecile ; of the Street of the Tripods, on 
 the E. of the Acropolis, &c.^ Public Buildiigs. 
 1. Teniples. Of these the most important was 
 the Olyinpicum {*OKvf^irUiop), or Temple of the 
 Olympian Zeus, S. E. of tl)e Acropolis, near the 
 Ilissus and the fountain Callirrhoe, which was long 
 unfinished, and was first completed by Hadrian. 
 Thestum (07jiTe?o»') or Temple of Theseus, on a 
 hill N. of the Areopagus, now converted into the 
 Museum of Athens. The Temple, of Ares, S. of 
 tlie Areopagus and W. of the Acropolis. Melrdum 
 {M-qrpipuv), or temple of the mother of the gods, 
 E. of the Agora, and S. of the Acropolis, near the 
 Senate House, and the Odeum of Herodes Atticus. 
 Besides these, there was a vast number of other 
 temples in all parts of the city. — 2. The Senate 
 House {$ov\€vTTjptov), at the S. end of the Agora. 
 — 3. The Tholus (i&iiAos), a round building close 
 to the Senate House, which served as the new 
 Prytaneum, in which the Prytanes took their 
 meals and offered their sacrifices. {Did. of Ant. 
 s.v.) — 4. The Pri/ianeum {UpvTapeTov), at the 
 N.E. foot of the Acropolis, where the Prytanes 
 used more anciently to take their meals, and where 
 the laws of Solon were preserved. — 5. Stoa^ 
 (aroai), or Halls, supported by pillars, and used as 
 places of resort in the heat of the day, of which 
 there were several in Athens. (Did. of Ant. p. 944, 
 2d ed.) In the Agora there were 3 ; the Stoa 
 Basileus (aroa. ^aai\€ios), the court of the King- 
 Archon, on the W. side of the Agora ; the Stoa 
 Poecile (trroa ttoiwiAtj), so called because it was 
 adorned with fresco painting of the battle of Mara- 
 thon by Polygnotus ; and the Stoa Eleutlierius 
 (<TToa 4\€vOepios), or Hall of Zeus Eleutherius, 
 both on the S. side of the Agora. — 6. TJteaires. 
 The Tlieaire of Dio?ij/sus, on the S.E. slope of the 
 Acropolis, was the great theatre of the state (Did. 
 of Ant. p. 1120, 2d cd.) ; besides this there were 
 three Od&a (w^^ta), for contests in vocal and in- 
 strumental music (Did. of Ant. s. v.), an ancient 
 one near the fountain Callirrhoe, a second built by 
 Pericles, close to the theatre of Dionysus, on the 
 S.E. slope of the Acropolis, find a third built by 
 Herodes Atticus, in honour of his wife Regilla, on 
 the S.W. slope of the Acropolis, of which there 
 are still considerable remains. — 7. Stadium (rh 
 SrctSioj'), S. of the Ilissus, in the district Agme. — 
 8. Monuments. The Monument of Andronicus 
 Cyrrhestes, formerly called the Tower of the Winds, 
 an octagonal building N. of the Acropolis, still 
 extant, was an horologium. (Did. of Ant. p. 616, 2d 
 ed.) The Choragic Monument of Lysicrates, fre- 
 quently but erroneously called the Lantern of 
 Demosthenes^ still extant, in the Street of the 
 Tripods. The Monument of Harmodius and Aris- 
 togiton in the Agoi-a, just before the ascent to the 
 Acropolis. ^Suburbs. The Outer Ceramicus (6 e^o) 
 Ka\ov/j.evos), N.W. of tlie cit}', was the finest 
 suburb of Athens : here were buried the Athenians 
 who liad fallen in war, and at the further end of it 
 was the Academia, 6 stadia from the city. Cyno~ 
 surges (rh Kwoaapyes), E, of the city, before the 
 gate Diomea. a gymnasium sacred to Hercules, 
 where Antisthenes, the founder of the Cynic 
 school, taught. Lyceum {rh AvKeinv), S, E. of 
 the Cynosarges, a gymnasium sacred to Apollo 
 Lyceus, where Aristotle and the Peripatetics 
 
104 
 
 ATHENAE. 
 
 Atlienae {^AOTJvai: Atcnah)fa. seaport town of 
 Pontus, named from its temple of Athena. 
 
 Athenaeum {'Ad-f]i/aiou)^ in general a temple of 
 Athena, or any place consecrated to this goddess. 
 The name was specially given to a school founded 
 l)y the emperor Hadrian at Rome ahout a. d. 133, 
 for the promotion of literary and scientific studies. 
 It was in the neighbourhood of the forum, and at 
 the foot of the Aventine Hill: it had a staff of 
 professors paid by the government, and continued 
 in repute till the 5th century of our era. {Did. 
 of Ant. s. V.) ^Athenaeum wati also the name of 
 a town in Arcadia, not far from Megalopolis, and 
 of a place in Athamania in Epirus. 
 
 Athenaeus {^A9-f}vaios). 1. A contemporary of 
 Archimedes, the author of an extant work tlepl 
 M7]xav7]iJ.dr<av (on warlike engines), addressed to 
 Marcellus (probably the conqueror of Syracuse) ; 
 printed in Thevenot's Muthematici FetereSy Paris, 
 1693. — 2. A learned Greek grammarian, of Nau- 
 cratis in Egypt, lived about a. d. 230, first at 
 Alexandria and afterwards at Rome. His extant 
 work is entitled the Deipnosopliiafae {Aeiirvoao- 
 <{}icrTai\i.e, the Banqitet of tJie Le(ir?ied, in 15 books, 
 of which the first 2 books, and parts of the 3rd, 
 11th, and 15th, exist only in an Epitome. The 
 work may be considered one of the earliest col- 
 lections of what are called Atia, being an immense 
 mass of anecdotes, extracts from the writings of 
 poets, historians, dramatists, philosophers, orators, 
 and physicians, of facts in natural history, criti- 
 cisms, and discussions on almost every conceivable 
 subject, especially on Gastronomy. Athenaeus re- 
 presents himself as describing to his friend Timo- 
 crates, a full account of the conversation at a ban- 
 quet at Rome, at which Galen, the physician, and 
 Ulpian, the jurist, -Avere among the guests. — Edi- 
 iioTis. By Casaubon, Genev. 1597 ; by Schweig- 
 hauser, Argentorati, 1801-1807 ; and by W. Din- 
 dorf. Lips. 1827. ^ 3. A celebrated physician, 
 founder of the medical sect of the Pneumatici, was 
 born at Attilia in Cilicia, and practised at Rome 
 about A o. 50, 
 
 Atlieiiagoraa (^ Pi.Qf]vay6pa.^\ an Athenian phi- 
 losopher, converted to the Christian religion in the 
 2d century of our aera, is the author of two extant 
 works, An Apology for C^miia?;^, addressed to the 
 emperors M. Aurelius and his son Commodus, and 
 a treatise in defence of the tenet of the resuiTection. 
 — Editions. By Fell, Oxon, 1682; Rechenberg, 
 Lips. 1604-85; Dechair, Oxon. 1706. 
 
 Athenais {^hBr\vai'i). 1. Sumamed Philostorgits, 
 wife of Ariobarzanes II., king of Cappadocia, and 
 mother of Ariobarzanes III. ^ 2. Daughter of 
 Leontius, afterwards named Eudocia. 
 
 Athenion ('A07]j/fwf), a Cilician, one of the 
 commanders of the slaves in the 2nd servile war in 
 Sicily, maintained his ground for some time suc- 
 cessfully, and defeated L. Licinius LucuUus, but 
 was at length conquered and killed in b. c. 101 by 
 the consul M'. Aquillius. 
 
 Athenodoms {'MT]v6^uipoi). 1. Of Tarsus, a 
 Stoic philosopher sumamed Cordylio^ was the keeper 
 of the library at Pergamus, and afterwards removed 
 to Rome, where he lived with M. Cato, at whose 
 house he died. — 2. Of Tarsus, a Stoic philosopher, 
 sumamed Cananiles, from Cana in Cilicia, the birth- 
 place of his father, whoso name was Sandon. He 
 was a pupil of Posidonius at Rhodes, and after- 
 w^ards taught at Apollonia in Epirus, where the 
 young Octavius (subsequently the emperor Au- 
 
 ATLANTIS. 
 
 gufltus) was one of his disciples. He accompanied 
 the latter to Rome, and became one of his intimate 
 friends and advisers. In his old age he returned 
 to Tarsus, where he died at the age of 82. He 
 was the author of several works which are not 
 extant. — 3. A sculptor, the son and pupil of Age- 
 sander of Rhodes, whom he assisted in executing 
 the group of Laocoon. [Agesander.] 
 
 Athesis {Adige or Eisch), rises in the Rhaetian 
 Alps, receives the Ata^s (Eisach)^ flows through 
 Upper Italy past Verona, and falls into the 
 Adriatic by many mouths. 
 
 Athjnone (^AO^iov-fj, also ^ABp.ovia. and "AQfxovov : 
 'A^uoz/euy, fem. *AOfxovis)y an Attic demus belong- 
 ing to the tribe Cecropis, afterwards to the tribe 
 Attalis. 
 
 Ath.03 ("A^ciJS-, also "AScuj/ ; ^ Admrr}? : Hagldon 
 Oros, Monte Santo, i, e. Holy Mounicwi), the 
 mountainous peninsula, also called Acte, which 
 projects from Chalcidice in Macedonia. At the 
 extremity of tlie peninsula the mountain rises 
 abruptly from the sea to a height of 6349 feet j 
 there is no anchorage for ships at its base, and the 
 voyage round it was so dreaded by mariners, that 
 Xerxes had a canal cut through the isthmus, 
 which connects the peninsula with the mainland, 
 to afford a passage to his fleet. The isthmus is 
 about 1-^ mile across ; and there are most distinct 
 traces of the canal to be seen in the present day ■ 
 so that we must not imitate the scepticism of 
 Juvenal (x. 174), and of many modern writers, wha 
 refused to believe that the canal was ever cut. 
 The peninsula contained several flourishing cities 
 in antiquity, and is now studded with nuraerous^ 
 monasteries, cloisters, and chapels, whence it de- 
 rives its modem name. In these monasteries some- 
 valuable MSS. of ancient authors have been dis- 
 covered. 
 
 Athribis ("ASptffiy), a city in the Delta of 
 Egypt ; capital of the Nomos Athribites. 
 
 Atia, mother of Augustus. 
 
 Atilia or Atillia 0ens, the principal members 
 of which are given under their surnames Calati- 
 Nus, Rkgulus, and Serranus. 
 
 Atiiicinus, a Roman jurist, who probably lived 
 about a, d. 50, is referred to in the Digest. 
 
 Atiliua. 1. L., one of the earliest of the Roman 
 jurists who gave public instruction in law, probably 
 lived about B.C. 100. He wrote commentaries- 
 on the laws of the Twelve Tables. ^2. M., one of 
 the early Roman poets, wrote both tragedies and 
 comedies, but apparently a greater number of the 
 latter than of the foraier. 
 
 Atina (Atinas, -atis : Atina), a town of the 
 Volsci in Latium, afterwards a Roman colony. 
 
 Atintanes {'Arii/Tapes\ an Epirot people in 
 Illyria, on the borders of Macedonia ; their country, 
 Atintania, was reckoned part of Macedonia. 
 
 Atius Varus, [Varus.] 
 
 Atlanticum Mare. [Oceanus.] 
 
 Atlantis ('ArAai/Tis, sc. ^'■qtros), according to 
 an ancient tradition, a great island W. of the 
 Pillars of Hercules in the Ocean, opposite Mount 
 Atlas : it possessed a numerous population, and was 
 adorned with every beauty ; its powerful princes- 
 invaded Africa and Europe, but were defeated by 
 the Athenians and their allies: its inhabitants 
 afterwards became wicked and impious, and the 
 island was in consequence swallowed up in the- 
 ocean in a day and a night. This legend is given 
 by Plato in the Timaeusy and is said to have been 
 
ATLAS. 
 
 related to Solon by the Egyptian priests. The 
 Canary Islands, or the Azores, which perhaps were 
 visited by the Phoenicians, may have given rise to 
 the legend ; but some modern writers regard it as 
 indicative of a vague belief in antiq^uity in the 
 existence of the W. hemisphere. 
 
 Atlas ("ArAas), son of lapetns and CliTnene, 
 and brother of Prometheus and Epiraetheus. He 
 made war with the other Titans npon Zens, and 
 being conquered, was condemned to bear heaven 
 on his head and hands : according to Homer Atlas 
 bears the long columns which keep asunder heaven 
 and earth. The myth seems to have arisen from 
 the idea that lofty mountains supported the heaven. 
 Later traditions distort the original idea still more, 
 by making Atlas a man who was metamorphosed 
 into a mountain. Thus Ovid {Met. iv. 626, seq.) re- 
 lates that Perseuscame to Atlas and asked for shelter, 
 which was refused, whereupon Perseus, by means 
 of the head of Medusa, changed hira into M. Atlas, 
 on which rested heaven with all its stirs. Otiiers 
 go still further, and represent Atlas as a powerful 
 king, who possessed great knowledge of the courses 
 of the stars, and who was the first who taught men 
 that heaven had the form of a globe. Hence the 
 expression that Heaven rested on his shoulders was 
 regarded as a merely figurative mode of speaking. 
 At first, the story of Atlas referred to one mountain 
 onl}', which was believed to exist on the extreme 
 boundary of the earth ; but, as geographical know- 
 ledge extended, the name of Atlas was transferred 
 to other places, and thus we read of a Mauretanian, 
 Italian, Arcadian, and even of a Caucasian, Atlas. 
 The common opinion, however, was, that the 
 heaven-bearing Atlas was in the N.W. of Africa. 
 See below. Atlas was the father of the Pleiades 
 by Pleione or by Hesperis ; of the Hyades and 
 Hesperides by Aethra ; and of Oenomaus and 
 Maia by Sterope. Dione and Calypso, Hyas and 
 Hesperus, are likewise called %is children. — At- 
 lanttades^ a descendant of Atlas, especially Mercury, 
 his grandson by Maia (comp. Mercuri facunde 
 nepos Atlantis, Hor. Carm.\. 10), and Hermaphro- 
 ditus, son of Mercury. — Atlantias and Atlantis, a 
 female descendant of Atlas, especially the Pleiads 
 and Hyads. 
 
 Atlas Mons ("ArAas: Atlas), was the general 
 name of the great mountain range which covers 
 the surface of N. Africa between the Mediterra- 
 nean and Great Desert (Sahara), on the N. and S., 
 and the Atlantic and the Lesser Syrtis on the W. 
 and E. ; the mountain chains S.E. of the Lesser 
 Syrtis, though connected with the Atlas, do not 
 properly belong to it, and were called by other 
 names. The N. and S. ranges of this sj'stem were 
 distinguished by the names of Atlas Minor and 
 Atlas major, and a distinction was made between 
 the 3 regions into which they divided the country. 
 [Africa, p. 23, a.] 
 
 Atossa (■'Aroffo-a), daughter of C3TUS, and wife 
 successively of her brother Cambyses, of Smerdis 
 the Magian, and of Darius Hystaspis, over whom 
 she possessed great influence. She bore Darius 4 
 sons, Xerxes, Masistes, Achaemenes,and Hystaspes. 
 
 Atrae or Hatra ("Arpai, ra "Arpa : 'Arprjyds, 
 Atrenus : Hadr, S.W. of I\Iosul), a strongly forti- 
 fied city on a high mountain in Mesopotamia, in- 
 habited by people of the Arab race. 
 
 Semproziius, Atratinus. 1. A., consul b. c. 
 497 and 491. — 2. L., consul 444 and censor 443. 
 ^3. C, consul 423, fought unsuccessfully against 
 
 ATBOPATES. 
 
 105 
 
 the Volscians, and was in consequence condemned 
 to pay a heavy fine. — 4. L., accused M. Caelius 
 Rufus, whom Cicero defended, 57. 
 
 Atrax CArpa^ : ^ArpaKios), a town in Pelas- 
 giotis in Thesaaly, inhabited by the Perrhaebi, so 
 called from the mythical Atrax, son of PeniHus 
 and Bura, and father of Hippodaraia and Caenis. 
 
 Atrebates, a people in Gallia Belgica, in the 
 modern Ariois, which is a corruption of their name. 
 In Caesar's time (b. c. 57) they numbered 15,000 
 warriors : their capital was Nemetocenna. Part 
 of them crossed over to Britain, where they dwelt 
 in the upper valley of the Thames, Ocrfordshire 
 and Berkshire. 
 
 Atreus (Arpeus), son of Pelops aud Hippodamia, 
 grandson of Tantalus, and brother of Thyestes and 
 Nicippe. [Pelops.] He was first married to 
 Cleola, by whom he became the father of Plls- 
 thenes ; then to AeVope, the widow of his son 
 Plisthenes, who was the mother of Agamemnon, 
 Menelaus, and Anaxibia, either by Plisthenes or by 
 Atreus [Agabierinon]; and lastly to Pelopia, tha 
 daughter of his brother Thyestes. The tragic fate 
 of the house of Tantalus afforded ample materials 
 to the tragic poets of Greece, who relate the details 
 in various ways. In consequence of the murder of 
 their half-brother Chrj'sippus, Atreus and Thyestes 
 were obliged to take to flight ; they were hospi- 
 tably received at Mycenae ; and, after the death 
 of Eurystheus, Atreus became king of Mycenae. 
 Thyestes seduced Aerope, the wife of A^eus, and 
 was in consequence banished by his brother : from 
 his place of exile he sent Plisthenes, the son of 
 Atreus, whom he had brought up as his own child,, 
 in order to slay Atreus ; but Plisthenes fell by th& 
 hands of Atreus, who did not know that he was 
 his own son. In order to take revenge, Atreus, 
 pretending to be reconciled to Thyestes, recalled 
 hira to Mycenae, killed his 2 sons, and placed their 
 flesh before their father at a banquet, who unwit- 
 tingly partook of the horrid meal. Thyestes fled 
 with horror, and the gods cursed Atreus and his 
 house. The kingdom of Atreus was now visited 
 by famine, and the oracle advised Atreus to call 
 back Thyestes. Atreus, who went out in search 
 of him, came to king Thesprotus, and as he did 
 not find him there, he married his third wife, Pe- 
 lopia, the daughter of Thyestes, whom Atreus be- 
 lieved to be a daughter of Thesprotus. Pelopia 
 was at the time with child by her own father. 
 This child, Aegisthus, afterwards slew Atreus 
 because the latter had commanded him to slay his 
 own father Thyestes. [Aegisthus.] The treasury 
 of Atreus and his sons at Mycenae, which is men- 
 tioned by Pauaanias, is believed by some to exist 
 still ; but the ruins which remain are above ground,. 
 whereas Pausanias speaks of the building as under- 
 ground. 
 
 Atria. [Adria.] 
 
 Atrides ('ATpet57/s), a descendant of Atreus, 
 especially Agamemnon and Menelaus. 
 
 Atropatene (^hrpoTraT-qui))^ or Media Atropatia 
 (•ATpoTraTto or -os MTjSi'a), the N.W. part of 
 Media, adjacent to Armenia, named after Atro- 
 pates, a native of the country, who, having been 
 made its governor by Alexander, founded there a 
 kingdom, which long remained independent alike- 
 of the Seleucidae, the Parthians, and the Romans^ 
 but was at last subdued by the Parthians. 
 
 Atropates ('ATpoirdTTjs), a Persian satrap, fought 
 at the battle of Gaugamela, B.C. 331, and after 
 
106 
 
 ATROPOS. 
 
 the death of Darius, "vvas made satrap of Media by 
 Alexander, His daughter was married to Per- 
 diccas in 324 ; and he received from his father-in- 
 law, after Alexander's death, the proA'ince of the 
 Greater Media. In the N.W. of the country, 
 called after him Media Atropatene, he established 
 an independent kingdom, which continued to exist 
 down to the time of the emperor Augustus. 
 Atropos. [MoiRAE.] 
 
 Atta, T. Quintius, a Roman comic poet, died 
 B. c, 78. His surname Atta was given him from 
 a defect in his feet, to which circumstance Horace 
 probably alludes {Ep. ii. 1. 79). His plays were 
 very popular, and were acted even in the time of 
 Augustus. 
 
 Attag'inns ('ATTa7(yos), son of Phrynon, a 
 Theban, betrayed Thebes to Xerxes, B.C. 480. 
 After the battle of Plataeae (479) the other Greeks 
 required Attaginus to be delivered up to them, but 
 
 . he made his escape. 
 
 Attalia CAxTtiAeia, *ATToAe£«tT7;y or -aTt)s).^ 
 1. A city of Lydia, formerly called Agroira ('AyptJ- 
 
 ■ eipa),— 2. {Laara), a city on the coast of Pam- 
 phylia, near the mouth of the river Catarrhactes, 
 founded by Attains LI, Philadelphus, and subdued 
 by the Romans under P. Servilius Isauricus. 
 
 Attalus ("ATTaXos). 1. A Macedonian, uncle 
 of Cleopatra, whom Philip married in b. c. 337. 
 At the nuptials of his niece, Attalus offered an 
 insult to Alexander, and, on the accession of the 
 latter, ^j^ put to death by his order in Asia Minor, 
 whitherPhiliphad previously sent him to secure 
 the Greek cities to his cause. ^2. Son of Andro- 
 
 , menes the Stymphaean, and one of Alexander's 
 officers ; after the death of Alexander (b. c. 323), 
 he served under Perdiccas, whose sister, Atalante, 
 he had married ; and after the death of Perdiccas 
 (321), he joined Alcetas, the brother of Perdiccas ; 
 but their united forces were defeated in Pisidia by 
 Antigonus in 320.^3. Kiitgs of Fergamus. — (I.) 
 Son of Attalus, a brother of Philetaerus, succeeded 
 his cousin, Eumenes I., and reigned b. c. 241 — 197. 
 He took part with the Romans against Philip and 
 the Achaeans, He was a wise and just prince, and 
 was distinguished by his patronage of literature. — 
 (II.) Sumamed Philadelphus^ 2nd son of Attalus I., 
 succeeded his brother Eumenes II., and reigned 
 159 — 138. Like his father he was an ally of the 
 Romans, and he also encouraged the arts and 
 sciences. — (HI.) Sumamed PUlomdor^ son of 
 Eumenes II, and Stratonice, succeeded his uncle 
 Attalus II., and reigned 138 — 133. He is known 
 to us chiefly for the extravagance of his conduct 
 and the murder of his relations and friends. In 
 his will, he made the Romans his heirs ; but his 
 kingdom was claimed by Aristonicus. [Aristo- 
 Nicus.]^4. Roman emperor of the West, was 
 raised to the throne by Alaric, but was deposed by 
 the latter, after a reign of one year (a. d. 409, 410), 
 on account of his acting ^vithout Alaric's advice. 
 —5. A Stoic philosopher in the reign of Ti- 
 berius, was one of the teachers of the philosopher 
 Seneca, who speaks of him in the highest terms. 
 
 AttegTia, a town in Hispania Baetica, of uncer- 
 tain site. 
 
 Atthis or Attls ("At^ij or "Attis), daughter of 
 Cranaus, from whom Attica was believed to have 
 derived its name. The two birds into which Phi- 
 lomela and her sister Procne were metamorphosed, 
 were likewise called Attis. 
 
 Attica (t; 'Attikt], so. yrj), a division of Greece, 
 
 ATTICUS. 
 
 has the form of a triangle, two sides of which are 
 washed by the Aegaean sea, while the third is 
 separated from Boeotia on the N. by the mountains 
 Cithaeron and Parnes. Megaris, which bounds it 
 on the N.W., was formerly a part of Attica. In 
 ancient times ft was called Acie and Actice {'Akti'j 
 and 'AKTucii), or the '■'coastland" [Acte], from 
 which the later form Attica is said to have been 
 derived : but according to traditions it derived its 
 name from Atthis^ the daughter of the mythical 
 king Cranaus ; and it is not impossible that Ait-ica 
 may contain the root Att or Ath, which we find in 
 Atthis and ADtenae. Attica is divided by many- 
 ancient writers into 3 districts. 1, The Highlands 
 (?j 5iaKpta, also (J^etr'^ 'Attikt7), the N.E. ofthe 
 country, containing the range of Parnes and ex- 
 tending S. to the promontory C3Tiosura: the onlj- 
 level part of this district was the small plain of 
 Marathon opening to the sea. 2. The Plain (?) 
 ireStay, tJi ireSioi/), the N.W. of the country, in- 
 cluded both the plain round Athens and the plain 
 round Eleusis, and extended S. to the promontory 
 Zoster. 3. The Sea-coasi Distiict (77 TrapaKid), 
 the S. part of the country, terminating in the pro- 
 montory Sunium. Besides these 3 divisions' we 
 also read of a 4th, T7ie Midland District (fiea-6yaia), 
 still called Mesogia^ an undulating plain in the 
 middle of the country, bounded by M. Pentelicus 
 on the N., M. Hymettus on the W., and the sea 
 on the E. The soil of Attica is not very fer- 
 tile : the greater part of it is not adapted for 
 growing corn ; but it produces olives, figs, and 
 grapes, especially the 2 former, in great perfection. 
 The country is dry : the chief river is the Cephis- 
 sus, which rises in Parnes and flows through the 
 Athenian plain. The abundance of wild flowers 
 in the country made the honey of M. Hymettus 
 very celebrated in antiquity. Excellent marble 
 was obtained from the quarries of Pentelicus, 
 N.E. of Athens, rffrd a considerable supply of silver 
 from the mines of Laurium near Sunium. The 
 area of Attica, including the island of Salamis, 
 which belonged to it, contained between 700 and 
 SCO square miles ; and its population in its flou- 
 rishing period was probably about 500,000, of 
 which nearly 4-5ths were slaves. Attica is said 
 to have been originally inhabited by Pelasgians. 
 Its most ancient political division was into 12 
 independent states, attributed to Cecrops, who 
 according to some legends came from Egj^it Sub- 
 sequently Ion, the grandson of Hellen, divided the 
 people into 4 tribes, Geleontes^ Hopleies^ Argades^ 
 and Aegicores ; and Theseus, who united the 12 
 independent states of Attica into one political body, 
 and made Athens the capital, again divided the 
 nation into 3 classes, the Eupatridae, Geomori^ and 
 Demiurgi. Clisthenes (b. c. 510) abolished the 
 old tribes and created 10 new ones, according to a 
 geographical division : these tribes were subdivided 
 into 174 demi or townships. (For details, see 
 Diet of Ant. art. Tribus.) 
 
 Atticus Herodes, Tiberius Claudiua, a cele- 
 brated Greek rhetorician, bom about a. d. 104, at 
 Marathon in Attica. He taught rhetoric both at 
 Athens and at Rome, and his school was frequented 
 by the most distinguished men of the age. The 
 future emperors M. Aurelius and L. Verus were 
 among his pupils, and Antoninus Pius raised him 
 to the consulship in 143. He possessed immense 
 wealth, a great part of which he spent in embel- 
 lishing Athens. He died at the age of 76, in 180. 
 
ATTICUS. 
 
 ■ He wrote numerous works, none of which have 
 come down to us, with the exception of an oration, 
 entitled Hepl TroAirefay, the genuineness of which, 
 however, is very doubtful. It is printed in the 
 collections of the Greek orators, and by Fiorillo, 
 in Herodis Attid quae supersuni. Lips. 1801. 
 
 Atticus, T. Pomponius, a Roman eques, bom 
 at Rome, b. c. 109. His proper name after his 
 adoption by Q. Caecilius, the brother of his mother, 
 was Q. Caecilius Pomponianus Atticus. His sur- 
 name, Atticus, was given him on account of his 
 long residence in Athens and his intimate acquain- 
 tance with the Greek language and literature. He 
 was educated along with L. Torquatus, the younger 
 C. Mai'ius, and M. Cicero. Soon after the break- 
 ing out of the civil war between Marius and Sulla, 
 he resolved to take no part in the contest, and ac- 
 cordingly removed to Athens. During the re- 
 mainder of his life, he kept aloof from all political 
 affairs, and thus lived on the most intimate terms 
 with the most distinguished men of all parties. 
 He was equally the fiiend of Caesar and Pompey, 
 of Brutus and Cassius, of Antony and Augustus ; 
 but his most intimate friend was Cicero, whose corre- 
 spondence with him, beginning in 68 and continued 
 down to Cicero's death, is one of the most valuable 
 remains of antiquity. He purchased an estate at 
 Buthrotum in Epirus, in which place, as well as at 
 Athens and Rome, he spent the greater part of 
 his time, engaged in literary pursuits and commer- 
 cial undertakings. He died in 32, at the age of 
 77, of voluntary starvation, when he found that he 
 was attacked by an incurable illness. His wife 
 Pilia, to whom he was married in 56^ when he was 
 53 years of age, bore him only one child, a daughter, 
 Pomponia or Caecilia, whom Cicero sometimes calls 
 Attica and Atticula. She was married in the 
 
 ■ life-time of her father to M. Vipsanius Agrippa. 
 The sister of Atticus, Pomponia, was married to 
 Q. Cicero, the brother of the orator. The life of 
 Atticus by Cornelius Nepos is to be regarded rather 
 as a panegjTic upon an intimate friend, than strictly 
 speaking a biography. In philosophy Atticus be- 
 longed to the Epicurean sect. He was thoroughly 
 acquainted with the whole circle of Greek and 
 Roman literature. So high an opinion was en- 
 tertained of his taste and critical acumen, that 
 many of his friends, especially Cicero, were accus- 
 tomed to send him their works for revision and 
 correction. None of his own writings have come 
 down to us. 
 
 Attila ('ATT')7A.as- or 'ArriKas, German^ Etzel, 
 Hungarian, Ethde\ king of the Huns, attained in 
 A. D. 434, with his brother Bieda (in German 
 Blodel), to the sovereignty of all the northern tribes 
 between the frontier of Gaul and the frontier of 
 China, and to the command of an army of at least 
 500,000 barbarians. He gradually concentrated 
 upon himself the awe and fear of the whole ancient 
 world, which ultimately expressed itself by affixing 
 to his name the well-known epithet of " the Scourge 
 of God.-' His career divides itself into two parts. 
 The first (a. d. 445 — 450) consists of the ravage 
 of the Eastern empire between the Euxine and the 
 Adiiatic and the negotiations with Theodosius II., 
 which followed upon it. They were ended by a 
 treaty which ceded to Attila a large territory S. 
 of the Danube and an annual tribute. The second 
 part of his career was the invasion of the Western 
 empire (450 — 452). He crossed the Rhine at 
 ■ Strassburg, but was defeated at Chalons by Aetius, 
 
 AUGE. 
 
 107 
 
 and Theodoric, king of the Visigoths, in 451. He 
 then crossed the Alps, and took Aquileia in 452, 
 after a siege of 3 months, but he did not attack 
 Rome, in consequence, it is said, of his interview 
 with Pope Leo the Great. He recrossed the Alps 
 towards the end of the year, and died in 453, on 
 the night of his marriage with a beautiful girl, va- 
 riously named Hilda, Ildico, Mycolth,by the burst- 
 ing of a blood-vessel. In person Attila was, like 
 the Mongolian race in general, a short thickset 
 man, of stately gait, with a large head, dark com- 
 plexion, flat nose, thin beard, and bald with the 
 exception of a few white hairs, his eyes small, but 
 of great brilliancy and quickness. 
 
 Attiliu3. [Atilius.] 
 
 Attius. [Accius.] 
 
 Attius or Attus Navius. [Navius.] 
 
 Attius TuUius. [Tui.Lius.] 
 
 Aturia ("AToupia). [Assyria.] 
 
 Atunis (Adour)^ a river in Aquitania, rises in 
 the Pyrenees and flows through the territory of 
 the Tarbelli into the ocean. 
 
 Atymnius ('Atujui/ios or ^'Arvfj.vos), son of Zeus 
 and Cassiopea, a beautiful boy, beloved by Sarpe- 
 don. Others call him son of Phoenix. 
 
 Atys, Attys, Attes, Attis, or Attin ("Arvs, 
 ■"ATTuy, ^'Atttjj, "Attis, or ''^tiv). 1, Son of 
 Nana, and a beautifiil shepherd of the Phrygian 
 town, Celaenae. He was beloved by Cybele, but 
 as he proved unfaithful to her, he was thrown by 
 her into a state of madness, in which he unmanned, 
 himself. Cybele thereupon changed him into a 
 fir-tree, which henceforth became sacred to her, 
 and she commanded that, in future, her priests 
 should be eunuchs. Such is the account in Ovid 
 (Fast iv. 221), but his story is related difl'erentJy 
 by other writers. Atys was worshipped in the 
 temples of Cybele in common with this goddess. 
 His worship appears to have been introduced into 
 Greece at a comparatively late period. It is pro- 
 bable that the mythus of Atys represents the two- 
 fold character of nature, the male and female con- 
 centrated in one. — 2. Son of Manes, king of the 
 Maeonians, from whose son Lydus, his son and 
 successor, the Maeonians were afterwards called 
 Lydians. — 3. A Latin chief, son of Alba, and 
 father of Capys, from whom the Atia Gens derived 
 its origin, and from whom Augustus was believed 
 to be descended on his mother's side. ^4. Son of 
 Croesus, slain by Adrastus. 
 
 Aiifidena (Aufidenas, -iltis : Alfidena\ a town 
 in Samniura on the river Sagrus. 
 
 Aufidius. 1. Cn., a learned historian, cele- 
 brated by Cicero for the equanimity with which 
 he bore blindness, was quaestor b. c. 119, tribunus 
 plebis, 114, and finally praetor ]08. — 2. T., a 
 jurist, quaestor b. c. 86, and afterwards propraetor 
 in Asia. ^ 3. Bassus. [Bassus.] ^ 4. Lurco. 
 [LuRco.]— 5. Orestes. [Orestes.] 
 
 Aufidus {Ofanto\ the principal river of Apulia, 
 rises in the Apennines in the territory of the Hir- 
 pini in Saranium, flows at first with a rapid current 
 (hence vlolens and acer^ Hor. Carm. iii. 30. 10, 
 Sat. i. 1 . 58), and then more slowly {stagna Aufda, 
 Sil. Ital. X. 171) into the Adi'iatic. Venusia, the 
 birth-place of Horace, was on the Aufidua. 
 
 Auganis. [Acbarus.] 
 
 Auge or Augia {A^yi) or Auyefa), daughter of 
 Aleus and Neaera, was a priestess of Athena, and 
 mother by Hercules of Telephus. She afterwards 
 married Teuthras, king of the Mysians. 
 
108 
 
 AUGEAS. 
 
 Augeas or Augias (Avy4as or Avyelas), son of 
 Phorbas or Helios (the Sun), and king of the 
 Epeans in EUs. He had a herd of 3000 oxen, 
 whose stalls had not been cleansed for 30 years. 
 It was one of the labours imposed upon Hercules 
 by Eui-ystheus to cleanse these stalls in one day. 
 As a reward the hero was to receive the tenth part 
 of the oxen ; but when he had accomplished his 
 task by leading the rivers Alpheus and Peneus 
 through the stables, Augeas refused to keep his 
 promise. Hercules thereupon killed him and his 
 sons, with the exception of Phyleus, who was 
 placed on the throne of his father. Another tra- 
 dition represents Augeas as dying a natural death 
 at an advanced age, and as receiving heroic honours 
 from Oxylus. 
 
 Augila (ra AtjytXa: Aujilah), an oasis in the 
 Great Desert of Africa, about 3^° S. of Cyrene, and 
 10 days' journey W. of the Oasis of Amnion, 
 abounding in date palms, to gather the fruit of 
 which a tribe of the Nasamones, called Augilae 
 (AuyiAat), resorted to the Oasis, which at other 
 times was uninhabited, 
 
 Augurinns, Genucius. 1. T., consul b. c. 451, 
 and a member of the first dcceravirate in the same 
 year. —2. M., brother of the preceding, consul 
 445. 
 
 Augnnnus, mnucius. 1. M., consul b. c. 
 497 and 4S1. He took an active part in the de- 
 fence of Coriolanus, who was brought to trial in 
 491, but was unable to obtain his acquittal. ^ 2. 
 L., consul 458, carried on war against the Aequians, 
 and was surrounded by the enemy on Mt. Algidus, 
 but was delivered by the dictator Cincinnatus. ^ 
 3. L., was appointed praefect of the corn-market 
 (prae/ectus annonae) 439, as the people were suf- 
 fering from grievous famine. The ferment occa- 
 sioned by the assassination of Sp. Maelius in this 
 year was appeased by Augurinus, who is said to 
 have gone over to the plebs from the patricians, 
 and to have been chosen by the tribunes one of 
 their body. Augurinus lowered the price of corn 
 in 3 market days, fixing as the maximum an as for 
 a modius. The people in their gratitude presented 
 him with an ox having its horns gilt, and erected 
 a statue to his honour outside the Porta Trigemina, 
 for which eveiy body subscribed an ounce of brass. 
 
 Augusta, the name of several towns founded or 
 colonised by Augustus. 1. A Asturica. [Astu- 
 KES.]^2. A. Emerita (Merida), in Lusitania 
 on the Anas {Guadiana\ colonised by Augustus 
 with the veterans (emeriti) of the 5th and 10th 
 legions, was a place of considerable importance. — 
 3.A. Fixma. [Astigi.] — 4. APraetoria (^os/a), 
 a town of the Salassi in Upper Italy, at the foot of 
 the Graian and Pennine Alps, colonised by Augus- 
 tus with soldiers of the praetorian cohorts. The 
 modem town still contains many Roman remains : 
 the most important of which are the town gates and 
 a triumphal arch. — 5. A Eauracorum {Augst), 
 the capital of the Rauraci, colonised by Mu- 
 natlus Plancus under Augustus, was on the left of 
 the Rhine near the modern Basle ; the ruins of a 
 Roman amphitheatre are still to be seen. — 6. A. 
 SuessoHum (Soissuns), the capital of the Suessones 
 in Gallia Belgica, probably the Noviodunum of 
 Caesar. —7. A. Taurinonua {Turin\ more an- 
 ciently called Tutirasiuy tlie capital of the Taurini 
 on the Fo, was an important town in the time of 
 Hannibal, and was colonised by Augustus. ■— 8, 
 Trevirorum. [Theviri.J ^ 9. Tricastinorum 
 
 AUGUSTUS. 
 (Aotisie), the capital of the Tricastlni in Gallia 
 Narbonensis.^10. A. VindellCOrum {Augsburg), 
 capital of Vindelicia or Rhaetia Secunda on the 
 LIcus {Lech), colonised byDrusus under Augustus, 
 after the conquest of Rhaetia, about b. c. 14. 
 
 Augustmus, Aurelius, usually called St. 
 Augustine, the most illustrious of the Latin 
 fathers, was born A. n. 354, at Tagaste, an in- 
 land to\vn in Numldia. His mother was a sin- 
 cere Christian, who exerted herself in training up 
 her son in the practice of piety, but for a longthne 
 without effect. He studied rhetoric at Carthage, 
 where he embraced the Manichaean heresy, to 
 wlilch he adhered for 9 years. He afterwards be- 
 came a teacher of rhetoric at Carthage, but in 3&3 
 he went to Italy, and in Milan was led by the 
 preaching and conversation of Ambrose to abandon 
 his Manichaean errors and embrace Christianity. 
 He was baptized by Ambrose in 387, and then re- 
 turned to Africa, where he passed the next 3 years 
 in seclusion, devoting himself to religious exercises. 
 In 391 he was ordained a priest by Valerius, then 
 bishop of Hippo, and in 395 he was ordained 
 bishop of Hippo. His history, from the time of 
 his elevation to the see of Hippo, is so closely im- 
 plicated with the Donatistic and Pelagian contro- 
 versies, that it would be impracticable to pursue 
 its details within our limits. He died at Hippo in 
 430, when the city was besieged by the Vandals. 
 Of his numerous works the 2 most interesting are : 
 1. His CoJifessions, in 13 books, written In 397, con- 
 taining an account of his early life. 2. De Civiiate 
 Dei, In 22 books, commenced about 413, and not 
 finished before 426. The first 10 books contain a 
 refutation of the various systems of false religion, 
 the last ] 2 present a systematic view of the true 
 religion. — The best edition of the collected works 
 of Augustine is the Benedictine, 11 vols. fol. Paris, 
 1679—1700. 
 
 Augustobona (rroyes), afterwards called Tn- 
 cassae, the capital of the Tricasii or Tricasses in 
 Gallia Lugdunensls. 
 
 Augustodunum. [Bibracte.] 
 
 Augustonemettim. [Arverni.] 
 
 Augustoritum. [Lemovices.] 
 
 Augustus, the first Roman emperor, was bom on 
 the 23rd of September, b. c. G3, and was the son 
 of C. Octavius by Atia, a daughter of Julia, the 
 sister of C. Julius Caesar. His original name was 
 C. Octavius, and, after his adoption by his great- 
 uncle, C. Julius Caesar Octavianus, but for the 
 sake of brevity we shall call him Augustus, though 
 this was only a title given him by the senate and 
 the people in 27, to express their veneration for 
 him. Augustus lost his father at 4 years of age, 
 but his education was conducted with great care 
 by his grandmother Julia, and by his mother 
 and step-father, L. Marcius Phllippus, whom his 
 mother married soon after his father's death. 
 C. Julius Caesar, who had no male issue, also 
 watched over his education with solicitude. He 
 joined his uncle in Spain in 45, in the campaign 
 against the sons of Pompey, and in the course of 
 the same year was sent by Caesar to Apollonia in 
 lllyricura, where some legions were stationed, that 
 he might acquire a more thorough practical training 
 in military affairs, and at the same time prosecute 
 his studies. He was at Apollonia, when the 
 news reached him of his uncle's murder at Rome 
 in March 44, ojid he forthwith set out for Italy, 
 accompanied by Agrlppa and a few other friends. 
 
AUGUSTUS. 
 
 Oil landing near Brundusiuni at the beginning of 
 April, he heard that Caesar had adopted him in 
 his testament and made him his heir. He now 
 assumed tlie name of Caesar, and was so saluted 
 by the troops. On reaching Rome about the 
 beginning of May he demanded nothing but the 
 private property which Caesar had left him, but 
 declared that he was resolved to avenge the 
 murder of his benefactor. The state of parties at 
 Rome was most perplexing ; and one cannot but 
 admire the extraordinary' tact and prudence which 
 Augustus displayed, and the skill with which a 
 youth of barely 20 contrived to blind the most ex- 
 perienced statesmen in Rome, and eventually to 
 carry all his designs into effect. Augustus had to 
 contend against the republicjui party as well as 
 against Antony ; for the latter foresaw that Au- 
 gustus would stand in the way of his views, and 
 had therefore attempted, though without success, 
 to prevent Augustus from accepting the inheritance 
 which his uncle had left him. Augustus, there- 
 fore, resolved to crush Antony first as the more 
 dangerous of his two enemies, and accordingly 
 made overtures to the republican party. These 
 ■were so well received, especially when 2 legions 
 ■went over to him, that the senate conferred upon 
 him the title of praetor, and sent him with the 2 
 consuls of the year, C. Vibius Pansa .and A. Hir- 
 tius, to attack Antonj', who was besieging D. 
 Bmtus in Mutina. Antony was defeated and ob- 
 liged to fly across the Alps ; and the death of the 
 2 consuls gave Augustus the command of all their 
 troops. The senate now became alarmed, and 
 determined to prevent Augustus from acquiring 
 further power. But he soon showed that he did 
 not intend to become the senate's servant. Sup- 
 ported by his troops he marched upon Rome and 
 demanded the consulship, which the terrified senate 
 ■was obliged to give him. He was elected to the 
 office along with Q. Pedius, and the murderers of 
 the dictator were outlawed. He now marched 
 into the N. of Italy, professedly against Antony, 
 who had been joined by Lepidus, and who was 
 descending from the Alps along with the latter at 
 the head of 1 7 legions. Augustus and Antony 
 now became reconciled ; and it was agreed that 
 the empire should be divided between Augustus, 
 Anton}'-, and Lepidus, under the title of iriumviri 
 rei puhlicae constiitiendae, and that this arrangement 
 ehould last for the next 5 years. They published 
 a proscripiio or list of all their enemies, whose lives 
 were to be sacrificed and their property confiscated : 
 upwards of 2000 equites and 300 senators were put 
 to death, among whom was Cicero. Soon afterwards 
 Augustus and Antony crossed over to Greece, and 
 defeated Brutus and Cassius at the decisive battle 
 of Philippi in 42, by which the hopes of the re- 
 publican party were ruined. The triumvirs there- 
 upon made a new division of the provinces. Lepidus 
 obtained Africa, and Augustus returned to Italy to 
 reward his veterans with the lands he had pro- 
 mised them. Here a new war awaited him (41), 
 excited by Fulvia, the wife of Antony. She was 
 supported by L. Antonius, the consul and brother 
 of the triumvir, who threw himself into the forti- 
 fied town of Perusia, which Augustus succeeded in 
 taking in 40. Antony now made preparations for 
 war, but the opportune death of Fulvia led to a 
 reconciliation between the triumvirs, who concluded 
 a peace at Brundusium. A new division of the 
 provinces was again made : Augustus obtained all 
 
 AUCiUISTUS. 
 
 109 
 
 the parts of the empire "VV. of the town of Scodra 
 in lUyricum, and Antony the E. provinces, while 
 Italy was to belong to them in common. Antony 
 married Octavia, the sister of Augustus, in order to 
 cement their alliance. In 39 Augustus concluded 
 a peace with Sex. Pompey, whose fleet gave him 
 the command of the sea, and enabled him to pre- 
 vent com from reaching Rome. But this peace 
 was only transitory. As long as Pompey was in- 
 dependent, Augustus could not hope to obtain the 
 dominion of the West, and he therefore eagerly 
 availed himself of the pretext that Pompey allowed 
 piracy to go on in the Mediterranean, for the pur- 
 pose of declaring war against him. In 36 the 
 contest came to a final issue. The fleet of Augus- 
 tus, under the command of M. Agrippa, gained a 
 decisive victoiy over that of Pompe}', who aban- 
 doned Sicily and fled to Asia. Lepidus, who had 
 landed in Sicily to support Augustus, was impatient 
 of the subordinate part which he had hitherto 
 played, and claimed the island for himself ; but he 
 was easily subdued by Augustus, stripped of his 
 power, and sent to Rome, where he resided for the 
 remainder of his life, being allowed to retain the 
 dignity of pontifex maximus. In 35 and 34 Au- 
 gustus was engaged in war with the Illyrians and 
 Dalmatians. Meantime, Antony had repudiated 
 Octavia, and had alienated the minds of the Roman 
 people by his arbitrary and arrogant proceedings 
 in the East. Augustus found that the Romans 
 were quite prepared to desert his rival, and ac- 
 cordingly in 32 the senate declared war agaiust 
 Cleopatra,^ for Antony was looked upon only as her 
 infatuated slave. The remainder of the year was 
 occupied by preparations for war on both sides. In 
 the spring of 31 Augustus passed over to Epirus, 
 and in September in the same year his fleet gained 
 a brilliant victory over Antony's near the promon- 
 tory of Actium in Acamania. In the following 
 year (30) Augustus sailed to Egypt. Antony and 
 Cleopatra, who had escaped in satety from Actium, 
 put an end to their lives to avoid falling into the 
 hands of the conqueror ; and Augustus now became 
 the undisputed master of the Roman world. He 
 returned to Rome in 29, and after restoring order 
 in all parts of the government he proposed in the 
 senate to lay down his powers, but pretended to be 
 prevailed upon to remain at the head of affairs for 
 10 years longer. This plan was afterwards re- 
 peated several times, and he apparently allowed 
 himself to be always persuaded to retain his power 
 either for 10 or 5 years more. He declined all 
 honours and distinctions which were calculated to 
 remind the Romans of kingly power ; but he ac- 
 cepted in 33 the iviperiitm proconsiilare and the 
 iinbunitia potestas for life, by which his inviolabi- 
 lity was legally established, while by the imperium 
 proconsulare he became the highest authority in all 
 the Roman provinces. On the death of Lepidus 
 in 12 he became pontifex maximus ; but thougb 
 he had thus tmited in his own person all the great 
 offices of state, yet he was too prudent to show to 
 the Romans by any display of authority that lie 
 was the sole master. He had no ministers, in our 
 sense of the word ; but on state matters, which he 
 did not fiioose to be discussed in public, he con- 
 sulted his personal friends, C. Cilnius Maecenas, 
 M. Vipsanius Agrippa, M. Valerius Messalla Cor- 
 vinus, and Asinius Pollio. The people retained 
 their republican privileges, though they were mere 
 forms : they still met in their assemblies, and 
 
no 
 
 AUGUSTULUS. 
 
 elected consuls and other magistrates ; but only 
 such persons were elected as had been proposed or 
 recommended by the emperor. The almost unin- 
 terrupted festivities, games, distributions of com, 
 and the like, made the people forget the sub- 
 stance of their republican freedom, and obey con- 
 tentedly their new ruler. The wars of Augustus 
 were not aggressive, but were chiefly undertaken 
 to protect the frontiers of the Roman dominions. 
 Most of them were carried on by bis relations and 
 friends, but he conducted some of them in person. 
 Thus, in 27, he attacked the warlike Cantabri and 
 Astures in Spain, whose subjugation, however, was 
 not completed till 19 by Agrippa. In 21 Augustus 
 travelled through Sicily and Greece, and spent the 
 winter following at Samos. Next year (20) he 
 went to Syria, where he received from Phraates, 
 the Parthian monarch, the standards and prisoners 
 which had been taken from Crassus and Antony, 
 In 16 the Romans suffered a defeat on the Lower 
 Rhine by some German tribes ; whereupon Augus- 
 tus went himself to Gaul, and spent 4 years there, 
 to regulate the government of that province, and to 
 make the necessary preparations for defending it 
 against the Germans. In 9 he again went to Gaul, 
 where he received German ambassadors, who sued 
 for peace ; and from this time forward, he does not 
 appear to have again taken any active part in the 
 wars that were carried on. Those in Germany 
 were the most formidable, and lasted longer than 
 the reign of Augustus. He died at Nola, on the 
 29th of August, A. D. 14, at the age of 76. Augus- 
 tus was first married, though only nominally, to 
 Clodia, a daughter of Clodius and Fulvia. His 2nd 
 wife, Scribonia, bore him his only daughter, Julia. 
 His 3rd wife was Livia Drusilla, the wife of Tibe- 
 rius Nero. Augustus had at first fixed on M. 
 Marcellus. as his successor, the son of his sister 
 Octavia, who was married to his daughter Julia. 
 After his death Julia was married to Agrippa, and 
 her 2 sons, Caius and Lucius Caesar, were now 
 destined by Augustus as his successors. On the 
 death of these 2 youths, Augustus was persuaded to 
 adopt Tiberius, the son of Livia, and to make him 
 his colleague and successor. [Tiberjus.] 
 
 Augnstiilus, Romulus, last Roman emperor of 
 the West, was placed upon the throne by his father 
 Orestes (a. d. 475), after the latter had deposed 
 the emperor Julius Nepos. In 476 Orestes was 
 defeated by Odoacer and put to death ; Romulus 
 Augustulus was allowed to live, but was deprived 
 of the sovereignty. 
 
 Aulerci, a powerful Gallic people dwelling be- 
 tween the Sequana {Seine) and the Liger (Loire), 
 were divided into 3 great tribes. 1. A. Eburo- 
 "wces, near the coaat on the left bank of the Seine 
 in the modem Normandy ; their capital was Me- 
 dioianura, afterwards called Eburovices (Evj-eucc). 
 — 2. A. Cenomani, S.W. of the preceding near 
 the Liger : their cipital was Subdinnum {le Mans). 
 At an early period some of the Cenomani crossed 
 the Alps and settled in Upper Italy.— 3. A. Bran- 
 novices, E. of the Cenomani near the Aedui, 
 whose clients they were. The Diablinies men- 
 tioned by Caesar are said by Ptolemy to hq^re been 
 likewise a branch of the Aulerci. 
 
 Aulis (AifXis), a harbour in Boeotia on the Eu- 
 ripus, where the Greek fleet assembled before sail- 
 ing against Troy : it had a temple of Artemis. 
 
 Aiiloil (AvKuu : AvAwvIttjs). L A district and 
 town on the borders of Elis and Messenia, with a 
 
 AURELIANUS. 
 
 temple of Aesculapius, who hence had the surname 
 Auloni2is.—'2. A to\vn inChalcidice in Macedonia, 
 on the Strymonic gulf. ^3. (Melone)^ a fertile 
 valley near Tarentum celebrated for its wine (ami- 
 cus Aulon fertiii Baccho, Hor, Cai'in. ii. 6. 18). 
 
 Auranitis (Aitpajfins : Hauran), a district S. of 
 Damascus and E. of Ituraea and Batanaea, on the 
 E. side of the Jordan, belonging either to Palestine 
 or to Arabia. 
 
 Aurea Ghersonesus (tJ Xpva-TJ Xepff6v7\(Tos)^ the 
 name given by the late geographers to the Malay 
 Peninsida. They also mention an Aurea Regio 
 beyond the Ganges, which is supposed to be the 
 country round Ava. 
 
 Aiirelia, the wife of C. Julius Caesar, by whom 
 she became the mother of C. Julius Caesar, the 
 dictator, and of 2 daughters. She carefully 
 watched over the education of her children, and 
 always took a lively interest in the success of her 
 son. She died in b. c. 54, while Caesar was in 
 Gaul. 
 
 Aurelia Gens, plebeian, of which the most im- 
 portant members are given under their family 
 names, Cotta, Orestes, and Scaitrus. 
 
 Aurelia Orestilla, a beautiful but profligate 
 woman, whom Catiline married. As Aurelia at 
 first objected to marry him, because he had a 
 grown-up son by a former marriage, Catiline is 
 said to have killed his own offspring in order to 
 remove this impediment to their union. 
 
 Aurelia Via, the great coast road from Rome to 
 Transalpine Gaul, at first extended no further than 
 Pisae, but was afterwards continued along the 
 coast to Genua and Forum Julii in Gaul. 
 
 Aureliani. [Gknabum.] 
 
 Aureliauus, Roman emperor, a. d. 270 — 275, 
 was bom about a. d. 212, at Sirmium in Pannonia, 
 He entered the army as a common soldier, and by 
 his extraordinary bravery was raised to offices of 
 trust and honour by Valerian and Claudius II. 
 On the death of the latter, he was elected emperor 
 by the legions at Sirmium. His reign presents a 
 succession of brilliant exploits, which restored for a 
 while their ancient lustre to the arms of Rome. 
 He first defeated the Goths and Vandals, who had 
 crossed the Danube, and were ravaging Panuonia. 
 He next gained a great victory over the Alemanni 
 and other German tribes ; but they succeeded 
 notwithstanding in crossing the Alps. Near' 
 Placentia they defeated the Romans, but were 
 eventually overcome by Aurelian in two decisive 
 engagements in Umbria. After crushing a for- 
 midable conspiracy at Rome, Aurelian next turned 
 his arms against Zenobia, queen of Palmyra, whom 
 he defeated, took prisoner, and carried with him to 
 Rome. [Zenobia ] On his return to Italy he 
 marched to Alexandria and put Finnus to death, 
 who had assumed the title of emperor. He then 
 proceeded to the West, where Gaul, Britain, and 
 Spain were still in the hands of Tetricus, who had 
 been declared emperor a short time before the 
 death of Gallienus. Tetricus surrendered to Au- 
 relian in a battle fought near Chalons. [Tetricus.] 
 The emperor now devoted his attention to domestic 
 improvements and reforms. Many works of public 
 utility were commenced : the most important of all 
 was the erection of a new line of strongly fbrtified 
 walls, embracing a much more ample circuit than 
 the old ones, which had long since fallen into ruin ; 
 but this vast plan was not completed until the 
 reign of Probus. After a short residence in the 
 
AURKLIANUS. 
 
 city, Aurelian visited the provinces on the Danube. 
 He now entirely abandoned Dacia, which had 
 been first conquered by Trajan, and made the 
 S. bank of the Danube, as in the time of Au- 
 gustus, the boundary of the empire. A large force 
 was now collected in Thrace in preparation for an 
 expedition against the Persians ; but while the 
 emperor was on the march between Heraclea and 
 Byzantium, he was kUled by some of his officers. 
 They had been induced to conspire against him by 
 a certain Mnestheus, the freedman of the emperor 
 and his private secretary, who had betrayed his 
 trust, and fearful of punishment, had, by means of 
 forged documents, organised the conspiracy. 
 
 Aurelianus, Caelius or Coelius, a very cele- 
 brated Latin physician, was a native of Numidia, 
 and probably lived in the 4th century after Christ 
 Of his writings we possess 3 books On Acute 
 Diseases " Celerum Pasaionum," (or " De Morbls 
 Acutis,") and 5 books On Cltronic Diseases, 
 *' Tardarum Passionum" (or " De Morbis Chroni- 
 cis"). Edited by Amman, Amstel. 1709. 
 
 M. Aurelius Antoninus, Roman emperor, a.d. 
 161 — 180, commonly called ''the philosopher," 
 was bom at Rome on the 20th of April, a. d. 121. 
 He was adopted by Antoninus Pius immediately 
 after the latter had been himself adopted by Ha- 
 drian, received the title of Caesar, and married 
 Faustma, the daughter of Pius (138). On the 
 death of the latter in 161, he succeeded to the 
 throne, but he admitted to an equal share of the 
 sovereign power L. Ceionius Coramodus, who had 
 been adopted by Pius at the same time as Marcus 
 himself. The two emperors henceforward bore 
 respectively the names of M. Aurelius Antoninus 
 and L. Aurelius Verus- Soon after their accession 
 Verus was despatched to the East, and for 4 years 
 (a. d. 162 — 165) carried on war with great suc- 
 cess against Vologeses III-, king of Parthia, over 
 whom his lieutenants, especially Avidius Cassius, 
 gained many victories. At the conclusion of the 
 ■war both emperors triumphed, and assumed the 
 titles of Armeniacus, Parthicus Maanmiis, and 
 Medicos. Meantime Italy was threatened by the 
 numerous tribes dwelling along the northern limits 
 of the empire, from the sources of the Danube to 
 the Illyrian border. Both emperors set out to en- 
 counter the foe ; and the contest with the northern 
 nations was continued with varying success during 
 the whole life of M. Aurelius, whose head-quarters 
 were generally fixed in Pannonia. After the death 
 of Verus in 'i69, Aurelius prosecuted the war 
 against the Marcomanni with great success, and in 
 consequence of his victories over them he assumed 
 in 172 the title of Germanicus, which he also con- 
 ferred upon his son Commodus. In 174 he gained 
 a decisive victory over the Quadi, mainly through 
 a violent storm, which threw the barbarians into 
 confusion. This storm is said to have been owing to 
 the prayers of a legion chiefly composed of Chris- 
 tians. It has given rise to a famous controversy 
 among the historians of Christianity upon what is 
 commonly termed the Miracle of the Thundering 
 Legion- The Marcomanni and the other northern 
 barbarians concluded a peace with Aurelius in 
 175, who forthwith set out for the East, where 
 Avidius Cassius, urged on by Faustina, the un- 
 worthy wife of Aurelius, had risen in rebellion and 
 proclaimed himself emperor. But before Aurelius 
 reached the East, Cassius had been slain by his 
 own ofiBcers. On his arrival in the East, Aurelius 
 
 r AUSONIUS. "' 
 
 Ill 
 
 acted with the greatest clemency ; none of the ac- 
 complices of Cassius were put to death, and to 
 establish perfect confidence in all, he ordered the 
 papers of Cassius to be destroyed without sufferintr 
 them to be read. During this expedition, Faustina, 
 who had accompanied her husband, died, according 
 to some by her own hands. Aurelius returned to 
 Rome towards the end of 176 ; but in 178 he set 
 out again for Germany, where the Marcomanni 
 and their confederates had again renewed the war. 
 He gained several victories over them, but died in 
 the middle of the war on March 17th, 180, in 
 Pannonia, either at Vindobona ( Vienna) or at Sir- 
 mium, in the 59th year of his age and 20th of his 
 reign. — The leading featiu-e in the character of 
 M. Aurelius was his devotion to philosophy and 
 literature. When only 12 years old, he adopted 
 the dress and practised the austerities of the 
 Stoics, and he continued throughout his life a 
 warm adherent and a bright ornament of the Stoic 
 philosoph)--. We still possess a work by M. Au- 
 relius, written in the Greek language, and entitled 
 Ta fls ^avrhv^ or Meditations, in 12 books. It is 
 a sort of common-place book, in which were regis- 
 tered from time to time the thoughts and feelings of 
 the author upon moral and religious topics, without 
 an attempt at order or arrangement. No remains 
 of antiquity present a nobler view of philosophical 
 heathenism. The best edition of the Medications 
 is by Gataker, Cantab. 1652, and Lond. 1697. — 
 The chief and perhaps the only stain upon the 
 memory of Aurelius is his 2 persecutions of the 
 Christians ; in the former of which, 166, the mar- 
 tyrdom of Polycarp occurred, and in the latter, 
 177, that of Irenaeus. — Aurelius was succeeded 
 by his son Commodus. 
 
 Aiirelius Victor. [Victor.] 
 
 Aureolus, one of the Thirty Tyrants (a. d. 260 
 — 267), who assumed the title of Augustus during 
 the feeble rule of Gallienus. Aureolus was pro- 
 claimed emperor by the legions of Iliyria in 267, 
 and made himself master of N. Italy, but he 
 was defeated and slain in battle in 268, by Clau- 
 dius II., the successor of Gallienus. 
 
 Amora. [Eos.] 
 
 Aurunci. [Italia.] 
 
 Aumaculeius Gotta. [Cotta.] 
 
 Ausa. [AUSETANI.] 
 
 Ausci or Auscii, a powerful people in Aqulta- 
 nia, who possessed the Latin firanchise : their 
 capital was called Climberrum or Elimberrum, also 
 Augusta and Ausci (now Aiich). 
 
 Ausetani, a Spanish people in the modem Ca- 
 talonia: their capital was Ansa {yique). 
 
 Auson (Aiftrwi'), son of Ulysses and Calypso or 
 Circe, from whom the country of the Auruncans 
 was believed to have been called Ausonia. 
 
 Ausones, Atisonia. [Italia.] 
 
 Ausonius, Decimus Magnus, a Roman poet, 
 born at Burdigala {Bourdeaucc), about a. d. 310, 
 taught grammar and rhetoric with such reputation 
 at his native town, that he was appointed tutor of 
 Gratian, son of the emperor Valentinian, and was 
 afterwards raised to the highest honours of the 
 state. He was appointed by Gratian praefectus of 
 Latium, of Libya, and of Gaul, and in 379 was 
 elevated to the consulship. After the death of 
 Gratian, in 383, he retired from public life, and 
 ended his days in a countrj' retreat near Bourdeaux, 
 perhaps about 390. It is most probable that he 
 was a Christian and not a heathen. His extant - 
 
IW 
 
 AtfST&S; 
 
 works are — I. Epigrammatuvt Lihcr^ a collection 
 of 150 epigrams. 2. EpJtemcris. containing an ac- 
 count of the business and proceedings of a day, 
 3. Parentalia^ a series of short poems addressed to 
 friends and relatiuns on their decease. 4. Fro/cs- 
 5o?-e5, notices of the Professors of Bourdeaux. 5. 
 Epitaphia Heroum, epitaphs on the heroes ^yho fell 
 in the Trojan war and a few others. 6. A metrical 
 catalogue of the first 12 Caesars. 7- Tefrasticha, 
 on the Caesars from Julius to Elagabalua. 8. Clarae 
 Urbes, the praises of 14 illustrious cities. 9. Liidus 
 Septmn Scfpieiiiumy the doctrines of the 7 sages ex- 
 pou]ided by each in his own person. 10. Idyllia^ 
 a collection of 20 poems. 11. Edoganum^ short 
 poems connected with the Calendar, &c. 12. Epi- 
 etolae^ 25 letters, some in verse and some in prose. 
 3 3.. Gratiarum Actio pro Cmtsv^aiu, in prose, ad- 
 dressed to Gratian. 14. Periocluie, short argu- 
 ments to each book of the Iliad and Odyssey. 15. 
 Tres Praefaiiunculac. — Of these works the Idyls 
 have attracted most notice, and of them the most 
 pleasing is the Mosclla, or a description of the 
 river Moselle, Ausonius possesses skill in versifi- 
 cation, but is destitute of all the higher attributes 
 of a poet. The best edition of his complete works 
 is byToUius, Amstel. 1671. 
 
 Auster, called Notus (NStos) by the Greeks, 
 the S. wind or strictly the S.W. wind, is personi- 
 fied as the god of the S. wind, son of Astraeus and 
 Eos. It frequently brought with it fogs and rain ; 
 but at certain seasons of the year it was a dry 
 Bultr}- wind (hence called plumbeus Auster^ Hor. 
 Sat. ii. 6. 18), injurious both to man and to vege- 
 lation, the Sirocco of the modem Italians. 
 
 Autariatae (^hirapiaTai), an Illyrian people in 
 tbe Dalmatian mountains, extinct in Strabo's time. 
 
 Autesiodonun, -iinim {Auxerre), a town of the 
 Senones in Gallia Lugdunensis. 
 
 Autesion (Ayreo-iwi'), son of Tisamenus, father 
 of Theras and Argia, left Thebes at the command 
 of an oracle, and joined the Dorians in Pelopon- 
 nesus. 
 
 Autochtliones (aurtJx^oi/es). [Aborigines.] 
 
 Autololes, or -ae (AuToAfSA-ai), a Gaetulian tribe 
 on the W. coast of Africa, S. of the Atlas moun- 
 tains. 
 
 Autolycus (AuT(JXuKos). 1. Son of Hermes 
 ^nd Chione, father of Anticlea, and thus maternal 
 grandfather of Ulysses. He lived on mount Par- 
 nassus, and v/as renowned for his cunning and rob- 
 beries. Ulysses, when staying with him on one 
 occasion, was wounded by a boar on Parnassus, 
 and it was by the scar of this wound that he was 
 recognized by his aged nurse, when he returned 
 ■from Troy. ^ 2. A Thessalian, son of Deimachus, 
 one of the Argonauts, and the founder of Sinope.^ 
 3. A mathematician of Pitane in Aeolis, lived 
 about E. c. 340, and wrote 2 astronomical treatises, 
 which are the most ancient existing specimens of 
 the Greek mathematics. 1. On the Motion of the 
 SpJicre (Trepi kivov/j-cvtis <T<paipas). 2. O/i tlie risings 
 and settings of Uie fixed stars (TrepI iiriroXujv nai 
 d\j(T£wv). Edited by Dasypodius in his Spltaericae 
 Doctrinae Propositiones, Argent. 1572. 
 
 Automala (t^ AuT6,ua\a), a fortified place on 
 the Great Syrtis in N. Africa. 
 
 Automedon (Auro^eSwi'). 1, Son of Diores, 
 the charioteer and companion of Achilles, and, 
 after the death of the latter, the companion of his 
 son Pvrrhus. Hence Automedon is the name of 
 any skilful charioteer. (Cic. pro Rose. Am. 35 ; 
 
 ATERNUS. 
 
 Juv. i. 61.) ^2. Of Cyzicus, a Greek poet, 12 of 
 whose epigrams are in the Greek Anthology, lived 
 iji the reign of Nerva, a, d. 9G — 98. 
 
 Automoli (AuTo^oAoi), as a proper name, was 
 applied to the Egyptian soldiers, who were said to 
 have deserted from Psammetichua into Aetluopia, 
 where they founded the kingdom of MEnoii. 
 
 Autonoe {PlutovSt])^ daughter of Cadraus and 
 Harmonia, wife of Aristaeus, and mother of Ac- 
 taeon. With her sister Agave, she tore Pentheus 
 to pieces in their Bacchic fury : her tomb was 
 shown in the territory of Megara. 
 
 Autrigones, a people in Hispania Tarraconensis 
 between the ocean (Bay of Biscay) and the upper 
 course of the Iberus : their chief to\vn was Fla- 
 
 VIOBRIGA. 
 
 Autronius Paetus. [Paetus.] 
 
 Auxesia (Au^ijo-ia), the goddess who grants 
 growth and prosperity to the fields, Honoured at 
 Troezen and Epidaurus, was another name for 
 Persephone. Damia, who was honoured along 
 with Auxesia at Epidaurus and Troezen, was only 
 another name for Demeter. 
 
 Auximum (Auximas, -atis : Osimo), an impor- 
 tant toivn of Picenum in Ital}-, and a Roman colony. 
 
 Auxiime or Ax- (Ay|oujUi7, or 'Aftija?;, and other 
 forms : Ai/^ov^uTa:^ or 'Alai/utTat, &c. : Axum, Ru. 
 S.W. o{ Adowa), the capital of a powerful kingdom 
 in Ethiopia, to the S. E. of Meroe, in Hahesh or 
 Abyssinia, which either first arose or first became 
 known to the Greeks and Romans in the early 
 part of the 2nd century of our aera. It grew upon 
 the decline of the kingdom of ,'Meroe, and ex- 
 tended beyond the Straits of Bah-el-Mandeh into 
 Arabia. Being a mountainous region, watered by 
 the numerous upper streams of the Astaboras and 
 Astapus, and intersected by the caravan routes 
 fi:ora the interior of Africa to the Red Sea and the 
 Gulf of Bab-el-Man deb, the country possessed 
 great internal resources and a flourishing com- 
 merce. 
 
 Aazea, or -ia, or Audia (Sur-Guzlan or Ilamza, 
 Ru.), a city in the interior of Mauretania Cae- 
 saricnsis ; a Roman colony under M. Aurelius 
 Antoninus. 
 
 Avalites (AuoAittjs : Zeilak), an emporium in 
 S. Aethiopia, on a bay of the Erythraean Sea, 
 called Avalites Sinus ('A. kSKitos), probably the 
 Guff of Bah-el-Mandeb, or its innermost part, S. of 
 the Straits. A people, Avalitae, are also mentioned 
 in these parts. 
 
 Avaricum. [Bituriges.] 
 
 Avella. [Abella.] 
 
 Avenio {Avignon)^ a town of the Cavares in 
 Gallia Narbonensis on the left bank of the Rhone. 
 
 Aventicum {Avenckes), the chief town of the 
 Helvetii, and subsequently a Roman colony with 
 the name Pia Flavia Constans Emerita, of which 
 ruins are still to be seen in the modem to^vn. 
 
 Aventinensis, Genucius. 1. L., consul b. c. 
 365, and again 362, was killed in battle against 
 the Hernicans in the latter of these years, and his 
 army routed. — 2. Cn., consul 363. 
 
 Aventintis, son of Hercules and the priestess 
 Rhea. 
 
 Aventinus Mons. [Roma.] 
 
 Avemus Lacua {tj "Aopvos Xi^vri : Lago Aver- 
 no), a lake close to the promontory which runs out 
 into the sea between Cumae and Puteoli, This 
 lake fills the crater of an extinct volcano ; it is cir- 
 cular, about 1| mile in circumference, ia very deep, 
 
AVIANUS. 
 
 and is surrounded by high banks, which in anti- 
 quity were covered by a gloomy forest sacred to 
 Hccnte. From its waters mephitic vapours arose, 
 which are said to have killed the birds that at- 
 tempted to fly over it, from which circumstance its 
 Greek name was supposed to be derived (from a 
 priv. and oppts). The lake was celebrated in my- 
 thology on account of its connection with the lower 
 ■world. On its banks dwelt the Cimmerians in 
 constant darkness, and near it was the cave of the 
 Cumaean Sibyl, through which Aeneas descended 
 to the low^er world. Agrippa, in the time of 
 Augustus, cut down the forest which surrounded 
 the lake, and connected the latter with the Lu- 
 crine lake ; he also caused a tunnel to be made 
 from the lake to Cumae, of which a considerable 
 part remains and is known under the name of 
 Groita di Sibylla. The Lucrine lake was filled up 
 by an eruption in 1530, so that Avemus is again a 
 separate lake. 
 
 Avianus, Flavius, the author of 42 Aesopic 
 fables in Latin elegiac verse, which are of very 
 little merit both as respects the matter and the 
 style. The date of Avianus is uncertain ; he 
 probably lived in the 3rd or 4th century of the 
 Christian aera. — Editions. By Cannegieter, Amstel. 
 1731 ; by Nodell, Amstel. 1787 ; and by Lachmann, 
 Berol. 1845. 
 
 Avienus, Euftis Festus, a Latin poet towards 
 the end of the 4th century of the Christian aera. 
 His poems are chiefly descriptive, and are some of 
 the best specimens of the poetiy of that age. His 
 works are : — 1. Descriptio Orhis Terrae^ also called 
 Meiaphrasis Periegeseos Dionj/sii, in 1 394 hexameter 
 lines, derived directly from the Trepi-qyijais of 
 Dionysins, and containing a succinct account of the 
 most remarkable objects in the physical and poli- 
 tical geography of the known world. — 2. Ora 
 Maritima^ a fragment in 703 Iambic trimeters, 
 describing the shores of the Mediterranean from 
 Marseilles to Cadiz. — 3. Aratea Phaenomena^ and 
 Aratea Prognostica, both in Hexameter verse, the 
 first containing 1325, the second 552 lines, being 
 a paraphrase of the two works of Aratus. The 
 poems are edited by Wernsdorf, in his Poetae 
 Latini Minores, vol. v. pt. ii., which, however, does 
 not include the Aratea. 
 
 Avioues, a people in the N. of Gennany, whose 
 position is uncertain. 
 
 Avitus, Alphius, a Latin poet under Augustus 
 and Tiberius, the fragments of some of whose 
 
 poems are preserved in the Anihologia Latina. 
 Avitus, Cluentius. [Cluentjus.] 
 Avitus, M. Maecilius, emperor of the West, 
 
 was raised to the throne by the assistance of 
 
 Theodoric II. king of the Visigoths in a. d. 455 ; 
 
 but, after a year's reign, was deposed by Ricimer. 
 Axenus. [Euxinus Pontus.] 
 Azia {Castell d'' Asso), a fortress in the territory 
 
 of Tarquinii in Etruria. 
 
 Axion (*A|i(wi/), son of Phegeus, brother of 
 
 Temenus, along with whom he killed Alcmaeon. 
 Axiothea ('A|io0ect), a maiden of Phlius, who 
 
 came to Athens, and putting on male attire, was 
 
 for some time a hearer of Plato, and afterwards of 
 
 Speusippus.- 
 
 Axius, Q., an intimate friend of Cicero and 
 
 Varro, one of the speakers in the 3d book of 
 
 Varro's De Re Rusiica. 
 
 Azius (*'A^ios : Wardar or Vardhari), the 
 
 chief river in Macedonia, rises in Mt. Scardus, re- 
 
 BABYLON. 
 
 ns 
 
 ceives many affluents, of which the most important 
 is the Erigon, and flows S.E. through Macedonia 
 into the Thermaic gulf. As a river-god, Axjus 
 begot by Periboea a son Pelegon, the father of 
 
 ASTEROPAEUS. 
 
 Azona {Aisne)^ a river in Gallia Belgica, which 
 falls into the Isara (Oise). 
 
 AxUme. [Auxume.] 
 
 Azan ('Afai'), son of Areas and the nympb 
 Erato, brother of Aphldas and Elatus. The part 
 of Arcadia which he received from his father was 
 called Azania : it was on the borders of Elis. 
 
 Azani ('Afacof : ^ACavlrrfs), a town of Phrygia, 
 on the river Rhyndacus, and 20 miles S.W. of J 
 Cotyaeium {Kivtayali). The ruins of columns, 
 capitals, and other architectural fragments are scat- 
 tered over the ground. There are also the remains 
 of a splendid temple, and of a theatre. This an- 
 cient site was discovered by Mr. Keppel. 
 
 Azania or Barbaria ('A^ai/ia, "QapSapia : Ajan), 
 the region on the E. coast of Africa, S. of Aromata 
 Pr. (C. Guardafai), as far as Rhaptum Pr. (C 
 Formosa ?) 
 
 Azenia (*A^7/cia : "* Pi.Qqviivs\ a demus in the 
 S.W. of Attica, near Sunium, belonging to the 
 tribe Hippothoontis. 
 
 Azeus ('A^eiSy), son of Clyraenus of Orchome- 
 nos, brother of Erginus, Stratius, Arrhon, and Py- 
 leus, father of Actor and grandfather of Astyoche. 
 
 Azorus orAzorium ("Afa-pos, 'A^wpioi/; 'A^or-- 
 pfxTj?, 'AfwptaTTiF, *Afa)p€us), a town in the N. of 
 Thessaly, on the W. slope of Olympus, formed, with 
 Doliche and Pythium, the Perrhaebian Tripolis. 
 
 Azotus ("A^wTos: 'AfaJrtos: AsJidod or Aslt^ 
 doud\ a city of Palestine, near the sea-coast, 9 miles 
 N.E. of Ascalon. It was one of the free cities of 
 the Philistines, which were included within the 
 portion of the tribe of Judah. 
 
 B. 
 
 Babrms (Ba§/)ioy), a Greek poet, probably in^ 
 the time of Augustus, turned the fables of Aesop 
 into verse, of which only a few fragments were 
 known, till within the last few years, when a 
 manuscript containing 123 fables was discovered 
 on Mount Athos. Edited by Lachmann, Berol, 
 1 845 ; by Orelli and Baiter, Turic. 1045 ; by Lewis,, 
 Lend. 1847. 
 
 Babylon (BaSi/Awc: 'Ba.SvXdJvios^ fem. RaSv- 
 \wpis : Babel in 0. T. : Ru. at and around Hillah), 
 one of the oldest and greatest cities of the ancient 
 world, the capital of a great empire, was built on 
 both banks of tlie river Euphrates, in about 32° 28' 
 N. lat. Its foundation, and the establishment of 
 a kingdom by Nirarod, with the city for a capital, 
 are among the first recorded facts subsequent to 
 the Deluge {Gen. x. 9, 10, xi. 1—9). Secular 
 history ascribes its origin to Belus (i. e. the god 
 Baal), and its enlargement and decoration to Ninus 
 or his wife Semiramis ; or, according to another 
 tradition, the country was subdued by Ninus, and 
 the city was subsequently built by Semiramis who- 
 made it the capital of the Assyrian empire. At 
 all events it is pretty clear that Babylon was sub- 
 ject to the Assyrian kings of Nineveh from a very 
 early period ; and the time at which the governors 
 of Babylon first succeeded in making themselves 
 virtually independent, cannot be determined with 
 any certainty until we know more of the history 
 
114 
 
 BABYLON. 
 
 of the tarly Assyrian dynasties. [Comp. Nabo- 
 NASSAR.] The Babylonian empire begins with 
 the reign of Nabopolassar, the father of Nebuchad- 
 nezzar, who, with the aid of the Median king 
 Cyasares, overthrew the Assyrian monarchy, and 
 destroyed Nineveh (b. c, 606), and soon afterwards 
 defended his kingdom against the aggressions 
 (at first successful) of Necho, king of Egypt, in 
 the battle of Circesium, b. c. 604. Under his 
 son and successor, Nebuchadnezzar (b. c. 604 — 
 562), the Babylonian empire reached its height, 
 and extended from the Euphrates to Egypt, and 
 from the mountains of Armenia to the deserts of 
 Arabia. After bis death it again declined, until 
 it was overthrown by the capture of Babylon by 
 the Medes and Persians under Cyrus (b. c. 538), 
 who made the city one of the capitals of the Per- 
 sian empire, the others being Susa and Ecbatana. 
 Under his successors the city rapidly sank, Da- 
 rius I. dismantled its fortifications, in consequence 
 of a revolt of its inhabitants ; Xerxes carried off 
 the golden statue of Belua, and the temple in which 
 it stood became a ruin. After the death of Alex- 
 ander, Babylon became a part of the Syrian king- 
 dom of Seleucus Nicator, who contributed to its 
 decline by the foundation of Seleucia on the 
 Tigris, which soon eclipsed it. At the commence- 
 ment of our era, the greater part of the city was in 
 ruins ; and at the present day all its visible re- 
 mains consist of mounds of earth, ruined masses of 
 brick walls, and a few scattered fragments. Its 
 very site has been turned into a dreary marsh by 
 repeated inundations from the river. — The city of 
 Babylon had reached the summit of its magnifi- 
 cence in the reign of Nebuchadnezzar. It formed 
 a square, each side of which was 120 stadia (12 
 geog. miles) in length. The walls, of burnt brick, 
 were 200 cubits high and 50 thick ; in them were 
 250 towers and 60 bronze gates ; and they were 
 surrounded by a deep ditch. The Euphrates, which 
 divided the city into 2 equal parts, was embanked 
 with walls of brick, the openings of which at the 
 ends of the transverse streets were closed by gates 
 of bronze. A bridge, built on piers of hewn stone, 
 united the 2 quarters of the city ; and at each end 
 of it stood a royal palace : these erections were 
 ascribed to Semiramis. Of two other public build- 
 ings of the greatest celebrity, the one was the 
 temple of Belus, rising to a great height, and con- 
 sisting of 8 stories, gradually diminishing in width, 
 and ascended by a flight of steps, which wound 
 round the whole building on the outside ; in the 
 uppermost story was the golden statue of Belus, 
 with a golden altar and other treasures : this 
 building also was ascribed to Semiramis. The 
 other edifice referred to was the "hanging gardens" 
 of Nebuchadnezzar, laid out upon terraces which 
 were raised above one another on arches. The 
 bouses of the city were 3 or 4 stories in height, 
 and the streets were straight, intersecting one 
 another at right angles. The buildings were al- 
 most universally constructed of bricks, some burnt 
 and some only sun-dried, cemented together with 
 hot bitumen and in some cases with mortar. — 
 The Babylonians were certainly a Semitic race ; 
 but the ruling class, to which the kings and priests 
 and the men of learning belonged, were the Chal- 
 daeans, whose origin and affinities are somewhat 
 doubtful ; the most probable opinion, however, is 
 that they were a tribe of invaders, who descended 
 from the mountains on the borders of Armenia, 
 
 BACCHIADAE. 
 
 and conquered the Babylonians, — The religion 
 of the Chaldaeans was Sabaeism, or the worship 
 of the heavenly bodies, not purely so, but sym- 
 bolized in the forms of idols, besides whom they 
 had other divinities, representing the powers of 
 nature. The priests formed a caste, and cultivated 
 science, especially astronomy ; in which they knew 
 the apparent motions of the sun, moon, and 5 of 
 the planets, the calculation of eclipses of the moon, 
 the division of the zodiac into 12 constellations, 
 and of the j'ear into 12 months, and the measure- 
 ment of time by the sun-dial. They must also 
 have had other instruments for measuring time, 
 such as the water-clock, for instance ; and it is 
 highly probable that the definite methods of deter- 
 mining such quantities, which the Chaldaean as- 
 tronomers invented, were the origin of the systems 
 of weights and measures used by the Greeks and 
 Romans. Their buildings prove their knowledge 
 of mechanics ; and their remains, slight as they 
 are, show considerable progress in the fine arts. — ■ 
 The Babylonian government was an unlimited 
 monarchy : the king appears to have lived in al- 
 most total seclusion from his people, surrounded by 
 his court ; and the provinces were administered by 
 governors, like the Persian satraps, responsible 
 only to the monarch, whose commands they obeyed 
 or defied according to his strength or weakness. — 
 The position of the city on the lower course of the 
 Euphrates, by which it was connected with the 
 Persian Gulf, and at the meeting of natural routes 
 between E. Asia and India on the one side, and 
 Europe, Asia Minor, Syria, Egj'-pt, and Arabia, on 
 the other, made it the seat of a flourishing com- 
 merce and of immense wealth and luxury. — The 
 district around the city, bounded by the Tigris on 
 the E., Mesopotamia on the N., the Arabian De- 
 sert on the W., and extending to the head of the 
 Persian Gulf on the S., was known in later times 
 by the name of Babylonia {Irah Arahi), sometimes 
 also called Chaldaea. [But comp. Chaldaea.] 
 This district was a plain, subject to continual in- 
 undations from the Tigris and Euphrates, which 
 were regulated by canals, the chief of which was 
 the Naarmalcha, i. e. Royal River or Canal (jrora- 
 [j-hs ^cLdiXeios^ Zidipv^ 0a(TiXiKT}, flumen regiura), 
 which extended from the Tigris at Seleucia due 
 W. to the Euphrates, and was navigable. The 
 country was fertile, but deficient in trees. 
 
 Babylon (Ba§uAwi/: nr. Fostat ov Old Cairo), 
 a fortress in Lower Egypt, on the right bank of 
 the Nile, exactly opposite to the pyramids, and at 
 the beginning of the canal which connected the 
 Nile with the Red Sea. Its origin was ascribed 
 by tradition to a body of Babylonian deserters. It 
 first became an important place imder the Romans. 
 Augustus made it the station of one of the 3 Egyp- 
 tian legions. 
 ' Babylonia. [Babylon.] 
 
 Bacchae (BaKxai), also called Maenades and 
 Tliyiades. 1. The female companions of Dionysus 
 or Bacchus in his wanderings through the East, are 
 represented as crowned with vine-leaves, clothed 
 with fawn-skins, and carrying in their hands the 
 thyrsus (see Diet, of A Jit s. v.). — 2. Priestesses of 
 Dionysus, who by wine and other exciting causes 
 worked themselves up to frenzy at the Dionysiac 
 festivals. 
 
 Baccbiadae (Ba«x'a5ai), an Heraclid clan, de- 
 rived their name from Bacchis, king of Corinth, 
 and retained the supreme nde in that state, first 
 
BACCHiUy. 
 under a monarchical form of government, and next 
 as a close oligarchy, till their deposition by Cyp- 
 selus, about b. c. 657. They were for the most part 
 driven into banishment, and are said to have taken 
 refuge in different parts of Greece and even Italy, 
 
 Bacchius (BaKx^'^os). 1. The author of a short 
 musical treatise called eiVayuyfj rix^^^ fiovancTJs, 
 printed by Meibomius, in the Aiitiquae Musicae 
 Auctores Septem, Amst. 1652.^ 2. Of Tanagm in 
 Boeotia, one of the earliest commentators on the 
 writings of Hippocrates : his writings have pe- 
 rished. — 3. Of Miletus, the author of a work on 
 agriculture. 
 
 Bacchus. [Dionysus.] 
 
 Baccliylides (Ba/cxf^tSTjs), one of the great 
 lyric poets of Greece, born at lulis in Ceos, and 
 nephew as well as fellow-townsman of Simo- 
 nides. He flourished about b, c. 470, and lived 
 a long time at the court of Hiero in Syracuse, to- 
 gether with Simonides and Pindar. He wrote in 
 the Doric dialect Hymns, Paeans, Dithyrambs, &c. ; 
 but all his poems have perished, with the exception 
 of a few fragments, and 2 epigrams in the Greek 
 Anthology. The fragments have been published by 
 ■ Neue, Bacchylidis Cei Fragmenta^ Berol. 1823, and 
 by Bergk, Po'itac Lyrici Graeci, p. 820. 
 
 Bacenis Silva, a forest which separated the 
 Suevi from the Cherusci, probably the W. part of 
 the Thuringian Forest. 
 
 Bacis (Bafcis), the name of several prophets, of 
 whom the most celebrated was the Boeotian seer, 
 who delivered his oracles in hexameter verse at 
 Heleon in Boeotia. In later times there existed a 
 collection of his oracles, similar to the Sibylline 
 books at Rome. 
 
 Bactra or Zariaspa (to. Ba/crpa, ra. Zaplao-ira 
 and 7? Zttf;; 'ffiTT} : Balkh), the capital of Bactria, 
 appears to have been founded by the early Persian 
 kings, but not to have been a considerable city till 
 the time of Alexander, who settled in it bis Greek 
 mercenaries and his disabled Macedonian soldiers. 
 It stood at the N. foot of the M. Paropamisus (the 
 ffiTidoo Koosk) on the river Bactrus (Adirsiah or 
 Deltas)^ about 25 miles S. of its junction with the 
 Oxus. It was the centre of a considerable traffic. 
 The existing ruins, 20 miles in circuit, are all of 
 the Mohammedan period. 
 
 Bactria or -iana (^aKrpiavt] : BaKrpot^ ~ioi, 
 -lavoi : Bokhara), a province of the Persian em- 
 pire, bounded on the S. by M. Paropamisus, which 
 separated it from Ariana, on the E. by the N, 
 branch of the same range, which divided it from 
 the Sacae, on the N.E, by the Oxus, which sepa- 
 rated it from Sogdiana, and on the W. by Mar- 
 giana. It was inhabited by a rude and warlike 
 people, who were subdued by Cyrus or his next 
 successors. It was included in the conquests of 
 Alexander, and formed a part of the kingdom of 
 the Seleucidae, until b. c. 255, when Theodotus, its 
 governor, revolted from Antiochus II., and founded 
 the Greek kingdom of Bactria, which lasted till 
 B. c. 134 or 125, when it was overthrown by the 
 Parthians, with whom, during its whole duration, 
 its kings were sometimes at war, and sometimes in 
 alliance against Syria. This Greek kingdom ex- 
 tended beyond the limits of the province of Bac- 
 tria, and included at least a part of Sogdiana. 
 Bactria was watered by the Oxus and its tribu- 
 taries, and contained much fertile land ; and much 
 of the commerce between W. Asia and India passed 
 through it. 
 
 iSALliUfcj, il5 
 
 Baduhennae Lucus, a wood in W. Friesland. 
 
 Baebia Gens, plebeian, the most important 
 members of which are given under their surnames. 
 Dives, Sulca, Tamphilus, 
 
 Baeciila, a town in Hispania Tarraconensig, W. 
 of Castulo, in the neighbourhood of silver mines. 
 
 Baeterrae (Beziers)^ also called Biterrensis 
 urbs, a town in Gallia Narbonensis on the Obris, 
 not far from Narbo, and a Roman colony : its 
 neigh boiu:hood produced good wine. 
 
 Baetica [Hispania.] 
 
 Baetis {Guadalquiver), a river in S. Spain, for- 
 merly called Tartessus, and by the inhabitants 
 Certis, rises in Hispania Tarraconensis in the ter- 
 ritory of the Oretani, flows S.W. through Baetica, 
 to which it gives its name, past the cities of Cor- 
 buda and Hispalis, and falls into the Atlantic 
 Ocean by 2 mouths, N. of Gades. 
 
 Bagacum. (Bavai), the chief town of the Nervii 
 in Gallia Belgica : there are many Roman remains 
 in the modem town. 
 
 Bagaudae, a Gallic people, who revolted under 
 Diocletian, and were with difficulty subdued by 
 Maximian, a. d. 286. 
 
 Bagoas (Baywas), an eunuch, highly trusted 
 and favoured by Artaxerxes III. (Ochus), whom 
 he poisoned, b. c. 338. He was put to death by 
 Darius III. Codomannus, whom he had attempted 
 likewise to poison, 336. The name Bagoas fre- 
 quently occurs in Persian history, and is some- 
 times used by Latin writers as synonymous with 
 an 'eunuch. 
 
 Bagradas (Baypd^as : Mejerdah), a river of 
 N. Africa, falling into the Gulf of Carthage near 
 Utica. 
 
 Baiae (Baianus), a town in Campania, on a 
 small bay W. of Naples, and opposite Puteoli, 
 was situated in a beautiful country, which abounded 
 in warm mineral springs. The baths of Baiae 
 were the most celebrated in Italy, and the town 
 itself was the favourite watering-place of the Ro- 
 mans, who flocked thither in crowds for health and 
 pleasure ; it was distinguished by licentiousness 
 and immorality. The whole country was studded 
 with the palaces of the Roman nobles and emperors, 
 which covered the coast from Baiae to Puteoli ; 
 many of these palaces were built out into the sea. 
 (Hor. Carm. ii. 18. 20.) The site of ancient 
 Baiae is now for the most part covered by the 
 sea. 
 
 Balbinu^, D. Caelius, was elected emperor by 
 the senate along with M. Clodius Pupienus Maxi- 
 mus, after the murder of the two Gordians in 
 Africa at the beginning of a. d. 238 ; but the new 
 emperors were slain by the soldiers at Rome in 
 June in the same year. 
 
 Balbus, M'. Acilius, the name of 2 consuls, one 
 in B.C. 150, and the other in 114. 
 
 Balbus, T. Ampius, tribune of the plebs b. c. 
 63, was a supporter of Pompey, whom he joined 
 in the civil war B. c. 49. He was pardoned by 
 Caesar through the intercession of Cicero, who 
 wrote to him on the occasion (ad Fam.y'i. 12). 
 
 Balbus, M. Atius, of Aricia, married Julia, the 
 sister of Julius Caesar, who bore him a daughter, 
 Atia, the mother of Augustus Caesar. 
 
 Balbus, L. Cornelius. 1. Of Gades, served 
 under Q. Metellus and Pompey against Serto- 
 rius in Spain, and received from Pompey the Ro- 
 man citizenship. He accompanied Pompey on 
 his return to Rome, b. c, 71, and was for a long 
 
 I 2 
 
116 
 
 BALBUS. 
 
 time one of his most intimate friendg. At the 
 same time he gained the friendship of Caesnr, who 
 placed great confidence in iiim. As the friend of 
 Caesar and Pompey, he had numerous enemies, 
 ■who accused hira in 56 of having illegally assumed 
 the Roman citizenship ; he was defended by Ci- 
 cero, whose speech has come down to us, and was 
 acquitted. Tn the civil war, 49, Balbus did not 
 take any open part against Pompej'-; but he at- 
 tached himself to Caesar, and, in conjunction with 
 Oppius, had the entire management of Caesar''s af- 
 fairs at Rome. After the death of Caesar (44) he 
 ■was equally successful in gaining the favour of Oc- 
 tavian, who raised him to the consulship in 40. 
 Balbus wrote a diary (Ephemeris), which has not 
 come down to us, of the most remarkable occur- 
 rences in Caesar's life. He took care that Caesar's 
 Commentaries on the Gallic war should be conti- 
 nued ; and we accordingly find the 8th book dedi- 
 cated to him,^ 2. Nephew of the preceding, received 
 the Roman franchise along with his uncle. He 
 sensed under Caesar in the civil war ; he was quaes- 
 tor of Asinius PoUio in Further Spain in b. c. 43, 
 and while there added to his native town Gades a 
 suburb ; many years afterwards he was proconsul 
 of Africa, and triumphed over the Garamantes in 
 19. He built a magnificent theatre at Rome, 
 ■which was dedicated in 13. 
 
 Balbus, Lucilxus. 1. L., a jurist, and brother 
 of the following. — 2. Q., a Stoic philosopher, and 
 a pupil of Panaetius, is introduced by Cicerg as 
 one of the speakers in his De Natura Dcorum.. 
 
 Balbus, Octavius, a contemporary of Cicero, 
 bore a high character as a judex ; he was put to 
 death by the triumvirs, b. c. 43. 
 
 Balbus, Sp. Thorius, tribune of the plebs, about 
 B. c. Ill, proposed an agrarian law. See Diet, of 
 Ant., art. Lex Thoria. 
 
 Baleares (BaAtapi'Sey, BaAtapiSes), also called 
 Gymnesiae (ru^iTjir/ai) by the Greeks, 2 islands 
 in the Mediterranean, off the coast of Spain, dis- 
 tinguished by the epithets Major and Minor, 
 ■whence their modem names Majorca and Minorca. 
 They were early knovm to the Carthaginians, who 
 established settlements there for the purposes of 
 trade ; they afterwards received colonies from 
 Rhodes ; and their population was at a later time 
 of a very mixed kind. Their inhabitants, also 
 called Baleares^ were celebrated as slingers, and 
 were employed as such in the armies of the Car- 
 thaginians and Romans. In consequence of their 
 piracies they provoked the hostility of the Ro- 
 mans, and were finally subdued b. c. 123, by Q. 
 Metellus, who assumed accordi-ngly the surname 
 Balearicus. 
 
 Balista, prefect of the praetorians under Va- 
 lerian, whom he accompanied to the East. After 
 the defeat and capture of that emperor (a. d. 260), 
 lie rallied a body of Roman troops, and defeated 
 the Persians in Cilicia. His subsequent career is 
 obscure ; he is mentioned as one of the Thirty Ty- 
 rants, and was probably put to death, about 204, 
 ty Odenathus. 
 
 Bambalio, 31. Fulvius, father of Fulvia, the 
 ■wife of M. Antonius, the triumvir, received the 
 nickname of Bambalio on account of a hesitancy in 
 his speech. 
 
 Bambyce. [Hierapolis]. 
 
 Banasa (il/amora ? Ru.), a city of Mauretania 
 Tingitana, on the river Subur (Scbou), near the 
 IV. coast : a colony under Augustus. 
 
 BARKA. 
 
 Bandusiae Foiis (Samhuco), a fountafn m 
 Apulia, 6 miles from Venusia. (Hor. Cunn. iii. 1 3.) 
 
 Bantia (Bantinus ; Banzi or Vanzi)^ a town in 
 Apulia, near Venusia, in a woody district {saltus- 
 Baniini^ Hor. Carm. iii. 4. 15). 
 
 Birbana (Bojana), a river in Illyria, flows- 
 throiigli the Palus Labeatis. 
 
 Barbari {BdpSapoi), the name given by the- 
 Greeks to all foreigners, whose language was not 
 Greek, and who were therefore regai'ded' by the- 
 Greeks as an inferior race. The Romans applied 
 the name to all people, who spoke neither Greek, 
 nor Latin. 
 
 Barbaria. [Azania.] 
 
 Bsirbatio, commander of the household troopa 
 under Gallus, whom he arrested by command of 
 Constantius, a. d. 354, In 355 he was made- 
 general of the infantr3% and sent into Gaul to assist 
 Julian against the Alemanni. He was put to death 
 by Constantius in 359. 
 
 Bkrbatus, M. Horatius, consul b. c. 449 witb 
 Valerius Publicola after the overthrow of the de- 
 cemvirs. [PUBLICOLA.] 
 
 Earbosthenes, a inountain E. of Sparta. 
 
 Barbula, Aemilius. 1. Q., consul b. c. 317,. 
 when he subdued Apulia, and consul again in 311, 
 when he fought against the Etruscans. ^3. L-, 
 consul in 2t!l, carried on war against the Taren- 
 tines, Samnites, and Sallentines. — 3. M., consul 
 in 230, carried on war against the Ligiirians. 
 
 Barca, the surname of Hamiloar, the father of 
 Hannibal, is probably the same as the Plebrew 
 Barak, which signifies lightning. His family was- 
 distinguished subsequently as the "Barcine family,'* 
 and the deraocratical party, which supported this 
 family, as the " Barcine party." 
 
 Barca or -e (BdpKrj : BapKtTjjs, BapKa7os, Bar- 
 caeus). 1. (Merjek, Ru.), the second city of C}'- 
 renaica, in N.Africa, 100 stadia (10 geog. miles)' 
 from the sea, appears to have been at first a set- 
 tlement of a Libyan tribe, the Barcaei, but about 
 B. c. 560 was colonized by the Greek seceders 
 from CjTene, and became so powerful as tO' 
 make' the W. part of Cyrenaica virtually inde- 
 pendent of the mother city. In e. c. 510 it was- 
 taken by the Persians, who removed most of its 
 inhabitants to Bactria, and under the Ptolemies- 
 its ruin was completed by the erection of its port 
 into a new city, which was named Ptolemais, 
 and which took the place of Barca as one of the- 
 cities of the Cyrenaic Pentapolis. — 2. A town in 
 Bactria peopled by the removed inhabitants of the- 
 Cyrenaic Barca. 
 
 Barcino (Barcelona), a town of the Laeetani, in 
 Hispania Tarraconensis, afterwards a Roman co- 
 lony : the town was not large, but it possessed an 
 excellent harbour. 
 
 Ba^-danes. [Arsaces XXI.] 
 
 Bardylis or Bardyllis (BdpBuKis, Bdp^uAKis), 
 an Illyrian chieftain, carried on frequent wars with 
 the IVIacedonians, but was at length defeated and 
 slain in battle by Philip, the father of Alexander 
 the Great, b. c. 359. 
 
 Barea Soranus, consul suflfectus In a. d. 52 
 under Claudius, and afterwards proconsul of Asia, 
 was a man of justice and integrity. Pie was ac- 
 cused, of treason in the reign of Nero, and was 
 condemned to death together with his daughter 
 Servilia. The chief witness against him was P. 
 Egnatius Celer, a Stoic philosopher, and the teacher 
 of Soranus. (See Juv. iii. 116.) 
 
BARGUSII. 
 
 Sargusii, a people in the N.E. of Spain, be- 
 tween the Pyrenees and the Iberus. 
 
 Bariiim (Barinus: Bart), a town in Apulia, on 
 the Adriatic, a municipiuni, and celebrated for its 
 fisheries {Buntnn piscosiim, Hor. Sat i. 5. 07). 
 
 Barsaentes (Bapaaevr-qs) or Barzaentus (Bap- 
 ^depTos), satrap of the Arachoti and Drangae, took 
 part in the murder of Darius III., and afterwards 
 fled to India, where he was seized by the iiihabit- 
 iuits and delivered up to Alexander, who put him 
 to death. 
 
 Barsine (Bapfftyri). 1. Danghter of Artabazus, 
 ;and wife of Memnon the Rhodian, subsequently 
 jnarried Alexander the Great, to whom she bore a 
 .son, Hercules. She and her son were put to death 
 by Polj'sperchon in 309. — 2. Also called Statira, 
 ■elder daughter of Darius III., whom Alexander 
 married at Susa, b. c. 324. Shortly after Alex- 
 .-ander's death she was murdered by Roxana. 
 
 Basanitis. [Batanaea.] 
 
 Basilia {Basel or Bale\ a town on the Rhine, 
 in the neighbourhood of which Valentinian built a 
 ■fortress. 
 
 Basilina, the mother of Julian the apostate, 
 l)eing the second wife of Julius Constantius, brother 
 "Of Constantine the Great. 
 
 Basilius, commonly called Basil the Great, was 
 born A. D. 329, at Caesarea. He studied at An- 
 >tioch or Constantinople under Lihanius, and subse- 
 -quently continued his studies for 4 years (351 — 
 ■355) at Athens, chiefly under the sophists Hime- 
 lius and Proaeresius. Among his fellow-students 
 were the emperor Julian and Gregory Nazianzen, 
 the latter of whom became his most intimate friend. 
 ALfter acquiring the greatest reputation as a student 
 •for his knowledge of rhetoric, philosophy, and 
 science, he returned to Caesarea, where he began 
 to plead causes, but soon abandoned his profession 
 -and devoted himself to a religious life. He now 
 led an ascetic life for many years ; he was elected 
 bishop of Caesarea in 3/0 in place of Eusebius ; he 
 ■died in 379. ■ — The best edition of his works is by 
 <3arnier, Paris, ]721— 1730. 
 
 Basilus, L. Minuciiis, served under Caesar in 
 ■Gaul, and commanded part of Caesar's fleet in the 
 civil war. He was one of Caesar's assassins (b. c- 
 44), and in the following year was miu'dered by 
 iliis own slaves. 
 
 Bassareus (Batro-apgys), a surname of Dionysus, 
 iprobably derived from ^aaaapis, a fox-skin, worn 
 hy the god himself and the Maenads in Thrace. 
 
 Bassus, Aufidius, an orator and historian under 
 Augustus and Tiberius, wrote an account of the 
 Roman wars in Germany, and a work upon Roman 
 iiistory of a more general character, which was 
 continued in 31 books by the elder Pliny. 
 
 Bassus, Q. Caecilius, a Roman eques, and an 
 .adherent of Pompey, fled to Tyre after the battle 
 of Pharsalia B. c. 48, Shortly afterwards he ob- 
 tained possession of Tyre, and was joined by most 
 .of the troops of Sex. Caesar, the governor of Syria, 
 ■who had been killed by his own soldiers at the in- 
 rStigation of Bassus. He subsequently settled down 
 in Apamea, where he maintained himself for 3 
 years (46 — 43) against C. Antistius Vetus, and 
 afterwards against Statins Murcus and Marcius 
 Crispus. On the arrival of Cassius in Syria in 43, 
 rthe troops of Bassus went over to Cassius. 
 
 Bassus, Caesius, a Roman lyric poet, and a 
 friend of Persius, who addresses his 6th satire to 
 ihim, was destroyed along with his villa in A. d. 79 
 
 BATO. 
 
 n; 
 
 by the eruption of Vesuvius which overwhelmed 
 Hcrculaneum and Pompeii. 
 
 Bassus, Saleius, a Roman epic poet of consi- 
 derable merit, contemporary with Vespasian. 
 
 Eastamae or Bastemae, a warlilce German 
 people, who migrated to the country near the 
 mouth of the Danube. They are first mentioned 
 in the wars of Philip and Perseus against the 
 Romans, and at a later period they frequently de- 
 vastated Thrace, and were engaged in wars with the 
 Roman governors of the province of Macedonia. 
 In B. c. 30, they -were defeated by M. Crassus, 
 and driven across the Danube ; and we find them, 
 at a later time, partly settled between the Tyras 
 {Dnelster) and Borysthenes {Dnieper), and partly 
 at the mouth of the Danube, under the name of 
 Peudiii, from their inhabiting the island of Peucc, 
 at the mouth of this river. 
 
 Bastitani (also Bastetani, Bastuli), a people 
 in Hispania Baetica on the coast. 
 
 Batanaea or Basanitis {BaravoLa, BaaavlTis: 
 0. T. Bashan, Basan), a district of Palestine, E. of ■ 
 the Jordan, extending from the river Jabbok on 
 the S. to Mt. Hermon, in the Antilibanus chain, 
 on the N. The s and t are mere dialectic va- 
 rieties. 
 
 Batavi or Batavi, a Celtic people who aban- 
 doned their homes in consequence of civil dis- 
 sensions, before the time of Julius Caesar, and '""• 
 settled in the island formed by the Rhine, the 
 Waal, and the Maas, which island was called 
 after them Insula Batavoimm. They were for a 
 long time allies of the Romans in their wars 
 against the Germans, and were of great service to 
 the former by their excellent cavalrj' ; but at 
 length, exasperated by the oppressions of the Ro- 
 man officers, they rose in revolt under Claudius 
 Civilis, in A. D. 69, and were with great difficulty 
 subdued. On their subjugation, they -were treated 
 by the Romans with mildness, and were exempt 
 from taxation. Their country, which also extended 
 beyond the island S. of the Maas and the Waal, 
 was called, at a later time, Batavia. Their chief 
 towns were Ltigdunimi {Lcyden) and Batavodtirmn, 
 between the Maas and the Waal. The Canine- 
 fates or Canninefaies were a branch of the Batavi, 
 and dwelt in the W. of the island. "* 
 
 Batavodurum. [Batavi.] 
 
 Bathycles (BafluKA^y), a celebrated artist of 
 Magnesia on the Maeander, constructed for the 
 Lacedaemonians the colossal throne of the Amy- 
 claean Apollo. He probably flourished about the 
 time of Solon, or a little later. 
 
 Bathyllus. 1. Of Samos, a beautiful youth 
 beloved by Anacreon. — 2. Of Alexandria, the 
 freedman and favourite of Maecenas, brought to per- - 
 fection, together with Pylades of Cilicia, the imita- 
 tive dance or ballet called Paniomimus. Bathyllua 
 excelled in comic, and Pylades in tragic personifi- 
 cations. 
 
 Batnae {Bdrvai : Barvaios). 1. {Sanij)^ a 
 city of Osroene in Mesopotamia, E. of the Eu- 
 phrates, and S.W. of Edessa, at about equal dis- 
 tances ; founded by the Macedonians, and taken 
 by Trajan ; celebrated for its annual fair of Indian 
 and Syrian merchandize. — 2. {Dahah), a city of 
 Cyrrhestice, in Syria, between Beroea and Hiera- 
 polis. 
 
 Bato (Barwi'). 1. The charioteer of Amphia- 
 raus, was swallowed up by the earth along with 
 Amthiaraus. — 3. The name of 2 leaders of the 
 
118 
 
 BATTIADAE. 
 
 Pannonians and Dalmatians in their insurrection 
 m the reign of Augustus, a. d. 6. Tiberius and 
 Germanicus were both sent against them, and ob- 
 tained some advantages over them, In consequence 
 of which the Pannonians and Dalmatians concluded 
 a peace with the Romans in 8. But the peace Avas 
 of short duration. The Dalmatian Bate put his 
 namesake to death, and renewed the war. Tibe- 
 rius now finally subdued Dalmatia ; Bato surren- 
 dered to him in 9 upon promise of pardon ; he 
 accompanied Tiberius to Italy, and his life was 
 spared. 
 
 Battiadae (BaTTiaSai), kings of Cyrene during 
 8 generations. L BattU3 I., of Thera, led a colony 
 to Africa at the command of the Delphic oracle, 
 and founded Cyrene about b. c. 631. He was the 
 first king of Cyrene, his government was gentle 
 and just, and after his death in 599 he was wor- 
 shipped as a hero. — 2. Arcesilaus I., son of 
 Ko. 1, reigned B. c. 599— 583. — 3. Battus II., 
 sumamed " the Happy," son of No. 2, reigned b. c. 
 583 — 5G0 ? In his reign, Cyrene received a great 
 number of colonists from various parts of Greece ; 
 and in consequence of the increased strength of his 
 kingdom Battus was able to subdue the neigh- 
 bouring Libj'an tribes, and to defeat Apries, king 
 of Eg^'pt (570), who had espoused the cause of the 
 Libyans. —4. Arcesilaus II., son of No. 3, sur- 
 named " the Oppressive," reigned about b. c. 5G0 
 — 550. In consequence of dissensions between 
 himself and his brothers, the latter withdrew from 
 Cyrene, and founded Barca. He was strangled by 
 his brother or friend, Learchus, —5. Battus III., 
 or " the Lame," son of No. 4, reigned about b. c. 
 550 — 530. In his time, Demonax, a Mantinean. 
 gave a new constitution to the city, whereby the 
 royal power was reduced within ver^' narrow limits. 
 ^6. Arcesilaus HI., son of No. 5, reigned about 
 B. c. 530 — 514, was driven from Cyrene in an at- 
 tempt to recover the ancient royal privileges, but 
 recovered his kingdom with the aid of Samian 
 auxiliaries. He endeavoured to strengthen himself 
 by making submission to Cambyses in 525. He 
 was, however, again obliged to leave Cyrene ; he 
 fled to Alazir, king of Barca, whose dauchter he 
 had married, and was there slain by the Barcaeans 
 and some Cyrenaean exiles. ^7. Battus IV., 
 probably son of No. 6, of whose life we have no 
 accounts. — 8. Arcesilaus IV., probably son of 
 No. 7, whose victory in the chariot-mcc at the Py- 
 thian games, B. c. 466, is celebrated by Pindar in 
 his 4th and 5th Pj-thian odes. At his death, 
 about 450, a popular government was established. 
 
 Battus (Btirror), a shepherd whom Hermes 
 turned into a stone, because he broke a promise 
 v/liich he made to the god. 
 
 Batulxun, a town in Campania of uncertain site. 
 
 Baucis. [Philemon.] 
 
 Bauli {Bacolo)^ a collection of villas rather than 
 a town, between Misenum and Baiae in Campania. 
 
 Bavius and Maevius, 2 malevolent poetasters, 
 who attacked the poetry of Virgil and Horace. 
 
 Bazira or Bezira (Baj}pa: Bd^ipoi: Bajour, 
 N.W. of Peshawur), a city in the Paropamisus, 
 taken by Alexander on his march into India. 
 
 Bebryces (BeSpuKes). 1. A mythical people in 
 Bithynia, said to be of Thracian origin, whose 
 king, Amyous, slew Pollux [p. 76,a.]. — 2. An an- 
 cient Iberian people on the coast of the Mediterra- 
 nean, N. and S. of the Pyrenees : they possessed 
 numerous herds of cattle. 
 
 BELLEROPHON. 
 
 Bedriacum, a small place in Cisalpine Gaul 
 between Cremona and Verona, celebrated for tbe 
 defeat both of Otho and of the Vitellian troops, 
 A. D. 69. 
 
 Belbina (Be\€iva : Be\§if ittjs). 1. (St. George 
 d\4rbori\ an island in the Aegaean sea, off the S. 
 coast of Attica. — 2. See Belemina. 
 
 Belemina {BeXefxlva)^ also caMed Behnina and 
 BelUna^ a town in the N.W. of Laconia, on the 
 borders of Arcadia. The surrounding district was 
 called Belminatis and BeWinatis. 
 
 Belesis or Belesys (Be'Aeo-is, BeXetrus), a Chal- 
 daean priest at Babylon, who is said, in conjunc- 
 tion with Arbaces, the Mede, to have overthrown 
 the old Assyrian empire. [Arbaces.] Belesis 
 afterwards received the satrapy of Babylon from 
 Arbaces. 
 
 Belgae, one of the 3 great people, into which 
 Caesar divides the population of Gaul. They were 
 bounded on the N. by the Rhine, on the W. by 
 the ocean, on the S. by the Sequana {Seine) and 
 Matrona {Marne)^ and on the E. by the territory 
 of the Treviri. They were of German origin, and 
 had settled in the country, expelling or reducmg 
 to subjection the former inhabitants. They were 
 the bravest of the inhabitants of Gaul, were 
 subdued by Caesar after a courageous resist- 
 ance, and were the first Gallic people who threw 
 off the Roman dominion. The Belgae were sub- 
 divided into the tribes of the Nervii, Bellovaci, 
 Remi, Suessiones, Morini, Menapii, Adua- 
 Tici. and others ; and the collective forces of the 
 whole nation were more than a million. 
 
 Belgica [Gallia.] 
 
 Belgitun, the name generidh' applied to the terri- 
 tor}^ of the Bellovaci, and of the tribes dependent 
 upon the latter, namely, the Atrebates, Ambiani, 
 Velliocasses, Aulerci, and Caleti. Belgium did not 
 include the whole country inhabited by the Belgae, 
 for we find the Nervii, Remi, &c., expressly ex- 
 cluded from it. (Caes. B, G. v. 24.) 
 
 Belisarius, the greatest general of Justinian, 
 was a native of Illyria and of mean extraction. In 
 A. D. 534, he overthrew the Vandal kingdom in 
 Africa, which had been established by Genseric 
 about 1 00 years previously, and took prisoner the 
 Vandal king, Gelimer, whom he led in triumph to 
 Constantinople. In 535 — 540, Belisarius carried 
 on war against the Goths in Italy, and conquered 
 Sicily, but he was recalled by the jealousy of 
 Justinian. In 541 — 544 he again carried on war 
 against the Goths in Italy, but was again recalled 
 by Justinian, leaving his victories to be completed 
 by his rival Narses in the complete overthrow of 
 the Gothic kingdom, and the establishment of the 
 exarchate of Ravenna. The last victory of Beli- 
 sarius was gained in repelling an inroad of the 
 Bulgarians, 559. In 563 he was accused of a con- 
 spiracy against the life of Justinian ; according to 
 a popular tradition, he was deprived of his pro- 
 perty, his eyes were put out, and he wandered as 
 a beggar through Constantinople ; but according to 
 the more authentic account, he was merely impri- 
 soned for a year in his own palace, and then re- 
 stored to his honours. He died in 565. 
 
 Belleroplion or Bellerophoutes (B^W^potpSiv 
 or B^XMpo(p6vTT\s)^ son of the Corinthian king 
 Glaucus and Euryroede, and grandson of Sisyphus, 
 was originally called Hipponous, and received the 
 name Bellerophon from slaying the Corinthian Bel- 
 lerus. To be purified from the murder he fled to 
 
BELLI. 
 
 Proetug, -whose "wife AntGa fell in love with the 
 young hero ; but as her offers were rejected by 
 him, she accused him to her husband of having 
 made improper proposals to her. Proetus, unwil- 
 ling to kill him with his own hands, sent him to 
 his father-in-law, lobates, king of Lycia, with a 
 letter in which the latter was requested to put the 
 young man to death. lobates accordingly sent 
 him to kill the monster Chimaera, thinking that 
 he was sure to perish in the contest. After ob- 
 taining possession of the winged horse, Pegasus, 
 Bellerophon rose with him in the air, and killed 
 the Chimaera with his arrows, lobates, thus dis- 
 appointed, sent Bellerophon against the Solymi and 
 next against the Amazons. In these contests he 
 was also victorious ; and on his return to Lycia, 
 being attacked by the bravest Lycians, whom 
 lobates had placed in ambush for the purpose, Bel- 
 lerophon slew them all. lobates, now seeing that it 
 was hopeless to kill the hero, gave him his daughter 
 (Philonoe, Anticlea, or Cassandra) in marriage, and 
 made him his successor on the throne. Bellerophon 
 became the father of Isander, Hippolochus, and 
 Laodamia. At last Bellerophon drew upon him- 
 self the hatred of the gods, and, consumed by grief, 
 wandered lonely through the Aleian field, avoiding 
 the paths of men. This is all that Honier saj's 
 respecting Bellerophon's later fate: some traditions 
 related that he attempted to fly to heaven upon 
 Pegasus, but that Zeus sent a gad-fly to sting 
 the horse, wliich tlirew off the rider upon the earth, 
 who became lame or blind in consequence. (Hor. 
 Carm. iv. 11. 26.) 
 
 Belli, a Celtiberian people in Hispania Tarra- 
 conensis, 
 
 Bellona, the Roman goddess of war, was pro- 
 bably a Sabine divinity. She is frequently men- 
 tioned by the Roman poets as the companion of 
 Mars, or even as his sistfer^pr his wife, and is 
 described as armed with a bloody scourge. (Virg. 
 Aen. viii. 703). During the Samnite wars, in b. c. 
 "296, App. Claudius Caecus vowed a temple to her, 
 "vvhlch was erected in the Campus Martius. Her 
 priests, called Bellonarii, wounded their own arms 
 or legs when they offered sacrifices to her. 
 
 Bellovaci, the most powerful of the Belgae, 
 dwelt in the modem lieauvais^ between the Seine, 
 Oise, Somme, and Bresle, In Caesar's time they 
 could bring 100,000 men into the field, but they 
 were subdued by Caesar with the other Belgae. 
 
 Belon or Baelon (BeXwv, 'Ba.iXdjv^ nr. Bolonia, 
 Ru.), a sea-port town in Hispania Baetica on a 
 river of the same name (now Barbate), the usual 
 place for crossing over to Tingis in Mauretania. 
 
 Belus (Bt}Kos\ son of Poseidon and Libya or 
 Eurynome, twin-brother of Agenor, and father of 
 Aegyptus and Danaus. He was believed to be 
 the ancestral hero and national divinity of several 
 eastern nations, from whom the legions about him 
 were transplanted to Greece and there became 
 mixed up with Greek myths. 
 
 Belus {BrjXos : Nahr Namaii), a river of Phoe- 
 nicia, rising at the foot of M. Carmel, and falling 
 into the sea close to the S. of Ptolemais (Acre)^ 
 celebrated for the tradition that its fine sand first 
 led the Phoenicians to the invention of glass. 
 
 Benacus Lacns (Loffo di Garda), a lake in the 
 N. of Italy (Gallia Transpadana), out of which 
 the Mincius flows. 
 
 Beneventum (Beneven(o), a town in Samninm 
 on the Appia Via, at the junction of the two val- 
 
 BERENICE. 119 
 
 leys, through which the Sabatus and Calor flow, 
 formei-ly called Maleventum on account, it is said, 
 of its bad air. It was one of the most ancient 
 towns in Italy, having been founded, according to 
 tradition, by Diomede. In the Samnite wars it 
 was subdued by the Romans, who sent a colony 
 thither in B.C. 268, and changed its name Male- 
 ventum into Beneventum. It was colonized a 
 second time by Augustus, and was hence called 
 Colonia Julia Concordia Atigusta Felice. The mo- 
 dern town has several Roman remains, among 
 others a triumphal arch of Trajan. 
 
 Berecyntia (BepsKui/ria), a surname of Cybele, 
 which she derived from Mt. BerecjTitus where 
 she was worshipped. 
 
 Berenice {Bepeu'iKT}), a Ma'iedonic form of 
 Pheremce (^epei'^Kij), i. e. " Bringing Victory," — 
 1. First the wife of an obscure Macedonian, and 
 afterwards of Ptolemy I. Soter, who fell in love 
 with her when she came to Egypt in attendance 
 on his bride Eurydice, Antipater's daughter. She 
 was celebrated for her beauty and virtue, and was 
 the mother of Ptolemy II. Philadelphus. — 3. 
 Daughter of Ptolemy II. Philadelphus, and wife 
 of Antiochus Theos, king of Syria, who divorced 
 Laodice in order to marry her, b. c. 249. On the 
 death of Ptolemy, b. c. 247, Antiochus recalled 
 Laodice, who notwithstanding caused him to be 
 poisoned, and murdered Berenice and her son. — 3. 
 Daughter of Magas, king of Cyrene, and wife of 
 Ptolemy III. Euergetes. She was put to death by 
 her son Ptolemy IV. Philopator on his accession to 
 the throne, 22 1 . The famon s hair of Berenice, which 
 she dedicated for her husband's safe return from his 
 Syrian expedition in the temple of Arsinoe at Zephy- 
 rium, was said to have become a constellation. It 
 was celebrated by Callimachus in a poem, of which 
 we have a translation by Catullus. — 4. Otherwise 
 called Cleopatra, daughter of Ptolemy VIII. La- 
 thyras, succeeded her father on the throne, b. c. 
 81, and married Ptolemy X. (Alexander II.), but 
 was murdered by her husband 19 days after her 
 marriage. —5. Daughter of Ptolemy XI. Auletes, 
 and eldest sister of the famous Cleopatra, was 
 placed on the throne by the Alexandrines when 
 they drove out her father, b. c. 58. She next mar- 
 ried Archelaus, but was put to death with her hus- 
 band, when Gabinius restored Auletes, 55.^6. 
 Sister of Herod the Great, married Aristobulus, 
 who was put to death, B. c. 6. She afterwards 
 went to Rome, where she spent the remainder of 
 her life. She was the mother of Agrippa I. — 7. 
 Daughter of Agrippa I., married her uncle Herod, 
 king of Chalcis, by whom she had 2 sons. After 
 the death of Herod, a. d. 48, Berenice, then 20 
 years old, lived with her brother Agrippa II., not 
 without suspicion of an incestuous commerce with 
 him. She gained the love of Titus, who was only 
 withheld from making her his wife by fear of 
 offending the Romans by such a step. 
 
 Berenice [BepeviKT] : Bep^viKcus). the name of 
 several cities of the period of the Ptolemies. 1. 
 Fonnerly Eziongeber (Ru. nr. Alcahah\ in Arabia, 
 at the head of the Sinus Aelanites, or E. branch of 
 the Red Sea. — 3. In Upper Egypt (for so it was 
 considered, though it lay a little S. of the parallel 
 of Syene), on the coast of the Red Sea, on a gulf 
 called Sinus Immundus {kK6.Qa.pTus kSXttos, now 
 Foul Bay\ where its ruins are still visible. It 
 was named after the mother of Ptolemy 11. Phila- 
 delphus, who built it, and made a road hence to 
 
 I 4 
 
120 
 
 BERGI3TANI. 
 
 Coptos, so that it became a cliief emporium for the 
 commerce of Egj'ptwith Arabia and India. Under 
 the Romans it was the residence of a praefectus.— 
 3, B. Panclirysos (B. irdyxp^o-os or rj Kara 2a- 
 &as), on the Red Sea coast in Aethiopia, consider- 
 ably S. of the above. — 4. B. Epidires (B. ctt) 
 Aeipfjs), on the Prom. Dira, on the "VV. side of 
 the entrance to the Red Sea {Straits of Bah-el- 
 Mandeh).^5. (Ben G/iazi, Ru.), in Cyrenaica, 
 formerly Hesperis ('EcrTrepts), the fabled site of the 
 Gardens of the Hesperides. It took its later name 
 fi'om the wife of Ptolemy III. Euert^etes, and was 
 the W.-most of the 5 cities of the Lybian Penta- 
 polis. — There were other cities of the name. 
 
 Bergistani, a people in the N. E. of Spain be- 
 tween the Ibenis and the Pyrenees, whose capital 
 was Bergium. 
 
 Berg'om.um (Bergomas, -atis : Bergamo)^ a town 
 of the Orobii in Gallia Cisalpina, between Coraum 
 and Brixia, afterwards a miinicipium. 
 
 Beroe (Be/x^T;), a Trojan woman, wife of Don''- 
 clus, one of the companions of Aeneas, whose form 
 Iris assumed when, she persuaded the women to 
 set fire to the ships of Aeneas in Sicily. 
 
 Beroea (Bepota, also Bep^om, Bepti?; ; Bepoieiiy, 
 Bepotatos). 1. ( Fe7"n'a), one of the most ancient 
 towns of Macedonia, on one of the lower ranges of 
 Mt. Bennius, and on the Astraeus, a tributary of 
 the Haliacraon, S.W. of Pella, and about 20 miles 
 from the sea. ^2. (Beria), a town in the interior 
 of Thrace, was under the later Roman empire, 
 together with. Philippopolis, one of tbe most impor- 
 tant military posts. ^ 3. (Aleppo or Haleh)^ a 
 town in Syria near Antioch, enlarged by Seleuciis 
 Nicator, who gave It the Macedonian name of Be- 
 roea. It is called Helbon or CItelbon in Ezekiel 
 (xxvii. 18), and Chalep in. the Byzantine writers, 
 a name still retained in the modern JIalcb, for 
 which Europeans have substituted Aleppo. 
 
 Berosus (B-qpwa-Ss or B-qpoKra-Ss)^ a priest of 
 Belus at Babylon, lived in the reign of Antiochus 
 IL (b. c. 261 — 246), and wrote in Greek a history 
 of Babylonia, in 3 books (called Ba€u\wviKd^ and 
 sometimes XaASatKCi or i(TTopiai XaXSat/cat), It 
 embraced the earliest traditions about the human 
 race, a description of Babylonia and its population, 
 and a chronological list of its kings down to the 
 time of the great Cyrus. Berosus says that he 
 derived the materials for his work from the ar- 
 chives in the temple of Belus. The work itself is 
 lost, but considerable fragments of it are preserved 
 in Josephus, Eusebius, Syncellus, and the Christian 
 fathers : the best editions of the fragments are by 
 Bichter, Lips. 1825, and in Didot's Fragmenta 
 Historicorum Ch-aecormu, vol. ii. Pai-is, 1 848. 
 
 Ber^tus {B-qpurds : BrtpuTios: Beii-ui, Rxl), 
 one of the oldest sea-ports of Phoenicia, stood on a 
 promontory near the mouth of the river Magoras 
 (NaJtr Beh-ut), half way between Bybbis and 
 Sidon. It was destroyed by the Syrian king Try- 
 phon (B.C. 140), and restored by Agrippa nnder 
 Augustus, who made it a colony. It afterwards 
 became a celebrated seat of learning. 
 
 Besa. [Antinoopolis.] 
 
 Bessi, a fierce and powerful Thracian people, who 
 dwelt along the whole of Mt. Haemus as far as the 
 Euxine. After the conquest of Macedonia by the 
 Romans (b. c. 168), the Bessi were attacked by 
 the latter, and subdued after a severe strugj^le. 
 
 Bessus (Bi^o-ffos), satrap of Bactrla under Da- 
 lius IlL, seized Darius soon after the battle of 
 
 BIBULUS. 
 Arbela, b. c, 331. Pursued by Alexander in the 
 following year, Bessus put Darius to death, and 
 fled to Bactria, where he assumed the title of king. 
 He was betrayed by two of his followers to Alex- 
 ander, who put him to death. 
 
 Bestia, Calpurmus. 1. L., tribune of the plebs, 
 B.C. 121, and consul 111, when he carried on war 
 against Jugurtha, but having received large bribes 
 he concluded a peace with the Numldian. On his 
 return to Rome he was in consequence accused 
 and condemned. — 2. L., one of the Catllinarian 
 conspirators, b. c. 63, was at the time tribune of 
 the plebs designatus, and not actually tribune as 
 Sallust says. In 59 he was aedile, and in 57 was 
 an unsuccessful candidate for the praetorship, not- 
 withstanding his bribery, for which offence he was 
 brought to trial in the following year and condemned, 
 although he was defended by Cicero. 
 
 Betasii, a people in Gallia Belgica, between the 
 Tungri and Nervii in the neighbourhood of Bectz 
 in Brabant. 
 
 Bezira, [Bazira.] 
 
 Bianor. 1. Also called Ocnus or Aucnus, son 
 of Tiberis and Manto, is said to have built the 
 town of Mantua, and to have called it after his 
 mother. — 2. A Bithynlan, the author of, 21 epi- 
 grams in the Greek Antliolog}^, lived under Augus- 
 tus and Tiberius. 
 
 Bias (Bias). 1. Son of Am3'thaon, and brother 
 of the seer Melampus. He married Pero, daughter 
 of Neleus, whom her father had refused to give 
 to any one unless he brought him the oxen of 
 Iphiclus. These Melampus obtained by his courage 
 and skill, and so won the princess for his brother. 
 Melampus also gained for Bias a third of the king- 
 dom of Argos, in consequence of his curing the 
 daughters of Proetus and the other Argive women 
 of their madness. — 2. Of Priene in Ionia, one of 
 the Seven Sages of Greece, flourished about b. c. 
 550. 
 
 Bibaculus, M. Furms, a Roman poet, bom at 
 Cremona, B.C. 103, wrote iambics, epigrams, and 
 a poem on Caesar's Gaulish wars ; the opening 
 line in the latter poem is parodied by Horace. 
 (Fitrius hibenias cana nive cofispud Alpes^ Sat, \u 
 5. 41.) It Is probable that Bibaculus also wrote a 
 poem entitled Acthiopis, containing an account of 
 the death of Memnon by Achilles, and that the 
 turgidus Alpinus of Horace (Sat. i. 10. 36) is no 
 other than Bibaculus. The attacks of Horace 
 against Bibaculus may probably be owing to the 
 fact that the poems of Bibaculus contained insults 
 against the Caesars. (Tac. Ann. iv. 34.) 
 
 Bibracte (Autun)^ the chief town of the Aedui 
 in Gallia Lugdunensis, afterwards J K^s/oc^anwni. 
 
 Bibraz (Bicvre)^ a town of the Remi in Gallia 
 Belgica, not far from the Aisne. 
 
 BibiilTis Calpumius. 1, L., curule aedile b. c. 
 65, praetor 62, and consul 6Q^ in each of which 
 years he had C. Julius Caesar as his colleague. He 
 was a staunch adherent of the arlstocratical party, 
 but was unable in his consulship to resist the 
 powerful combination of Caesar, Pompey, and 
 Crassus. After an ineffectual attempt to oppose 
 Caesar's agrarian law, he withdrew from the 
 popular assemblies altogether ; whence it was said 
 in joke, that it was the consulship of Julius 
 and Caeaar. In 51 Bibulus was proconsul of Syria ; 
 and in the civil war he commanded Pompey'a 
 fleet in the Adi-iatic, and died (48) while holding 
 this command off Corcyra. He married Porcia, 
 
BIDTS. 
 
 ih& daiigliter of Cato Uticensis, by whom he had 
 o sons, 2 of whom were murdered by the soldiers of 
 Gabinius, in Ej,^'pt, 50. — 2. L., son of No. J, was 
 a youth at his father's death, and was brought up 
 by M. Brutus, who mai-ried his mother Porcia. He 
 fought with Bmtus at the battle of Philippi in 42, 
 but he was afterwards pardoned by Antony, and 
 was intrusted by the latter with important com- 
 mands. He died shortly before the battle of 
 Actium. 
 
 Eidis (Bidinus, Bidensis), a small town in SI- 
 cil}', W. of Syracuse. 
 
 Bigerra {Stceri-a?)^ a town of the Oretani in 
 Hispania Tarraconensis. 
 
 Bigerrioues or Bigerri, a people in Aquitania 
 near the Pyrenees. 
 
 BilbHis (Bmibola), a town of the Celtiberi in 
 Hispania Tarraconensis, and a municipium with 
 the surname Augusta, on the river Salo, also called 
 Bilbilis (Xtilon), was the birth-place of the poet 
 Martial, and was celebrated for its manufactories 
 in iron and gold. 
 
 Billaeus (BiKXaTos : FUbas), a river of Bithy- 
 cia, rising in the Hypii M,, and falling into the 
 Pontus Euxinus 20 stadia (2 geog. miles) E. of 
 Tium. Some made it the boundary between 
 Bithyniaand Paphlagonia. 
 
 Bingium (Biyiyen), a town on the Rhine in 
 Gallia Belgica. 
 
 Bion (Biwr). 1. Of Smyrna, a bucolic poet, 
 flourished about b. c. 230, and spent the last years 
 of his life in Sicily, where he was poisoned. He 
 was older than Moschus, who laments his untimely 
 death, and calls himself the pupil of Bion. (Mosch. 
 Id. iii.) The style of Bion is refined, and his 
 versification fluent and elegant, but he is inferior 
 to Theocritus in strength and depth of feeling. — 
 Editions^ including Moschus, by Jacobs, Gotha, 
 1795 ; Wakefield, London, 1795 ; and Manso, 
 Leipzig, 1807. — 2. Of Borysthenes, near the 
 mouth of the Dnieper, flourished about B.C. 250, 
 He was sold as a slave, when young, and received 
 his liberty from his master, a rhetorician. He 
 studied at Athens, and embraced the later Cyrenaic 
 philosophy, as expounded by Theodorus, the 
 Atheist. He lived a considerable time at the 
 court of Antigonus Gonatas, king of Macedonia. 
 Bion was noted for his sharp sayings, whence 
 Horace speaks of persons delighting Bioneis scr~ 
 monihus et sale nigro. {Epist. ii. 2. 60.) 
 
 Eisaltia (Bio-aArta: BicrdAT9js), a district in 
 Macedonia on the W. bank of the Strymon. The 
 Bisaltae were Thracians, and at the invasion of 
 Greece by Xerxes (b. c. 480) they were loiled by 
 a Thracian prince, who was independent of Mace- 
 donia ; but at the time of the Peloponnesian war 
 we find them subject to Macedonia. 
 
 Bisanthe {BiaavQ-r] : BiaavdrjuSs : Rodoslo)^ 
 subsequently RliaedesUim or Bhaedeslus, a town in 
 Thrace on the Propontis, with a good harbour, was 
 founded by the Samians, and was in later times 
 <me of the great bulwarks of the neighbouring 
 Byzantium. 
 
 Bistones CBlcTOpes), a Thracian people between 
 Mt. Rhodope and the Aegean sea, on the lake 
 3istonis in the neighbourhood of Abdera, through 
 whose land Xerxes marched on his invasion of 
 Greece (b. c. 480). — From the worship of Diony- 
 sus in Thrace the Bacchic women are called Bis- 
 iomdes. (Hor. Carm, ii. 19. 20). 
 
 Bithynia (Bi&uyia ; BiOuyds), a district of Asia 
 
 BLAESUS. 
 
 121 
 
 Minor, bounded on the "VV. by Myaia, on the N. 
 by the Pontus Euxinus, on the E. by Paphlagonia, 
 and on the S. by Phrygia Epictetus, was possessed 
 at an early period by Thracian tribes from the 
 neighbourhood of the Strymon, called Thyni(0ui'Oi) 
 and Bithyni {Bidwul), of whom the former dwelt 
 on the coast, the latter in the interior. The earlier 
 inhabitants were the Bebrycss, Caucones, and 
 Mygdones, and the N.E. part of the district was 
 possessed by the Marundyni. The countrj-'was 
 subdued by the Lydians, and afterwards became a 
 part of the Persian empire under Cyrus, and wag 
 governed by the satraps of Phrygia. During the 
 decline of the Persian empire, the N. part of the 
 country became independent, imder native princes, 
 called €7rapxof, who resisted Alexander and his 
 successors, and established a kingdom, which is 
 usually considered to begin with Zipoetes (about 
 li. c. 287) or his son Nicomedes I. (b. c. 278), and 
 which lasted till the death of Nicomedes III. (b. c. 
 74), who bequeathed hia kingdom to the Romans. 
 By them it was at first attached to the province of 
 Asia, afterwards to that of Pontus, and, under 
 Augustus, it was made a proconsular province. 
 Several changes were made in its boundaries under 
 the later emperors. — It was a fertile countrj'-, in- 
 tersected with wooded mountains, the highets of 
 which was the Mysian Olympus, on its S. border. 
 Its chief rivers were the Sangarius and the 
 Billaeus. 
 
 Bithynitim (BiBvpioy), aft. Claudiopolis, an 
 inland city of Eithynia, the birth-place of Had- 
 rian's favourite Antinoiis. 
 
 Biton (BiTojv), a mathematician, the author of 
 an extant work on Military Machines ^KaraffK^voX 
 troKefxLKwi' opydvtav Koi KaraTre\TiKwu)y whose 
 history is unknown. The work is printed in Vet. 
 Maihem. Op. Paris, 1693, p. 105, seq. 
 
 Biton and Cleobis (KXeo^is), sons of Cydippe, 
 a priestess of Hera at Argos. They were cele- 
 brated for their affection to their mother, whose 
 chariot they once dragged during a festival to the 
 temple of Hera, a distance of 45 stadia. The 
 priestess prayed to the goddess to grant them what 
 was best for mortals ; and during the night they 
 both died while asleep in the temple. 
 
 Bituitus, in inscriptions Betultus king of 
 the Arvemi in Gaul, joined the Allobroges in their 
 war against the Romans. Both the Arverni and 
 Allobroges were defeated b.c. 121, at the confluence 
 of the Rhone and the Isara, by Q. Fabius Maximus. 
 Bituitus was subsequently taken prisoner and sent 
 to Rome. 
 
 Bituriges, a numerous and powerful Celtic peo- 
 ple in Gallia Aquitanica, had in early times the 
 supremacy over the other Celts in Gaul. (Liv. v. 
 34.) They were divided into, 1. Bit. Cubi, sepa- 
 rated from the Carnutes and Aedui by the Liger, 
 and boimded on the S. by the Lemovices, in the 
 country of the modern Buurges ; their capital was 
 AvARicuM. 2. Bit. Vivisci or Ubisci on the 
 Gaioimna: their capital was Burdigala. 
 
 Bladus, Blandus, or Blaudus (BAa-, B\a^-, 
 BKav^os'. B\audi]v6s : Blaudesius), a city of Phrj'- 
 gia, near the borders of M3'sia and Lydia. 
 
 Blaesus, C. Semproniua, consul with Cn. Ser- 
 vilius Caepio, B. c. 253, in the 1st Punic war. The 
 2 consuls sailed to the coast of Africa, and on 
 their return were overtaken off cape Palinurus by a 
 tremendous storm, in which 150 ships perished. 
 
 Blaesus, Jmuus, governor of Paunonia at the 
 
12-2 
 
 BLAND A. 
 
 death of Augustus, A. d. 34, wlien the fonnidable 
 insurrection of the legions broke out in that pro- 
 vince. He obtained the government of Africa in 
 21, where he gained a victory over Tacfarinas. On 
 the fall of his uncle Sejanus in 31, he was deprived 
 of the priestly offices which he held, and in 3G put 
 an end to his own life, to avoid falling by the 
 hand of the executioner. 
 
 Blanda. 1. (Blaiios), a town of the Laeetani in 
 Hispania Tarraconensis. — 2. {St. Biasio), a town 
 in Lucania, 
 
 Slascon (Brescou), a small island in the Gallicus 
 Sinus, off the town of Agatha. 
 
 Blasio, M. Helvius, praetor b. c. 197, defeated 
 the Celtiberi in Spain, and took Illlturgi. 
 
 Blavia {Blaye), a town of the Santones, in 
 Gallia Aquitanica, on the Garmnna. 
 
 Blemyes (BAe'/zues, BA€/Li;uu€s), an Aethiopian 
 people, on the borders of Upper Egypt, to which 
 their predatory incursions were very troublesome 
 in the times of the Roman emperors. 
 
 Blera (Bleranus : Bieda)^ a town in Etruria, on 
 the Via Clodia, between Forum Clodii and Tus- 
 cania : there are many remains of the ancient town 
 at Bieda. 
 
 Blosius or Blossius, the name of a noble family 
 in Campania. — One of this family, C. Blosius of 
 Cumae, was a philosopher, a disciple of Antipater 
 of Tarsus, and a friend of Tib. Gracchus. After 
 the death of Gracchus (b. c. 133) he fled to Aris- 
 tonicus, king of Pergamiis, and on the conquest of 
 Aristonicus by the Romans, Blosius put an end to 
 his own life for fear of falling into the hands of the 
 Romans. 
 
 Boadicea, queen of the Iceni in Britain, having 
 been shamefully treated by the Romans, who 
 even ravished her "2 daughters, excited an insur- 
 rection of the Britons against their oppressors 
 during the absence of Suetonius Paiilinus, the Ro- 
 man governor, on an expedition to the island of 
 Mona. She took the Roman colonies of Camalo- 
 dunum, Londinium, and other places, and slew 
 nearly 70,000 Romans and their allies. She was 
 at length defeated with great loss by Suetonius 
 Paulinus, and put an end to her own life, a. d. 61. 
 
 Boagrius (Boa^pior), a river in Locris, also 
 called Manes, flows past Thronium into the Sinus 
 Maliacus. 
 
 Bocclius (BtJ/cxo^)' 1- Khig of Mauretania, 
 and father-in-law of Jugurtha, with whom at first 
 he made war against the Romans, but Avhom he 
 afterwards delivered up to Sulla, the quaestor of 
 Marius, b. c. 106.^2. Son of the preceding, 
 reigned along with his brother Bogud, over Maure- 
 tinia. Bocchus and Bogud assisted Caesar in his 
 war against the Pompeians in Africa, b. c. 46 ; and 
 in 45 Bogud joined Caesar in his war in Spain. 
 After the murder of Caesar, Bocchus sided with 
 Octavianus, and Bogud with Antony. "When 
 Bogud was in Spain in 38, Bocchus usurped the 
 sole government of Mauretania, in which be wag 
 confirmed by Octavianus. He died about 33, 
 whereupon his kingdom became a Roman province. 
 Bogud had previously betaken himself to Antony, 
 and was killed on the capture of Methone by 
 Agrippa in 31. 
 
 Bodencus or Bodincus. [Padus.] 
 
 Bodiocasses, a people in Gallia Lugdunensis ; 
 their capital was AugTistodurum {Baycux). 
 
 Bodotria or Boderia Aestuarium {Firth of 
 Forth)^ an aestuary on the E. coast of Scotland. 
 
 BOETHIUS. 
 
 Boeae (Boiaf: Boiar^jy; Vatka)^ a town in the 
 S. of Laconica, near C. Malea. 
 
 Boebe {BoiSr} -. Bot§eys),atown in Pelasgiotis in 
 Thessaly, on the W. shore of the lake Boebeis 
 (Boiff77ts), into which several rivers of Thessaly 
 flow. 
 
 Boedromius (BoT^SpcJ^uios), " the helper in dis- 
 tress,'" a surname of Apollo at Athens, because he 
 had assisted the Athenians. {See Did. of Ant. 
 art. Boedromia.) 
 
 Boeotia (Boioiria : BotarSs : part of Livadia)^ 
 a district of Greece, bounded N. by Opuntian 
 Locris, E. by the Euboean sea, S. by Attica, Me- 
 garis, and the Corinthian GiUf, and W. by Phocls. 
 It is nearly surrounded by mountains, namely 
 Helicon and Parnassus on the W., Cithaeron and 
 Pames on the S., the Opuntian mountains on the 
 N., and a range of mountains along the whole sea- 
 coast on the E. The country contains several 
 fertile plains, of which the two most important 
 were the valley of the Asopus in the S., the in- 
 habitants of which were called Parosopii, and the 
 valley of the Cephissus in the N. (the upper 
 part of which, however, belonged to Phocis), the 
 inhabitants of which were called Epicephisii. In 
 the former valley the chief towns were Thebae, 
 Tanagra, Thespiae, and Plataeae ; in the latter 
 the chief towns were ORCHOMENffS, Chaeronea, 
 CoRONEA, Lebapea, and Haliartus ; the latter 
 valley included the lake Copais. The surface of 
 Boeotia is said to be 1080 square miles. The 
 atmosphere was damp and thick, to which circum- 
 stance some of the ancients attributed the dullness 
 of the Boeotian intellect, with which the Athenians 
 frequently made merry ; but the deficiencj-- of the 
 Boeotians in this respect was more probably owing, 
 as has been well remarked, to the extraordinary 
 fertility of their country, which probably depressed 
 their intellectual and moral energies. — In the ear- 
 liest times Boeotia was inhabited by various tribes, 
 the Aones (whence the country was called Aonia), 
 Temmices, Hyantes, Thracians, Leleges, &c. Or- 
 chomenus was inhabited by the powerful tribe 
 of the Minyans, and Thebes by the Cadmeans, the 
 reputed descendants of Cadmus. The Boeotians 
 were an Aeolian people, who originally occupied 
 Ame in Thessalj-, from which they were expelled by 
 the Thessalians 60 years after the Trojan war, and 
 migrated into the country called after them Boeotia, 
 partly expelling and partly incorporating with 
 themselves the ancient inhabitants of the land. 
 Boeotia was then divided into 14 independent 
 states, which formed a league, with Thebes at its 
 head. The chief magistrates of the confederacy 
 were the Boeotarchs, elected annually, 2 by 
 Thebes and 1 by each of the other states ; but as 
 the number of the states was different at different 
 times, that of the Boeotarchs also varied. The 
 government in most states was an aristocracy, 
 (See Did. ofAnU art. Boeotarches.) 
 
 Boethius, whose full name was Anicius Man- 
 Lius Severinus Boethius, a Roman statesman 
 and author, was bom between A. n. 470 and 475. 
 He was famous for his general learning, and espe- 
 cially for his knowledge of Greek philosophy, 
 which according to a common account (though of 
 doubtful authority), he studied under Proclus at 
 Athens. He was consul in 510, and was treated 
 with great distinction by Theodoric the»Great ; but 
 having incurred the suspicions of the latter, by ad- 
 vocating the cause of the Italians against the op- 
 
BOETHUS. 
 
 pressioDS of the Goths, he was put to death by 
 Theodoric about 524. During his imprisonment 
 he wrote his celebrated work De Consolations Phi- 
 losophiacj in 5 books, which is composed alternately 
 in prose and verse. The diction is pure and elegant, 
 and the sentiments are noble and exalted, showing 
 that the author had a real belief in prayer and Pro- 
 vidence, though he makes no reference to Christian- 
 ity. Boethius was the last Roman of any note who 
 understood the language and studied the literature 
 of Greece, He translated many of the works of 
 the Greek philosophers, especially of Aristotle, and 
 wrote commentaries upon them, several of which 
 have come down to us. He also wrote a commen- 
 tar}', in 6 books, upon the Topica of Cicero, which 
 is also extant. In the ignorance of Greek writers 
 which prevailed from the 6th to the 14th century, 
 Boethius was looked upon as the head and type of 
 all philosophers, as Augustin was of all theology 
 and Virgil of all literature ; but after the introduc- 
 tion of the works of Aristotle into Europe in the 
 13th century, Boethius's fame gradually died away. 
 — The best edition of his collective works was 
 printed at Basel, 1570 ; the last edition of his De 
 Consolatione is by Obbarius, Jenae, 1843. 
 
 Boethus (BoTj^ds), 1. A Stoic philosopher of 
 imcertain date, wrote several wnrks, from one of 
 which Cinero quotes. — 2. A Peripatetic philoso- 
 pher, was a native of Sidon in Phoenicia, a disciple 
 of Andronicus of Rhodes, and an instructor of the 
 philosopher Strabo. He therefore flourished about 
 B. c. 30. He wrote several works, all of which are 
 now lost. 
 
 Boeum (BokJc, BiitW, Boioj/; BoiarTjs), an an- 
 cient town of the Dorian Tetrapolis. 
 
 Bogud. [BoccHUS, No. 2.] 
 
 Boii, one of the most powarful of the Celtic 
 people, said to have dwelt originally in Gaul 
 (Transalpina)^ but in what part of the countrj'- is 
 uncertain. At an early time they migrated in 
 two great swarms, one of which crossed the Alps 
 and settled in the country between the Po and 
 the Apennines ; the other crossed the Rhine and 
 settled in the part of Gennany called Boihemum 
 {Bohemia) after them, and between the Danube 
 and the Tyrol. The Boii in Italy long carried on 
 a fierce struggle with the Romans, but they were at 
 length subdued by the consul P. Scipio in b. c. 
 191, and were subsequently incorporated in the 
 province of Gallia Cisalpina. The Boii in Ger- 
 many maintained their power longer, but were at 
 length subdued by the Marcomanni, and expelled 
 from the country. We find 32,000 Boii taking 
 part in the Helvetian migration ; and after the 
 defeat of the Helvetians (b. c. 58), Caesar allowed 
 these Boii to dwell among the Aedui. 
 
 Eoiorix, a chieftain of the Boii, fought against 
 the Romans in Cisalpine Gaul, b. c. 194. 
 
 Bola, Bolae or Volae (Bolanus), an ancient 
 town of the Aequi, belonging to the Latin league 
 not mentioned in later times. 
 
 Bolanus, Vettius, governor of Britain in a. d. 
 69, is praised by Statius in the poem [Silv. v. 2), 
 addressed to Crispinus, the son of Bolanus. 
 
 Bolbe (BiiAgi?; BesJick), a lake in Macedonia, 
 empties itself by a short river into the Strymonic 
 gulf near Bromiscus and Aulon : the lake is now 
 about 12 rniles in length, and 6 or 8 in breadth. — 
 There was a town of the same name upon the lake. 
 
 Bolbitine [BokSirivT]: 'Bo\€niv'f}rr}s: Boscita), 
 a cit}'- of Lower Egj'pt, near the mouth of a branch 
 
 BORBETOMAGUS. 
 
 123 
 
 of the Nile (the W.-most but one"), which was 
 called the Bolbitine mouth {rh "QoXiirivuv (n6}j,a). 
 Boline (BoAiVtj : BoKivcuos)^ a town in Achaia, 
 the inhabitants of which Augustus transplanted to 
 Patrae. 
 
 Bolissus (BoAnrcTfJs : BoAiffo-ios), a town on 
 the W. coast of Chios. 
 
 Bomilcar {Bo/j-iXKas^ 'Boafj.iXKas), 1. Com- 
 mander, with Hanno, of the Carthaginians against 
 Agathocles, when the latter invaded Africa, b. c. 
 310. In 308 he attempted to seize the govern- 
 ment of Carthage, but failed, and was crucified. 
 — 2. Commander of the Carthaginian supplies sent 
 to Hannibal after the battle of Cannae, 216. He 
 afterwards attempted to relieve Syracuse, when 
 besieged by Marcellus, but was unable to accom- 
 plish any thing. ^3. A Numidian, deep in the 
 confidence of Jugurtha. When Jugurtha was at 
 Rome, 109, Bomilcar effected for him the assas- 
 sination of Massiva. In 107 he plotted against 
 Jugurtha. 
 
 Bomius Mons (Bcofxtos and ol Bw^yi), the W. 
 part of Mt. Oeta in Aetolia, inhabited by the Bo- 
 mienses (BojfusTs). 
 
 Bona Dea, a Roman divinity, is described as 
 the sister, wife, or daughter of Faunus, and was 
 herself called Fauna, Faiua^ or Oina. She was 
 worshipped at Rome as a chaste and prophetic 
 divinity ; she revealed her oracles only to females, 
 as Faunus did only to males. Her festival was 
 celebrated every year on the 1st of May, in the 
 house of the consul or praetor, as the sacrifices on 
 that occasion were offered on behalf of the whole 
 Roman people. The solemnities were conducted 
 by the Vestals, and no male person was allowed to 
 be in the house at one of the festivals. P. Clodius 
 profaned the sacred ceremonies, by entering the 
 house of Caesar in the disguise of a woman, b.c. 62. 
 Bonifacius, a Roman general, governor of Africa 
 under Valentin ian III. Believing that the empress 
 Placidia meditated his destruction, he revolted 
 against the emperor, and invited Genseric, king of 
 the Vandals, to settle in Africa. In 430 he was 
 reconciled to Placidia, and attempted to drive the 
 Vandals out of Africa, but without success. He 
 quitted Africa in 431, and in 432 he died of a 
 wound received in combat with his rival Aetius. 
 
 Bonna (Bonn), a town on the left bank of the 
 Rhine in Lower Germany, and in the territory of 
 the Ubii, was a strong fortress of the Romans and 
 the regular quarters of a Roman legion. Here 
 Drusus constructed a bridge across the Rhine. 
 
 EonSnia (Bononiensis). 1. (Bo/q^na), a town 
 in Gallia Cispadana, originally called Felsina, was 
 in ancient times an Etruscan city, and the capital 
 of N. Etruria. It afterwards fell into the hands of 
 the Boii, but it was colonized by the Romans on 
 the conquest of the Boii, b. c. 191, and its name of 
 Felsina was then changed into Bononia. It fell 
 into decay in the civil wars, but it was enlarged 
 and adorned by Augustus, 32.-2. (Botdogne) a 
 town in the N. of Gaul. See Gesohiacus. — 3. 
 {Banostor ?), a town of Pannonia on the Danube. 
 
 Bonosus, a Spaniard by birth, served with dis- 
 tinction under Aurelian, and usurped the imperial 
 title in Gaul in the reign of Probus. He was de- 
 feated and slain by Probus, A. d. 280 or 281, 
 Bootes. [Arcturus.] 
 Borbetomagus ( Wotins), also called Vangiones, 
 at a later time "Wormatia, a town of the Vangiones 
 on the left bank of the Rhine in Upper Germany. 
 
124 
 
 BOREAS. 
 
 Boreas (Bopcas or Bopas), the N. wind, or more 
 strictly the wind from the N.N.E., was, in qiytho- 
 logy, a son of Astraeus and Eos, and brother of 
 Hesperus, Zephyrus, and Notiis. He dwelt in a 
 cave of mount Haemus in Thrace. He carried off 
 Orithyia, daughter of Erechtheus, king of Attica, 
 "bj whom he begot Zetes, Calais, and Cleopatra, 
 wife of Phineus, who are therefore called Boreades. 
 In the Persian war, Boreas showed his friendly 
 disposition towards the Athenians by destroying 
 •the ships of the barbarians. According to an 
 Homeric tradition (11. xx, 223), Boreas begot 12 
 horses by the mares of Erichthoniua, which is 
 <:ommonly explained as a figurative mode of ex- 
 pressing the extraordinary swiftness of those horses. 
 Boreas was worshipped at Athens, where a festival, 
 Borecismi^ was celebrated in his honour. 
 
 Boreum (BiJpetoj/). 1. {Mcdin Head\ the 
 N. promontory of Hibemia {Ireland). — 2. (Ras 
 Tei/ojias), a promontory on the W. coast of Cyre- 
 naica, forming the E. headland of the Great Syrtis. 
 ^ 3. The N. extremity of the island of Taprobane 
 (Ceylon). 
 
 Boreus lions (Bdpcuv tfpos), a moimtain in Ar- 
 ^^dia, on the borders of Laconia, containing the 
 sources of the rivers Alpheus and Eurotas. 
 
 Boreas Portus (BtJpeiov Mfi-^v)^ a harbour in 
 the island of Tenedos, at the mouth of a river of 
 the same name. 
 
 Bor3ippa(TaB(Jp(riJr7ra: Bopffnnr-rivos : Boursa)^ 
 a city of Babylonia, on the W. bank of the Eu- 
 phrates, a little S. of Babylon, celebrated for its 
 manufactures of linen, and as the chief residence 
 of the Chaldaean astrologers. The Greeks held it 
 sacred to Apollo and Artemis. 
 
 Borysthenes (Bopuo-^eVTj?: 2>nzepej*), afterwards 
 Banapris, a river of European Sarmatia, flows into 
 the Euxine, but its sources were unknown to the 
 ancients. Near its mouth and at its junction with 
 the Hypanis, lay the town Borysthenes or Bory- 
 sthenis (Kudak), also called Olbia, Olbiopolia, 
 and I/Uletopolis, a colony of Miletus, and the most 
 important Greek city on the N. of the Euxine. 
 (Ethnic, Bopva-Oey'iTTjs, 'OKSiOTToXir-qs.) 
 
 Bosporus (Bdairopos), Ox-ford^ the name of 
 any straits among the Greeks, but especially applied 
 to the 2 following. — 1. The Thracian Bosporus 
 (Qmnnel of Constantinople), unites the Propontis 
 or Sea of Marmora with the Euxine or Black Sea. 
 According to the legend it was called Bosporus 
 irom lo, who crossed it in the form of a heifer. 
 At the entrance of the Bosporus were the cele- 
 brated SvMPLEGADES. Darius constructed a 
 bridge across the Bosporus, when he invaded 
 Scythia. — 2. The Cimmerian Bosporus {Straiis 
 of Kaju), unites the Palus Maeotis or Sea of 
 Azof with the Euxine or Black Sea. It formed, 
 with the Tanais (Don) the boundary between 
 Asia and Europe, and it derived its name from the 
 CiMMERii, who were supposed to have dwelt in 
 the neighbourhood. On the European side of the 
 Bosporus, the modern Crimea, the Milesians founded 
 the town of Panticapaeum, also called Bosporus, 
 and the inhabitants of Panticapaeum subsequently 
 founded the town of Phanagoria on the Asiatic side 
 of the Straits. These cities, being favourably si- 
 tuated for commerce, soon became places of con- 
 siderable importance ; and a kingdom gradually 
 arose, of which Panticapaeum was the capital, and 
 TPvhich eventually included the whole of the Crimea. 
 Tie first kmgs we read of were the Archaeanac- 
 
 BRANCHIDAE. 
 
 tidae, who reigned 42 years, from B. c. 480 to 43S, 
 They were succeeded by Spartacus I. and his de- 
 scendants. Several of these kings were in close 
 alliance with the Athenians, who obtained annually 
 a large supply of corn from the Bosporus. The 
 last of these kings was Paerisades, who, being hard 
 pressed by the Scythians, voluntarily ceded his do- 
 minions to Mithridates the Great. On the death 
 of Mithridates, his son Pharnaces was allowed by 
 Porapey to succeed to the dominion of Bosporus ; 
 and we subsequently find a series of kings, who 
 reigned in the country till a late period, under the 
 protection of the Roman emperors. 
 
 Bostar {Bdarcap^ BcaaTupos). 1. A Cartha- 
 ginian general, who, with Harailcar and Hasdrubal, 
 the son of Hanno, fought against M. Atilius Re- 
 gulus, in Africa, b. c. 256, but was defeated, taken 
 prisoner, and sent to Rome, where he is said to 
 have perished in consequence of the barbarous 
 treatment which he received from the sons of 
 Regulus.^2. A Carthaginian general, under Has- 
 drubal, in Spain, set at liberty the Spanish hostages 
 kept at Saguntum, hoping thereby to secure the 
 affections of the Spaniards. 
 
 Bostra (ra BSarpa, 0. T. Bozrah : Bo(Ttt}v6s 
 and -aios : Busrali, Ru.), a city of Arabia, in an 
 Oasis of the Syrian Desert, a little more than 1*^ 
 S. of Damascus. It was enlarged and beautified 
 by Trajan, who made it a colony. Under the 
 later emperors it was the seat of an archbishoprick. 
 
 Bottia, Bottiaea, Bottiaeis (Borria, BoTrmta, 
 BoTTiaus: BoTTiaTos), a district in Macedonia, on 
 the right bank of the river Axius, extended in the 
 time of Thucydides to Pieria on the "W. It con- 
 tained the towns of Pella and Ichnae near the sea. 
 The Bottiaei were a Thracian people, who, being 
 driven out of the country by the Macedonians, 
 settled in that part of the Macedonian Chalcidice 
 N.ofOlynthus, which was called J3o^iice (Bottlkt]). 
 
 Bottice. [BoTTiA.] 
 
 Bovianum (Bovianius: BoJano\ the chief to\vn 
 of the Pentri in Saranium, was taken by the Ro- 
 mans in the Samnite wars, and was colonized by 
 Augustus with veterans. 
 
 Bovillae (Bovillensis), an ancient town in La- 
 tium at the foot of the Alban mountain, on the 
 Appian Way about 10 miles from Rome. Near it 
 Clodius was killed by Milo (b. c. 52) ; and here 
 was the sacrarium of the Julia gens. 
 
 Bracara Augusta {Braga)^ the chief town of 
 the Callaici Bracarii in HispaniaTarraconensis : at 
 Braga there are the ruins of an amphitheatre, 
 aqueduct, &c. 
 
 Brachmanae or -i (BpaX|Ua»'es), is a name used 
 by the ancient geographers, sometimes for a caste 
 of priests in India (the Brahmins)^ sometimes, ap- 
 parently, for all the people whose religion was 
 Brahminism, and sometimes for a particular tribe. 
 
 Brachodes or Caput Vada (^pax<^^^l^ ^«po : 
 Bas KapQudiah), a promontory on the coast of 
 Byzacena in N. Africa, forming the N. headland 
 of the Lesser Syrtis. 
 
 Brachylles or Brachyllas {Bpax^y^Ms, Bpa- 
 Xi^AAa^), a Boeotian, supported the Macedonian 
 interests in the reigns of Antigonus Doson and 
 Philip v. At the battle of Cynoscephalae, E. c 
 197, he commanded the Boeotian troops in Philip's 
 army, and was murdered in 196 at Thebes by the 
 Roman party in that city. 
 
 Branchidae (at Bpa7xi5ai ; Jeronda, Ru.), aft. 
 Didyma, or -i (ra AiSy/xa, ol AlBup-oi), a place on 
 
BRANCHUS. 
 
 the sea-coast of Ionia, a little S. of Miletus, cele- 
 brated for its temple and oracle of Apollo surnamed 
 Didymeus (Aidvfievs). This oracle, which the 
 lonians held in the highest esteem, was said to 
 have been founded by Branchus, son of Apollo or 
 Smicrus of Delphi, and a Milesian woman. The 
 reputed descendants of this Branchus, the Bran- 
 chidae {ol Bpayxi^ai) were the hereditary minis- 
 ters of this oracle. They delivered up the treasures 
 of the temple to Darius or Xerxes ; and, when 
 Xerxes returned from Greece, the Branchidae, 
 fearing the revenge of the Greeks, begged him 
 to remove them to a distant part of his empire. 
 They Avere accordingly settled in Bactria or Sog- 
 diana, where their descendants are said to Lave 
 been punished by the army of Alexander for the 
 treason of their forefathers. The temple, called 
 Didymacum, which was destroyed by Xerxes, was 
 rebuilt, and its ruins contain some beautiful spe- 
 cimens of the Ionic order of architecture. 
 
 Brancbus (Bpdyxos). [Branchidae.] 
 
 Brannovices. [Aulehci.] 
 
 Brasidas (Bpatr/Sas-), son of Tellls, the most 
 distinguished Spartan in the first part of the Pelo- 
 ponnesian war. In b. c. 424, at the head of a 
 small force, he effected a dexterous march through 
 the hostile country of Thessaly, and joined Per- 
 diccas of Macedonia, who had promised co-opera- 
 tion against the Athenians. By his military skill, 
 and the confidence which his character inspired, 
 he gained possession of many of the cities in 
 Macedonia subject to Athens ; his greatest acquisi- 
 tion was Amphipolis. In 422 he gained a brilliant 
 victory over Cleon, who had been sent, with an 
 Athenian force, to recover Amphipolis, but he was 
 slain in the battle. He was buried within the city, 
 and the inhabitants honoured him as a hero, by 
 yearly sacrifices and by games. {Diet, of Ant. art. 
 Br(m.deia.^ 
 
 Bratuspantium {Bratiispante nr. BreteuU), the 
 chief town of the Bellovaci in Gallia Belgica. 
 
 Brauron {Bpavpuiv, Bpavp^vios : Vraona or 
 Vrana), a demus in Attica on the E. coast on the 
 river Erasinus, with a celebrated temple of Ar- 
 temis, who was hence called Brauronia, and in 
 whose honour the festival Brauronia was celebrated 
 in this place. {Did. of Ant. s. v.) 
 
 Bregetio (nr. Ssowy, Ru., E. of Comom), a Ro- 
 man municipium in Lower Pannonia on the Da- 
 nube, where Valentinian I. died. 
 
 Brennus. 1. Theleaderof the Senonian Gauls, 
 who in B. c. 390 crossed the Apennines, defeated 
 the Romans at the Allia, and took Rome. After 
 besieging the Capitol for 6 months, he quitted the 
 city upon receiving 1000 pounds of gold as a ran- 
 som for the Capitol, and returned home safe with 
 his booty. But it was subsequently related in the 
 popular legends that Camill'is and a Roman army 
 appeared at the moment that the gold was being 
 wei"-hed, that Brennus was defeated by Camillus, 
 and that he himself and his whole army were slain 
 to a man. ^2. The chief leader of the Gauls who 
 invaded Macedonia and Greece, B. c. 280, 279. In 
 2130 Ptolemy Ceraunus was defeated by the Gauls 
 under Belgius and slain in battle ; and Brennus in 
 the following year penetrated into the S. of Greece, 
 but he was defeated near Delphi, most of his men 
 were slain, and he himself put an end to his own 
 life. 
 
 Breuci, a powerful people of Pannonia near 
 the confluence of the Savus and the Danube, took 
 
 BRITANNIA. 
 
 126 
 
 an active part in the insurrection of the Panno- 
 nians and Dalmatians against the Romans, A. d. 6. 
 
 Breuni, a Rhaetian people, dwelt in the Tyrol 
 near the Brenner. (Hor. Carin, iv. 14. 11.) 
 
 Braareus. [Aegeon.] 
 
 Bricinniae {BpiKivviai.), a place in Sicily not 
 far from Leontini. 
 
 Brigantes, the most powerful of the BritisTi 
 tribes, inhabited the whole of the N. of the island 
 from the Abus {Humler) to the Roman wall, with; 
 the exception of the S. E. comer of Yorkshire^ 
 which was inhabited by the Parisii. The Bri- 
 gantes consequently inhabited the greater part of 
 Yorkshire, and the whole of Lancashire, Durham, 
 Westmoreland, and Cumberland. Their capital 
 was Eboracum. They were conquered by Peti- 
 lius Cerealis in the reign of Vespasian. — There 
 was also a tribe of Brigantes in the S. of Ireland, 
 between the rivers Birgus (Barrovi) and Dabrona 
 (Blaclcwater), in the counties of Waterford and 
 Tipperary. 
 
 Brigaatii, a tribe in Vindelicia on the lake 
 Brigantinus, noted for their robberies. 
 
 Brigantinus Lacus {Bodensee oz Lake of Cort' 
 stance), aUo called Venetus and Acronius, througb 
 which the Rhine flows, was inhabited by the Hel- 
 vetii on the S., by the Rhaetii on the S.E., and by 
 the Vindelici on the N. Near an island on it, 
 probably BeicJicnau, Tiberius defeated the Vinde- 
 lici in a naval engagement. 
 
 Brigantium. 1. (Brian^on), a town of the- 
 Segusiani in Gaul at the foot of the Cottian Alps. 
 ^ 2, {Coi'unna)^ a sea-port town of the Lucenses 
 in Gallaecia in Spain with a light-house, which is 
 still used for the same purpose, having been re- 
 paired in 1791, and which is now called Za Torre- 
 de Hercules. — 3. {Bregenz), a town of the Brigan- 
 tini Vindelici on the lake of Constance. 
 
 Brilessus {Bpi\7i(Tcr6s), a mountain in Attica 
 N.E. of Athens. 
 
 Brimo (Bpi^uci), " the angry or the terrifying," 
 a siu-name of Hecate and Persephone. 
 
 Briniates, a people in Liguria S. of the Po near 
 the modern Brignolo. 
 
 Briseis (Bpio-Tjt's), daughter of Briseus of L}t- 
 nessus, fell into the hands of Achilles, but was 
 seized by Agamemnon. Hence arose the dire feud 
 between the 2 heroes. [Achilles.] Her proper 
 name was Hippodamia. 
 
 Britannia (ij BpeTToyiKTj or Bp^TaviKri^ sc; 
 j/^cros, 7} "Bperravla or Bperavla : BpcTTapot, Bpe- 
 rai/oi, Bi'itanni, Brittones), the island of Enjjlniid 
 and Scotland, which was also called Albion (*'AA- 
 §ior, 'A\ovluif^ Insuki Alhionmn). Hibernia or 
 Ireland is usually spoken of as a separate island, 
 but is sometimes included under the general nam& 
 of the Insulae Britannicae {BpeTaviKoX v7\aoi)., 
 which also comprehended the smaller islands around 
 the coast of Great Britain. — The etymology of the 
 word Britannia is-tincertain, but it is derived bv 
 most writers from the Celtic word Irith or hrit 
 " painted," with reference to the custom of the- 
 inhabitants of staining their bodies with a blue 
 colour : whatever may be the etymology of the 
 word, it is certain that it was used by the inha- 
 bitants themselves, since in the Gaelic the inha- 
 bitants are called Brr/ihon and their language Siy- 
 thoneg. The name Albion is probably derived from 
 the lohite cliffs of the island ; but writers, who 
 derived the names of all lands and people from a 
 mythical ancestor, connected the name with one 
 
126 
 
 BHiTAMMA. 
 
 Albion, the son of Neptune. — The Britons were 
 Celta, belonging to that branch of the race ciiUed 
 Cymry, and were apparently the aboriginal inha- 
 bitants of the country. Their manners and cus- 
 toms were in general the same as the Gauls ; but 
 separated more than the Gauls from intercourse 
 with civilised nations, they preserved the Celtic 
 religion in a purer state than in Gaul, and hence 
 Druidism, according to Caesar, was transplanted 
 from Gaul to Britain. The Britons also retained 
 many of the barbarous Celtic customs, which the 
 more civilised Gauls had laid aside. They painted 
 their bodies with a blue colour extracted from 
 woad, in order to appear more terrible in battle, 
 and they had wives in common. At a later time 
 the Belgae crossed over from Gaul, and settled on 
 the S. and E. coasts, driving the Britons into the 
 interior of the island. — It was not till a late pe- 
 riod that the Greeks and Romans obtained any 
 knowledge of Britain. In early times the Phoe- 
 nicians visited the Scilly islands and the coast of 
 Cornwall for the purpose of obtaining tin ; but 
 whatever knowledge they acquired of the country 
 they jealously kept secret, and it only transpired 
 that there were Cassiteridea or Tin Islands in 
 the N. parts of the ocean. The first certain know- 
 ledge which the Greeks obtained of Britain was 
 from the merchants of Massilia about the time of 
 Alexander the Great, and especially from the 
 voyages of Pytheas, who sailed round a great 
 part of Britain. From this time it was generally 
 believed that the island was in the form of a tri- 
 angle, an error which continued to prevail even at 
 a later period. Another important mistake, which 
 likewise prevailed for a long time, was the position 
 of Britain in relation to Gaul and Spain. As the 
 N.W. coast of Spain was supposed to extend too 
 far to the N., and the W. coast of Gaul to run 
 N.E.,the lower part of Britain was believed to lie 
 between Spain and Gaul. — -The Romans first be- 
 came personally acquainted with the island by 
 Caesar's invasion. He tv/ice landed in Britain 
 (b. c. b5^ 54), and though on the second occasion 
 he conquered the greater part of the S. E, of the 
 island, yet he did not take permanent possession 
 of any portion of the country, and after his de- 
 parture the Bntons continued as independent as 
 before. The Romans made no further attempts 
 to conquer the island for nearly 100 years. In 
 the reign of Claudius (a. d. 43) they again 
 landed in Britain, and permanently subdued the 
 country S. of the Thames. They now began to 
 extend their conquests over the other parts of the 
 island; and the great victory (61) of Suetonius 
 Paulinus over the Britons who had revolted under 
 BoADicEA, still further consolidated the Roman 
 dominions. In the reign of Vespasian, Peti- 
 lius Cerealis and Julius Frontinus made several 
 successful expeditions against the Silures and the 
 Brigjntes ; and the conquest of S. Britain was 
 at length finally completed by Agiicola, who in 7 
 campaigns (78 — 84), subdued the whole of the 
 island as far N. as the Frith of Forth and the 
 Clyde, between which he erected a series of forts 
 to protect the Roman dominions from the incur- 
 sions of the barbarians in the N. of Scotland. The 
 Roman part of Britain was now called Britannia 
 Romana, and the N. part inhabited by the Cale- 
 donians Britannia Barbara or Caledonia. The 
 Romans however gave up the N. conquests of 
 Agricola in the reign of Hadrian, and made a ram- 
 
 ±SK,liUMARXlCJ. 
 
 part of turf from the Aestuarium Itima (Solway 
 Frith) to the German Ocean, which formed the N. 
 boimdary of their dominions. In the reign of 
 Antoninus Pius the Romans again extended their 
 boundary as far as the conquests of Agricola, and 
 erected a rampart connecting the Forth and the 
 Clyde, the remains of which are now called Grimes 
 Di/lce, Grime in the Celtic language signifying great 
 or powerful. The Caledonians afterwards broke 
 through this wall ; and in consequence of their 
 repeated devastations of the Roman dominions, 
 the emperor Severus went to Britain in 208, in 
 order to conduct the war against them in person. 
 He died in the island at Eboracmn {To7-Jc) in 21 1, 
 after erecting a solid stone wall from the Solway 
 to the mouth of the T}-ne, a little N, of the ram- 
 part of Hadrian. After the death of Severus, the 
 Romans relinquished for ever all their conquests 
 N. of this wall. In 287 Carausius assumed the 
 purple in Britain, and reigned as emperor, inde- 
 pendent of Diocletian and Maximian, till his assas- 
 sination by AUectus in 293. AUectus reigned 3 
 years, and Britain was recovered for the emperors 
 in 296, Upon the resignation of the empire by 
 Diocletian and Maximian (305), Britain fell to 
 the share of Constantius, who died at Eboracum in 
 306, and his son Constantine assumed in the island 
 the title of Caesar. Shortly afterwards the Cale- 
 donians, who now appear under the names of Picts 
 and Scots, broke through the wall of Severus, and 
 the Saxons ravaged the coasts of Britain ; and the 
 declining power of the Roman empire was ruiable 
 to afford the province any effectual assistance. In 
 the reign of Valentinian I., Theodosius, the father 
 of the emperor of that name, defeated the Picts 
 and Scots (367) ; but in the reign of Honorius, 
 Constantine, who had been proclaimed emperor in 
 Britain (407), withdrew all the Roman troops 
 from the island, in order to make himself master 
 of Gaul. The Britons were thus left exposed to 
 the ravages of the Picts and Scots, and at length, 
 in 447, they called in the assistance of the Saxons, 
 who became the masters of Britain. — ■ The Roman 
 dominions of Britain formed a single province till 
 the time of Severus, and were governed by a le- 
 gatus of the emperor. Severus divided the country 
 into 2 provinces, Britannia Superior and Inferior, 
 of which the latter contained the earlier conquests 
 of the Romans in the S. of the island, and the 
 former the later conquests in the N., the territories 
 of the Silures, Brigantes, &c. Upon the new di- 
 vision of the provinces in the reign of Diocletifin, 
 Britain was governed by a Vicarius^ subject to the 
 Prae/eclus Praetorio of Gaul, and was divided 
 into 4 provinces, (1) Britannia prima^ the country 
 S. of the Thames : (2) Britannia Secunda, Wales : 
 (3) Maxima Caesariensis^ the country between the 
 Thames and the Humber : (4) Flavia Caesariensis, 
 the country between the Humber and the Roman 
 wall. Besides these, there was also a fifth pro- 
 vince, Valentia^ which existed for a short time, 
 including the conquests of Theodosius beyond the 
 Roman wall. 
 
 Brltannicus, son of the emperor Claudius and 
 Messalina, was bom a. d. 42. Agrippina, the second 
 wife of Claudius, induced the emperor to adopt her 
 own son, and give him precedence over Britannicug. 
 This son, the emperor Nero, ascended the throne 
 in 54, and caused Britannicus to be poisoned in 
 the following year. 
 
 BritomartlB (BpiTSfAaprts, usually derived from 
 
BRIXELLUM. 
 
 ^ptrvs^ sweet or tlessing, and fidprts, a maiden) 
 was a Cretan nympli, daughter of Zens and Carme, 
 and beloved by Minos, who pursued her 9 months, 
 till at length she leaped into the sea and was 
 changed by Artemis into a goddess. She seems 
 to have been originally a Cretan divinity who pre- 
 sided over the sports of the chase ; on the intro- 
 duction of the worship of Artemis into Crete she 
 ■was naturally placed in some relation with the 
 latter goddess ; and at length the '2 divinities be- 
 came identified, and Britomartis is called in one 
 legend the daughter of Leto. At Aegina Brito- 
 martis was worshipped imder the name of Aphaea. 
 
 Brixellum (BrLxellanus : Bregclla or Brcscella), 
 a town on the right bank of the Po in Gallia Cis- 
 alpina, where the emperor Otho put himself to 
 death, a. d. 69. 
 
 Brixia (Brixianus : Brescia), a town in Gallia 
 Cisalpina on the road from Comum to Aquileia, 
 through which the river Mella flowed {fiavus quam 
 molli pe)-currit Jiumine Mella^ Catull. Ixvii. 33). 
 It was probably founded by the Etruscans, was 
 afterwards a town of the Libui and then of the 
 Cenomani, and finally became a Roman municipium 
 with the rights of a colony. 
 
 Bromius {Bp6/u.ios\ a sm:name of Dionysus, i. e. 
 the noisy god, from the noise of the Bacchic revel- 
 ries (from ^peixoi). 
 
 Brontes. [Cyclopes.] 
 
 Bruchium. [Alexandria.] 
 
 Bructeri, a people of Germany, dwelt on eacli 
 aide of the Amisia {Ejus) and extended S. as far 
 as the Luppia (Lippe). The Bructeri joined the 
 Batavi in their revolt against the Romans in a. d. 
 69, and the prophetic virgin, Veleda, who had so 
 much influence among the German tribes, was a 
 native of their country. A few years afterwards 
 the Bructeri were almost annihilated by the Cha- 
 mavi and Angrivarii. (Tac. Germ. 33.) 
 
 Bnmdusium or Bnmdisium (J&p^vriiaLov^ Bpeu- 
 refftoi/ : Brundusinus : Brindisi), a town in Cala- 
 bria, on a small bay of the Adriatic, forming an 
 excellent harbour, to which the place owed its im- 
 portance. The Appia Via terminated at Bnmdu- 
 sium, and it was the usual place of embarkation 
 for Greece and the East, It was an ancient town, 
 and probably not of Greek origin, although its 
 foundation is ascribed by some writers to the 
 Cretans, and by others to Diomede. It was at 
 first governed by kings of its own, but was con- 
 quered and colonized by the Romans, b. c. 245. 
 The poet Pacuvius was bom at this town, and Virgil 
 died here on his return from Greece, b. c. 19. 
 
 Bruttium, Bmttius and Bruttiorum Ager 
 (BpeTTia : Bruttius), more usually called Bruttii 
 after the inhabitants, the S. extremity of Italy, 
 separated from Lucania by a line dra^vn from the 
 mouth of the Laus to Thurii, and surrounded on 
 the other 3 sides by the sea. It was the country 
 called in ancient times Oenotria and Italia. The 
 country is mountainous, as the Apennines run 
 through it down to the Sicilian Straits ; it con- 
 tamed excellent pasturage for cattle, and the val- 
 leys produced good com, olives, and fruit. — The 
 earliest inhabitants of the country were Oenotrians, 
 Subsequently some Lucanians, who had revolted 
 firom their countrymen in Lucania, took possession 
 of the country, and were hence called Bruttii or 
 Brettii, which word is said to mean "rebels" in 
 the language of the Lucanians, This people, how- 
 ever, inhabited only the interior of the land ; the 
 
 BRUTUS. 
 
 127 
 
 coast was almost entirely in the possession of the 
 Greek colonies. At the close of the 2nd Punic war, 
 in which the Bruttii had been the allies of Han- 
 nibal, they lost their independence and were treated 
 by the Romans with great severity. They were 
 declared to be public slaves, and were employed 
 as lictors and servants of the magistrates. 
 
 Brutus, Junius. 1. L., son of M. Junius and 
 of Tarquinia, the sister of Tarquinius Superbus. 
 His elder brother was murdered by Tarquinius, 
 and Lucius escaped his brother's fate only by 
 feigning idiotcy, whence he received the surname 
 of Brutus. After Lucretia had stabbed herself, 
 Brutus roused the Romans to expel the Tarquins ; 
 and upon the banishment of the latter he was 
 elected first consul with Tarquinius Collatinus. 
 He loved his country better than his children, and 
 put to death his 2 sons, who had attempted to re- 
 store the Tarquins. He fell in battle the same 
 year, fighting against Aruns, the son of Tarquinius. 
 Brutus was the great hero in the legends about the 
 expulsion of the Tarquins, but we have no means 
 of determining what part of the account is histori- 
 cal.— 2. D,, sumamed Scaeva, magister equitum 
 to the dictator Q. Publilius Philo, b. c. 339, and 
 consul in 325, when he fought against the Vestini. 
 — 3. D., surnaraed Scaeva, consul 292, conquered 
 the Faliscans. — 4. M., tribune of the plebs 195, 
 praetor 191, when he dedicated the temple of the 
 Great Idaean Mother, one of the ambassadors sent 
 into Asia 189, and consul 178, when he subdued 
 the Istri. He was one of the ambassadors sent 
 into Asia in 171.— 5. P., tribune of the plebs 
 195, curule aedile 192, praetor 190, propraetor in 
 Further Spain, 189.^6. D., sumamed Gallae- 
 cus (Call.aecus) or Callaicus, consul 138, 
 commanded in Further Spain, and conquered a 
 great part of Lusitania. From his victory over the 
 Gallaeci he obtained his surname. He was a pa- 
 tron of the poet L. Accius, and well versed in 
 Greek and Roman Iiteratiu:e. — 7. D., son of No. 
 6, consul 77, and husband of Sempronia, who 
 carried on an intrigue with Catiline. — 8. D., 
 adopted by A. Postumius Albinus, consul 99, and 
 hence called Biiitus Albijius. He served under 
 Caesar in Gaul and in the civil war. He com- 
 manded Caesar's fleet at the siege of Massilia, 49, 
 and was afterwards placed over Further Gaul. On 
 his return to Rome Brutus was promised the prae- 
 torship and the government of Cisalpine Gaul for 
 44. Nevertheless, he joined the conspiracy against 
 Caesar. After the death of the latter (44) he 
 went into Cisalpine Gaul, which he refused to sur- 
 render to Antony, who had obtained this province 
 from the people. Antony made war against him, 
 and kept him besieged in Mutma, till the siege 
 was raised in April 43 by the consuls Hivtius and 
 Pansa, and Octavranus. But Brutus only obtained 
 a short respite. Antony was preparing to march 
 against him fi:om the N. with a large army, and 
 Octavianus, who had deserted the senate, was 
 marching against him from the S. His only re- 
 source was flight, but he was betrayed by Camil- 
 lus, a Gaulish chief, and was put to death by 
 Antony, 43.-9. M., praetor 88, belonged to the 
 party of Marius, and put an end to his own life in 
 82, that he might not fall into the hands of Pom- 
 pey, who commanded Sulla's fleet. ^10. L., also 
 called Damasippos, praetor 82, when the younger 
 Marius was blockaded at Praeneste, put to death 
 at Rome by order of Marius several of the most 
 
128 
 
 BKYAXIS. 
 
 eminent senators of the opposite party. — 11. M., 
 married Servilia, the half-sister of Cato of Utica. 
 He was tribune of the plebs, 83 ; and in 77 he 
 espoused the cause of Lepidas, and was placed in 
 command of the forces in Cisalpine Gaul, wiiere he 
 ■was slain by command of Pompey. — 12. M., the 
 so-called tyrannicide, son of No. 1 1 and Servilia. 
 He lost his father when he was only 8 years old, 
 and was trained by his uncle Cato in the princi- 
 ples of the aristocratical party. Accordingly, on 
 the breaking out of the civil war, 49, he joined 
 Pompey, although he was the murderer of his 
 father. After the battle of Pharsalia, 48, he was 
 rot only pardoned by Caesar, but received from 
 him the greatest marks of confidence and favour. 
 Caesar made him governor of Cisalpine Gaul in 46, 
 and praetor in 44, and also promised him the go- 
 vernment of Macedonia. But notwithstanding all 
 the obligations he was under to Caesar, he was per- 
 suaded by Cassius to murder his benefactor under 
 the delusive idea of again establishing the republic. 
 [Caesar.] After the murder of Caesar Brutus 
 spent a short time in Italy, and then took possession 
 of the province of Macedonia. He was joined by 
 Cassius who commanded in Syria, and their united 
 forces were opposed to those of Octavian and An- 
 tony. Two battles were fought in the neighbour- 
 hood of Philippi (42), in the former of which Brutus 
 ■was victorious though Cassius was defeated, but in 
 the latter Brutus also was defeated and put an end 
 to his own life. — Brutus's wife was Porcia, the 
 daughter of Cato. — Brutus was an ardent student 
 of literature and philosophy, but he appears to 
 have been deficient in judgment and original power. 
 He wrote several works, all of which have perished. 
 He was a literary friend of Cicero, who dedicated 
 to him his Tusculanae Disputationes^ De Finibus, 
 and Orator, and who has given the name of Brutus 
 to his dialogue on illustrious orators. 
 
 Bryaxis (Bpya|is), an Athenian statuary in 
 Btone and metal, lived b. c. 372 — 312. 
 
 Brygi or Bryges (^pvyoi, Bpi'yes), a barbarous 
 people in the N. of Macedonia, probably of Illyrian 
 or Thracian origin, who were still in Macedonia at 
 the time of the Persian war. The Phrygians were 
 believed by the ancients to have been a portion of 
 this people, who emigrated to Asia in early times. 
 [Phrygia.] 
 
 Bubassus (BiJ^atrcos), an ancient city of Caria, 
 E. of Cnidus, which gave name to the bay (Bu- 
 fcasaius Sinus) and the peninsula (^ X€p<Tovri(Tos 
 ij BuSaffair]), on which It stood. Ovid speaks of 
 SUbHsides nurus (Met. ix. 643). 
 
 Bubastis (BovSao-ris), daughter of Osiris and 
 Isis, an Egyptian divinity, whom the Greeks iden- 
 tified with Artemis, since she was the goddess of 
 the moon. The cat was sacred to her, and she 
 ■was represented in the form of a cat, or of a female 
 Tvith the head of a cat. 
 
 Bubastis or -U3 {BouSaa-Tis or -os: BovSaa-Ti- 
 TTjs : Tel Basta, Ru.), the capital of the Nomos 
 Bubastltcs in Lower Egypt, stood on the E. bank of 
 the Pelusiac branch of the Nile, and was the chief 
 seat of the worship of Bubastis, whose annual festival 
 ivas kept here. Under the Persians the city was 
 dismantled, and lost much of its importance. 
 
 Bubulcus, C, Jimius, consul s. c. 317, a second 
 time in 313, and a third time in 311 ; in the last 
 of these years he carried on the war against the 
 Samnites with great success. He was censor in 
 S09, and dictator in 302, when he defeated the 
 
 BURGUNDIONES. 
 
 Aequians ; in his dictatorship he dedicated the 
 temple of Safety which he had vowed in his third 
 consulship. The walls of this temple were adorned 
 with paintings by C. Fabius Pictor. 
 
 Biicepliala or -la (BouKe^a\a qv -dX^ia: Jhe~ 
 lam), a city on the Hydaspes {Jliehnn) in N. 
 India (the Ftmjah), built by Alexander, after his 
 battle with Porus, in memory of his favourite 
 charger Bucephalus, whom he buried here. It 
 stood at the place where Alexander crossed the 
 river, and where General Gilbert crossed it (Feb. 
 1849) after the battle of Goojerat. 
 
 BiicephalTis {BovKi^dKos), the celebrated horse 
 of Alexander the Great, which Philip purchased 
 for 13 talents, and which no one was able to break 
 in except the youthful Alexander. This horse 
 carried Alexander through his Asiatic campaigns, 
 and died in India B.C. 327. See Bucephal^. 
 
 Budalia, a town in Lower Pannonia near Sir- 
 mium, the birth-place of the emperor Decins. 
 
 Budiiii(Bou5(;'oi), a Scythian people, who dwelt 
 N. of the Sauromatae in the steppes of S. Russia. 
 Herodotus (iv. 108) calls the nation yKavK6v tc 
 Koi TTv^pSv, which some interpret "with blue eyes 
 and red hair," and others " painted blue and red." 
 Budoron {BQ\jtopov), a fortress in Salamis on a 
 promontory of the same name opposite Megara. 
 
 Bulls (BouAti) and SpertMas (STrepfliTjs), two 
 Spartans, voluntarily went to Xerxes and offered 
 themselves for punishment to atone for the murder 
 of the heralds whom Darius had sent to Sparta ; 
 but they were dismissed uninjured by the king. 
 
 BuUs (BoGAu: BouXios), a town in Phocis on 
 the Corinthian gulf, and on the borders of Boeotia. 
 Bullis (Bullinus, BuUio -onis, Bulliensis), a 
 to^vn of Illyria on the coast, S. of Apollonia. 
 
 Bupalus and his brother Athenis, sculptors of 
 Chios, lived about b. c. 500, and are said to have 
 made caricatures of the poet Hipponax, which the 
 poet requited by the bitterest satires. 
 
 Buphras {Bov<ppds), a mountain in Messenia 
 near Pylos. 
 
 Buprasium (BouTrpatrior: -iTfeijj, -trion', -o-iStjs), 
 an ancient town in Elis, mentioned in the Iliad, 
 which had disappeared in the time of Strabo. 
 
 Biira {Bovpa: Boupa7os-, Bouptos), one of the 12 
 cities of Achaia, destroyed by an earthquake, toge- 
 ther with Helice, but subsequently rebuilt. 
 
 Burdigala {BovpZiyaKa : Bordeatix), the capital 
 of the Bituriges Vivisci in Aquitania, on the left; 
 bank of the Garumna (Garonne), was a place of 
 great commercial importance, and at a later time 
 one of the chief seats of literature and learning. 
 It was the birth-place of the poet Ausonius. 
 
 Burgundiones or Burgrmdii, a powerful nation 
 of Germany, dwelt originally between the Viadug 
 (Oder) and the Vistula, and were of the same race 
 as the Vandals or Goths. They pretended, how- 
 ever, to be descendants of the Romans, whom 
 Dmsus and Tiberius had left in Germany as gar- 
 risons, but this descent was evidently invented by 
 them to obtain more easily from the Romans a; 
 settlement W. of the Rhine. They were driven 
 out of their original abodes between the Oder and 
 the Vistula by the Gepidae, and the greater part 
 of them migrated W. and settled in the country on 
 the Main, where they carried on frequent wars 
 with their neighbours the Alemanni. In the 5tli 
 century they settled W. of the Alps in Gaul, where 
 they founded the powerful kingdom of Burgundy, 
 Their chief towns were Geneva and Lyons. 
 
Bumi. 
 
 Enxii, a people of Germany, dwelt near the • 
 sources of tlie Oder and Vistula, and joined the 
 Marcomanni in their war against the Romans in 
 the reign of M. Aurelius. 
 
 Burms, Afranius, was appointed by Claudius 
 praefectua praetorio, A. d. 52, and in conjunction 
 ■with Seneca conducted the education of Nero. He 
 ■opposed Nero's tyrannical acts, and was at length 
 .poisoned by command of the emperor, 63. 
 
 Bursa. [Plancus.] 
 
 Bursao (Bursaoensis, Bursavolensis), a town of 
 t,he Autrigonae in Hispania Tarraconensis. 
 
 Busiris (Boi'tripis), king of Egypt, son of Posei- 
 •don and Lysianassa, is said to have sacrificed all 
 foreigners that visited -Egypt. Hercules, on his 
 arrival in Egypt, was likewise seized and led to the 
 -altar, but he broke his chains, and slew Busiris. 
 This myth, seems to point out a time when the 
 Egj'ptians were accustomed to offer human sacri- 
 fices to their deities. 
 
 Busiria (Bovapis: BoucnpiT-ns). 1. (Ahousir, 
 Ru.), the capital of the Nomos Busirites in Lower 
 Egypt, stood just in the middle of the Delta, on 
 the W. bank of the Nile, and had a great temple 
 of Isis, the remains of which are still standing. — 
 2. (Alfousir near Jizeh), a small town, a little 
 N.W. of Memphis. 
 
 Buteo, Fabius. 1. N., consul e. c. 247, in the 
 •first Punic war, was employed in the siege of 
 Drepamim. — 2. IS.., consul 245, also in the first 
 Punic war. In 216 he was appointed dictator to 
 iill up the vacancies in the senate occasioned by 
 the battle of Cannae. — 3. Q., praetor ISl, with 
 .the province of Cisalpine Gaul. In 179 he was 
 one of the triumvirs for founding a Latin colony in 
 the territoiy of the Pisani. 
 
 Elites (BouTTjs), son of either Teleon or Pandion 
 or Amycus, and Zeuxippe. He was one of the Ar- 
 gonauts, and priest of Atliena and of the Erechthean 
 Poseidon. The Attic family of the Butadae or 
 Eteobutadae derived their origin from him ; and in 
 the Erechtheum on the Acropolis there was an altar 
 ■dedicated to Butes. 
 
 Buthrotiun {BovOpcorSv : BovSpcinos : Buirin- 
 jfo), a town of Epirus on a small peninsula, opposite 
 Corcyra, was a flourishing sea-port and was colo- 
 nized by the Romans. 
 
 Biito (Boyrw), an Egj'ptian divinit}', worshipped 
 principally in the town of Buto. She was the 
 nurse of Horus and Bubastis, the children of Osiris 
 and Isis, and she saved them from the persecutions 
 of Typhon by concealing them in the floating island 
 of Chemnis. The Greeks identified her with Leto, 
 and represented her as the goddess of night The 
 shrew-mouss (/ii;7oATj) and the hawk were sacred 
 to her. 
 
 Buto (Bovru, BouTTj, or Bodros : BovTohTjs : 
 Baltim 9 Ru.), the chief city of the Nomos Chem- 
 inites in Lower Egj'pt, stood near the Sebennytic 
 branch of the Nile, on the Lake of Buto {Bovtikt} 
 Xifivq, also SeSex'j'UTiKi?), and was celebrated for 
 its oracle of the goddess Buto, in honour of whom 
 a festival was held at the city eveiy year. 
 
 Bii3:entum(Buxentinus,Buxentius: Policastro)^ 
 originally Pyxus (Jlv^ovs), a town on the W. coast 
 of Lucania and on the river Busentius, was 
 founded by Micythus, tyrant of Messana, b. c. 
 471, and "vvas afterwards a Roman colony. 
 
 Byblini Montes (ra Bv€\iva opr\), the moun- 
 tains whence the Nile is said to flow in the my- 
 thical geography of Aeschylus {Prom, 811). 
 
 BYZANTIUM. 120 
 
 Byblis (BugAiy), daughter of Miletus and Ido- 
 thea, was in love with her brother Caunus, whom 
 she pursued through various lands, till at length. 
 worn out with sorrow, she was changed into a 
 fountain. 
 
 Byblus {BvSKos : Bu§Xios : Jehell), a very an- 
 cient city on the coast of Phoenicia, between Bery- 
 tus and Tripolis, a little N. of the river Adonis. 
 It was the chief seat of the worship of Adonis. 
 It was governed by a succession of petty princes, 
 the last of whom was deposed by Pompe}'. 
 
 Bylazdra (BuAafoipa), a town in Paeonia, In, 
 Macedonia, on the river Astycus, 
 
 Byrsa (Buptra), the citadel of Carthago. 
 
 Byzacium or Byzacena Eegio (Bu^aKioc, By- 
 Caiclsx^P"-: S. part of Tuni a), the S, portion of 
 the Roman province of Africa. [Afkica, p. 23, b.] 
 
 Byzantini Scriptores, the general name of the 
 historians, who have given an account of the Eastern 
 or Byzantine empire from the time of Constimtine 
 the Great, a. d. iJ25, to the destruction of the em- 
 pire, 1453. They all wrote in Greek, and maybe 
 divided into different classes. 1. Tiie historians, 
 whoso collected works form an uninterrupted his- 
 tory of the Byzantine empire, and whose writings 
 are therefore called Corpus Hisioriae Byzaniinae. 
 They are : (1) Zonahas, who begins with, 
 the creation of the world, and brings his his- 
 tory down to 1180. (2) Nicephokus Acomina- 
 Tus, whose history extends from 1188 to 1206. (3) 
 NiCEPHORUS Gregoras, whosc history extends 
 from 120-4 to 1331. (4) Laonicus Chalcondy- 
 LES, whose history extends from 1297 to 1462 : 
 his work is continued by an anonymous writer to 
 1565. — 2. The chronograph ers, who give a brief 
 chronological summary of universal history from 
 the creation of the world to their own times. These 
 writers are very numerous : the most important of 
 them are Georgiu.s Syncellus, Theophanes, 
 NiCEPHORUS, Cedrenus, Simeon Metaphrar- 
 TES, Michael Glycas, the authors of the Chro- 
 nicon Faschcde, &c. — 3. The writers who have 
 treated of separate portions of Byzantine history, 
 such as ZosiMUS, Procopius, Agathias, Anna 
 Coi\iNENA, &c. — 4. The writers who have treated 
 of the constitution, antiquities, &c., of the empire, 
 such as Laurentius Lydus, Constantinus VI. 
 Porppiyrogennetus. — A collection of the By- 
 zantine writers was published at Paris by command 
 of Louis XIV. in 36 vols, fob 1645—1711. A 
 reprint of this edition, with additions, was pub- 
 lished at Venice in 23 vols. fol. 1727—1733. A 
 new edition of the Byzautine \vriters was com- 
 menced by Niebuhr, Bonn, 1828, 8vo., and is still 
 in course of publication. 
 
 Byzantium (Bufai'Tioi' : Bv^di/nos, Byzantius: 
 Constantinople), a town on the Thracian Bospoms, 
 founded by the Megarians, b. c. 658, is said to 
 have derived its name from B3'-zas, the leader of 
 the colony and the son of Poseidon. It was situated 
 on 2 hills, was 40 stadia in circumference, and its 
 acropolis stood on the site of the present seraglio. 
 Its favourable position, commanding as it did the 
 entrance to the Euxine, soon rendered it a place of 
 great commercial importance- It was taken by 
 Pausanias after the battle of Plataea, b. c 479 ; 
 and it was alternately in the possession of the 
 Athenians and Lacedaemonians during the Pelo- 
 ponnesian war. The Lacedaemonians were expelled 
 from Byzantium by Thrasybulus in 390, and the 
 city remained independent for some years. After- 
 
130 
 
 CABALIA. 
 
 Tvards it became subject in succession to the Mace- 
 donians and the Romans. In the civil war between 
 PescenniuB Niger and Sevenis, it espoused the 
 cause of the furnier : it was taken by Severus A. d, 
 196 after a siege of 3 years, and a considerable 
 part of it was destroyed. A new city was built 
 by its side (330) by Constantine, who made it the 
 capital of the empire, and changed its name into 
 
 CoNSTiNTINOPOLJS. 
 
 Cabalia or -is (KaSaXia, KaSaXts: KaSaKevs, 
 Ka€dMos)^ a small district of Asia Minor, between 
 Lycia and Pamphyiia, with a town of the same 
 name. 
 
 Cabasa or -us (KdSaa-os: Ka^ao-frT^s), the chief 
 city of the Nomos Cabasites, in Lower Eg}^pt. 
 
 CabilloxLimi (Chdlons-sur-Saone), a town of the 
 Aedui on the Arar {Saone) in Gallia Lugdunen- 
 sis, was a place of some commercial activity when 
 Caesar was in Gaul (b. c. S3). At a later time 
 the Romans kept a small fleet here. 
 
 Cabira (ra KdSetpa: Slvas)^ a place in Pontus, 
 on the borders of Armenia, near M. Parj'adres : a 
 frequent residence of Mithridates, who was de- 
 feated here by Lucullus, B. c. 71. Pom pey made 
 it a city, and named it DiospoHs. Under Augustus 
 it was called Sebaste. 
 
 Gabiri (KoSeipoi), mystic divinities who occur 
 in various parts of the ancient world. The mean- 
 ing of their name, their character and nature, are 
 quite uncertain. They were chiefly worshipped at 
 Samothrace, Lemnos, and Imbros, and their mys- 
 teries at Samothrace were solemnized witli great 
 splendour. (See Diet, of Ant. art. Ccdjdria.) They 
 were also worshipped at Thebes, Anthedon, Per- 
 gamus, and elsewhere. Most of the early writers 
 appear to have regarded them as the children of 
 Hephaestus and as inferior divinities dwelling in 
 Samothrace, Lemnos, and Tmbros. Later writers 
 identify them with Deraeter, Persephone, and Rhea, 
 and regard their mysteries as solemnized in honour 
 of one of these goddesses. Other writers identify 
 the Cabiri with the Dioscuri (Castor and Pollux), 
 and others again with the Roman Penates ; but 
 the latter notion seems to have arisen with those 
 writers who traced every ancient Roman insti- 
 tution to Troy, and thence to Samothrace. 
 
 Cabyle {KaSvX-ri: Ka€vKT}v6s : Golmuitza)^ a 
 town in the interior of Thrace, conquered by M. 
 Lucullus, probably the Goloe of the Byzantine 
 writers. 
 
 Cacas, son of Vulcan, was a hugo giant, who 
 inhabited a cave on Mt. Aventine, and plundered 
 the surrounding country. When Plercules came 
 to Italy with the oxen which he had taken from 
 Geryon in Spain, Cacus stole part of the cattle 
 while the hero slept ; and, as he dragged the ani- 
 mals into his cave by their tails, it was impossible 
 to discover their traces. But when the remaining 
 oxen passed by the cave, those within began to 
 bellow, and were thus discovered, whereupon Cacus 
 was slain by Hercules. In honour of his victory, 
 Hercules dedicated the ara maccima., which conti- 
 nued to exist ages afterwards in Rome. 
 
 Cacyparis {Kaiwirapis or KaKOTrapis : Cassibili), 
 a river in Sicily, S. of Syracuse. 
 
 Cadena (ri Ka^v,va)^ a strong city of Cappa- 
 docia, the residence of the last king, ArchelaUs, 
 
 CADTTSIL 
 
 Cadi (KaSoi : KoZy]v6s : Kodus\ a city of 
 Phrygia Epictetus, on the borders of Lydia. 
 
 Cadmea. [Thebae.J 
 
 Cadmus (Ka5/ios). 1. Son of Agenor, king of 
 Phoenicia, and of Telephassa, and brother of Eu- 
 ropa. Another legend makes him a native of 
 Thebes in Egypt. When Europa was carried off 
 by Zeus to Crete, Agenor sent Cadmiis in search 
 of his sister, enjoining him not to return without 
 her. Unable to find her, Cadmus settled in Thrace, 
 but having consulted the oracle at Delphi, he was 
 commanded by the god to follow a cow of a cer- 
 tain kind, and to build a town on the spot where 
 the cow should sink down with fatigue. Cadmus 
 found the cow in Phocis and followed her into 
 Boeotia, where she sank down on the spot on 
 which Cadmus built Cadmea, afterwards the ci- 
 tadel of Tliebes. Intending to sacrifice the cow 
 to Athena, he sent some persons to the neighbour- 
 ing well of Ares to fetch water. This well was 
 guarded by a dragon, a son of Ares, who killed 
 the men sent by Cadmus. Thereupon Cadmus slew 
 the dragon, and, on the advice of Athena, sowed 
 the teeth of the monster, out of which armed men 
 grew up called Sparii or the Sotvn., who killed 
 each other, with the exception of 5, who were the 
 ancestors of the Thebans. Athena assigned to 
 Cadmus the government of Thebes, and Zeus gave 
 him Harmonia for his wife. The marriage solem- 
 nity was honoured by the presence of all the 
 Olympian gods in the Cadmea. Cadmus gave to 
 Harmonia the famous peplus and necklace which 
 he had received from Hephaestus or from Europa, 
 and he became by her the father of Autonoe, Ino, 
 Semele, Agave, and Polydorus. Subsequently 
 Cadmus and Harmonia quitted Thebes, and went 
 to the Enchelians ; this people chose Cadmus as 
 their king, and with his assistance they conquered 
 the lllyrians. After this, Cadmus had another 
 son, whom he called Illyrius. In the end, Cadmus 
 and Harmonia were changed into serpents, and were 
 removed by Zeus to Elysium. — Cadmus is said to 
 have introduced into Greece from Phoenicia or 
 Egypt an alphabet of 16' letters, and to have been 
 the first who worked the mines of mount Pangaeon 
 in Thrace. The story of Cadmus seems to suggest 
 the immigration of a Phoenician or Egyptian colony 
 into Greece, by means of which the alphabet, the 
 art of mining, and civilization, came into the coun- 
 try. But many modern writers deny the existence 
 of any such Phoenician or Egyptian colony, and 
 regard Cadmus as a Pelasgian divinity. — 2. Of 
 Miletus, a son of Pandion, the earliest Greek his- 
 torian or logographer, lived about b. c. 540. He 
 wrote a work on the foundation of Miletus and the 
 cailiest history of Ionia generally, in 4 books, but 
 the work extant in antiquity under the latter name 
 was considered a forgery. 
 
 Cadmus (KaS^o?). 1. (M. Baha) a mountain 
 in Caria, on the i3orders of Phrygia, containing the 
 sources of the rivers Cadmus and Lycus. — 2. A 
 small river of Phrygia, flowing N. into the Lycus. 
 
 Cadui'ci, a people in Gallia Aquitanica, in the 
 country now called Qtterci(?i corruption of Cadurci), 
 were celebrated for their manufactories of linen, 
 coverlets, &c. Their capital was Divona, after- 
 wards Civitas Cadurcorum, now Cahors., where 
 are the remains of a Roman amphitheatre and of 
 an aqueduct. A part of the town still bears the 
 name les Cadurcas. 
 
 Cadiisii (KaSoiSo-iot), or Gelae (^^^ol), a power- 
 
CADYTIS. 
 fill Scythian tribe in the mountains S.W. of the 
 Caspian, on the borders of Media Atropatene. 
 Under the Medo-Persian empire they were trou- 
 blesome neighbours, but the Syrian kings appear 
 to have reduced them to tributary auxiUariea. 
 
 Cadytis (KoSuns), according to Herodotus, a 
 great city of the Syrians of Palestine, not much 
 smaller than Sardis, was taken by Necho, king of 
 Egypt, after his defeat of the " Syrians " at Mag- 
 dolus. It is now pretty well established that by 
 Cadytis is meant Jerusalem, and that the battle 
 mentioned by Herodotus is that in which Necho 
 defeated and slew king Josiah at Megiddo, b. c. 
 608. (Comp. Herod, ii. 159, iii. 5, with 2 Kings 
 xxiii. and 2 Citron, xxxv. xxxvi.) 
 
 Caecilia. 1. Caia, the Roman name of Tana- 
 Qi^u.^ wife of Tarquinius Priscus. — 2. Metella, 
 daughter of L. Metellus Dalmaticus, consul b. c. 
 119, was first married to M. Aemilius Scaunis, 
 consul in 115, and afterwards to the dictator Sulla. 
 She fell ill in 81, during the celebration of Sulla's 
 triumphal feast ; and as her recovery was hopeless, 
 Sulla for religious reasons sent her a bill of divorce, 
 and had her removed from his house, but honoured 
 her memory with a splendid funeral. ^3. Daughter 
 of T. Pomponius Atticus, called Caecilia, because 
 her father took the name of his uncle, Q. Caecilius, 
 by whom he was adopted. She was married to 
 M. Vipsanius Agrjppa. [Atticus.] 
 
 Caecilia G-ens, plebeian, claimed descent from 
 Caeculus, the founder of Praeneste, or Caecas, 
 the companion of Aeneas. Most of the Caecilii 
 are mentioned under their cognomens, Bassus, 
 Metellus, Rufus: for others see below. 
 
 Caecilius. 1. Q., a wealthy Roman eques, who 
 adopted his nephew Atticus in his will, and left 
 the latter a fortune of 10 millions of sesterces.— 
 2. Caecilius Calactinus, a Greek rhetorician at 
 Rome in the time of Augustus, was a native of 
 Cale Acte in Sicily (whence his name Calactinus), 
 He wrote a great number of works on rhetoric, 
 grammar, and historical subjects. All these works 
 are now lost; but they were in great repute with 
 the rhetoricians and critics of the imperial period. 
 ^3. Caecilius Statius, a Roman comic poet, the 
 immediate predecessor of Terence, was by birth an 
 Insubrian Gaul, and a native of Milan. Being a 
 slave he bore the servile appellation of Statius^ 
 which was afterwards, probably when he received 
 his freedom, converted into a sort of cognomen, and 
 he became known as Caecilius Statius. He died 
 B. c. 168. We have the titles of 40 of his dramas, 
 but only a few fragments of them are preserved. 
 They appear to have belonged to the class of Pal- 
 liatae^ that is, were free translations or adaptations 
 of the works of Greek writers of the new comedy. 
 The Romans placed Caecilius in the first rank of 
 comic poets, classing him with Plautus and Terence. 
 
 Caecina, the name of a family of the Etruscan 
 city of Volaterrae, probably derived from the river 
 Caecina, which flows by the town. — - 1. A. Caeci- 
 na, whom Cicero defended in a law-suit, b. c. 69. 
 — 3. A. Caecina, son of the preceding, published 
 a libellous work against Caesar, and was in con- 
 sequence sent into exile after the battle of Phar- 
 salia, B. c. 48. He afterwards joined the Pom- 
 peians in Africa, and upon the defeat of the latter 
 in 46, he surrendered to Caesar, who spared his 
 life. Cicero wrote several letters to Caecina, and 
 speaks of him as a man of ability. Caecina was 
 the author of a work on the Etrusca Disciplina, ^ 
 
 CAENEUS. 
 
 131 
 
 3. A. Caecina Severus, a distinguished general 
 in the reigns of Augustus and Tiberius. He was 
 governor of Moesia in a. d. 6, when he fought 
 ag-ainst the two Batos in the neighbouring pro- 
 vinces of Dalmatia and Pannonia. [Bato.] In 
 15 he fought as the legate of Germanicus, against 
 Arminius, and in consequence of his success re- 
 ceived the insignia of a triumph. — 4. Caecina 
 Tuscus, son of Nero's nurse, appointed governor 
 of Egypt by Nero, but banished for making use 
 of the baths which had been erected in antici- 
 pation of the emperor's arrival in Egypt. He re- 
 turned from banishment on the death of Nero, a. d. 
 68. -^5. A. Caecina Alienus, was quaestor in Bae- 
 tica in Spain at Nero's death, and was one of the 
 foremost in joining the party of Galba. He was 
 rewarded by Galba with the command of a legion 
 in Upper Germany ; but, being detected in em- 
 bezzling some of the public money, the emperor 
 ordered him to be prosecuted. Caecina, in revenge, 
 joined Vitellius, and was sent by the latter into- 
 Italy with an army of 30,000 men towards the 
 end of 68. After ravaging the country of the Hel- 
 vetii, he crossed the Alps by the pass of the Great 
 St. Bernard, and laid siege to Placentia, from which 
 he was repulsed by the troops of Otho, who had 
 succeeded Galba, Subsequently he was joined by 
 Fabius Valens, another general of Vitellius, and 
 their united forces gained a victory over Otho's 
 army at Bedriacum. Vitellius having thus gained 
 the throne, Caecina was made consul on the Ist of 
 September, 69, and was shortly afterwards sent 
 against Antonius Primus, the general of Vespa- 
 sian. But he again proved a traitor, and espoused 
 the cause of Vespasian. Some years afterwards 
 (79), he conspired against Vespasian, and was 
 slain by order of Titus. — 6. Deciua Albinus 
 Caecina, a Roman satirist in the time of Arca- 
 dius and Honorius. 
 
 Caecinus (KauavSs or KatK7vos\ a river in Brut- 
 tium flowing into the Sinus Scylacius by the town 
 Caecinum. 
 
 Caeciibus Ager, a marshy district in Latium, 
 bordering on the gulf of Amyclae close to Fundi, 
 celebrated for its wine (Caecubum) in the age of 
 Horace. In the time of Pliny the reputation of 
 this wine was entirely gone. (See Diet, of Ant. 
 p. 1207, a, 2nd ed.) 
 
 Caeculus, an ancient Italian hero, son of Vulcan, 
 is said to have founded Praeneste, 
 
 Caeles or Caelius Tibenna, the leader of an 
 Etruscan army, is said to have come to Rome in 
 the reign either of Romulus or of Tarquinius Pris- 
 cus, and to have settled with his troops on the hill 
 called after him the Caelian. 
 
 Caelius or Coelius. 1. Antipater. [Antipater.] 
 — 2. Aurelianua, [Aurelianu.s.]^3. Caldus, 
 [Caldus.] — 4. Rufus. [Rufus.] 
 
 Caelius or Coelius Mens. [Roma.] 
 
 Caenae {Kaivai : Senn), a city of Mesopotamia, 
 on the W. bank of the Tigris, opposite the mouth 
 of the Lycus. 
 
 Caene, Caenepolis, or Neapolis (Kaiv}} irSXts, 
 Nit] irdXts : Keneh), a city of Upper Egypt, on the 
 right bank of the Nile, a little below Coptos and 
 opposite to Tentyra. 
 
 Caeneus {Kaiye6s), one of the Lapithae, son of 
 Elatus or Coronus, was originally a maiden named 
 Caenis, who was beloved by Poseidon, and was by 
 this god changed into a man, and rendered invul- 
 nerable. As a man he took part in the Argonautic 
 
3 32 
 
 CAENI. 
 
 expedition and the Calydonian hunt. In the battle 
 between the Lapithae and the Centaurs at the 
 marriage of Pirithoua, he was buried by the Cen- 
 taurs under a mass of trees, as they were unable to 
 kill him, but he was changed into a bird. In the 
 lower world Caeneus recovered his female form. 
 (Virg. Aen. vi. 440.) 
 
 Caeni or Caenici, a Thracian people between 
 the Black Sea and the Panysus. 
 
 Caenina (Caeninensis), a to\vn of the Sabines 
 in Latium, whose king Acron is said to have car- 
 ried on the first war against Rome. After their 
 defeat, most of the inhabitants removed to Rome. 
 
 Caenis. [Caeneus.] 
 
 Caenys (KaTws : Capo di Cavallo or Coda di 
 Volpe)^ a promontory of Bruttium opposite Sicily. 
 
 Caeparius, IT., of Tarracina, one of Catiline's 
 conspirators, was to induce tlie shepherds in Apulia 
 to rise ; he escaped from the city, but was over- 
 tiken in his flight, and was executed with the 
 other conspirators b. c. 63. 
 
 Caepio, Ser-vllitis. 1. Cn., consul b. c. 253, in 
 the first Punic war, sailed vv^ith his colleague, C. 
 Sempronius Blaesas, to the coast of Africa. — 2. 
 Cn., curule aedile 207, praetor 20o, and consul 
 203, when he fought against Hannibal near Croton 
 in the S. of Italy. He died in the pestilence in 
 ]74.— 3. Cn., son of No. 2, curule aedile 179, 
 praetor 174, with Spain as his province, and consul 
 in 169. — 4. Q., son of No. 3, consul 142, was 
 adopted by Q. Fabius Maximus. [Maximus.] — 
 
 5. Cn.., son of No. 3, consul 141, and censor 125.— 
 
 6. Cn,, son of No. 3, consul 140, carried on war 
 against Viriathus in Lusitania, and induced two of 
 the friends of Viriathus to murder the latter. — 7. 
 Q.., son of No. 6, was consul 106, when he proposed 
 a law for restoring the judicia to the senators, of 
 which they had been deprived by the Serapronia 
 lex of C. Gracchus. He was afterwards sent into 
 Gallia Narbonensis to oppose tl)e Cimbri, and 
 was in 105 defeated by tlie Cimbri, along with 
 the consul Cn. Mallius or Manlius. 80,000 
 soldiers and 40,000 camp-followers are said to have 
 perished. Caepio survived the battle, but 10 
 years afterwards (95) he was brought to trial by 
 the tribune C. Norbanus on account of his mis- 
 conduct in this war. He was condemned and cast 
 into prison, where according to one account he 
 died, but it was more generally stated that he 
 escaped from prison, and lived in exile at Smyrna, 
 — 8. Q., quaestor urbanus 100, opposed the lex 
 fruraentaria of Satuminus. In 91 he opposed the 
 measures of Drusus, and accused two of the most 
 distinguished senators, M. Scaurus and L. Philip- 
 pus. He fell in battle in the Social War, 90. 
 
 Caepio, Fannius, conspired with Murena against 
 Augustus B. c. 22, and was put to death. 
 
 Caere (Caerites, Caeret-es, Cneretani : Ccrvcin)^ 
 called by the Greeks Agylla ( "AyvWa : AgylUna 
 ■urhs^ Virg.^e7z. vii. 652), a city in Etniria situa- 
 ted on a small river (Caeritis amnis), AV. of Veil 
 and 50 stadia from the coast. It was an ancient 
 Pelasgic city, the capital of the cruel Mezentius, 
 and was afterwards one of the 12 Etruscan cities, 
 with a territory extending apparently as far as the 
 Tiber. In early times Caere was closely allied 
 with Rome ; and when the latter city was taken 
 by the Gauls, B. c. 390, Caere gave refuge to the 
 Vental virgins. It was from this event that the 
 Romans traced the origin of their word caerimonia. 
 The Romans out of gratitude are said to have 
 
 CAESAR. 
 
 conferred upon the Caerites the Roman franchise 
 without the EuiTragium*, though it is not impro- 
 bable that the Caerites enjoj'ed this honour pre- 
 viously. In 353, however, Caere joined Tarquinii 
 in making war against Rome, but was obliged to 
 purchase a truce with Rome for 100 years by the 
 forfeiture of half of its territory. From this time 
 Caere gradually sunk in importance, and was pro- 
 bably destroyed in the wars of Marius and Sulla. 
 It was restored by Drusus, who made it a mnni- 
 cipiiim ; and it continued to exist till the 13th 
 century, when part of the inhabitants removed to 
 a site about 3 miles off, on which they bestowed 
 the same name (now Ceri\ while the old town 
 was distinguished b)"" the title of Vetics or Caere. 
 Vetera^ corrupted into Cerveiri, which is a small 
 village with 100 or 200 inhabitants. Here have 
 been discovered, within the last few years, the 
 tombs of the ancient Caere, many of them in a 
 state of complete preservation, — The country 
 round Caere produced wine and a great quantity 
 of corn, and in its ncighbouihood were warm baths 
 which were much frequented. Caere used as its 
 sea-port the town of pYiiGi. 
 
 Caerellia, a Roman lady frequently mentioned 
 in the correspondence of Cicero as distinguished 
 for her acquirements and her love of philosophy. 
 
 Caesar, the name of a patrician family of the 
 Julia gens, which traced its origin to lulus, the 
 son of Aeneas. [J(JLIa Gens.] Various etymo- 
 logies of the name are given by the ancient "^Titers ; 
 but it is probably connected with the Latin word 
 cacs-ar-ies, and the Sanskrit /.xsa, " hair," for it is 
 in accordance with the Roman custom for a surname 
 to be given to an individual from some peculiarity 
 in his personal appearance. The name was as- 
 sumed by Augustus as the adopted son of the 
 dictator C. JiUius Caesar, and was by Augustus 
 handed down to liis adopted son Tiberius. 1 1 
 continued to be used by Caligula, Claudius, and 
 Nero, as members either by adoption or female 
 descent of Caesar's family ; but though the family 
 became extinct with Nero, succeeding emperors 
 still retained the name as part of their titles, and 
 it was the practice to prefix it to their own name, 
 as for instance, Imperator Caesar Domitiamis Au- 
 (/fisliis. When Hadrian adopted Aelius Verus, he 
 allowed the latter to take the title of Caesar; and 
 from this time, though the title of Augustus con- 
 tinued to be confined to the reigning prince, that 
 oi Caesar was also granted to the second person in, 
 the state and the heir presumptive to the throne. 
 
 Caesar, Jiilius. 1. Sex., praetor b. c. 208, with 
 Sicily as his province.— 2. Sex., curule aedile, 165, 
 when the Hecyra of Terence was exhibited at the 
 Megalesian games, and consul 157.^3. L., consul 
 90, fought against the Socii, and in the course of 
 the same year proposed the Lex Julia de Civiiate, 
 which granted the citizensliip to the Latins and the 
 Socii who had remained faithful to Rome. Caesar 
 was censor in 89 ; he belonged to the aristocrat ical 
 party, and was put to death by Marius in cJ7. — 
 4. C., sumamed Strabo Vopiscus, brother of 
 No. 3, was curule aedile 90, was a candidate fot 
 the consulship in GO, and was slain along with his 
 
 * The Cfifirites nppear to have been the first body of 
 Roman citizens who did not enjoy the suffrage. Thus, 
 wlien a Roman citizen was struck out of his tribe by the 
 Censors and made an aerarlan, he was said to become 
 one of the Caerites, since he had lost the suflVage : hence 
 we find the expressions in tabvlas Caeritum referrc and 
 aerariumj'acere used as synonymous. 
 
e±mi& 
 
 "brother ty Marius in 87. He was one of the 
 chief orators and poets of his age, and is one of 
 the speakers in Cicero's dialogue De Oratore. Wit 
 •was the chief characteristic of his oratory ; but he 
 ■was deficient in power and energy. The names of 
 2 of his tragedies are preserved, the Adrasius and 
 Tecmessa.-—5. L., son of No. 3, and uncle by his 
 sister Julia of M. Antony the triumvir. He was 
 consul 64, and belonged, like his father, to the 
 aristocratical party. Pie appears to have deserted 
 this partj-- afterwards ; we find him in Gaul in .52 
 as one of the legates of C. Caesar, and he continued 
 in Italy during the civil war. After Caesar's death 
 (44) he sided with the senate in opposition to his 
 uncle Antony, and was in consequence proscribed 
 by the latter in 43, but obtained his pardon through 
 the influence of his sister Julia. ^6. L., son of 
 Ko. 5, usually distinguished from his father by the 
 addition to his name ai jilius or adolescens. He 
 joined Pompey on the breaking out of the civil 
 war in 49, and was sent by Pompey to Caesar with 
 proposals of peace. In the course of the same year, 
 he crossed over to Africa, where the command of 
 Clupea was entrusted to hira. In 46 he served as 
 proquaestor to Cato in Utica, and after the death 
 of Cato he surrendered to the dictator Caesar, and 
 was shortly afterwards put to death, but probably 
 not by the dictator's orders.— '7. C, the father of 
 the dictator, was praetor, but in what year is un- 
 certain, and died suddenly at Pisae in 84. — 8. 
 Sex., brother of No. 7, consul 91.^9. C, the 
 Dictator, son of No. 7 and of Aurelia, was born 
 on the 12th of July, 100, in the consulship of C. 
 Marius (VI.) and L. Valerius Flaccus, and was 
 consequently 6 years younger than Pompey and 
 Cicero. He had nearly completed his 56th year 
 at the time of his murder, 15th of March, 44. 
 Caesar was closely connected with the popular 
 party by the marriage of his aunt Julia with the 
 great Marius ; and in 33, though only 17 years of 
 age, he married Cornelia, the daughter of L. Cinna, 
 the chief leader of the Marian part}'. Sulla com- 
 manded him to put away his wife, but he refused 
 to obey him, and was consequently proscribed. 
 He concealed liimself for some time in the country 
 of the Sabines, till his friends obtained his pardon 
 from Sulla, who is said to have observed, when they 
 pleaded his youth, '* that that boy would some day 
 or another be the ruin of the aristocracy, for that 
 there were many Mariuses in him." Seeing that 
 he was not safe at Rome, he went to Asia, where 
 he served his first campaign under M. Minucius 
 Thermus, and, at the capture of Mytilene (80), 
 was rewarded with a civic crown for saving the 
 life of a fellow-soldier. On the death of Sulla in 
 73, he returned to Rome, and in tlie following 
 year gained great renown as an orator, though he 
 was only 22 years of age, by his prosecution of 
 Cn. Dolabella on account of extortion in his pro- 
 vince of Macedonia. To perfect himself in oratory, 
 he resolved to study in Rhodes under ApoUonius 
 Molo, but on his voyage thither he was captured 
 by pirates, and only obtained his liberty by a 
 ransom of 50 talents. At Miletus he manned 
 some Tcssela, overpowered the pirates, and con- 
 ducted them as prisoners to Pergamus, where he 
 crucified them, a punishment with which he had fre- 
 quently threatened them in sport when he was their 
 prisoner. He then repaired to Rhodes, where he 
 studied under ApoUonius, and shortly afterwards 
 returned to Rome. He now devoted all his ener- 
 
 "tCAESA-R^ 
 
 n^r 
 
 gies to acquire the favour of the people. His 
 liberality was unbounded, and as his private for- 
 tune was not large, he soon contracted enormous 
 debts. But he gained his object, and became the 
 i'avourite of the people, and was raised by them in 
 succession to the high oftices of the state. He was 
 quaestor in 68, and aedile in 65, when he spent 
 enormous sums upon the public games and build- 
 ings. He v/as said by many to have been privy 
 to Catiline's conspiracy in 63, but there is no satis- 
 factory evidence of his guilt, and it is improbable 
 tliat he would have embarked in such a rash scheme. 
 In the debate in the senate on the punishment of 
 the conspirators, he opposed their execution in a 
 very able speech, which made such an impres- 
 sion, that their lives would have been spared but 
 for the speech of Cato in reply. In the course of 
 tliis year (63), Caesar was elected Pontifex Maxi- 
 mus, defeating the other candidates, Q. Catulus 
 and Servilius Isauricus, who had both been consuls, 
 and were two of the most illustrious men in the 
 state. — In 62 Caesar was praetor, and took an 
 active part in supporting the tribune Metellus in 
 opposition to his colleague Cato ; in consequence of 
 the tumults that ensued, the senate suspended both 
 Caesar and Metellus from their offices, but were 
 obliged to reinstate hira in his dignity after a few 
 days. In the following year (61) Caesar went as 
 propraetor into Farther Spain, where he gained 
 great victories over the Lusitanians. On his return 
 to Rome, he became a candidate for the consul- 
 sliip, and was elected notwithstanding the stre- 
 nuous opposition of the aristocracy, who succeeded 
 however in carrying the election of Bibulus as 
 his colleague, who was one of the warmest sup- 
 porters of the aristocracy. After his election, but 
 before he entered upon the consulship, he formed 
 that coalition with Pompey and M. Crassus, usually 
 known by the name of the first triumvirate. Pom- 
 pey had become estranged from the aristocracy, 
 since the senate had opposed the ratification of his 
 acts in Asia and an assignment of lands which he 
 had promised to his veterans. Crassus in conse- 
 quence of his immense wealth was one of the most 
 powerful men at Rome, but was a personal enemy 
 of Pompe}'. They were reconciled by means of 
 Caesar, and the 3 entered into an agreement to 
 support one another, and to divide the power in the 
 state between them. — In 59 Caesar was consul, 
 and being supported by Pompey and Cmssus he 
 was able to carry all his measures. Bibulus, from 
 whom the senate had expected so much, could 
 offer no effectual opposition, and, after making a 
 vain attempt to resist Caesar, shut himself up in 
 his own house, and did not appear again in public 
 till the expiration of his consulship. Caesar's first 
 measure was an agrarian law, by which the rich 
 Campanian plain was divided among the poorer 
 citizens. He next gained the favour of the equites 
 by relieving them from l-3rd of the sum which 
 they had agreed to pay for the farming of the taxes 
 in Asia. He then obtained the confirmation of 
 Pompey's acts. Having thus gratified the people, 
 the equites, and Pompey, he was easily able to 
 obtain for himself the provinces which he wished. 
 By a vote of the people, proposed by the tribune 
 Vatinius, the provinces of Cisalpine Gaul and Illy- 
 ricum were granted to Caesar with 3 legions for 5 
 years ; and the senate added to his government the 
 province of Transalpine Gau), with another legion, 
 for 5 years also, as they saw that a bill would be 
 
 K 3 
 
-\-Zi 
 
 CAESAR. 
 
 proposed to the people for that purpose, if they did 
 not grant the province themselves. Caesar foresaw 
 that the struggle between the different parties at 
 Rome musit eventually be terminated by the sword, 
 and he had therefore resolved to obtain an amiy, 
 which he might attach to himself by victories and 
 rewards. In the course of the same year Caesar 
 united himself more closely to Pompey by giving 
 him his daughter Julia in marriage. During the 
 next 9 years Caesar was occupied with the subju- 
 gation of Gaul. He conquered the whole of Trans- 
 alpine Gaul, which had hitherto been independent 
 of the Romans, with the exception of the S. E. part 
 called Provincia ; he twice crossed the Rhine, and 
 twice landed in Britain, which had been previously 
 imknown to the Romans. — In his 1st campaign (58) 
 Caesar conquered the Helvetii, who had emigrated 
 from Switzerland with the intention of settling in 
 Gaul. He next defeated Ariovistus, a German 
 king, who had taken possession of part of the ter- 
 ritories of the Aedui and Sequani, and pursued him 
 as far as the Rhine. At the conclusion of the cam- 
 paign Caesar went into Cisalpine Gaul to attend to 
 the civil duties of his province and to keep up his 
 communication with the various parties at Rome. 
 During the whole of his campaigns in Gaul, he 
 spent the greater part of the winter in Cisalpine 
 GauL — In his 2nd campaign (57) Caesar carried 
 on war with the Belgae, who dwelt in the N.E. of 
 Gaul between the Sequana (Seine) and the Rhine, 
 and after a severe struggle completelj' subdued 
 them. — Caesar's 3rd campaign in Gaul (56) did 
 not commence till late in the year. He was de- 
 tained some months in the N. of Italy by the state 
 of affairs at Rome. At Luca (Lucca) he had in- 
 terviews with most of the leading men at Rome, 
 among others with Pompey and Crassus, who 
 visited him in April. He made arrangements with 
 them for the continuance of their power ; it was 
 agreed between them that Crassus and Pompey 
 should be the consuls for the following year, that 
 Crassus should have the province of Syria, Pompey 
 the 2 Spains, and that Caesar's government, which 
 would expire at the end of 54, should be prolonged 
 for 5 years after that date. After making these 
 arrangements he crossed the Alps, and carried on war 
 with the Veneti and the other states in the N.W. 
 of Gaul, who had submitted to Crassus, Caesar's 
 legate, in the preceding year, but who had now 
 risen in arms against the Romans. They were 
 defeated and obliged to submit to Caesar, and 
 during the same time Crassus conquered Aquitania. 
 Thus, in 3 campaigns, Caesar subdued the whole 
 of Gaul ; but the people made several attempts to 
 recover their independence ; and it was not till 
 their revolts had been again and again put down 
 by Caesar, and the flower of the nation had pe- 
 rished in battle, that they learnt to submit to the 
 Roman yoke. — In his 4th campaign (55) Caesar 
 crossed the Rhine in order to strike terror into the 
 Germans, but he only remained 18 days on the 
 further side of the river. Late in the summer he 
 invaded Britain, but more with the view of obtain- 
 ing some knowledge of the island from personal 
 observation, than with the intention of permanent 
 conquest at present. He sailed from the port Itius 
 (probably Wiisand^ between Calais and Boulogne), 
 and effected a landing somewhere near the South 
 Foreland, after a severe struggle with the natives. 
 The late period of the year compelled him to re- 
 turn to Gaul after remaining only a short time in 
 
 the island. In this year, according to his arrange- 
 ment with Pompey and Crassus, who were now 
 consuls, his government of the Gauls and lllyricum 
 was prolonged for 5 years, namely, from the Ist 
 of January, 53, to the end of December, AD. — 
 Caesar's 5th campaign (54) was chietiy occupied 
 with his 2nd invasion of Britain. | He landed in 
 Britain at the same place as in the former year, 
 defeated the Britons in a series of engagements, 
 and crossed the Tamesis (Thames). The Britons 
 submitted, and promised to pay an annual tri- 
 bute; but their subjection was only nominal, for 
 Caesar left no garrisons or military establish- 
 ments behind him, and Britain remained nearly 
 100 years longer independent of the Romans. 
 During the winter one of the Roman legions, 
 which had been stationed under the command of 
 T. Titurius Sabinus and L. Aurunculeius Cotta, in 
 the coimtry of the Eburones, was cut to pieces by 
 Ambiorix and the Eb<Jrones. Ambiorix then pro- 
 ceeded to attack the camp of Q. Cicero, the brother 
 of the orator, who was stationed with a legion 
 among the Nervii ; but Cicero defended himself 
 with bravery, and was at length relieved by Caesar 
 in person. In September of this year, Julia, 
 Caesar's only daughter and Pompey's wife, died in 
 childbirth. — In Caesar's 6th campaign (53) seve- 
 ral of the Gallic nations- revolted, but Caesar soon 
 compelled them to return to obedience. The Tre- 
 viri, who had revolted, had been supported by the 
 Germans, and Caesar accordingl}'- again crossed the 
 Rhine, but made no pennanent conquests on the 
 further side of the river. — Caesar's 7th cam- 
 paign (52) was the most arduous of all. Almost 
 all the nations of Gaul rose simultaneously in 
 revolt, and the supreme command was given to 
 Vercingetorix, by far the ablest general that Caesar 
 had yet encountered. After a most severe struggle 
 in which Caesar's military genius triumphed over 
 every obstacle, the war was brought to a conclu- 
 sion by the defeat of the Gauls before Alesia and 
 the surrender of this city. — The 8th and 9th cam- 
 paigns (51, 50) were employed in the final subju- 
 gation of Gaul, which had entirely submitted to 
 Caesar by the middle of 50. Meanwhile, an 
 estrangement had taken place between Caesar and 
 Pompey. Caesar's brilliant victories had gained 
 him fresh popularity and influence ; and Pompey 
 saw with ill-disguised mortification that he was 
 becoming the second person in the state. He was 
 thus led to join again the aristocratical party, by 
 the assistance of which he could alone hope to re- 
 tain his position as the chief man in the Roman 
 state. The great object of this party was to de- 
 prive Caesar of his command, and to compel him 
 to come to Rome as a private man to sue for the 
 consulship. They would then have formally ac- 
 cused him, and as Pompey was in the neighbour- 
 hood of the city at the head of an army, the trial 
 would have been a mockerj', and his condemnation 
 would have been certain. Caesar offered to resign 
 his command if Pompey would do the same ; but 
 the senate would not listen to any compromise. 
 Accordingly, on the Ist of January, 49, the senate 
 passed a resolution that Caesar should disband his 
 army by a certain day, and that if he did not do 
 so, he should be regarded as an enemj' of the state. 
 Two of the tribunes, M. Antonius and Q. Cassiu3,put 
 their veto upon this resolution, but their opposition 
 was set at nought, and they fled for refuge to Caesar's 
 camp. Under the plea of protecting the tribunes, 
 
Caesar crossed the Rubicon, which separated his 
 province from Ital}', and marched towards Rome. 
 Pompey, who had been entrusted by the senate with 
 the conduct of the war, soon discovered how greatly 
 he had overrated his own popularity and influence. 
 His own troops deserted to his rival in crowds ; 
 town after town in Italy opened its gates to Caesar, 
 whose march was like a triumphal progress. The 
 only town which offered Caesar any resistance was 
 Corfinium, into which L. Domitius Ahenobarbus 
 had thrown himseK with a strong force ; but even 
 this place was obliged to surrender at the end of a 
 few days. Meantime, Pompey, with the magistrates 
 and senators, had fled from Rome to Capua, and 
 now, despairing of opposing Caesar in Italy, he 
 marched from Capua to Brundusiura, and on the 
 17th of March embarked for Greece. Caesar pur- 
 sued Pompey to Brundusium, but he was unable 
 to follow him to Greece for want of ships. He 
 therefore marched back from Brundusium, and re- 
 paired to Rome, having thus in 3 months become 
 master of the whole of Italy. After remaining a 
 short time in Rome, he set out for Spain, where 
 Pompey's legates, Afranius, Petreius, and Varro, 
 commanded powerful armies. After defeating 
 Afranius and Petreius, and receiving the submis- 
 sion of Varro, Caesar returned to Rome, where he 
 had meantime been appointed dictator by the prae- 
 tor M, Lepidus. He resigned the dictatorship at 
 the end of 11 days, after holding the consular co- 
 mitia, in which he himself and P. Servilius Vatia 
 Isauricus were elected consuls for the next year. 
 — At the begimung of Januar}*", 48, Caesar crossed 
 over to Greece, where Pompey had collected a 
 formidable army. At first the campaign was in 
 Pompey's favour ; Caesar was repulsed before 
 Dyrrhachium with considerable loss, and was ob- 
 liged to retreat towards Thessaly. In this country 
 on the plains of Pharsalus or Pharsalia, a decisive 
 battle was fought between the 2 armies on the 9 th 
 of August^ 48, in which Pompey was completely 
 defeated. Pompey fled to Egypt, pursued by 
 Caesar, but he was murdered before Caesar arrived 
 in the coimtry. [Pompeius.] His head was 
 brought to Caesar, who turned away from the 
 sight, shed tears at the untimely death of his 
 rival, and put his murderers to death. When the 
 news of the battle of Pharsalia reached Rome, 
 various honours were conferred upon Caesar. He 
 was appointed dictator for a whole year and consul 
 for 5 years, and the tribunician power was con- 
 ferred upon him for life. He declined the consul- 
 ship, but entered upon the dictatorship in September 
 in this year (48), and appointed M. Antony his 
 master of the horse. On his arrival in Eg3'pt, 
 Caesar became involved in a war, which gave the 
 remains of the Pompeiau party time to rally. This 
 war usually called the Alexandrine war, arose 
 from the detennination of Caesar that Cleopatra, 
 whose fascinations had won his heart, should 
 reign in common with her brother Ptolemy ; but 
 this decision was opposed by the guardians of the 
 young king, and the war which thus broke out, 
 was not brought to a close till the latter end of 
 March, 47. It was soon after this, that Cleopatra 
 had a son by Caesar. [Caesabion.] Caesar re- 
 turned to Rome through Syria and Asia Mi- 
 nor and on his march through Pontus attacked 
 Phamaces, the son of Mithridates the Great, who 
 had assisted Pompey. He defeated Phamaces 
 near Zela with such ease, that he informed the 
 
 CAESAR. 
 
 issr 
 
 senate of his victory by the words, Veniy vidi, vici. 
 He reached Rnme in September (47), was ap- 
 pointed consul for the following year, and before 
 the end of September set sail fur Africa, where 
 Scipio and Cato had collected a large army. The 
 war was terminated by the defeat of the Pompeian 
 army at the battle of Thapsus, on the 6th of April, 
 46. Cato, unable to defend Utica, put an end to 
 his own life. — Caesar returned to Rome in the 
 latter end of July. He was now the undisputed 
 master of the Roman world, but he used his vic- 
 tory with the greatest moderation. Unlike other 
 conquerors in civil wars, he freely forgave all who 
 had borne arms against him, and declared that he 
 would make no difference between Pompeians and 
 Caesarians. His clemency was one of-the bright- 
 est features of his character. At Rome all parties 
 seemed to vie in paying him honour: the dictator- 
 ship was bestowed on him for 10 years, and the 
 censorship, under the new title of Fraefectus 
 Morum, for 3 years. He celebrated his victories 
 in Gaul, Egj^t, Pontus, and Africa by 4 magni- 
 ficent triumphs. Caesar now proceeded to correct 
 the various evils which bad crept into the state, 
 and to obtain the enactment of several laws suit- 
 able to the altered condition of the commonwealth. 
 The most important of his measures this year (46) 
 was the reformation of the calendar. As the Ro- 
 man year was now 3 months in advance of the 
 real time, Caesai' added 90 days to this year, and 
 thus made the whole year consist of 446 days ; 
 and he guarded against a repetition of similar 
 errors for the future by adapting the year to the 
 sun's course. {Diet, of Ant art. Calendanum.} — 
 Meantime the 2 sons of Pompey, Sextus and 
 Cneius, had collected a new army in Spain, Caesar 
 set out for Spain towards the end of the year, and 
 brought the war to a close by the battle of Munda, 
 on the 17th of March, 45, in which the enemy 
 were only defeated after a most obstinate resistance. 
 Cn. Pompey was killed shortly afterwards, but 
 Sextus made good his escape. Caesar reached 
 Rome in September, and entered the city in 
 triumph. Fresh honours awaited him. His por- 
 trait was to be struck cm coins ; the month of 
 Quintilis was to receive the name of Julius in his 
 honour ; he received the title of imperator for life ; 
 and the whole sena.te took an oath to watch over his 
 safety. To reward his followers, Caesar increased 
 the number of senators and of the public magistrates, 
 so that there were to be 16 praetors, 40 quaestors, 
 and 6 aediles. He began to revolvevast schemes for 
 the benefit of the Roman world. Among his plans of 
 internal improvement, he proposed to frame a digest 
 of all the Roman laws, to establish public libraries, to 
 drain the Pomptine marshes, to erijarge the harbour 
 of Ostia, and to dig a canal through the isthmus of 
 Corinth. To protect the boundaries of the Roman 
 empire, he meditated expeditions against the Par- 
 thians and the barbarous tribes on the Danube, 
 and had already begun to make preparations for 
 his departure to the East. Possessing royal power, 
 he now wished to obtain the title of king, and 
 Antony accordingly offered him the diadem in 
 public on the festival of the Lupercalia (the 15th 
 of February) ; but, seeing that the proposition was 
 not favourably received by the people, he declined 
 it for the present. — But Caesar's power was not 
 witnessed without envy. The Roman aristocracy, 
 who had been so long accustomed to rule th« Ro- 
 man world and to pillage it at their pleasure, could 
 
 K 4 
 
"T36 
 
 CAESAR. 
 
 ill Ijrook a master, and resolved to remove liira by 
 assassination. The conspiracy against Caesar's 
 life had been set afoot by Cassiua, a personal enemy 
 of Caesar's, and there were more than 60 persons 
 privy to it. Many of these persons had been raised 
 by Caesar to wealth and honour ; and some of 
 them, auch as M. Brutus, lived with him on terms 
 of the most intimate friendship. It has been the 
 practice of rhetoricians to speak of the murder of 
 Caesar as a glorious deed, and to represent Bmtiis 
 and Cassil^s as patriots ; but the mask ought to be 
 stripped off these false patriots ; they cared not for 
 the republic, but only for themselves ; and their 
 object in murdering Caesar was to gain power for 
 themselves and their pai't}'. Caesar had many 
 warnings of his approaching fate, but he disre- 
 garded them all, and fell by the daggers of his 
 assassins on the Ides or 15th of Maich, 44, At 
 an appointed signal the conspirators surrounded 
 him ; Casca dealt the first blow, and the others 
 quickly drew their swords and attacked him ; Cae- 
 sar at first defended himself, but when he saw 
 that Brutus, his friend and favourite, had also 
 drawn his sword, he exclaimed Tu qiioqice Bride I 
 pulled his toga over his face, and sunk pierced 
 with wounds at the foot of Pompey's statue. — 
 Julius Caesar was the greatest man of antiquit3^ 
 He was gifted by nature with the most various 
 talents, and was distinguished by the most extra- 
 ordinary attainments in the most diversified pur- 
 suits. He was at one and the same time a gene- 
 ral, a statesman, a lawgiver, a jurist, an orator, 
 a poet, an historian, a philologer, a mathematician, 
 and an architect. He was equally fitted to excel 
 in all, and h<is given proofs that he would have 
 surpassed almost all other men in any subject to 
 ■which he devoted the energies of his extraordinary 
 mind. During the whole of his busy life he found 
 time for literarj' pursuits, and was the author of 
 many works, the majority of which has been lost. 
 The purity of his Latin and the clearness of his 
 style were celebrated by the ancients themselves, 
 and are conspicuous in his Comrrmitarii^ which are 
 his only works that have come down to us. They 
 relate the history of the first 7 years of the Gallic 
 Tvar in 7 books, and the history of the Civil war 
 down to the commencement of the Alexandrine in 3 
 books. Neither of these works completed the his- 
 tory of the Gallic and Civil wars. The history of 
 the fonner was completed in an 8th book, which 
 is usually ascribed to Hirtius, and the history of 
 the Alexandrine, African, and Spanish wars were 
 written in 3 separate books, which are also ascribed 
 to Hirtius, but their authorship is uncertain. The 
 lost works of Caesar are : — 1. Aniicato, in reply 
 to Cicero's Caio^ which Cicero wrote in praise of 
 Cato after the death of the latter in 46. 2. 
 De Ancdogta, or, as Cicero explains it, De Raticme 
 Latine loquendi, dedicated to Cicero, contained in- 
 vestigations on the Latin language, and were writ- 
 ten by Caesar while he was crossing the Alps. 3. 
 Liftri Auspiciorum^ or Ajiguralia. 4. De Aslris. 
 5. Aptyphthegmata^ or Dicta colledanca, a collection 
 of good sayings. 6. Poemata. Two of these writ- 
 ten in his youth, Laudes HercuUs and a tragedy 
 OedipJts^ were suppressed by Augustus. Of the 
 numerous editions of Caesar's Commentaries the 
 best are by Oudendorp, Lugd. Bat. 1737, Stutt- 
 gard, 1822 ; by Moras, Lips. 1700 ; and by 
 Oberlin, Lips. 1805, 1819. 
 C. Caesar and L. Caesar, the sons of M. Vip- 
 
 CAESETirS. 
 
 aanius Agrippa and Julia, and the grandsons of 
 Augustus. L. Caesar died at Massilia, on his way 
 to Spain, a. d. 2, and C. Caesar in Lycia, a. d. 4, 
 of a wound which he had received in Armenia, 
 
 Caesaraugusta {Zaragoza or Saragassa)^ more 
 anciently Salduba, a town of the Edetani on the 
 Iberus in Hispania Tarraconensis, was colonized 
 by Augiistus B. c. 27, and was the seat of a Con- 
 ventus Juridicus. It was the birth-place of the 
 poet Prudentius. 
 
 Caesarea (Kateropeia: Kanrapeuy : Caesariensis), 
 a name given to several cities of the Roman empire 
 in honour of one or other of the Caesars. —1. C. ad 
 Argaeum, formerly Mazaca, also Eusebia (K. if 
 Trphs rcfi ^Apyaicf}^ r^ Mafa;ca, Eu(Te§6ia : Kesarieh^ 
 Ru.), one of the oldest cities of Asia Minor, stood 
 upon Mount Argaeus, about the centre of Cappa- 
 docia, in the district (praefectura) called Cilicia. 
 It was the capital of Cappadocia, and when that 
 country was made a Roman province by Tiberius 
 (a. d. 13), it received the name of Caesarea. It 
 was ultimately destroyed by an earthquake. — 2, 
 C. Philippi or Paneas (K. tJ ^iXi-mrov^ N. T. ; K. 
 Tiaviids\ Banias\ a city of Palestine, at the S. 
 foot of M. Hermon, on the Jordan, just below its 
 source [Panium], built by Philip the tetrarch, 
 B. c. 3 ; King Agrippa called it Neronias, but it 
 soon lost this name. ^3. C. Palaestlnae, formerly 
 Stratonis Turris (STparwroy irupyos : Kaisariyeh, 
 Ru.), an important city of Palestine, on the sea- 
 coast, just above the boundary line between Samaria- 
 and Galilee. It was surrounded with a wall and 
 decorated with splendid buildings by Herod the 
 Great (b. c. 13), who called it Caesarea, in honour 
 of Augustus. He also made a splendid harbour 
 for the city. Under the Romans it was the capital 
 of Palestine and the residence of the procurator,. 
 Vespasian made it a colony, and Titus conferred 
 additional favours upon it ; hence it was called 
 Colonia Flavia. — 4. C. Mauretaniae, formerly 
 lol ('IwA Kaiffapem: ZersIieU, Ru.), a Pboeniciait 
 city on the N. coast of Africa, with a harbour, the* 
 residence of King Juba, who named it Caesarea, 
 in honour of Augustus. When Claudius erected 
 Maiu-etania into a Roman province, he made 
 Caesarea a colony, and the capital of the middle 
 division of the province, which was thence called 
 Mauretania Caesaiiensis. — 5. C. ad Anazarbum... 
 [An^zarbus.] There are several others, which 
 are better known by other names, and several 
 which are not important enough to be mentioned 
 here. 
 
 Caesarion, son of C. Julius Caesar and of Cleo- 
 patra, originally called Ptolemaeus as an Egyptian 
 prince, was bom b. c. 47. In 42 the triumvirs al- 
 lowed him to receive the title of king of Egypt, 
 and in 34 Antony conferred upon him the title of 
 king of kings. After the death of his mother in 
 30 he was executed by order of Augustus. 
 
 Caesarodunum (Tours), chief town of the Tu- 
 rones or Turoni, subsequently called Turoni, on 
 the Liger (Loire) in Gallia Lugdunensis. 
 
 Caesaromagus. 1. (Beauvais), chief to^vn of 
 the Bellovaci in Gallia Belgica. — 2. (Chelmsford) y 
 a town of the Trinobantes in Britain. 
 
 Caesena (Caesenas -atis : Cesena), a to^vn in 
 Gallia Cispadana on the Via Aemilia not far iioxa. 
 the Rubico. 
 
 Caesennius lento. [Lento.] 
 
 Caesennitis Paetus. [Paetus.] 
 
 Caesetius Flavus. [Flavus.J 
 
CAESIA. 
 
 Gaesia, a surname of Minerva, a translation of 
 tlie Greek yXavKwiris. 
 
 Caesia Silva {H'dsemitiald\ a forest in Ger- 
 many between the Lippe and the Yssel. 
 
 Caesoma, first the mistress and afterwards the 
 wife of the emperor Caligula, was a woman of 
 the greatest licentiousness, and was put to death 
 with Caligula together with her daughter, a. I). 41. 
 
 M. Caesonius, a judex at the trial of Oppianicus 
 for the murder of Cluentius, B. c. 74, and aedile 
 "with Cicero in 69. 
 
 Caicus (Kai'KfJs : Ahson or BaJdr), a river of 
 Mysia, rising in M. Temnus and flowing past 
 Pergamus into the Cumaean Gulf. 
 
 Caieta (Caietanus : Gaetd)^ a town in Latium 
 on the borders of Campania, 40 stadia S. of For- 
 miae, situated on a promontory of the same name 
 and on a bay of the sea called after it Sinus Caie- 
 tanns. It possessed an excellent harbour (Cic. 
 2>ro Leg. Man. 12), and was said to have derived 
 its name from Caieta, the nurse of Aeneas, who, 
 according to some traditions, was buried at this 
 place. 
 
 Caia5, the jurist. [Gaius.] 
 
 Cains Caesar. [Caligula.] 
 
 Calaber. [Quintus Smtrnaeus.] 
 
 Calabria (Calabri), the peninsula in the S. E. of 
 Italy, extending from Tarentura to the Prom, 
 lapygium, formed part of Apulia. 
 
 Calacta (KoA^ *Akt^ : KaKaKTlvos : nr. Caro- 
 nia, Rm), a town on the N. coast of Sicily, founded 
 by Ducetius, a chief of the Sicels, about b. c. 447. 
 Calacta was, as its name imports, originally the 
 name of the coast. (Herod, vi. 22.) 
 
 Calactinua, [Caecilius Calactinus.] 
 
 Calagurris (Calagurritanus: CaUiliorra\ a town 
 of the Vaacones and a Roman municipiura in His- 
 pania Tarracoaensis near the Iberus, memorable 
 for its adherence to Sertorius and for its siege by 
 Pompey and his generals, in the course of which 
 mothers killed and salted their children, B.C. 71. 
 (Juv. zv. 33.) It was the birth-place of Quin- 
 tilian. 
 
 Calais, brother of Zetes. [Zetes.] 
 
 Calama. 1. {Kalma^ Ru.) an impoi-tant town 
 in Numidia, between Cirta and Hippo Regius, on 
 the E. bank of the Rubricatus {Seihous) . — 2. 
 {Kalat-al-Wad), a town in the W. of Mauretania 
 Caesariensis, on the E. bank of the Malva, near its 
 mouth. 
 
 Calamine, in Lydia, a lake with floating islands, 
 sacred to the nymphs. 
 
 Calamis (KoAa^uis), a statuary and embosser at 
 Athens, of great celebrity, was a contemporary of 
 Phidias, and flourished b. c 467—429. 
 
 Calamus (KaAa^os : El-Kuhnon\ a town on the 
 coast of Phoenicia, a little S. of Tripolis, 
 
 Calanus (Kd\avos)^ an Indian gymnosophist, 
 followed Alexander the Great from India, and 
 having been taken ill, burnt^ himself alive in the 
 presence of the Macedonians, 3 months before the 
 death of Alexander (b. c. 323), to whom he had 
 predicted his approaching end. 
 
 Calasiries (KaAcuriptes), one of the two divisions 
 (the other being the Hermotybii) of the warrior- 
 caste of Egypt. Their greatest strength was 
 250,000 men, and their chief abode in the W, 
 part of the Delta. They formed the king's body 
 guard. 
 
 Calatia (Calatinus : Cajazzo\ a town in Sam- 
 nium on the Appia Via between Capua and Bene- 
 
 -CAtEN-US.- 
 
 137 
 
 ventum, was conquered by the Romans B.C. 313, 
 and was colonized by Julius Caesar with hia 
 veterans. 
 
 Calatinus, A. Atilius, consul b. c. 258, in the 
 first Punic war, carried on the war with success in 
 Sicily. He was consul a 2nd time, 254, when he 
 took Panormus ; and was dictator, 249, when he 
 again carried on the war in Sicily, which was the 
 fii'st instance of a dictator commanding an army 
 out of Italy. 
 
 Calanrea -la (KaXaupeicr, KdKavpla: KaAaupef- 
 T7J5- : Poro), a small island in the Saronic gulf off 
 the coast of Argolis and opposite Troezen, possessed 
 a celebrated temple of Poseidon, which was re- 
 garded as an inviolable asylum. Hither Demos- 
 thenes fled to escape Antipater, and here he took 
 poison, b. c. 322. This temple was the place of 
 meeting of an ancient Amphictyonia. (See Diet, 
 of Ant. p. 79, b, 2d ed.) 
 
 Calavius, the name of a distinguished family at 
 Capua, the most celebrated member of which was 
 Pacuvius Calavius, who induced his fellow -citizens 
 to espouse the cause of Hannibal after the battle of 
 Cannae, B. c. 216. 
 
 Calbis (b VidKSis), also Indus {Quingi or Tanas), 
 a considerable river of Caria, which rises in M. 
 Cadmus, above Cibyra, and after receiving (ac- 
 cording to Pliny) 60 small rivers and 100 mountain 
 torrents, falls into the sea W. of Caunus and op- 
 posite to Rhodes. 
 
 Calchas (KaAx^y), son of Thestor of Mycenae 
 or Megara, the wisest soothsayer among the Greeks 
 at Troy, foretold the length of the Trojan war, ex- 
 plained the cause of the pestilence which raged in 
 the Greek army, and advised the Greeks to build 
 the wooden horse. An oracle had declared that 
 Calchas should die if he met with a soothsayer 
 superior to himself ; and this came to pass at Claros, 
 near Colophon, for here Calchas met the soothsayer 
 Mopsus, who predicted things which Calchas 
 could not. Thereupon Calchas died of grief. After 
 his death he had an oracle in Daunia. 
 
 Caldus, C. Caelins. 1. Rose from obscurity by 
 his oratory, was tribune of the plebs b. c. 107, 
 when he proposed a lex tabellaria, and consul 94- 
 In the civil war between Sulla and the party of 
 Marius, he fought on the side of the latter, 83. -« 
 2. Grandson of the preceding, was Cicero's quaes- 
 tor in Cilicia, 50, 
 
 Cale {Oporto), a port-town of the Callaeci in 
 Hispania Tarraconensis at the mouth of the Durius^ 
 ¥xom Porto Cale the name of the country Portw^/a^ 
 is supposed to have come. 
 
 Caledonia. [Britannia.] 
 
 Calentum, a town probably of the Calenses 
 Emanici in Hispania Baetica, celebrated for its 
 manufacture of bricks so light as to swim upon 
 water. 
 
 Calenus, ft. Fufius, tribune of the plebs, b. c. 
 61, when he succeeded in saving P. Clodius from 
 condemnation for his violation of the mysteries of 
 the Bona Dea. In 59 he was praetor, and from 
 this time appears as an active partizan of Caesar. 
 In 51 he was legate of Caesar in Gaul, and served 
 under Caesar in the civil war. In 49 he joined 
 Caesar at Brundusium and accompanied him to 
 Spain, and in 48 he was sent by Caesar from Epi- 
 rus to bring over the remainder of the troops from 
 Italy, but most of his ships were taken by Bibulus, 
 After the battle of Pharsalia (48) Calenus took 
 many cities in Greece. In 47 he was made consul 
 
138 
 
 CALES. 
 
 by Caesar. After Caesar's death (44) Culenus 
 joined M. Antony, and subsequently had the com- 
 mand of Antony's legions in the N. of Italy. At 
 the termination of the Perusinian war (41) Calenus 
 died, and Octavianus was thus enabled to obtain 
 possession of his array. 
 
 Cales or -ex {Kd\ris or -t?|: Halahli), a river 
 of Bithynia, S.W. of Heraclea Pontica. (Thuc. 
 iv. 75.) 
 
 Cales (-is, usually PI. Cales -ium : Calenus : 
 Calvi), chief town of the Caleni, an Ausonian 
 people in Campania, on the Via Latina, said to 
 have been founded by Calais, son of Boreas, and 
 therefore called Tkreicia by the poets. Cales was 
 taken and colonized by the Romans, b. c. 335, It 
 ■was celebrated for its excellent wine. 
 
 Caletes or -i, a people in Belgic Gaul near the 
 mouth of the Seine : their capital was Jijliobona. 
 
 Caletor (KaA'^jTcop), son of Clytius, slain at Troy 
 by the Telamonian Ajax. 
 
 Calidius. 1. Q., tribune of the plebs b. c. d^., 
 carried a law for the recall of Q. Metellus Nurai- 
 dicua from banishment. He was praetor 79, and 
 had the government of one of the Spains, and on 
 hia return was accused by Q. LoUius, and con- 
 demned. ^2. M., son of the preceding, distin- 
 guished as an orator. In 57 he was praetor, and 
 supported the recal of Cicero from banishment. 
 In 51 he was an unsuccessful candidate for the 
 consulship, and on the breaking out of the civil 
 war, 49, he joined Caesar, who placed him over 
 Gallia Togata, where he died in 48. 
 
 Caligula, Roman emperor, a. d, 37 — 41, son of 
 Germanicus and Agrippina, was bom A. d. 12, and 
 was brought up among the legions in Germany. 
 His real name was Caius Caesar, and he was al- 
 ways called Caius by his contemporaries : Caligula 
 was a surname given him by the soldiers from his 
 wearing in his boyhood small caligae, or soldiers' 
 hoots. Having escaped the fate of his mother and 
 brother, he gained the favour of Tiberius, who raised 
 him to offices of honour, and held out to him hopes 
 of the succession. On the death of Tiberius (37), 
 which was either caused or accelerated by Caligula, 
 the latter succeeded to the throne. He was saluted 
 by the people with the greatest enthusiasm as the 
 son of Germanicus. His first acts gave promise 
 of a just and beneficent reign. He pardoned all 
 the persons who had appeared as witnesses or ac- 
 cusers against his family ; he released all the state- 
 prisoners of Tiberius ; he restored to the magistrates 
 full power of jurisdiction without appeal to his 
 person, and promised the senate to govern according 
 to the laws. Towards foreign princes he behaved 
 with great generosity. He restored Agrippa, the 
 grandson of Herod, to his kingdom of Judaea, and 
 Antiochus IV. to his kingdom of Commagene. But 
 at the end of 8 months the conduct of Caligula became 
 suddenly changed. After a serious illness, which 
 probably weakened his mental powers, he appears 
 as a sanguinary and licentious madman. lie put 
 to death Tiberius, the grandson of his predecessor, 
 compelled his grandmother Antonia and other 
 members of his family to make away with them- 
 selves, often caused persons of both sexes and of 
 all ages to be tortured to death for his amusement 
 while taking his meals, and on one occasion, during 
 the exhibition of the games m the Circus, he ordered 
 a great number of the spectators to be seized, and 
 to be throvra before the wild beasts. Such was 
 his love of blood that he wished the Roman 
 
 ' - -GAi-MA&. 
 
 people had OTily one head, that he might cut it oiT" 
 with a blow. His obscenity was as great as his 
 cruelty. Pie carried on an incestuous intercourse 
 with his own sisters, and no Roman woman was 
 safe from his attacks. His marriages were dis- 
 gracefully contracted and speedily dissolved ; and 
 the only woman who exercised a permanent in- 
 fluence over him was his last wife Caesonia. In 
 his madness he considered himself a god ; he even 
 built a temple to himself as Jupiter Latiaris, and 
 appointed priests to attend to his worship. He 
 sometimes officiated as his own priest, making hia 
 horse Incitatus, which he afterwards raised to the 
 consulship, his colleague. His monstrous extrava- 
 gancies soon exhausted the coffers of the state. 
 One instance may show the senseless way in which 
 he spent bis money. He constructed a bridge of 
 boats between Baiae and Puteoli, a distance of 
 about 3 miles, and after covering it with earth he 
 built houses upon it. "When it was finished, he 
 gave a splendid banquet in the middle of the bridge, 
 and concluded the entertainment by throwing num- 
 bers of the guests into the sea. To replenish the 
 treasury he exhausted Italy and Rome by his ex- 
 tortions, and then marched into Gaul in 40, which 
 he plundered in all directions. With his troops 
 he advanced to the ocean, as if intending to cross 
 over into Britain ; he drew them up in battle array, 
 and then gave them the signal — to collect shells, 
 which he called the spoils of conquered Ocean. 
 The Roman world at length grew tired of such a 
 mad tyrant. Four months after his return to the 
 city, on the 24th of January 41, he was murdered 
 by Cassins Chaerea, tribune of a praetorian cohort, 
 Cornelius Sabinus and others. His wife Caesonia 
 and his daughter were likewise put to death. 
 
 Calingae, a numerous people of India intra 
 Gangem, on the E. coast, below the mouths of the 
 Ganges. 
 
 Calinipaxa (Canonge? a little above 27° N. 
 lat,), a city on the Ganges, N. of its confluence 
 with the Jomanes {Jum7ia), said to have been the 
 furthest point in India reached by Seleucus Ni- 
 cator. 
 
 Callaici, Callaeci, [Gallaecl] 
 
 Callatis (KaA\oTty, KaKaris : 'K.aKarLav6s : 
 KoUatf Kollaii), a town of Moesia, on the Black 
 Sea, originally a colony of Miletus, and afterwards 
 of Heraclea. 
 
 Calliarus (KaWlapos), a town in Locris, men- 
 tioned by Homer. 
 
 Callxas and Hipponicus (Ka\Xias, 'l-mrSpiKos), 
 a noble Athenian family, celebrated for their wealth. 
 They enjoyed the hereditary dignity of torch- 
 bearer at the Eleusinian mysteries, and claimed 
 descent from Triptolemus. 1, Hipponicus I., ac- 
 quired a large fortime by fraudulently making use 
 of the information he had received from Solon 
 respecting the introduction of his <r€i(rdx&eia, b. c. 
 594. (Plut. Sol. 15.) — 2. Callias I., son of Phae- 
 nippus, an opponent of Pisistratus, and a conqueror 
 at the Olympic and Pythian games. — 3. Hippo- 
 nicus IL, fiumamed Ammon, son of No, 2.^4. 
 Callias II., son of No. 3, fought at the battle of' 
 Marathon, 490. He was afterwards ambassador from 
 Athens to Artaxerxes, and according to some accounts 
 negotiated a peace with Persia, 449, on terms most 
 humiliating to the latter. On his return to Athens, 
 he was accused of having taken bribes, and was 
 condemned to a fine of 50 talents. — 5. Hipponi- 
 cus III., son of No. 4, one of the Athenian gene- 
 
rals in their incursion into the territory of Tanagra, 
 426, also commanded at the tattle of Delium, 
 424, where he was killed. It was his divorced 
 wife, and not his widow, whom Pericles married. 
 His daughter Hipparete was married to Alcibiades, 
 with a dowry of 10 talents: another daughter was 
 married to Theodoras, and became the mother of 
 Isocrates the orator. ^6. Callias HI., son of No. 
 5, by the lady who married Pericles, dissipated 
 all his ancestral wealth on sophists, flatterers, and 
 women. The scene of Xenophon's Banquet, and 
 also that of Plato's Protagoras is laid at his house. 
 He is said to have ultimately reduced himself to 
 absolute beggary. In 400 he was engaged in the 
 attempt to crush Andocides. In 392 he com- 
 manded the Athenian heavy-armed troops, when 
 Iphicrates defeated the Spartans; and in 371 he 
 was one of the envoys empowered to negotiate 
 peace with Sparta. 
 
 Callias. 1. A wealthy Athenian, who, on con- 
 dition of marrymg Ciraon's sister, Elpinice, paid 
 for him the fine of SO talents which had been im- 
 posed on Miltiades. He appears to have been 
 unconnected with the nobler family of Callias and 
 Hipponicus. — 2. Tyrant of Chalcis in Euboea, 
 and the rival of Plutarchus, tyrant of Eretria. He 
 was defeated by the Athenians imder Phocion, b. c. 
 350, and thereupon betook himself to the Macedo- 
 nian court ; but as he could not obtain aid from 
 Philip, he formed an alliance with the Atlienians, 
 and by their means obtained the supremacy in the 
 island. — 3. A poet of the old comedy, flourished 
 B. c. 412 ; the names of 6 of his comedies are pre- 
 served. —4. Of Syracuse, a Greek historian, was 
 a contemporary of Agathocles, and wrote a history 
 of Sicily in 22 books, embracing the reign of Aga- 
 thocles, B.^c. 317—289. 
 
 Callicrates (KoAAj^parrj?), 1. An Achaean, 
 exerted all his influence in favour of the Ro- 
 mans. On the conquest of Macedonia by the 
 Romans, b. c, 168, Callicrates pointed out J 000 
 Achaeans, as having favoured the cause of Perseus, 
 who were taken to Rome ; and among them was 
 the historian Polybius. Callicrates died at Rhodes, 
 149. — 3. One of the architects of the Parthenon 
 on the Acropolis of Athens.— 4. A Lacedaemonian 
 sculptor, made ants and other animals out of ivory, 
 60 small that one could not distinguish the different 
 limbs, 
 
 Callicratidas (KaWiKparidas), a Spartan, suc- 
 ceeded Lysander as admiral of the Lacedaemonian 
 fleet, B. c. 406, took Methymna, and shut up Conon 
 in Mytilene ; but the Athenians sent out a fleet of 
 150 sail, and defeatedCallicratidasoff theArginusae. 
 Callicratidas fell in the battle. Callicratidas was a 
 plain, blunt Spartan of the old school. Witness 
 his answer, when asked what sort of men the loni- 
 ans were: " Bad freemen, but excellent slaves." 
 
 Gallidromus or -um {KaWidpofios), part of the 
 range of Mt. Oeta, near Thermopylae. 
 
 Callifae (Callifanus: Cahnsi}^ a town in Sam- 
 nium, perhaps in the territory of AUifae, 
 
 Callimaclius (KaK\ifxaxos). 1. The Athenian 
 polemarch, commanded the right wing at Mara- 
 thon, where he was slain, after behaving with 
 much gallantry, B. c. 490. This is the last re- 
 corded instance of the polemarch performing the 
 military duties which his name implies. — 2. A 
 celebrated Alexandrine grammarian and poet, was 
 a native of Cyrene in Africa, and a descendant of 
 the Battiadae, whence he is sometimes called Bat- 
 
 tiades. He lived at Alexandria in the reigns of 
 Ptolemy Philadelphus and Energetes, and was 
 chief librarian of the famous library of Alexandria, 
 from about b. c. 260 until his death about 240. 
 He founded a celebrated grammatical school at 
 Alexandria, and among his pupils were Eratos- 
 thenes, Aristophanes of Byzantium, and Apollonius 
 Rhodius. We have no other particulars of the 
 life of Callimachus except his enmity with his 
 former pupil Apollonius Rhodius, which is related 
 elsewhere, [Apollonius, No. 6.] He is said to 
 have written 800 works, in prose and in verse, on 
 an infinite variety of subjects, but of these we 
 possess only some of his poems, which are charac- 
 terized rather by labour and learning than by real 
 poetical genius. Hence Ovid (Am. l. 15. 14) says 
 of Callimachus, Quamvis ingenio non valet, arte 
 valet. The extant works of Callimachus are 6 
 Hymns in hexameter verse, 5 in the Ionic dialect, 
 and 1, on the bath of Pallas, in the Doric dialect, 
 and 72 Epigrams, which belong to the best speci- 
 mens of this kind of poetry, and were incorporated 
 in the Greek Anthology at an early time. We 
 have only a few fragments of his elegies, which 
 enjoyed great celebrity, and were imitated by the 
 Roman poets, the most celebrated of whose imita- 
 tions is the De Coma Berenices of Catullus, Of 
 the lost poems of Callimachus the most important 
 were, AJria, Causes, an epic poem in 4 books, on the 
 causes of the various mythical stories, &c., and an 
 epic poem entitled Hecale, the name of an aged 
 woman who received Theseus hospitably when he 
 went out to fight against the Marathonian bull, 
 — Editions. By Spanheira, Ultnvj. 1697, re-edited 
 by Emesti, Lugd. Batav. 1761 ; by Blorafield, 
 Lond. 1815; by Volzer, Lips. J817. — 3, An 
 architect and statuary, of uncertain country, who is 
 said to have invented the Corinthian column, and 
 who must have lived before B. c. 396. He was so 
 anxious to give his works the last touch of perfec- 
 tion that he lost the grand and sublime ; whence 
 Dionysius compares him to the orator Lysias. Cal- 
 limachus was never satisfied with himself, and 
 therefore received the epithet KaKi^Sr^x^^^i which. 
 Pliny interprets as calumniator sui. 
 
 Callimedon (Ka\A/^€5£.;i'), one of the orators at 
 Athens in the Macedonian interest, and a friend 
 of Phocion, was condemned to death by the Athe- 
 nians in his absence, B, c. 317. 
 
 Callinicus Seleucus. [Seleucus.] 
 
 Callinns (KaAXr^'oy), of Ephesus, the earliest 
 Greek elegiac poet, probably flourished about b. c. 
 700, Only one of his elegies is extant, consisting 
 of 21 lines, in which he exhorts his countrymen to 
 courage and perseverance against their enemies. 
 Printed in Bergk's Poetae Lyiici Graeci, p. 303. 
 
 Calliope. [MusAE.] 
 
 Calliope (KaKKiSinj), a considerable city in the 
 W. of Parthia, founded, or else enlarged, by 
 Seleucus Nicator. 
 
 Calliphon (KoKKKptov), a Greek philosopher, 
 and probably a disciple of Epicurus, is condemned 
 by Cicero as making the chief good of man to con- 
 sist in an union of virtue (Jionestas) and bodily 
 pleasure (rJSoj/^, volupias). 
 
 Callipolia {KaWiiroKis -. KaKXLiroKlTTjs). 1. 
 {Gallipoli), a Greek town on the Tarentine gulf in 
 Calabria. — 3. A town on the E. coast of Sicily 
 not far from Aetna. — 3, (GuUipoli), a town in 
 the Thracian Chersonese opposite Lampsacus. — 4. 
 A town in Aetolia. See Gallium, 
 
L.iiijljiri-lL/JiO. 
 
 CALi V JLIN LIU a. 
 
 Callippides {KaWnrmS-qs), of Athens, a cele- 
 trated tragic actor, a contemporary of Alcibiades 
 and Agesilaus. 
 
 Gallippiis (KaWtTTTTos). 1. An Athenian, ac- 
 companied Dion to Syracuse, where he murdered 
 the latter b. c. 353. Callippus now usurped the 
 government of Syracuse, hut was expelled the city 
 at the end of 13 months, and after wandering 
 about Sicily with his mercenaries was at lengtli 
 put to death by his own friends. — 2. An astrono- 
 mer of C^'zicus, came to Athens, where he assisted 
 Aristotle in rectifying and completing the disco- 
 veries of Eudoxus. Callippus invented the period 
 or cycle of 76 years, called after him the Callippicj 
 which commenced B. c. 330. 
 
 CalliiTh.oe(*KaA.\t^^({7l). 1. Daughterof Oceanus, 
 ■wife of Chrysaor, and mother of Geryones and 
 Echidna. — 2. Daughter of Achelous and wife of 
 Alcmaeon, induced her husband to procm'e her the 
 peplus and necklace of Harmonia, by which she 
 caused his death. [Alcmaeon.] — 3. Daughter 
 of Scamander, wife of Tros, and mother of Ilus 
 and Ganymedes. 
 
 Callirrlioe [KaWi^pS-r]), afterwards called En- 
 neacrunus {'Ewedicpowos) or the " Nine Springs," 
 because its water was distributed by 9 pipes, was 
 the most celebrated well in Athens, and still re- 
 tains its ancient name CalUrrlioe. It was situated 
 in the S. E. extremity of the city between the 
 Olympieum and the Ilissus. 
 
 CaUisthenes (KaWtcBivi]^)^ of Olynthus, a 
 relation and a pupil of Aristotle, accompanied 
 Alexander the Great to Asia. In his intercourse 
 with Alexander he was arrogant and bold, and 
 took every opportunity of exhibiting his independ- 
 ence. He expressed his indignation at Alexander's 
 adoption of Oriental customs, and especially at the 
 requirement of the ceremony of adoration. He 
 thus rendered himself so obnoxious to the king, 
 that he was accused of being privy to the plot of 
 Hermolaus to assassinate Alexander ; and after 
 being kept in chains for 7 months, was either put 
 to death or died of disease. Callisthenes wrote an 
 account of Alexander's expedition ; a history of 
 Greece, in 1 books, from the peace of Antalcidas 
 to the seizure of the Delphic temple by Philome- 
 lus (b. c. 387—357) ; and other works, all of 
 which have perished. 
 
 Callisto (KaA\i(TTiw), an Arcadian nymph, hence 
 called Nonacrmavirgo (Ov. Met'ii. 409) from No- 
 nacris, a mountain in Arcadia, was daughter either 
 of Lycaon or of Nycteus or of Ceteus, and a compa- 
 nion of Artemis in the chase. She was beloved by 
 Zeus, who metamorphosed her into a she-bear that 
 Hera might not become acquainted with the 
 amour. But Hera learnt the truth, and caused 
 Artemis to slay Callisto during the chase. Zeus 
 placed Callisto among the stars under the name of 
 Ardos, or the Bear. Arcas was her son by Zeus. 
 According to Ovid Jupiter (Zeus) overcame the 
 virtue of Callisto by assuming the form of Arte- 
 mis ; Juno (Hera) then metamorphosed Callisto 
 into a bear ; and when Areas during the chase 
 was on the point of killing his mother Jupiter 
 placed both among the stars. [Arctos.] — Ac- 
 cording to a modem scholar Callisto is merely ano- 
 ther form of Calliste, a surname of Artemis, and she 
 J8 therefore the same as this goddess. The she- 
 bear was the symbol of the Arcadian Artemis. 
 
 Callistratia (KoAAio-Tpar/a), a town in Paphla- 
 gonia, on the coast of the Euxine. 
 
 Callistratus (KtiWiarpaTos). 1. An Athenian 
 orator, son of Callicrates of Aphidna. His oratory 
 was greatly admired by Demosthenes, and his 
 speech on the affair of Oropus, b. c. 366, is said to 
 have excited the emulation of Demosthenes, and 
 to have caused the latter to devote himself to ora- 
 tory. After taking an active part in public affairs, 
 generally in favour of Sparta, Callistratus was 
 condemned to death by the Athenians in 361, 
 and went into banishment to Methone in Mace- 
 donia. He ultimately returned to Athens, and 
 was put to death. During his exile he is said to 
 have founded the city of Datum, afterwards Phi- 
 llppi. ^2. A Greek grammarian, and a disciple of 
 Aristophanes of Byzantium. —3. A Roman jurist, 
 frequently cited in the Digest, wrote at least as 
 late as the reign (a. d. 198 — 211) of Severus and 
 Antoninus {i.e. Septimius Severus and Caracalla). 
 
 Callistus, C. Julius, a freedman of Caligula, 
 possessed great influence in the reigns of Caligula 
 and Claudius, and is the person to whom the 
 physician Scribonius Largus dedicates his work. 
 
 Callium (KdWioy : KaWievs), called Callipolis 
 by Livy (xxxvi. 30), a town in Aetolia in the 
 valley of the Spercheus, S.W. of Hypata. 
 
 Callixeuus (KaXM^evos), the leader in the pro- 
 secution of the Athenian generals who had con- 
 quered at Arginusae, b. c. 406. Not long after 
 the execution of the generals, the Athenians re- 
 pented of their unjust sentence, and decreed the 
 institution of criminal accusations against Callixe- 
 nus, but he escaped from Athens. On the restora- 
 tion of democracy, 403, Callixenus took advantage 
 of the general amnesty, and returned to Athens, but 
 no man would give him either water or light for his 
 fire, and he perished miserably of hunger. 
 
 Gallon (Kci\At4)i/). L An artist of Aeginn, 
 flourished B.C. 516. — 2. An artist of Elis, lived 
 before b. c. 436. 
 
 Calor. 1. A river in Samnium, flows past Be- 
 neventum and falls into the Vultm-nus. ^2. (Co- 
 lore), a river in Lucania, falls into the Silarus. 
 
 Calpe (KoAttt; : Gibralter)^ a mountain in the S. 
 of Spain on the Straits between the Atlantic and 
 Mediterranean. This and M. Abyla opposite to it 
 on the African coast, were called the Columns of 
 Hercules. [Abyla.] 
 
 Calpe {K6.K1771 : Kirpeli\ a river, promontorj', 
 and town on the coast of Bithynia, between the 
 rivers Psilis and Sangarius. 
 
 Calpumia, daughter of L. Calpumius Piso,. 
 consul b. c. 58, and last wife of the dictator Caesar, 
 to whom she was married in 59. The reports re- 
 specting the conspiracy against Caesar's life filled 
 Calpurnia with the liveliest apprehensions ; she in 
 vain entreated her husband not to leave home on 
 the Ides of March, 44. 
 
 Calpumia Gens, plebeian, pretended to be de- 
 scended from Calpus, a son of Numa. It was 
 divided into the families of Bestia, Bibulus, 
 Flamma, and Pi.so. 
 
 T. Calpurnius Siculus, the author of 1 1 Ec- 
 logues in Latin verse, which are close imitations 
 of Virgil, perhaps lived about A. d. 290. — Edi- 
 tions, In the Poetae Latlni Minores of Wernsdorff ; 
 and by Glaeser, Getting. 1842. 
 
 Calva, a surname of Venus at Rome, probably 
 in honour of the Roman women, who are said, 
 during the war with the Gauls, to have cut off 
 their hair for the purpose of making bow-strings. 
 
 Calventxus, an Insubrian Gaul, of the town of 
 
CALVINUS. 
 Placentia, whose daugliter married L. PIso, the 
 father of L. Piso Caesoninus, consul B. c. 58. In 
 his speech against the latter, Cicero upbraids him 
 with the low origin of his mother, and calls him 
 Caesoninus Semiplaceniinus Calventius. 
 
 Calvinns, Bomitius. 1. Cn., curule aedile, 
 B. c. 299, consul 203, and dictator and censor 280. 
 In liis consulship he, together with his colleague 
 Dolabella, defeated the Gauls and Etruscans, and 
 hence received the surname Maximus. •'^2. Cn., 
 tribune of the plebs, 59, when he supported Bibu- 
 lus against Caesar, praetor bQ^ and consul 53, 
 through xhe influence of Pompey. In the civil 
 war he joined Caesar. In 49 he fought under 
 Curio in Africa ; and in 48 he fought under Caesar 
 in Greece, and commanded the centre of Caesar's 
 array at the battle of Pharsalia. In 47 he had the 
 command of Asia, and in 46 he fought in Africa 
 against the Pompeian party. After Caesar's death 
 (44) he fought under Octavian and Antony against 
 the republicans. In 40 he was consul a 2nd time, 
 a.nd in 39 went as proconsul to Spain, where he 
 defeated the revolted Cerretani. 
 
 Calvlmis, L. Sextiiis, consul b. c. 124, defeated 
 the Salluvii and other people in Transalpine Gaul, 
 and in 123 founded the colony of Aq^uae Sextiae 
 {Aix). 
 
 Calvinus, T. Veturius, twice consul, b. c. 334 
 and 321. In his second consulship he and his 
 colleague Sp. Postumius Albinus were defeated by 
 the Sabines at Caudium. For details see Albi- 
 nus, No. 3. 
 
 Calvisius Sabmus. [Sabinus.] 
 
 Calvu3, Licxnins. [Licinius.] 
 
 Calycadnus {KaXvKoZvos). 1. {GMuk Sooyoo\ 
 a considerable river of Cilicia Tracheia, navigable 
 as far up as Seleucia. — 3, The promontory of this 
 name, mentioned by Polybius (xxii. 26) and Livy 
 (xxxviii. 38), appears to be the same as Anemu- 
 
 RIUM. 
 
 Calyduae {KdK-vZvai vr,{Toi). 1. Two small 
 islands off the coast of Troas, between Tenedos 
 and the Prom. Lectum.— -2. A group of islands 
 off the coast of Caria, N.W. of Cos, belonging to 
 the Sporades. The largest of them was called 
 Calydna, and afterwards Caljonna (now Kalimno). 
 
 Calydon (KakvZdiv : KaAySwrtos), an ancient 
 town of Aetolia on the Evenus in the land of the 
 ■Curetes, said to have been founded by Aetolus or 
 his son Calydon, The surrounding country pro- 
 duced wine, oil, and com ; and in the mountains 
 in the neighbourhood took place the celebrated 
 hunt of the Calydonian hoar. The inhabitants 
 were removed by Augustus to Nicopolis. 
 
 Calymna. [Calydnae.] 
 
 Calynda (KoA-wSa: KaAufSeus), acity of Caria, 
 E. of Caunus, and 60 stadia (6 geog. miles) from 
 the sea. The CaljTidians formed a part of the 
 fleet of Xerxes, under their king Damasithymus : 
 afterwards they were subject to the Caunians ; and 
 both cities were added by the Romans to the ter- 
 ritory of Rhodes. 
 
 Calypso (KaAuifw), daughter of Oceanus and 
 Tethys, or of Nereus, or, according to Homer, of 
 Atlas, was a nymph inhabiting the island of Ogygia, 
 on which Ulysses was shipwrecked, Cal3'pso loved 
 the unfortunate hero, and promised him immor- 
 tality if he would remain with her. Ulysses re- 
 fused, and after she had detained him 7 years, the 
 gods compelled her to allow him to continue his 
 journey homewards. 
 
 CAMJiKiJNUS. 141 
 
 CamalodimTim {Colchester)^ the capital of the 
 Trinobantes in Britain, and the first Roman co- 
 lony in the island, founded by the emperor Clau- 
 dius, A. D. 43. 
 
 Camarina {Kafxdpiva : Ka/iopiraros : Camej-ina), 
 a town on the S. coast of Sicily, at the mouth of 
 the Hippaiis, founded by Syracuse, b. c. 599. It 
 was several times destroyed by Syracuse ; and in 
 the 1st Punic war it was taken b}' the Romans, 
 and most of the inhabitants sold as slaves. Scarcely 
 any vestiges of the ancient town remain. In the 
 neighbourhood was a marsh, which the inhabitants 
 drained contrary to the command of an oracle, and 
 thus opened a way to their enemies to take the 
 town : hence arose the proverb jLfJj Ktvei Ka{j.apivav, 
 ne moveas Camarinam, 
 
 Cambiaiii Montes, the mountains which sepa- 
 rate Macedonia and Thessaly. 
 
 Cambysene (Ka/^&uo'TjyT]), a district of Armenia 
 Major, on the borders of Iberia and Colchis. 
 
 Cambyses {KafiSvcr-ns). 1. Father of Cyrus 
 the Great. —2. Second king of Persia, succeeded 
 his father Cyrus, and reigned b. c. 529 — 522. In 
 525 he conquered Egypt ; but an army which he 
 sent against the Ammonians perished in the sands, 
 and the forces, which he led in person against the 
 Aethiopians S. of Egypt, were compelled by failure 
 of provisions to return. On his return to Memphis 
 he treated the Egj'ptians with great cruelty ; he 
 insulted their religion, and slew their god Apis 
 with his own hands. He also acted tyrannically 
 towards his own family and the Persians in ge- 
 neral. He caused his own brother Smerdis to be 
 murdered ; but a Magian personated the deceased, 
 prince, and set up a claim to the throne. [Smer- 
 dis.] Cambyses forthwith set out from Egj'pt 
 against this pretender, but died in Syria, at a place 
 named Ecbatana, of an accidental wound in the 
 thigh, 522. 
 
 Cambyses (KajU^yVijs), 1. (/ora), a river of 
 Iberia and Albania, which, after uniting with the 
 Alazon {Alasnn\ falls into the Cyms. ^2. A 
 small river of Media, falling into the Caspian be- 
 tween the Araxes and the Amardus. 
 
 Camenae (not Camoenae}^ also called Casjnenae, 
 Carmenae. The name is connected with carman, a 
 " prophecy." The Camenae accordingly were pro- 
 phetic nymphs, and they belonged to the religion of 
 ancient Italy, althougli later traditions represent their 
 worship as introduced into Italy from Arcadia, and. 
 some accounts identify them with the Muses. The 
 most important of these goddesses was Carmenta 
 or Carmentis, who had a temple at the foot of the 
 Capitoline hill, and altars near the porta Carmen- 
 talis. Respecting her festival see Did. of Ant. 
 art. Carmenlalia, The traditions which assigned 
 a Greek origin to her worship, state that her ori- 
 ginal name was Nicostrate, and that she was the 
 mother of Evander by Hennes, with whom she 
 fled to Italy. 
 
 Cameria (Camerinus), an ancient town of La- 
 tiumi conquered by Tarquinius Priscus. 
 
 Camerinnm or Camarinum, more anciently 
 Gamers (Camertes : Camcrino\ a town in Umbria 
 on the borders of Picenum, an ally of the Romans 
 against the Etniscans, b. c. 308, and also an ally 
 of the Romans in the 2nd Punic war, subsequently 
 a Roman colony. 
 
 Camerinus, the name of*a patrician family of 
 the Sulplcia gens, the members of which frequently 
 held the consulship in the early times of the republic 
 
142 
 
 CAMERINUS. 
 
 (B.C. 500, 490, 461, 393, 345). After b. c. 345 
 the Camerini disappear from history for 400 years, 
 but they are mentioned again as one of the noblest 
 Roman families in the early times of the empire. 
 
 Camerinus, a Roman poet, contemporary with 
 Ovid, wrote a poera on the capture of Troy by 
 Hercules. 
 
 Camicus (Ka/iiKd? : KaixiKios), an ancient town 
 of the Sicani on the S. coast of Sicily on a river of 
 the same name, occupied the site of the citadel of 
 Agrigentum. 
 
 Camilla, daughter of king Metabus of the Vol- 
 scian town of Frivemum, was one of the swift- 
 footed servants of Diana, accustomed to the chase 
 and to war. She assisted Tumus against Aeneas, 
 and after slaying numbers of the Trojans was at 
 length killed by Aruns. 
 
 Camillus, Funus. L M., one of the great he- 
 roes of the Roman republic. He was censor b. c. 
 403, in which year Livy erroneously places his 
 . first consular tribunate. He was consular tribune 
 for the first time in 401, and for the second time 
 in 398. In 396 he was dictator, when he gained 
 a glorious victory over the Faliscans and Fidenates, 
 totik Veii, and entered Rome in triumph, riding in 
 a chariot drawn by white horses. In 394 he was 
 consular tribune for the third time, and reduced the 
 Faliscans, The story of the schoolmaster who at- 
 tempted to betray the town of Falerii to Camillus, 
 belongs to this campaign. In 391, Camillus was 
 accused of having made an unfair distribution of 
 the booty of Veii, and went voluntarily into exile 
 at Ardea. Next year (390) the Gauls took Rome, 
 and laid siege to Ardea. The Romans in the Ca- 
 pitol recalled Camillus, and appointed him dictator 
 in his absence. Camillus hastily collected an 
 army, attacked the Gauls, and defeated them com- 
 pletely. [Brennus.] His fellow-citizens saluted 
 him as the Second Romulus. In 389 Camillus was 
 dictator a third time, and defeated the Volscians, 
 Aequians, and other nations. In 386 he was 
 consular tribune for the fourth, in 384 for the fifth, 
 and in 381 for the sixth time. In 368 he was 
 appointed dictator a fourth time to resist the roga- 
 tions of C. Licinius Stolo. Next year, 367, he 
 was dictator a fifth time, and though 80 j'ears of 
 age, he completely defeated the Gauls. He died 
 of the pestilence, 365. Camillus was the great 
 general of his age, and the resolute champion of 
 the patrician order. His history has received 
 much legendary and traditional fable, and requires 
 a careful critical sifting. ^2. Sp., son of No. ]., 
 first praetor 367. — 3, L., also son of No. 1, was 
 dictator 350 in order to hold the comitia, and 
 consul 349, when he defeated the Gauls. — 4. L., 
 son of No. 2, consul 338, when he took Tibur, and 
 in conjunction with his colleague Maenius com- 
 pleted the subjugation of Latium. In 325 he was 
 consul a second time. ^5. M., proconsul of Africa 
 in the reign of Tiberius, defeated the Numidian 
 Tacfarinas, A. D. 17. — 6. M., surnamed Scriboni- 
 ANus, consul A. D. 32, under Tiberius. At the 
 beginning of the reign of Claudius he was legate 
 of Dalmatia, where he revolted, but was conquered, 
 42, sent into exile, and died S3. 
 
 Camiras (Kafietpos : Ka/xeipeiis), a Dorian town 
 on the W. coast of the island of Rhodes, said to 
 have been founded by Camirus, son of Cercaphus 
 and Cydippe, and the*principal town in the island 
 before the foundation of Rhodes. It was the 
 birth-place of the poet Pisander. 
 
 CAMPI. 
 
 Camisa (KajUttra), a fortress in Cappadocia, 23 
 Roman miles E. of Sebaste. 
 
 Camoenae. [Camenae.] 
 
 Campania (Campanus : Terra di Zavoro\ a 
 district of Italy, the name of which is probably 
 derived from camjozis "a plain," was bounded on 
 the N.W. by Latium, N. and E. by Samnium, 
 S.E. by Lucania, and S. and S. W. by the Tyr- 
 rhenian sea. It was separated from Latium by 
 the river Liris, and from Lucania at a later time 
 by the river Silarus, though in the time of Au- 
 gustus it did not extend further S. than the pro- 
 montory of Minerva. In still earlier times the 
 Jger Campanus' included only the countrj'" round 
 Capua. The country along the coast from the 
 Liris to the Promontory of Minerva is a plain 
 inclosed by the Apennines which sweeps round it 
 in the form of a semicircle. Campania is a vol- 
 canic country, to which circumstance it was mainly 
 indebted for its extraordinary fertility, for which 
 it was celebrated in antiquity above all other 
 lands. It produced corn, wine, oil, and every 
 kind of fruit in the greatest abundance, and in 
 many parts crops could be gathered 3 times in the 
 year. The fertility of the soil, the beauty of the 
 scenery, and the softness of the climate, the heat 
 of which was tempered by the delicious breezes of 
 the sea, procured for Campania the epithet Felix, 
 a name which it justly deserved. It was the fa- 
 vourite retreat in summer of the Roman nobles, 
 whose villas studded a considerable part of its 
 coast, especially in the neighbourhood of Baiae. 
 The principal river was the Vulturnus : the 
 minor rivers were the Liris, Savo, Clanius, 
 Sebethus, Sarnus, and Silarus. The chief 
 lakes were Lucrinus, Acherusia, Avernus, 
 and Literna, most of them craters of extinct 
 volcanos. — The earliest inhabitants of the country 
 were the Ausones and Osci or Opici. They 
 were subsequently conquered by the Etruscans, 
 who became the masters of almost all the country. 
 In the time of the Romans we find 3 distinct 
 people, besides the Greek population of Cumae : 
 
 1. The Cam-pani, properly so called, a mixed race, 
 consisting of Etruscans and the original inhabitants 
 of the country, dwelling along the coast fi'om Si- 
 nuessa to Paestum. They were the ruling race : 
 their history is given under Capua, their chief city. 
 
 2. SiDiciNi, an Ausonian people, in the N.W. of 
 the country on the borders of Samnium. 3. Pl- 
 CENTiNJ in the S. E. of the country. 
 
 Campe (KaftTnj), a monster which guarded the 
 Cyclops in Tartams, was killed by Zeus when he 
 wanted tlie assistance of the Cyclops against the . 
 Titans. 
 
 Campi Lapidei {ttgUqv KtQwZ^s ; la Crau), 
 " Plain of Stones" in the S. of Gaul, E. of the 
 Rhone, near the Mediterranean, and on the road 
 from Aries to Marseilles. These stones were pro- 
 bably deposited by the Rhone and the Druentia 
 (Durance), when their course was different from 
 what it is nt present. This singular plain was 
 known even to Aeschylus, who says that Zeus 
 rained down these stones from heaven to assist 
 Hercules in his flight vrith the Ligurians, after the 
 hero had shot away all his arrows. A sweet 
 herbage grows underneath and between the stones, 
 and consequently in ancient as well as in modem 
 times, flocks of sheep were pastured on this plain. 
 
 Campi Maori (Mawpol Ka^Trot), the " Long 
 Plains," a tract of country between Parma and 
 
CAMPI. 
 Modena, celebrated for the wool of its sheep. 
 There appears to have been a place of the same 
 name, where annual meetings of the neighbouring 
 people were held even in the time of Strabo. 
 
 Campi Raadii, a plain in the N. of Italy near 
 Vercella, where Marius and Catulus defeated the 
 Cimbri, b. c. 101. 
 
 Campus Martius, the " Plain of Mars," fre- 
 quently called the Campus simply, was, in its 
 widest signification, the open plain at Rome out- 
 side the city-walls, lying between the Tiber and 
 the hills Capitolinus, Quirinal, and Pincius ; but 
 it was more usually used to signify the N. W. 
 portion of the plain lying in the bend of the Tiber, 
 which nearly surrounded it on 3 sides. The S. 
 portion of the plain in the neighbourhood of tlie 
 Circus Flaminius was called Circus Flaminius or 
 Campus I'laminius or Frata riaminia. The 
 Campus Martius is said to have belonged originally 
 to tbe Tarquins, and to have become the property 
 of the state, and to have been consecrated to Mars 
 upon the expulsion of the kings. Here the Roman 
 youths were accustomed to perform their gymnas- 
 tic and warlike exercises, and here the comitia of 
 the centuries were held. At a later time it was 
 surrounded by porticoes, temples, and other public 
 buildings. It was included within the city walls 
 by Aurelian. — Some modern writers make 3 divi- 
 sions of the Campus Martius, and suppose that 
 there was a portion of the plain lying between the 
 Campus Martius proper and the Circus Flaminius, 
 called Campus Tiberinus or Campus Minor, but 
 this supposition does not rest on sufficient evidence. 
 The Campus Minor mentioned by Catullus (Iv. 3) 
 probably refers to another Campus altogether. 
 Respecting the other Campi see Roma. 
 
 Canae (Kavoi), a sea-port of Aeolis, in Asia 
 Minor, opposite to Lesbos. 
 
 Cauace (KacaKTj), daughter of Aeolus and Ena- 
 rete, had several children by Poseidon. She en- 
 tertained an unnatural love for her brother Maca- 
 reus, and on this account was killed by her own 
 father ; but according to others, she put an end to 
 ber life. 
 
 Cauaclius (Kdvaxos). 1. A Sicyonian artist, 
 flourished b. c. 540 — 508, and executed, among 
 other works, a colossal statue of Apollo Philesius 
 at Miletus, which was carried to Ecbatana by 
 Xerxes, 479.-2. A Sicyonian artist, probably 
 grandson of the former, from whom he is not dis- 
 tinguished by the ancients. He and Patrocles cast 
 the statues of 2 Spartans, who had fought in the 
 battle of Aegospotamos, e, c. 405. 
 
 Cauastrum or Canastraeum (Kdmarpov, Ko- 
 vaarpaTov, sc. dffpwTTjpioi', ij Kaj/atTTpaiTj &Kp-q : C. 
 Paillari), tiie S. E. extremity of the peninsula Pal- 
 lene in Macedonia. 
 
 Caudace (Kaj/ddKTj), a queen of the Aethiopians 
 of Meroe, invaded Egypt b. c. 22, but was driven 
 back and defeated by Petronius, the Roman go- 
 vernor of Egypt. Her name seems to have been 
 common to all the queens of Aethiopia. 
 
 Candaules (Kau5av\7}s), also called Myrsiius, 
 last Heraclid king of Lydia. His wife compelled 
 Gyges to put her husband to death, because he 
 had exhibited to Gyges her unveiled charms. 
 Gyges then married the queen and mounted the 
 throne, b. c. 716, 
 
 Candavia, Caudavii Montes, the mountains 
 separating Illyricum from Macedonia, across which 
 the "Via Egnatia ran. 
 
 CANULEIUS. 
 
 143 
 
 Candidum Pr. (Ras-el-Abiad, Cap Bianco), 
 N.W. of Hippo Zaritus on the N. coast of Zeug:i- 
 tana, in Africa, forms the W. headland of the 
 Sinus Hipponensis. 
 
 Camcula. [Canis.] 
 
 Canidia, whose real name was Gratidia, was a 
 Neapolitan courtezan beloved by Horace ; but when 
 she deserted him, he revenged himself by holding 
 her up to contempt as an old sorceress. {Epod. 5, 
 17, Sat. i. 8.) 
 
 Caninius Gallus. [Gallus.] 
 
 Caimuus Bebilus. [Rebilus.] 
 
 Canis (Kuwr), the constellation of the Great 
 Dog. The most important star in this constella- 
 tion was specially named Canis or Canicula^ and 
 also Sinus. About b. c. 400 the heliacal rising of 
 Sirius at Athens, corresponding with the entrance 
 of the sun into the sign Leo, marked the hottest 
 season of the sea, and this observation being taken 
 on trust by the Romans, without considering 
 whether it suited their age and country, the Dies 
 Caniculares became proverbial among them, as the 
 Dog Days are among ourselves. — The constella- 
 tion of the Little Dog was called Procyon (TipoKvojv)^ 
 literally translated Ante canem, Antecanis^ because 
 in Greece this constellation rises heliacally before 
 the Great Dog. When Bootes was regarded as 
 Icarius [Arctos], Procyon became Maera, the 
 dog of Icarius. 
 
 Cannae (Cannensis: Canne), a village in Apu- 
 lia, N. E. of Canusium, situated in an extensive 
 plain E. of the Aufidus and N. of the small river 
 Vergellus, memorable for the defeat of the Romans 
 by Hannibal, b. c. 216. 
 
 Canninefates. [Batavi.] 
 
 Canobus or Canopus (yidv(a§os or Kaz'wTros), 
 according to Grecian story, the helmsman of Me- 
 nelaus, who on his ret'im from Troy died in Egj'pt, 
 and was buried on the site of the to^vn of Cano- 
 bus, which derived its name from him. 
 
 Canobus or Canopus {KdvcaQos^ Kdvc^os : Kai'w- 
 €ir7}s: Ru, W. oi Aboukir), an important city on 
 the coast of Lower Egypt, near the W.-most 
 mouth of the Nile, which was hence called the 
 Canopic Mouth {rh Kavcv€iK})v ar6p.a). It was 
 120 stadia (12 geog. miles) E. of Alexandria, and 
 was (at least at one time) the capital of the Nomos 
 Menelaites. It had a great temple of Serapis, and 
 a considerable commerce; and its inhabitants were 
 proverbial for their luxury {Kav wSifffxos). After 
 the establishment of Christianity, the city rapidly 
 declined. 
 
 Cantabri, a people in the N. of Spain. The 
 Romans originally gave this name to all the people 
 on the N. coast of Spain ; but when they became 
 better acquainted with the country, the name was 
 restricted to the people bounded on the E. by the 
 Astures and on the W. by the Autrigones. The 
 Cantabri were a fierce and warlike people, and 
 were only subdued by Augustus after a struggle 
 of several years (b, c. 25 — 19). 
 
 Cantharus {KdvQapos\ a statuary and embosser 
 of Sicyon, flourished about b. c. 268. 
 
 Canthus (Kap0os), an Argonaut, son of Cane- 
 thus or of Abas of Euboea, was slain in Libya by 
 Cephalion or Caphaurus. 
 
 Cantium (Cantii : Kent), a district of Britain, 
 nearly the same as the modern Kent^ but included 
 
 LONDINIUM. 
 
 Canuleius, C, tribune of the plebs, b. c. 445, 
 proposed the law, establishing; connubium, or the 
 
144 CANUSIUM. 
 
 rlgTit of intermarriage, between the patricians and 
 plebs. He also proposed that tlie people should 
 have the right of choosing the consuls from either 
 the patricians or the plebs ; but this proposal was 
 not carried, and it was resolved instead, that mili- 
 tary tribunes, with consular power, should be 
 elected from either order in place of the consuls. 
 
 Canusium (Canusinus : Canosa), a town in 
 Apulia, on the Aufidus,and on the high road from 
 Rome to Brundusiura, founded, according to tra- 
 dition, by Diomede, -whence the surrounding coun- 
 try was called Campus Diomedis. It was at all 
 events a Greek colony, and both Greek and Oscan 
 ■were spoken there in the time of Horace. {Cami- 
 sini more bllinfjuis, Hor. Sai.i. 10. 30.) Canusium 
 ■was a toAvn of considerable importance, but suffered 
 greatly, like most of the other towns in the S. of 
 Italy, during the 2nd Punic war. Here the re- 
 mains of the Roman army took refuge after their 
 defeat at Cannae, B.C. 216. It was celebrated for 
 its mules and its woollen manufactures, but it had 
 a deficient supply of water. (Hor. Sat. i. 5. 91.) 
 There are still ruins of the ancient town near 
 Canosa. 
 
 Caiiutius, or Caniiiitius. 1. P., a distinguished 
 orator, frequently mentioned in Cicero's oration for 
 Cluentius. — 2. Ti., tribune of the plebs, E. c. 44, 
 a violent opponent of Antony, and, after the esta- 
 blishment of the triumvirate, of Octavian also. He 
 was taken prisoner at the capture of Perusia, and 
 was put to death by Octavian, 40. 
 
 Capaneus (Kawavivs)^ son of Hipponous and 
 Astynome or Laodice, and father of Sthenelus, 
 was one of the 7 heroes who marched from Argos 
 against Thebes. He was struck by Zeus with 
 lightning, as he was scaling the walls of Thebes, 
 because he had dared to defy the god. While liis 
 body was burning, his wife Evadne leaped into the 
 flames and destroyed herself. 
 
 Capella, the star. [Capra.] 
 
 Capella, Martiamia Mneus Felis, a native of 
 Carthage, probably flourished towards the close of 
 the fifth century of our aera. He is the author of a 
 work in 9 books, composed in a medley of prose 
 and various kinds of verse, after the fashion of the 
 Satyra Menippea of Varro. It is a sort of ency- 
 clopaedia, and was much esteemed in the middle 
 ages. The first two books, which are an introduc- 
 tion to the rest, consist of an allegor}*-, entitled the 
 Nuptials of Philology and Mercury, while in the 
 remaining 7 are expounded the principles of the 7 
 liberal arts. Grammar, Dialectics, Rhetoric, Geo- 
 metry, Arithmetic, Astronomy, and Music, in- 
 cluding Poetry. — Editions. Bv Hugo Grotius, 
 Lugd. Bat. 3599; and by Kopp,' Francf. 1836. 
 
 Capena (Capenas, -atis : Civitucolu, an uninha- 
 "bited hilJ), an ancient Etruscan town founded by 
 and dependent on Veil, submitted to the Romans 
 B. c. 395, the year after the conquest of Veii, and 
 subsequently became a Roman municipium. In its 
 territory was the celebrated grove and temple of 
 Feronia on the small river Capenas, [Feronia.] 
 
 Capena Porta. [Roma.] 
 
 Caper, Flavins, a Roman grammarian of uncer- 
 tain date, whose works are quoted repeatedly by 
 Priscian, and of whom we have 2 short treatises 
 extant: ^nntedhy'PutschinSjGraimnnt. Latin. Juct. 
 Antiqu., pp. 2239—2248, Hanov. 1605. 
 
 Capetus Sil-rfiia. [SiLvius.] 
 
 Caphareus {Kacpi^pevs : Capo d^ Oro), a rocky 
 and dangerous promontory on the S. E. of Euboea, | 
 
 CAPITOLIUM. 
 
 where the Greek fleet is said to have been wrecked 
 on its return from Troy. 
 
 Caphyae (Ka0uai : Kaipvevs, Kn^uaTTjs), a 
 town in Arcadia, N. W. of Orchomenus. 
 
 Capito, 0. Ateius. 1. Tribune of the plebs 
 B. c, 55, when he opposed the triumvirs. — 2. Son 
 of No. 1, an eminent Roman jurist, was ap- 
 pointed . Curator aquarum pid)licarum in A. D. 
 13, and held this office till his death, 22. He 
 gained the favour of both Augustus and Tibe- 
 rius by flattery and obsequiousness. He wrote 
 numerous legal works, which are cited in the 
 Digest and elsewhere. Capito and his contem- 
 pomry Labeo were reckoned the highest legal 
 authorities of their day, and were the founders of 
 2 legal schools, to which most of the great jurists 
 belonged. The schools took their respective names 
 from distinguished disciples of those jurists. The 
 followers of Capito were called from Masurius 
 Sabinus, Sahiniani ; and afterwards from Cassius 
 Longinus, Cassiani. Tlie followers of Labeo took 
 from Procnlus the name Procuhiani. 
 
 Capito, C. Fonteius, a friend of M. Antony, 
 accompanied Maecenas to Brundisium, b. c. 37, 
 when the latter was sent to effect a reconciliation 
 between Octavianus and Antony. (Hor. Sat. i. 5. 
 32.) Capito remained with Antony, and went 
 with him to the East. 
 
 Capitolinus, JuHus, one of the Scripiores His- 
 toriae Augustae^ lived in the reign of Diocletian 
 (a. d. 284 — 305), and wrote the lives of 9 empe- 
 rors : — 1. Antoninus Pius, 2. M. Aurelius, 3. L. 
 Verus, 4. Pertinax, 5. Clodius Albinus, 6. Opilius 
 Macrinus, 7. the 2 Maximini, 8. the 3 Gordiani, 
 9. Masimus and Balbinus. The best editions of 
 the So'iptores Historiae Augustae are by Salmasius, 
 Par. 1620 ; Schrevelius, Lugd. Bat. 1671. 
 CapitOlinus, Manlina. [Manlius.] 
 CapitOlinus Mons. [Capitolium : Roma.] 
 CapitOlinus, Petillius, was, according to the 
 Scholiast on Horace {Sat. i. 4. 94), entrusted with 
 the care of the temple of Jupiter on the Capitol 
 (whence he was called Capitoliuus), and was ac- 
 cused of having stolen the crown of Jupiter, but 
 was acquitted by the judges in consequence of his 
 being a friend of Augustus. The surname Capi- 
 tolinus appears, however, to have been a regular 
 famiij'-name of the gens. 
 
 Capitijlinus, Quintius. [Quintius.] 
 Capitolium, the temple of Jupiter Optimus 
 Maximus at Rome, was situated on the Mons Ca- 
 pitolinus, which dferived its name from the temple. 
 This hill is in figure an irregular oblong, with two 
 more elevated summits at the N. and S. ends. 
 The N, summit, which is somewhat higher and 
 steeper, was the Arx or citadel of Rome, and is 
 now occupied by the church of Ara Celt : while tlie 
 S. summit, which is now covered in part b;^ the 
 Palazzo Caffarelli, was the site of the Capitolium. 
 The temple is said to have been called the Capi- 
 tolium, because a human head (caput) was disco- 
 vered in digging the foundations. The building of 
 it was commenced by Tarquinius Priscus, and it 
 was finished by Tarquinius Superbus, but was not 
 dedicated till the 3rd year of the republic, b. c. 
 507, by the consul M. Horatius. It was burnt 
 down in the civil wars, 83, but was rebuilt by 
 Sulla, and was dedicated by Q. Catulus, G9. It 
 was burnt down a 2nd time by the soldiers of 
 Vitellius, A. D. G9, and was rebuilt by Vespasian ; 
 but it was burnt down a 3rd time in the reign of 
 
CAPPADOCIA. 
 Titus, CO, and was again rebuilt bj' Domitian with 
 greater splendour than before. The Capitol con- 
 tained 3 cells under the same roof: the middle cell 
 was the temple of Jupiter, hence described as 
 " media qui sedet aede Deus" (Ov. ex Pont. iv. 9. 
 32), and on either side were the cells of his attend- 
 ant deities, Juno and Minerva. The Capitol was 
 one of the most imposing buildings at Rome, and 
 was adorned as befitted the majesty of the king of 
 the gods. It was in the form of a square, namely, 
 200 feet on each side, and was approached by a 
 flight of 100 steps. The gates were of bronze, 
 and the ceilings and tiles gilt. The gilding alone 
 of the building cost Domitian 12,000 talents. In 
 the Capitol were kept the Sibylline books. Here 
 the consuls upon entering on their office offered sacri- 
 fices and took their vows ; and hither the victorious 
 general, who entered the city in triumph, was car- 
 ried in his triumphal car to return thanks to the 
 Father of the gods. — Although the. words Arx 
 Capitoliumque are properly used to signify the 
 whole hill, yet we sometimes find the term .^ 7a? 
 applied alone to the whole hill, since the hill 
 itself constituted a natural citadel to the city, 
 and sometimes the term Capitolium to the whole 
 hill, on account of the importance and reverence 
 attaching to the temple. Moreover, as the Capitol 
 was nearly as defensible as the Arx, it is sometimes 
 called Arx Tarpeia or C'apitolina, but the epithet 
 Tarpeia or Capitolina is applied to distinguish it 
 from the Arx properly so called. 
 
 Cappadocia {KaTnraSoKia : KairiraSo^, Cnppa- 
 dox), a district of Asia Minor, to which different 
 boundaries were assigned at different times. Under 
 t!ie Persian empire it included the whole country 
 inhabited by a people of Syrian origin, who were 
 called (from their complexion) White Syrians 
 (Aeu/eotrupoi), and also Cappadoces, which appears 
 to have been a word of Persian origin. Their 
 country seems to have embraced the whole N. E. 
 part of Asia Minor E. of the Halys and N. of the 
 Taurus. Afterwards (but whether under the Per- 
 sians or after the Macedonian conquest, is a dis- 
 puted point) the country was divided into two 
 parts, which were named respectively from their 
 proximity to the Euxine and to the Taurus, the N. 
 part being called Cappadocia ad Pontum and then 
 simply PoNTUS, the S. part Cappadocia ad Tau- 
 rum, and then simply Cappadocia : the former was 
 also called Cappadocia Minor and the latter Cap- 
 padocia Major. Under the Persian Empire, the 
 whole country was governed by a line of here- 
 ditary satraps, Avho traced their descent from 
 Anaphas, an Achaemenid, one of the 7 chieftains 
 that slew the pseudo-Smerdis, and wlio soon raised 
 themselves to the position of tributary kings. After 
 a temporary suspension of their power during the 
 wars between the successors of Alexander, when 
 Ariarathes I. was defeated and slain by Perdiccas 
 (b. c. 322), the kings of S. Cappadocia (respecting 
 the other part see Pontus) recovered their in- 
 dependence under Ariarathes II., whose history and 
 that of his successors will be found under Ariara- 
 thes and Ariobarzanes. In a. u. 17, Arche- 
 laiis, the last king, died at Rome, and Tiberius 
 made Cappadocia a Roman province. [Arche- 
 la'iJs, No. 6.] Soon afterwards the districts of 
 Cataoniaand Melitene, which had before belonged 
 to Cilicia, were added to Cappadocia, and the pro- 
 vince then comprised the 10 praefecturae of Meli- 
 tene, Cataonia, Cilicia, Tyanitis, Garsauritia, La- 
 
 CAPSA. 
 
 145 
 
 viuiasene, Sargarausene, Sarauravene, Chamanene, 
 and Morimene. There were other divisions under 
 the later emperors. Cappadocia was a rough and 
 generally sterile mountain region; bordered by the 
 chains of the Paryadres on the N., the Scy- 
 DissEs on the E., and the Taurus on the S., and 
 intersected by that of the Anti-Taurus, on the 
 side of whose central mountain, Argaeus, stood 
 the capital Mazaca, aft. Caesarea ad Argaeum. 
 Its chief rivers were the Halys and the Melas. 
 Its fine pastures supported abundance of good 
 horses and mules. 
 
 Cappadox (Ka7r7ra5o|: Konaw), a tributary of 
 the Halys, rising in M. Lithrus, in the chain of 
 Parj'adres, and forming the N.W. boundary of 
 Cappadocia, on the side of Galatia. 
 
 Capra, or Capella (A?f ), the brightest star in the 
 constellation of the Auriga, or Cliarioteer, is some- 
 times called Olenia Capella^ because it rested on 
 the shoulder (eVl ttjj oJAeVTjy) of the Auriga. This 
 star was said to have been originally the nympb or 
 goat who nursed the infant Zeus in Crete. [Aega ; 
 Aaialthea.] Its heliacal rising took place soon 
 before the winter solstice, and thus it was termed 
 siyniim pluviale. 
 
 Capraria or Caprasia. 1. (Cap-aja), a small 
 island off the coast of Etnaria between Populonia 
 and the N. extremity of Corsica, inhabited only 
 by wild goats, whence its name : called b}' tlie 
 Greeks AX-)i\ov.^~2. {Cabrera), a small island 
 off the S. of the Balearis Major {Majorca), dan- 
 gerous to ships. — 3. See Aegates.— 4. See For- 
 tunatae Insulae. 
 
 Capreae {Capri), a small island, 9 miles in cir- 
 cumference, off Campania, at the S. entrance of the 
 gulf of Puteoli, and 2^ miles from the promontory 
 of Minerva, from which the island had been separated 
 by an earthquake. It is composed of calcareous 
 rocks, which rise to 2 summits, the highest of 
 which is between 1600 and 1700 feet above the 
 sea. The scenery is beautiful, and the climate 
 soft and genial. According to tradition, it was 
 originally inhabited by the Teleboae, but after- 
 wards belonged to the inhabitants of Neapolis, 
 from whom Augustus either purchased it or ob- 
 tained it in exchange for the island Pithecusa. 
 Here Tiberius lived the last 10 years of his reign^ 
 indulging in secret debauchery, and accessible only 
 to his creatures. He erected many magnificent; 
 buildings on the island, the chief of which was, 
 the Villa Jovis, and the ruins of which are still to 
 be seen. 
 
 Capria (Ka-n-pia), a large salt lake in Pamphylia^ 
 near the coast, between Perge and Aspendus. 
 
 Capricornus {MySK^pois), the Goat, a sign of" 
 the Zodiac, between the Archer and the Waterman,, 
 is said to have fought with Jupiter against the 
 Titans. 
 
 Caprus (KaTrpos). 1. {Little Zah), a river of 
 Assyria, rising in Mt. Zagros [jSIts. of Kiirdidan)^. 
 and flowing S.W. into the Tigris, opposite to Cae- 
 nae. — 3. A little river of Phrj-gia, rising at ther 
 foot of M. Cadmus, and flowing N. into the Lycus. 
 
 Capsa (Capsetanus : Ghufmli), a stronn- and 
 ancient city in the S.W. of Byzacena in N. Africa, 
 in a fertile oasis, surrounded by a sandy desert 
 abounding in serpents. Its foundation was ascribed 
 by tradition to the Libyan Hercules. In the war 
 with Jugurthn, who used it as a treasure-city, it 
 was destroyed by Marius ; but it was afterwardg 
 rebuilt and erected into a colony. 
 
14G 
 
 CAPUA. 
 
 Capiia (Capuanus, Capuensis, but more com- 
 monly Campanus : Capua), originally called Tul- 
 tumum, the chief city of Campania after the fall 
 of CuMAE, is 6aid to have derived its name from 
 Capys. Capua was either founded or colonized by 
 the Etruscans, according to some 50 years before 
 the foTiadation of Rome, and it became at an early 
 period the most prosperous, wealthy, and luxurious 
 city in the S. of Italy. In B. c, 420 it was con- 
 quered by tbe warlike Samnites ; and the popula- 
 tion, which had always been of a mixed nature, 
 now consisted of Ausonians, Oscans, Etruscans, 
 and Samnites. At a later time Capua, again at- 
 tacked by the Samnites, placed itself under the 
 protection of Rome,, 343. It revolted to Hannibal 
 after the battle of Cannae, 216, but was taken by 
 the Romans in 211, was fearfully punished, and 
 never recovered its former prosperity. It was now 
 governed by a Praefectus, who was sent annually 
 to the city from Rome. It received a Roman 
 colon}' by the lex agraria of Julius Caesar, 59, and 
 imder Nero a colony of veterans was settled there. 
 It was subsequently destroyed by the barbarians 
 "who invaded Italy. The modem town of Capua is 
 built about 3 miles from the ancient one, the site 
 of which is indicated by the ruins of an amphi- 
 theatre. 
 
 Caput Vada Prom. [Brachodes.] 
 
 Capys (Kdirvs). 1. Son of Assaracus and Hie- 
 romnemone, and father of Anchises. — 2. A com- 
 panion of Aeneas, from whom Capua was said to 
 have derived its name. 
 
 Capys Sil^us. [Silvius.] 
 
 Capytitim or Capitium {Capizzi)^ called by 
 Cicero Capitina Civitasj a town in Sicily near Mt. 
 Aetna. 
 
 Car (Kap), son of Phoroneus, and king of Me- 
 gara, from whom the acropolis of this town was 
 called Caria. 
 
 Caracalla, emperor of Rome, a, d. 211 — 217, 
 was son of Septimius Severus and his 2nd wife 
 Julia Domna, and was born at Lyons, a. d. 188. 
 He was originallj' called Bassianus after his ma- 
 ternal grandfather, but afterwards M. Aurelius 
 Antmtinus^ which became his legal name, and ap- 
 pears on medals and inscriptions. Caracalla was 
 a nickname derived from a long tunic worn by the 
 Gauls, which he adopted as his favourite dress 
 after he became emperor. In 198 Caracalla, when 
 10 years old, was declared Augustus, and in the 
 same year accompanied his father Severus in the 
 expedition against the Parthians. He returned 
 with Severus to Rome in 202, and married Plau- 
 tilla, daughter of Plautianus, the praetorian prae- 
 fect. In 208 he went with Severus to Britain ; and 
 on the death of the latter at York, 211, Caracalla 
 and his brother Geta succeeded to the throne, ac- 
 cording to their father's arrangements. Caracalla's 
 first object was to obtain the sole government by 
 tbe murder of his brother ; and after making seve- 
 ral unsuccessful attempts upon the life of Geta, he 
 at length pretended to be reconciled with him, and 
 having thus thrown him off his guard, he caused 
 him to be murdered in the arms of his mother, 212. 
 The assassination of Geta was followed by the 
 execution of many of the most distinguished men 
 of the state, whom Caracalla suspected of favouring 
 his brother's cause: the celebrated jurist Papinian 
 was one of his victims. His cruelties and extra- 
 vagancies knew no bounds ; and after exhausting 
 Italy by his extortions, he resolved to visit the 
 
 CARBO. 
 different provinces of the empire, which became the 
 scenes of fresh atrocities. In 214 he visited Gaul, 
 Germany, Dacia, and Thrace ; and, in consequence 
 of a campaign against the Alemanni, he assumed the 
 surname Alenmnnicus. In 215 he went to Syria 
 and Egypt ; his sojourn at Alexandria was marked 
 by a general slaughter of the inhabitants, in order 
 to avenge certain sarcastic pleasantries in which 
 they had indulged against himself and his mother. 
 In 216 he crossed the Euphrates, laid waste Meso- 
 potamia, and relumed to Edessa, where he win- 
 tered. Next year he again took the field, intending 
 to cross the Tigris, but was murdered near Edessa 
 by Macrinus, the praetorian praefect. Caracalla 
 gave to all free inhabitants of the empire the name 
 and privileges of Roman citizens. 
 
 CaractactlS, king of the Silures in Britain, 
 bravely defended his country against the Romans, 
 in the reign of Claudius. He was at length de- 
 feated by the Romans, and iled for protection to 
 Cartimandua, queen of the Brigantes ; but she be- 
 trayed him to the Romans, who carried him to 
 Rome, A. D. 51. When brought before Claudius, 
 he addressed the emperor in so noble a manner 
 that the latter pardoned him and his friends. 
 
 Caralis or Carales (Caralitanus : CagliaH), tho 
 chief town of Sardinia, with an excellent harbour, 
 situated on the Sinus Caralitanus and on a pro- 
 montoiy of the same name {Capo S. Slia). It was 
 founded by the Carthaginians ; under the Romans 
 it was the residence of the praetor, and at a later 
 period enjoyed the Roman franchise. 
 
 Carambis {Kapd[i§LS &Kpa: Kerempe)^ a pro- 
 montory, with a city of the same name, on the 
 coast of Paphlagonia, almost exactly opposite the 
 Kriu Metopon or S. promontory of the Chersonesus 
 Taurica {Crimea). An imaginary line joining these 
 two headlands would make an almost equal divi- 
 sion of the Euxine, which was hence called SiSu^tj 
 M\a(T(ra. {Qo^h. A ?itig. 97 Q.) 
 
 Caranus (Kapcti/os). 1, Of Argos, a descendant 
 of Hercules, and a brother of Phidon, is said to 
 have settled at Edessa in Macedonia with an Ar- 
 give colony about b. c, 750, and to have become 
 the founder of the dynasty of Macedonian kings. 
 — 2. Son of Philip and half-brother of Alexander 
 the Great. — 3. A general of Alexander the 
 Great. 
 
 Carausius, bom among the Menapii in Gaul, 
 was entrusted by Maximian with the command of 
 the fleet which was to protect the coasts of Gaul 
 against the ravages of the Franks. But Maxi- 
 mian, having become dissatisfied with the conduct 
 of Carausius in this command, gave orders for the 
 execution of the latter. Carausius forthwith crossed 
 over to Britain, where he assumed the title of Au- 
 gustus, a. d. 287. After several ineffectual attempts 
 to subdue him, Diocletian and Maximian acknow- 
 ledged him aa their colleague in the empire, and he 
 continued to reign in Britain till 293, when he was 
 murdered by his chief officer, Allectus, 
 
 Carbo, Papirius. 1. C, a distinguished orator, 
 and a man of great talents, but of no principle. He 
 commenced public life as one of the 3 commissioners 
 or triumvirs for carrying into effect the agrarian 
 law of Tib. Gracchus. His tribuneship of the plebs, 
 B. c. 131, was characterized by the most vehement 
 opposition to the aristocracy ; and he was thought 
 even to have murdered Scipio Africanus, the cham- 
 pion of the aristocratical party, 129, But after 
 the death of C. Gracchus (121), he suddenly 
 
CARCASO. 
 
 deserted the popular part}', and in his consulship 
 (120) actually undertook tlie defence of Opimius, 
 "who had murdered C. Gracchus. In 119 Carbo 
 ■was accused by L. Licinius Crassus, who brought a 
 charge against him, and as he foresaw his condem- 
 nation, he put an end to his life.^3. Cn., consul 
 113, was defeated by the Cimbri near Noreia, and 
 being afterwards accused by M. Antonius, he put 
 an end to his own life. — 3. C, witli the surname 
 Arvina, son of No. 1, was a supporter of the aristo- 
 cracy. In his tribuneship (90), Carbo and his col- 
 league, M. Plautius Silvanus, carried a law {Lex 
 Papiria Plautia), giving the Roman franchise to the 
 citizens of the federate towns. Carbo was murdered 
 in 82, by the praetor Brutus Damasippus, at the com- 
 mand of the younger Marius. [Brutus, No. 10.] 
 — 4. Cn., son of No. 2, was one of the leaders of 
 the Marian party. He was thrice consul, namely, 
 in 85, 84, and 82. In 82 he carried on war against 
 Sulla and his generals, but was at length obliged 
 to abandon Italy : he fled to Sicily, where he was 
 taken prisoner, and put to death by Pompey at 
 Lilybaeum, in the course of the same year. 
 
 Carcaso ( Carcassone), a town of the Tectosages 
 in Gallia Narbonensis. 
 
 Carcathiocerta (KapKadtSKepTa ; Kartpurt or 
 Diarbehr)^ the capital of the district of Sophene in 
 Armenia Major. 
 
 Carcxnus (J,^apKiyos). 1. A comic poet and a 
 contemporary of Aristophanes {Nuh. 1263, Paoc, 
 794). __ 2. A tragic poet, lived about b. c. 380. 
 
 Cardamyle (KapSajuiiATj ; KapSa/tyXirTjy). 1. 
 A town in Messenia, one of the 7 towns promised 
 by Agamemnon to Achilles. — 2. An island near 
 or perhaps a town in Chios. 
 
 Cardea, a Roman divinity protecting the hinges 
 of doors {cardo\ was a nymph beloved hy Janus, 
 who rewarded her for her favours by giving her 
 the protection of the hinges of doors, and the power 
 of preventing evil daemons from entering houses. 
 Ovid {Fast. vi. 101, seq.) confounds this goddess 
 with Carna. 
 
 Cardia (KapSfa ; KapZiavSs)^ a town on the W. 
 side of the Thracian Chersonese on the gulf of 
 Melas, founded by Miletus and CIa2omenae, and 
 subsequently colonized by the Athenians under 
 Miltiades. It was destroyed by Lysimachus, who 
 built the town of Lysimachia in its immediate 
 neighbourhood, Cardia was the birth-place of 
 Eumenes and of the historian Hieronymus. 
 
 CarducM (KapSoDxot), a powerfiil and warlike 
 people in the S. E. of Great Armenia, on the N. E. 
 margin of the Tigris valley, probably the same as 
 the TopSvaioi and TopBvqvoi of the late geographers 
 and the Kurds of modem times. They dwelt in 
 the mountains which divided Assyria on the 
 N. E. from Armenia (Mts. of Kurdistan), and were 
 never thoroughly subdued by the Persians, Greeks, 
 or Romans. 
 
 Caresus (Kdprjo-os), a town of the Troad, on a 
 river of the same name flowing into the Aesepus : 
 destroyed before the time of Strabo. 
 
 Carxa {Kapia: Kop), a district of Asia Minor, 
 in its S. W. corner, bounded on the N. and N. E. 
 by the mountains Messogis and Cadmus, which 
 divided it from Lydia and Phrygia, and adjacent 
 to Phrj'gia and Lycia on the E. and S. E. It is 
 intersected by low mountain chains running out 
 far into the sea in long promontories, the N.-most 
 of which was called Mycale or Trogilium (opposite 
 to Samoa), the next Posidium (on which stood 
 
 CARINUS. 
 
 147 
 
 Miletus and Branchidae), the next is the long 
 tongue of land terminated by the 2 headlands of 
 Zephyrium and Termerium (with Halicamassus on 
 its S. side), next the Cnidian Chersonesus, termi- 
 nated by the cape Triopium and the city of Cnidus, 
 then the Rhodian Chersonesus, the S. point of 
 which was called Cynossema, opposite to Rhodes, 
 and, lastly, Pedalium or Artemisium, foiming the 
 W". Jieadland of the bay of Glaucus. The chief 
 gulfs formed by these promontories were the 
 Maeandrian, between Trogilium and Posidium ; 
 the lassian, between Posidium and Zephyrium ; 
 and the Ceraunian or Dorian, between Termerium 
 and Triopium. The valleys between these moun- 
 tain chains were well watered and fertile. The 
 chief river was the Maeander, between the chains 
 of Messogis and Latmus, to the S. of which the 
 country was watered by its tributaries, the Mar- 
 syas, Harpasus, and Mosynus, besides some streams 
 flowing W. and S. into the sea, the most consider- 
 able of which was the Calbis. (See the articles.) 
 The chief products of the country were corn, wine, 
 oil, and figs ; for the last of which Caunus, on the 
 S, coast, was very famous. An extensive commerce 
 was carried on by the Greek colonies on the coast. 
 — Even before the great colonization of the coasts 
 of Asia Minor, Dorian settlements existed on the 
 Triopian and Cnidian promontories, and this part 
 of Caria, with the adjacent islands, received at that 
 time other Dorian colonies, and obtained the name 
 of Doris ; while to the N. of the lassian Gulf, 
 the coast was occupied by Ionian colonies, and 
 thus formed the S. part of Ionia. The inhabitants 
 of the rest of the countr}' were Carians (Kapes), a 
 wide-spread race of the Indo-Germanic stock, nearly 
 allied to the Lydians and Mysians, which appears, 
 in the earliest times of which we know any thing, 
 to have occupied the greater part of the W. coast 
 of Asia Minor and several islands of the Aegean, 
 in conjunction with the Leleges, from whom the 
 Carians are not easily distinguishable. The con- 
 nection between the Carians, Lydians, and My- 
 sians is attested by their common worship of Zeus 
 Carios at Mylasa : the Carians had also a common 
 sanctuary of Zeus Chrj-^saoreus. — Their language 
 was reckoned by the Greeks as a barbarian tongue 
 (i. e. unintelligible), though it early received an 
 intermixture of Greek, The people were considered 
 mean and stupid, even for slaves. — The country 
 was governed by a race of native princes, who 
 fixed their abode at Halicamassus after its exclu- 
 sion from the Dorian confederacy. [Halicar- 
 NAS3US.] These princes were subject allies of 
 Lydia and Persia, and some of them rose to great 
 distinction in war and peace. [See Artemisia, 
 Mausolus, and Ada,] After the Macedonian 
 conquest, the S. portion of the country became sub- 
 ject to Rhodes [Rhodus], and the N, part to the 
 kings of Pergamus. Under the Romans, Caria 
 foiined a part of the province of Asia. 
 
 Cannae, [Roma.] 
 
 Carinus, M. AureHus, the elder of the 2 sons 
 of Cams, was associated with his father in the go- 
 vernment, A. D. 2 '3, and remained in the W., 
 while his father md brother Numerianus pro- 
 ceeded to the E, to carry on war against the Per- 
 sians. On the death of his father, in the course of 
 the same year, Carinus and Numerianus succeeded 
 to the empire. In 284 Numerianus was slain, and 
 Carinus marched into Moesia to oppose Diocletian, 
 who had been proclaimed emperor. A decisive 
 
148 
 
 CARMANA. 
 
 battle was fought near Margum, in 17111011 Carluus 
 gained the victory, but, in the moment of triumph, 
 he was slain by some of his own officers, whose 
 wives he had seduced, 285. Carinus was one of the 
 most profligate and cruel of the Roman emperors. 
 
 Carmana {Kapfxava : Kermmiy Ru.), the capital 
 of Carmania Propria, 3° long. E. of PersepoHs. 
 
 Carmania (Kapjtia^to: A'tVmara), a province of 
 the ancient Persian empire, bounded on the W. 
 by Persis, on the N. by Parthia, on the E. by 
 Gedrosia, and on the S. by the Indian Ocean. It 
 was divided into 2 parts, C. Propria and C. De* 
 serta, the former of which was well watered by 
 several small streams, and abounded in com, wine, 
 and cattle. The country also yielded gold, silver, 
 copper, salt, and cinnabar. The people were akin 
 to the Persians. 
 
 Carmanor (Kap^a^^wp), a Cretan, said to have 
 purified Apollo and Artemis, after slaying the 
 monster Python. 
 
 Carmelus, and -nm (Ktip^uTjXos : Jehel-Elijas\ 
 a range of mountains in Palestine, branching off, 
 on the N. border of Samaria, from the central chain 
 (which extends S. and N. between the Jordan and 
 the Mediterranean), and running N. and N. W. 
 through the S. W. part of Galilee, till it termi- 
 nates in the promontory of the same name {Cape 
 Carmel)^ the height of which is 1200 feet above the 
 Mediterranean. 
 Carmenta, Carmentis. [Camenae.] 
 Carmo {Carmona\ a fortified town in Hispania 
 Baetica, N. E. of HispaJis. 
 
 Cama, a Roman divinity, whose name is pro- 
 bably connected with caro^ flesh, for she was re- 
 garded as the protector of the physical well-being 
 of man. Her festival was celebrated June 1st, 
 and was believed to have been instituted by Brutus 
 in the first year of the republic. Ovid confounds 
 this goddess with Cardea. 
 
 Cameades {KapvedZ-ris), a celebrated philoso- 
 pher, born at Cyrene about n. c. 213, was the 
 founder of the Third or New Academy at Athens. 
 In 155 he was sent to Rome, witli Diogenes and 
 Critolaus, by the Athenians, to deprecate the fine 
 of 500 talents which had been imposed on the 
 Athenians for the destruction of Oropus. At Rome 
 he attracted great notice from his eloquent decla- 
 mations on philosophical subjects, and it was here 
 that he first delivered his famous orations on Jus- 
 tice. The 1st oration was in commendation of the 
 virtue, and the next day the 2Dd answered all the 
 arguments of the 1st, and showed that justice was 
 not a virtue, but a matter of compact for the main- 
 tenance of civil society. Thereupon Cato moved 
 the senate to send the philosopher home to his 
 school, and save the Roman youth from his de- 
 moniliziiig doctrines. Cameades died in 129, at 
 the age of 85, He was a strenuous opponent 
 of the Stoics, and maintained that neither our 
 senses nor our understanding supply us with a sure 
 criterion of truth. 
 
 Cameus (Ka/ji/eios), a surname of Apollo, under 
 which he was worshipped by the Dorians, is 
 derived by some from Camus, a son of Zeus and 
 Leto, and by others from Carnus, an Acarnanian 
 soothsayer.. The latter was murdered by Hippotes, 
 and it was to propitiate Apollo that the Dorians 
 introduced his worship under the surname of 
 Carneus. The festival of the Carnca^ in honour of 
 Apnllo, was one of the great national festivals of 
 the Spartans. (Diet, of Ant. s. v.) 
 
 CARTHAEA. 
 
 Cami, a Celtic people, dwelling N. of the Ve- 
 neti in the Alpes Carnicae. [See p. 40.] 
 
 Camuntlim {Kapvovs, -ovvros : Ru. between 
 Deutsch-Altenburg and PetroneU)^ an ancient Celtic- 
 town in Upper Pannonia on the Danube, E. of 
 Vindobona (FieHwa), and subsequently a Roman 
 municipiura or a colony. It was one of the chief 
 fortresses of the Romans on tlie Danube, and was 
 the residence of the emperor M. Aurelius during" 
 his wars with the Marcomanni and Quadi. It was 
 the station of the Roman fleet on the Danube and' 
 the regular quarters of the 14th legion. It was 
 destroyed by the Germans in the 4th century, but 
 was rebuilt and was finally destroyed by the Hun- 
 garians in the middle ages. 
 
 Camus. [Carneus.] 
 
 Camutes or -i, a powerful people in Gallia Lug- 
 dunensis between the Liger and Sequana: their 
 capital was Genabum. 
 
 Carpasia {Kapiraffia ; Karpass)^ a town in the 
 S. E. of^Cyprus. 
 
 Carpates, also called Alpes Bastarnicae {Car- 
 •patliian Mountains)^ the mountains separating* 
 Dacia from Sarrnatia. 
 
 Carpathus {KipTraQos: Scarpmito)^ an island' 
 between Crete and Rhodes, in the sea named after 
 it : its chief towns were Posidium and Nisyrus. 
 
 Carpetani, a powerful people in Hispania Tarra- 
 conensis, with a fertile territory on the rivers Anas 
 and Tagus, in the modem Casiille and Estrema- 
 dura : their capital was Toletum. 
 
 Carpi or Carpiani, a German people between 
 the Carpathian mountains and the Danube. 
 
 Carrae or Carrhae (KofJ^ai -. Haran or Charran,. 
 S.S. : J-Iarran)^ a city of Osroene in Mesopotamia^ 
 not far from Edessa. It was here that Crassua 
 met his death after his defeat by the Parthians^ 
 B. c. 53. 
 
 Carrinas or Carinas. 1. C, one of the com- 
 manders of the Marian part}', fought B.C. 83 against 
 Pompey, and in 82 against Sulla .ind his generals. 
 After the battle at the Colline gate at Rome, in- 
 which the Marian army was defeated, Carrinas 
 took to flight, but was seized, and put to deaths 
 ^3. C, son of No. 1, was sent by Caesar, in 45, 
 into Spain against Sext. Pompeius, but he did nob 
 accomplish anything. In 43 he was consul, and 
 afterwards served as one of the generals of Octa- 
 vian against Sext. Pompeius in Sicily, in 36, and- 
 as proconsul in Gaul in 31.^3. Secundus, ai 
 rhetorician, expelled by Caligula from Rome, be- 
 cause he had, b}'' way of exercise, declaimed against 
 tyrants in his school. 
 
 Carseoli (Carseolanus: Carsoli), a town of the- 
 Aequi in Latium, colonized by the Romans at an- 
 early period. 
 
 Carsiilae (Carsulanus: Mo7iie CastrilH)^ a. town 
 in Urabria, originally nf considerable importance,, 
 but afterwards declined. 
 
 Carteia (also called Carthaea, Carpia, Carpes- 
 sus : Crantia\ more anciently Tartessus, a cele- 
 brated town and harbour in the S. of Spain, at the- 
 head of the gulf of which M. Caipe forms one side, 
 founded by the Phoenicians, and colonized B. c. 
 170 by 4000 Roman soldiers, whose mothers were 
 Spanish women. 
 
 Cartenna or Cartinna (7^7^726;?), a colony on the 
 coast of Mauretania Caesariensia in N. Africa, 
 founded by Augustus. 
 
 Carthaea {Kapdaia : Poles, Ru.),a town on the 
 S. side of the island of Ceos, 
 
CARTHAGO. 
 ■Cartliago, Magna Carthago (Kapxv^cav. Kap- 
 -XV^ovius^ Carthaginiensis, Poemis : Ru. near £/- 
 Jlfarsa^ N.E. of Tunis), one of the most celebrated 
 cities of the ancient world, stood in tlie recess 
 -of a large bay (Sinus Cartliaginiensis) eiiclosed by 
 the headlands Apollinis and Mercufii (C Farina 
 and C.Bon)^ in the middle and N.-most part of the 
 J^. coast of Africa, in lat. about 3G° SS'N.jand long. 
 :about 10° 20' E. The coast of this part of Africa 
 has been much altered by the deposits of the river 
 Bagradas and the sand which is driven seawards 
 "by the N. W, winds. In ancient times Carthage 
 £tood upon a peninsula surrounded by the sea on 
 lall sides except the W. : but now the whole space 
 between tlie N. side of this peninsula and the S. 
 side of the Apollinis Pr. (C. Fari?ia), is filled up 
 -and converted into a marsh ; Utica, which was on 
 the sea-sliore, being left some miles inland ; and 
 the course of the Bagradas itself being turned con- 
 siderably N. of its original channel, so that, instead 
 •of flowing about half-way between Utica and Car- 
 thage, it now runs close to the ruins of Utica, and 
 falls into the sea just under C. Farina. The N. E. 
 ^nd S. E. sides of the peninsula are still open to the 
 sea, which has indeed rather encroached here, for 
 xuins are found under water. The S. side of the 
 .peninsula was formed by an enclosed bay, con- 
 Jiectedwitli the sea only by a narrow opening (now 
 called the Golctta, or, in Arabic, Hahci-el-Wad, 
 :. e. Th'oat of iJie River), which still forms the 
 jport of Tunis (anc. Tunes), which stands at its 
 furthest end ; but it is nearly choked up with the 
 deposit of the sewers of the city. The circuit of 
 the old peninsula may be estimated at about 30 
 ■miles : the width of the isthmus is 3, miles. The 
 jgreatest circumference of the city itself was pro- 
 bably about 15 miles. The original city appears 
 to have stood on the N. E. part of the peninsula, 
 Taetween lias Ghammart and Ras Bousaid (C. Car- 
 ihage)y where the remains of cisterns are seen under 
 water : these, and the aqueduct, whose ruins may 
 Tdb traced for 52 miles to Zaghwan, are the only 
 Temains of the old city. Its port, called Cothon, 
 was on the N. W. side of the peninsula, where 
 -a little village (now inland) still retains the 
 jiame of El-Marsa^ i.e. the Poii. The Roman 
 city, which was built after the destruction of the 
 -original Carthage, lay to the S. of it. — The Tyrian 
 colony of Carthage was founded, according to tra- 
 dition, about 100 years before the building of 
 Rome, that is, about b. c. 853. There were several 
 more ancient Phoenician colonies along the same 
 coast, between 2 of which, Utica and Tunes, the 
 ■new settlement was fixed, about 27 miles (Roman) 
 from the former, and 10 from the latter. The 
 jnythical account of its foundation is given under 
 Dido. The part of the city first built was called, 
 in the Phoenician language, Betzura or Bosra, i. e. 
 ^ casilc, which was corrupted by the Greeks into 
 Byrsa (Bvpixa,), i. e. a hide, and hence probably 
 -arose the story of the way in which the natives 
 ■were cheated out of the ground. As the city 
 ^ew, the Byrsa formed the citadel : it stood on 
 a low hill ; but its site can no longer be identified, 
 as there are several such hills within the circuit of 
 the ancient city. The Cothon, or Fort, is said to 
 have been excavated, and the quarter of the city 
 adjoining to it built, 40 years later, B.C. 813. 
 This Cothon was the inner harbour, and was used 
 for ships of war : the outer harbour, divided from 
 it by a tongue of land 300 feet wide, was the sta- 
 
 CARTHAGO. 
 
 149 
 
 tlon for the merchant ships. The fortifications- of 
 the city consisted of a single wall on the side to- 
 wards the sea, where the steep shore formed a 
 natural defence, and a triple wall of great height, 
 with battlements and towers, on the land side ; — 
 on this side were barracks for 40,000 soldiers, and 
 stables for 300 elephants and 4000 horses. Beyond 
 the fortifications was a large suburb, called Magara 
 or Magalia, containing many beautiful gardens and 
 villas. The aqueduct already mentioned is sup- 
 posed, on good grounds, to have been built at an 
 early period of the existence of the city. The 
 most remarkable buildings mentioned within the 
 city were the temple of the god whom the Greeks 
 and Romans identified with Aesculapius, and that 
 of Apollo (Baal or the Sun) in the market-place. 
 The population of Carthage, at the time of the 3rd 
 Punic war, is stated at 700,000. — The constitu- 
 tion of Carthage was a municipal oligarchy, some- 
 what resembling that of Venice. The two chief 
 magistrates, called Suifetes (probably the same 
 word as the Hebrew Shophetim, i. e. Jmlges) ap- 
 pear to have been elected for life ; the Greek and 
 Roman writers call them kings. The generals and 
 foreign governors were usually quite distinct from 
 the suffetes ; but the 2 offices were sometimes 
 united in the same person. The governing body 
 was a Senate, partly hereditary- and partly elective, 
 within which there was a select body of 100 or 
 104,calledGeru3ia,whosechief office was to controul 
 the m;igisti-atus,and especially the generals returning 
 fiBm foreign service, who might be suspected of at- 
 tempts to establish a tyranny. The Gerusia was 
 first formed about e. C. 400, when the power of the 
 house of Mago excited suspicion ; and its efficacy 
 was shown in the defeat of the attempts made by 
 Hanno (b. c. 340) and Hamilcar (b. c. 306) to 
 seize the supreme power. Its members are said 
 by Aristotle to have been elected by the pentar- 
 chies, bodies of which we have very little inform- 
 ation, but which appear to have been committees 
 of five, chosen from the most eminent members of 
 the senate, and entrusted with the controul of the 
 various departments of the government. Important 
 questions, especially those on which the senate and 
 the suffetes disagreed, were referred to a general 
 assembly of the citizens ; but concerning the mode 
 of proceeding in this assembly, and the extent of 
 its powers, we know very little. It seems to have 
 elected the magistrates ; the senate having either 
 the power of previous nomination or of a veto, it is 
 not clear which. The generals were chosen by 
 the gerusia, and approved by the assembly of the 
 citizens. — The general tone of social morality at 
 Carthage appears to have been high, at least durlno- 
 its earlier history : there was a censorship of public 
 morals, under the care of the gerusia ; and all the 
 magistrates were required, during their term of 
 office, to abstain from wine : the magistrates were 
 also unpaid. Their punishments were very severe, 
 and the usual mode of inflicting death was by cru- 
 cifixion. — The religion of Carthage was that of 
 the mother country ; especial mention is made of 
 the cruel rites oftheir tutelar deity Melcarth (i. e. 
 king of the citi/^ no doubt the same as Moloch), 
 which were abolished by the treaty with Gelon of 
 Syracuse, b. c. 480 ; and also of the worship of 
 Ashtaroth and Astarte, and Aesculapius. — The 
 chief occupations of the people were commerce and 
 agriculture : in the former they rivalled the mother 
 city, Tyre ; and the latter they pursued with such 
 
 L 3 
 
150 
 
 CARTHAGO. 
 
 success that the country aroiind the city was one 
 of the heat cultivated districts in tlie ancient world, 
 and a great work on agriculture, in 2!) books, was 
 composed by Mago, a suffete. — The revenues of 
 the state were derived from the subject provinces ; 
 and its amy was composed of mercenaries from 
 the neighbouring country, among whom the Numi- 
 dian cavalry were especially distinguished. — Of 
 the History of Carthage a brief sketcli will suffice ; 
 as the most important portions of it are related in 
 the ordinary histories of Rome. The first colonists 
 preserved the character of peaceful traders, and 
 maintained friendly relations with the natives of 
 the country, to whom they long continued to pay 
 a rent or tribute for the ground on which the city 
 was built. Gradually, however, as their commerce 
 brought them power and wealtii, they were enabled 
 to reduce the natives of the district round the city, 
 first to the condition of allies, and then to that of tri- 
 butaries. Meanwhile, they undertook military ex- 
 peditious at sea, and possessed themselves, first of 
 the small islands near their own coast, and after- 
 wards of Malta, and the Lipari and Balearic is- 
 lands : they also sent aid to Tyre, when it was 
 besieged by Nebuchadnezzar (b. c. 600), and took 
 part in wars between the Etruscans and the Pho- 
 caean colonies. On the coast of Africa they founded 
 numerous colonies, from the Pillars of Hercules to 
 the bottom of the Great Syrtis, where they "met 
 the Greek colonists of Cyrenaica: the people of 
 these colonies became intermixed with the Libyans 
 around them, forming a population who are called 
 Libyo-Phoenicians. In connection with their com- 
 mercial enterprizes, they no doubt sent forth various 
 expeditions of maritime discovery ; among which 
 we have mention of 2, which were undertaken 
 during the long peace which followed the war with 
 Gelon in b. c. 480, to explore the W. coasts of 
 Europe and Africa respectively. The record of 
 the latter expedition, under Hanno, is still pre- 
 served to us in a Greek translation [Hanno], 
 from which we learn that it reached probably as 
 iar S, as 10° N. lat., if not further. The relations 
 of the Carthaginians with the interior of N. Africa 
 appear to have been very extensive, but the coun- 
 try actually subject to them, and which formed 
 the true Carthaginian territory, was limited to the 
 district contained between the river Tusca (Zain) 
 on the W. and the lake and river Triton, at the 
 bottom of the Lesser Syrtis, on the 3., correspond- 
 ing very nearly to the modern regency of Tunis ; 
 and even within this territory there were some an- 
 cient Phoenician colonies, which, though in alliance 
 with Carthage, preserved their independent muni- 
 cipal government, such as Hippo Zaritus, Utica, 
 Hadrumetum, and Leptis. — The first great deve- 
 lopment of the power of Carthage for foreign con- 
 quest was made by Mago (about B.C. 550 — 500), 
 who is said to have first established a sound disci- 
 pline in the armies of the republic, and to have 
 freed the city from the tribute which it still paid 
 to the Libyans. His sons, Hasdrubal and Hamil- 
 car, reduced a part of the island of Sardinia, where 
 the Carthaginians founded the colonies of Caralis 
 and Sulci ; and by this time the fame of Carthage 
 had spread so far, that Darius is said to have sent 
 to ask her aid against the Greeks, which, however, 
 was refused. The Carthaginians, however, took 
 advantage of the Persian war to attempt the con- 
 quest of Sicily, whither Hamilcar was sent with a 
 great force, in b. c. 480, but bis anny was de- 
 
 CARTHAGO. 
 
 stroyed and himself killed in a gi'eat battle under 
 the walls of Himera, in which the Sicilian Greeks 
 were commanded by Gelon the tyrant of Syracuse, 
 and which was said to have been fought on the 
 same day as the battle of Salamis. Their next 
 attempt upon Sicily, in b. c. 4 1 0, led to a protracted 
 war, which resulted in a treaty between the Syra- 
 cusans, under Timoleon, and the Carthaginians, by 
 which the latter were confirmed in the possession 
 of the W. part of the island, as far as the river 
 Halicus. From b. c. 310 — 307 there was another 
 war between Syracuse and the Carthaginians, 
 which was chiefly remarkable for the bold step 
 taken by Agathocles, who invaded the Carthagi- 
 nian territory in Africa, and thus, though unable 
 to maintain himself there, set an example which 
 was followed a century later by Scipio, with fatal 
 results to Carthage. Passing over the wars with 
 Pyrrhus and Hiero, we come to the long struggle- 
 between Rome and Carthage, known as the Punic- 
 Wars, which are fully related in the Histories of 
 Rome. [See also Hamilcar.] The first lasted 
 from B. c. 265 — 242, and resulted in the loss to 
 Carthage of Sicily and the Lipari islands. It was 
 followed by a fierce contest of some years between 
 Carthage and her disbanded mercenaries, which is- 
 called the Libyan War, and which was terminated 
 by Hamilcar Barcas. After a hollow peace, during- 
 which the Romans openly violated the last treatj^ 
 and the Carthaginians conquered Spain as far as- 
 the Iberus (Ebro), the Second Punic War, the 
 decisive contest between the two rival states, whicli 
 were too powerful to co-exist, began vrith the siege 
 of Saguntura (b. c, 218) and terminated (b. c. 201) 
 with a peace by which Carthage was stripped of 
 all her power. [Hannibal; Scipio.] Her de- 
 struction was now only a question of time, and,, 
 though she scrupulously observed the terras of the- 
 last peace for 50 years, in spite of every provocation 
 from the Romans and their ally Masinissa, the 
 king of Numidia, a pretext was at length found for 
 a new war (b. c. 149), which lasted only 3 years, 
 during which the Carthaginians, driven to despair 
 by the terms proposed to them, sustained a siege 
 so destructive that, out of 700,000 persons, wha 
 were living in the city at its commencement, only 
 50,000 surrendered to the Romans. The city waa 
 razed to the ground, and remained in ruins for 30 
 3'ears. At the end of that time a colony was esta- 
 blished on the old site bj' the Gracchi, which re- 
 mained in a feeble condition till the times of Julius, 
 and Augustus, under whom a new city was built 
 S. of the former, on the S. E. side of the peninsula,, 
 with the name of Colonia Carthago. It soon grew 
 so much as to cover a great part (if not the whole) of 
 the site of the ancient Tyrian city; it became the first 
 city of Africa, and occupied an important place in ec- 
 clesiastical as well as in civil history. It was taken 
 by the Vandals in A, D. 439, retaken by Belisarius 
 in A. D. 533, and destroyed by the Arab con- 
 querors in A. D. 698. — Respecting the territury of 
 Carthage under the Romans, see Africa, No. 2. 
 
 Carthag'oH'ova(Kapx'75'^*"J ^^'^- Carthagana\ 
 a town on the E. coast of Hispania Tarraconensis, 
 founded by the Carthaginians under Hasdrubal, 
 B.C. 243, and subsequently conquered and colo- 
 nized by the Romans, from which time its full 
 name was Colonia Victrix Julia Nova Carthago. 
 It is situated on a promontory running out into 
 the sea, and possesses one of the finest harbours in 
 the worid : at the entrance of the harbour was a 
 
CARURA. 
 
 small island called Scombraria, from the great 
 number of scombri or mackerel caught here, from 
 which such famous pickle was made. In ancient 
 times Carthago Nova was one of the most import- 
 ant cities in all Spain ; its population was nume- 
 rous, its trade flourishing, and its temples and 
 other public buildings handsome and imposing. It 
 was, together with Tarraco, the residence of the 
 Roman governor of the province. In the neigh- 
 bourhood were valuable silver mines ; and the 
 country produced an immense quantity of Sparium 
 or broom, whence the town bore the surname 
 Spartaria, and the country was called Campus 
 Spartaruis. 
 
 Carura (ra Kapovpd: Sanldvi), a Phrygian 
 city, in the territory of Caria, on the left bank of 
 the Maeander, celebrated for its hot springs and its 
 temple of Men Cams. 
 
 Cams, Iff. Aiirelius, Roman emperor a. d. 282 
 ■ — 283, probably born at Narbo in Gaul, was prae- 
 fectus praetorio under Probus, and on the murder of 
 the latter was elected emperor. After defeating 
 the Samiatians, Carus invaded the Persian domi- 
 nions, took Seleucia and Ctesiphon, and was pre- 
 paring to push his conquests beyond the Tigris, 
 when he was struck dead by lightning, towards 
 the close of 283. He was succeeded by his sons 
 Carinus and Num"Eiiianus. Carus was a vic- 
 torious general and able ruler. 
 
 Cariisa (?) Kapovaa : Kerzeh), a city on the coast 
 of Paphlagonia, S. of Sinope. 
 
 Carventum, a town of the Volsci, to which the 
 Carventana Arx mentioned by Livy belonged, a 
 town of the Volsci between Signia and the sources 
 of the Trerus. 
 
 Carviliua Masimus. 1. Sp,, twice consul, b. c. 
 293 and 273, both times with L. Papirius Cursor. 
 In their first consulship they gained brilliant vic- 
 tories over the Samnites, and in their second they 
 brought the Samnite war to a close. — 3. Sp., son 
 of the preceding, twice consul, 234 and 228, was 
 alive at the battle of Cannae, 216, after which he 
 proposed to fill up the vacancies in the senate from 
 the Latins. This Carvilius is said to have been 
 the first person at Rome who divorced his wife. 
 
 Caryae {Kapvat : KapuaTTjs-, fern. Kapvans), a 
 town in Laconia near the borders of Arcadia, ori- 
 ginally belonged to the territory of Tegea in, 
 Arcadia. It possessed a temple of Artemis Caryatis, 
 and an annual festival in honour of this goddess 
 was celebrated here by the Lacedaemonian maidens 
 with national dances. Respecting the female figures 
 in architectiire called Caryatides, see Diet, of 
 Ant. s. V. 
 
 Caryanda (to. KapvavSa: KapvavB^us : Kara- 
 hnyan), a city of Caria, on a little island, once pro- 
 bably united with the mainland, at the N.W. ex- 
 tremity of the peninsula on which Halicamassus 
 stood. It once belonged to the Ionian league ; and 
 it was the birthplace of the geographer Scylax. 
 
 Caryatis. [Caryae,] 
 
 Carystius (Kapytrnos), a Greek grammarian of 
 Pergamus, lived about B.C. 120, and wrote nume- 
 rous works, all of which are lost. 
 
 Carystus [Kdpvff'TQs: Kap\icrTLos : Karysto or 
 Castel Rosso), a town on the S. coast of Euboea, at 
 the foot of Mount Oche, founded by Dryopes ; 
 called, according to tradition, after Carystus, son of 
 Chiron. In the neighbourhood was excellent mar- 
 ble, which was exported in large quantities ; and 
 the mineral, called Asbestos, was also found here. 
 
 CASPIL 
 
 151 
 
 Casca, P. ServiliuB, tribune of the plebs, b,c. 
 44, was one of the conspirators against Caesar, and 
 aimed the first stroke at his assassination. He 
 fought in the battle of Philippi (42), and died 
 shortly afterwards. — C. Casca, the brother of tlie 
 precedmg, was also one of the conspirators against 
 Caesar. 
 
 Cascellius, A., an eminent Roman jurist (Hor. 
 At. Pott. 371), contemporary with Caesar and 
 Augustus, was a man of stem republican principles, 
 and spoke freely against the proscriptions of tlie 
 triumvirs. 
 
 Casilmimi (Casilinas, -atis), a town in Cam- 
 pania on the Vultiirnus, and on the same site as 
 the modern Capua, celebrated for its heroic defence 
 against Hannibal B.C. 216, It received Roman 
 colonists by the Lex Julia, but had greatly de- 
 clined in the time of Pliny. 
 
 Casinum (Casinas, -atis : S. Gemiano), a town 
 in Latium on the river Casinus, and on the Via 
 Latina near the borders of Campania ; colonized 
 by the Romans in the Samnite wars ; subsequently 
 a municipium ; its citadel containing a temple of 
 Apollo occupied the same site as the celebrated 
 convent Monte Cassino : the ruins of an amphi- 
 theatre are found at S. Germano. 
 
 Casiotis. [Casius.] 
 
 Caaius. 1, {Ras Kasaroun)^ a mountain on the 
 coast of Egypt, E. of Pelusium, with a temple of 
 Jupiter on its summit. Here also was the grave of 
 Pompey, At the foot of the mountain, on the land 
 side, on the high road from Egypt to Syria, stood 
 the town of Casium (Kaiieh). The surrounding 
 district was called Ca3iOtis.^2. {J^el Okrak\ a 
 mountain on the coast of Syria, S, of Antioch and 
 the Orontes, 5318 feet above the level of the sea. 
 The name of Casiotis was applied to the district on 
 the coast S, of Casius, as far as the N. border of 
 Phoenicia. 
 
 Ca3m.eiia, -ae {Yia.cTp.4vTi, Herod. : Kaffpivai, 
 Time. : Kaa-p^vaios), a town in Sicily, founded by 
 Syracuse about B. c. 643. 
 
 Casperia or Casperiila, a town of the Sabines, 
 N.W. of Cures, on the river Himella {Aspra). 
 
 Caspiae Portae or Pylae (Kao-TTiot TniAai, i. e. 
 the Caspian Gates), the principal pass from Media 
 into Parthia and Hyrcania, through the Caspii 
 MoNTES, was a deep ravine, made practicable by 
 art, but still so narrow that there was only room 
 for a single waggon to pass between the lofty over- 
 hanging walls of rock, from the sides of which a 
 constant drip of salt water fell upon the road. The 
 Persians erected iron gates across the narrowes.t 
 part of the pass, and maintained a guard for its 
 defence. This pass was near the ancient Rhagae 
 or Aj:sacia ; but there were other passes through 
 the mountains round the Caspian, which are called 
 by the same name, especially that on the W. shore 
 of the Caspian, through the Caucasus near Derhent, 
 which was usually called Albaniae or Caucasiae 
 Portae. The Caspian gates, being the moat im- 
 portant pass from Western to Central Asia, were 
 regarded by many of the ancients as a sort ot 
 central point, common to the boundaries between 
 W. and E. Asia and N. and S. Asia ; and dis- 
 tances were reckoned from them. 
 
 Caspii (Kao-TTtoi), the name of certain Scythian 
 tribes near the Caspian Sea, is used rather loosely 
 by the ancient geographers. The Caspii of Strabo 
 are on the W. side of the sea, and their countrj', 
 Caspiane, forma a part of Albania. Those of Hero- 
 
 L 4 
 
]52 CASPII, 
 
 dotus and Ptolemy are in the E. of Media, on the 
 torders of Parthia, in the neighbourliood of the 
 Caspiae Pylae. Probably it would not be fiir 
 ■wrong to apply the name generally to the people 
 round the S. "VV. and S. shores of the Caspian in 
 and about the Caspii Montes. 
 
 Caspii Montes (to. Kdtnna 6pT} : Elburz Mis.) 
 or Caspius Mons, is a name applied generally to 
 the wliole range of mountains which surround the 
 Caspian Sea, on the S. and S, W., at the distance 
 of from 15 to 30 miles from its shore, on the bor- 
 ders of Armenia, Media, Hyrcania, and Parthia ; 
 and more specifically to that part of this range S. 
 of the Caspian, in which was the pass called 
 Caspiae Pvlae. The term was also loosely 
 applied to other mountains near the Caspian, 
 especially, by Strabo, to the E. part of the Cau- 
 casus, between Colchis and the Caspian. 
 
 Caspiri or Caspixaei (KaffTrtipoi, Katririparoi), a 
 people of India, whose exact position is doubtful : 
 they are generally placed in Cashmeer s-nd. jVepaul. 
 
 Caspiujn Mare (tJ Koo-Tria Srd\aacra^ the Caspian 
 Sea), also called Hyrcanium, Albamim, and 
 Scythicum, all names derived from the people 
 ■who lived on its shores, is a great salt-water lake 
 in Asia, according to the ancient division of the 
 continents, but now on the boundary between Eu- 
 rope and Asia. Its average width from E. to W. 
 is about 210 miles, and its length from N. to S., in 
 a straight line, is about 740 miles ; but, as its N. 
 part makes a great bend to the E., its true length, 
 measured along a curve dra\vn through its middle, 
 js about 900 miles ; its area is about 180,000 square 
 miles. The notions of the ancients about the Cas- 
 pian varied very much ; and it is curious that two 
 of the erroneous opinions of the later Greek and 
 Roman geographers, namely, that it was united 
 both with the Sea of Aral and with the Arctic 
 Ocean, expressed what, at some remote period, 
 "were probably real facts. Their other error, that 
 its greatest length lay W. and E., very likely 
 arose from its supposed union with the Sea of Aral. 
 Another consequence of this error was the suppo- 
 sition that the rivers Oxus and Jaxartes flowed 
 into the Caspian. That the former really did so at 
 Bome time subsequent to the separation of the two 
 lakes (supposing that they were once united) is 
 pretty well established; but whether this has been 
 the case within the historical period cannot be de- 
 termined [Oxus]. The country' between the two 
 lakes has evidently been greatly changed, and the 
 sand-hills which cover it have doubtless been accu- 
 mulated by the force of the E. winds bringing down 
 sand from the steppes of Tartary. Both lakes 
 have their surface considerably below that of the 
 Black Sea, the Caspian between nearly 350 feet, 
 and the Aral about 200 feet, lower than the level 
 of the Black Sea, and both are still sinking by 
 evaporation. Moreover, the whole country between 
 and around them for a considerable distance is a 
 depression, surrounded by lofty mountains on every 
 side, except where the valley of the Irtish and OOi 
 stretches a.\va.y to the Arctic Ocean. Besides a 
 number of smaller streams, two great rivers flow 
 into the Caspian ; the Rha ( Volga) on the N., and 
 the united Cyrus and Araxes (Kour) on the W. ; 
 but it loses more by evaporation than it receives 
 from these rivers, 
 
 Cassandane (Kao-(ravddi/7]\ wife of Cyrus the 
 Great, andTnother of Cambyses. 
 
 Cassander {KdjaauBpos), son of Antlpater. His 
 
 CASSANDRA. 
 
 father, on his death-bed (b. c. 319), appointed Po- 
 lysperchon regent, and conferred upon Cassander 
 onl}'- the secondary dignity of Chlliarch. Being dis- 
 satisfied with this arrangement, Cassander strength- 
 ened himself by an alliance with Ptolemy andAn- 
 tigonus, and entered into war with Polysperchon. 
 In 31J) Cassander obtained possession of Athens 
 and most of the cities in the S. of Greece. In 317 
 he was recalled to Macedonia to oppose Olympias. 
 He kept her besieged in Pydna throughout the 
 winter of 317, and on her surrender in tlie spring 
 of the ensuing year, he put her to death. The 
 way now seemed open to him to the throne of' 
 Macedon. He placed Roxana and her 3'"oung son, 
 Alexander Aegus, in custody at AmphipoUs, not 
 thinking it safe as yet to murder them ; and he 
 connected himself with the regal family by a mar- 
 riage with Tliessalonica, half-sister to Alexander 
 the Great. In 315 Cassander joined Seleucus, 
 Ptolemy, and Lysimachus in their war against 
 Antigonus, of whose power they had all become 
 jealous. This war was upon the whole unfavour- 
 able to Cassander, who lost most of the cities in 
 Greece. By the general peace of 311, it was pro- 
 vided that Cassander was to retain his authority in 
 Europe till Alexander Aegus should be grown to 
 manhood. Cassander thereupon put to death the 
 young king and his mother Roxana. In 310 the 
 war was renewed, and Hercules, the son of Alex- 
 ander by Barsine, was brought forward by Poly- 
 sperchon as a claimant to the Macedonian throne ; 
 but Cassander bribed Polysperchon to murder the 
 young prince and his mother, 309. In 306 Cas- 
 sander took the title of king, when it was assumed 
 by Antigonus, Lysimachus, and Ptolemj-. In the 
 following years, Demetrius Poliorcetes, the son of 
 Antigonus, carried on the war in Greece with great 
 success against Cjissander; but in 30'2 Demetrius 
 was obliged to pass into Asia, to support his father ; 
 and next year, 301, the decisive battle of Ipsus 
 was fought, in which Antigonus and Demetrius 
 were defeated, and the former slain, and which 
 gave to Cassander Macedonia and Greece. Cas- 
 sander died of dropsy in 297, and was succeeded 
 by his son Philip. 
 
 Cassandra (Kacrciiz/Spa), daughter of Priam and 
 Hecuba, and twin-sister of Helenus. She and her 
 brother, when young, were left asleep in the sanc- 
 tuary of Apollo, when their ears were purified by 
 serpents, so that they could understand the divine 
 sounds of nature and the voices of birds. Cassandra 
 sometimes used to sleep afterwards in the same 
 temple ; and when she grew up her beauty won 
 the love of Apollo. The god conferred upon her 
 the gift of prophecy, upon her promising to comply 
 with his desires ; but when she had become pos- 
 sessed of the prophetic art, she refused to fulfil her 
 promise. Thereupon the god in anger ordained 
 that no one should believe her prophecies. She 
 predicted to the Trojans the ruin that threatened 
 them, but no one believed her ; she was looked 
 upon as a madwoman, and, according to a late ac- 
 count, was shut up and guarded. On the capture of 
 Troy she fled into the sanctuary of Athena, but 
 was torn away from the statue of the goddess by 
 Ajax, son of Oileus, and, according to some ac- 
 counts, was even ravished b}' him in the sanctuarj''. 
 On the division of the booty, Cassandra fell to the 
 lot of Agamemnon, who took her with him to 
 Mycenae. Here she was killed by Clytaem- 
 nestra. 
 
CASSANDREA. 
 
 Cassandrea. [Potidaea.] 
 
 Cassia Gens. [Cassius.] 
 
 Cassiepea, Cassiopea, or Cassiope (Kao-o-ieTreta, 
 Kacro-toTreio, or Kaffffioinj), wife of Cepheus in Ae- 
 thiopia, and mother of Andromeda, whose beauty 
 she extolled above that of the Nereids. [Andro- 
 meda.] She was afterwards placed among the 
 stars. 
 
 Cassiodorus, Magnus Aurelius, a distinguished 
 statesman, and one of the few men of learning at 
 the downfal of the Western Empire, was born 
 about A. D. 468, at Scylacium in Bnittium, of an 
 ancient and wealthy Roman family. He enjoyed 
 the full confidence of Theodoric the Great and liis 
 successors, and under a variety of different titles he 
 conducted for a long series of years the government 
 of the Ostrogothic kingdom. At the age of 70 he 
 retired to the monastery of Viviers, which he had 
 founded in his native province, and there passed 
 the last 30 years of his life. His time was de- 
 voted to study and to the composition of elemen- 
 tary treatises on history, metaphysics, the 7 liberal 
 arts, and divinity ; while his leisure hours were 
 employed in the construction of philosophical to3's, 
 such as sun-dials, water-clocks, &.c. Of his nu- 
 merous writings the most important is his Varia- 
 rum {Epistolai-um) Libri XII.^ an assemblage of 
 state papers drawn up by Cassiodorus in accord- 
 ance with the instructions of Theodoric and his 
 successors. The other works of Cassiodorus are of 
 less value to us. The principal are : 1. Clironicon^ 
 a summary of Universal History ; 2. De Ortho- 
 graphia Liber; 3. De Arte Grammatica ad Donati 
 Aienieni; 4. De Artihus ac Disciplinis Liberalium 
 Zifcrarum, much read in the middle ages; 5. De 
 Anima; 6. Libri XIT. De Rebus Gestis Goiliontm, 
 known to us only through the abridgement of Jor- 
 iiandes ; 7. De Insiitutione Divinarum Literarum, 
 an introduction to the profitable study of the Scrip- 
 tures. There are also several other ecclesiastical 
 works of Cassiodonis extant. — The best edition 
 of his collected works is by D. Garet, Rouen, 1679, 
 2 vols, fol., reprinted at Venice, 17*29, 
 
 Cassiope (KaffcrxfjTrT)), a town in Corc^Ta on a 
 promontory of the same name, with a good harbour 
 and a temple of Zeus. 
 
 Cassiopea. [Cassiepea.] 
 
 Cassiterides. [Britannia, p. 126, a.] 
 
 Cassius, the name of one of the most distin- 
 guished of the Roman gentes, originally patrician, 
 afterwards plebeian. 1. Sp. Cassius Viscellinus, 
 thrice consul : first b. c. 502, when he conquered 
 the Sabines ; again 493, when he made a league 
 with the Latins ; and, lastly, 486, when he made a 
 league with the Hernicans, and carried his cele- 
 brated agrarian law, the first which was proposed 
 at Rome. It probably enacted that the portion of 
 the patricians in the public land should be strictlj'' 
 defined, and that the remainder should be divided 
 among the plebeians. In the following year he 
 was accused of aiming at regal power, and was put 
 to death. The manner of his death is related dif- 
 ferently, but it is most probable that he was ac- 
 cused before the comitia curiata by the quaestores 
 parricidii, and was sentenced to death by his fellow 
 patricians. His house was razed to the ground, 
 and his property confiscated. His guilt is doubt- 
 fill ; he had made himself hateful to the patricians 
 by his agrarian law, and it is most likely that the 
 accusation was invented for the purpose of getting 
 rid of a dangerous opponent. He left 3 sons ; but 
 
 CASSIUS. 
 
 153 
 
 as all the subsequent Cassii are plebeians, his sons 
 v/ere perhaps expelled from the patrician order, or 
 may have voluntarily passed over to the plebeians, 
 on account of the murder of their fatlier. — 2. C. 
 Cass. Longinus, consul 171, obtained as his pro- 
 vince Italy and Cisalpine Gaul, and without the 
 autliority of the senate attempted to march into 
 Macedonia through Illyricum, but was obliged to 
 return to Italy, In 154 he was censor with M. 
 Messala; and a theatre, which these censors had 
 built, was pulled down by order of the senate, 
 at the suggestion of P. ScJpio Nasica, as injurious 
 to public morals. — 3. Q. Cass. Long:iiLus, praetor 
 urbanus b. c. 167, and consul 164, died in his con- 
 sulship. —4. L. Cass. Longinus Eavilla, tribune 
 of the plebs, 1 37, when he proposed a law for voting 
 by ballot {tabellaria lex) ; consul 127, and censor 
 125. He was verj"- severe and just as a judex. — 
 5. L. Cass. Longinus, praetor 111, when he 
 brought Jugurtha to Rome ; consul 107, with C- 
 Marius, and received as his province Narbonese 
 Gaul, in order to oppose the Cimbri, but was de- 
 feated and killed by the Tigurini. ^ 6. L. Cass. 
 Longinus, tribune of the plebs 104, brought for- 
 ward many laws to diminish the power of the 
 aristocracy. ^7. C. Cass. Longinus Varus, consul 
 73, brought forward, with his colleague M. Teren- 
 tius, a law {lea; Terentia Cassia)^ by which corn was 
 to be purchased and then sold in Rome at a small 
 price. In 72 he was defeated hy Spartacus near 
 Mutina ; in 66 he supported the Manilian law for 
 giving the command of the Mithridatic war to 
 Pompey ; and in bis old age was proscribed by 
 the triumvirs and killed, 43. — 8. C. Cass. Longi- 
 nus, the murderer of Julius Caesar. In 53 he 
 was quaestor of Crassus in his campaign against 
 the Parthians, in which he greatly distinguished 
 himself by his prudence and military skill. After 
 the death of Crassus, he collected the remains of 
 the Roman army, and made preparations to defend 
 Syria against the Parthians. In 52 he defeated 
 the Parthians, who had crossed the Euphrates, and 
 in 51 he again gained a still more important vic- 
 tory over them. Soon afterwards he returned to 
 Rome. In 49 he was tribime of the plebs, joined 
 the aristocratical party in the civil war, and fled 
 with Pompey from Rome. In 48 he commanded the 
 Pompeian fleet ; after the battle of Pharsalia he 
 went to the Hellespont, where he accidentally fell 
 in with Caesar, and surrendered to him. He was 
 not only pardoned by Caesar, but in 44 was made 
 praetor, and the province of Syria was promised 
 him for the next year. But Cassius had never 
 ceased to be Caesar's enemy ; it was he who formed 
 the conspiracy agamst the dictator's life, and gained 
 over M. Brutus to the plot. After the death of 
 Caesar, on the 15th of March, 44 [Caesar], Cas- 
 sius remained in Italy for a few months, but in 
 July he went to Syria, which he claimed as his 
 province, although the senate had given it to Do- 
 labella, and had conferred upon Cassius Gyrene in 
 its stead. He defeated Dolabella, who put an end 
 to his owTi life ; and after plundering Syv'm and 
 Asia most unmercifully, he crossed over to Greece 
 with Bmtus in 42, in order to oppose Octavian 
 and Antony. At the battle of Philippi, Cassius 
 was defeated by Antony, while Brutus, who com- 
 manded the other wing of the armj', drove Octa- 
 vian ofi:' the field ; but Cassius, ignorant of the 
 success of Brutus, commanded his freedraan to put 
 an end to his life. Brutus mourned over his com- 
 
154 
 
 CASSIUS. 
 
 panion, calling him the last of the Romans. Cas- 
 sias was married to Junia Tertia or TertuUa, haif- 
 sister of M. Brutus. Cassius was well acquainted 
 with Greek and Roman literature; he was a fol- 
 lower of the Epicurean philosophy; his abilities 
 were considerable, but he was vain, proud, and 
 revengeful. — 9. 1. Cass. Long:iiius, brother of 
 No. 8, assisted M. Laterensis in accusing Cn. 
 Plancius, who was defended by Cicero in 54. He 
 joined Caesar at the commencement of the civil 
 war, and was one of Caesar's legates in Greece in 
 48. In 44 he was tribune of the plebs, but was 
 not one of the conspirators against Caesar's life. 
 He subsequently espoused the side of Octaviaii, in 
 opposition to Antony ; and on their reconciliation 
 in 43, he fled to Asia: he was pardoned by Antony 
 in 41. — 10. ft. Cass. Longinus, the frater or 
 first-cousin of No. 8. In 54 he went as the quaes- 
 tor of Pompey into Spain, where he ws-s univer- 
 sally hated on account of his rapacity and cruelty. 
 In 49 he was tribune of the plebs, and a warm 
 supporter of Caesar, but was obliged to leave the 
 city and take refuge in Caesar's camp. In the 
 siime year he accompanied Caesar to Spain, and 
 after the defeat of Afranius and Petreiua, the 
 legates of Pompe}'', Caesar left him governor of 
 Further Spain. His cruelty and oppressions ex- 
 cited an insurrection against him at Corduba, but 
 this was quelled by Cassius. Subsequently 2 legions 
 declared against him, and M. Marcellus, the quaes- 
 tor, put himself at their head. He was saved from 
 this danger by Lepidus, and left the province in 47, 
 but his ship sank, and he was lost, at the mouth of 
 the Iberus.^11. L. Cass. Longinus, a competitor 
 ■with Cicero for the consulship for 63 ; was one of 
 Catiline's conspirators, and undertook to set the 
 city on fire ; he escaped the fate of his comrades 
 by quitting Rome before their apprehension. — 
 12. L. Cass. longinus, consul a. d. 30, married to 
 Drusilla, the daughter of Germanicus, with whom 
 her brother Caligula afterwards lived. Cassius was 
 proconsul in Asia a. d. 40, and was commanded by 
 Caligula to be brought to Rome, because an oracle 
 had warned the emperor to beware of a Cassius : 
 the oracle was falfilled in the murder of the em- 
 peror by Cassius Chaerea. — 13. C. Cass. Longi- 
 nus, the celebrated jurist, governor of Syria, a. d. 
 SO, in the reign of Claudius. He was banished 
 by Nero in a, d. %% because he had, among his 
 ancestral images, a statue of Cassius, the murderer 
 of Caesar. He was recalled from banishment by 
 Vespasian. Cassius wrote ] books on the civil law 
 {Libri JuHs Civilis), and Commentaries on Vitellius 
 and Urseius Ferox, which are quoted in the Digest. 
 He was a follower of the school of Atelus Capito ; 
 and as he reduced the principles of Capito to a more 
 scientific form, the adherents of this school re- 
 ceived the name of CUsstam, — 14. L. Cass. He- 
 mina, a Roman annalist, lived about b. c. 140, and 
 ■wrote a history of Rome from the earliest times to 
 the end of the 3rd Punic war. ^16. Cass. Par- 
 mensis, bo called from Parma, his birth-place, was 
 one of the murderers of Caesar, B.C. 43 ; took an 
 active part in the war against the triumvirs ; and, 
 after the death of Brutus and Cassius, carried over 
 the fleet which he commanded to Sicily, and joined 
 Sex. Pompey ; upon the defeat of Pompey, he 
 surrendered himself to Antony, whose fortunes he 
 followed until after the battle of Actium, when he 
 ■went to Athens, and was there put to death by 
 the command of Octavian, B. c, 30. Cassius was a 
 
 CASTRA. 
 
 poet, and his productions were prized by Horace 
 (Ep. i. 4. 3.). He wrote 2 tragedies, entitled T/it/- 
 estes and Brutus^ epigrams, and other works, ^ 
 16. Cass. Etruscus, a poet censured by Horace 
 [Sai. i. 10. 61), must not be confounded with No. 
 15.^17. Cass. Avidius, an able general of M. 
 Aurelius, was a native of Syria. In the Parthian 
 war (a-D. 162—165), he commanded the Roman 
 army as the general of Verus, and after defeating 
 the Parthians, he took Seleucia and Ctesiphon. 
 He was afterwards appointed governor of all the 
 Eastern provinces, and discharged his trust for 
 several years with fidelity; but In a. d. 175 he 
 proclaimed himself emperor. He reigned only a 
 few months, and was slain by his own officers, be- 
 fore M. Aurelius arrived in the East. [See p. 111.] 
 ^18. Dionysius Cassius, of Utica, a Greek writer, 
 lived about b. c. 40, and translated into Greek the 
 work of the Carthaginian Mago on agriculture.— 
 19. Cass. Felix, a Greek physician, probably lived 
 under Augustus and Tiberius ; wrote a small work 
 entitled 'larpiffal 'Ajropiai/cai TlpoS\i]^aTa^V(TiKd^ 
 Quaestiones Medicae et Prohlemaia Naturalia : 
 printed in Ideler'a Physid ei Medici Graeci Mi- 
 nores, Berol. 1841. — 20. Cass. Chaerea. [Chae- 
 rea.]— 21. Cass. Dion. [Dion Cassius.] — 22. 
 Cass. Severus. [Severos.] 
 
 Cassivelaunus, a British chief, ruled over the 
 country N. of the Tamesis (T/taines), and was en- 
 trusted by the Britons with the supreme command 
 on Caesar's 2nd Invasion of Britain, e. c. 54. He 
 was defeated by Caesar, and was obliged to sue for 
 peace. 
 
 Caasope (Kao-o-w-n-Tj : Kacrcrai7ra"os), a town in 
 Thesprotia near the coast. 
 
 Castabala (ra KaardSoKa). 1. A city of Cap- 
 padocia, near Tyana, celebrated for its temple of 
 Artemis Perasia. — 2. A town in Cilicia Campes- 
 tris, near Issus. 
 
 Castalia {Kaara\la), a celebrated fountain on 
 Mt. Parnassus, in which the Pythia used to bathe ; 
 sacred to Apollo and the Muses, who were hence 
 called Castalides; said to have derived its name 
 from Castalia, daughter of Achelous, who threw 
 herself into the fountain when pursued by Apollo. 
 Castor, brother of Pollux. [Dioscuri.] 
 Castor (Kda-rwp). 1. A Greek grammarian^ 
 sumamed Fhiloromaeus, probably lived about b. c. 
 150, and wrote several books; a, portion of his 
 Te'xvTj pr)TopiK^ is still extant and printed in 
 Walz's Rhetores Graeci^ vol. iii. p. 712, seq. — -2. 
 Grandson of Deiotarus. [Deiotarus.] 
 
 Caatra, a "camp,^' the name of several towns, 
 which were originally the stationary quarters of 
 the Roman legions. 1. Constantia, in Gaul, near 
 the mouth of the Sequana (^etVie). — 2. Hanni- 
 balis, in Bnittium, on the S. E. coast, N. of Scy- 
 lacium, arose out of the fortified camp which 
 Hannibal maintained there during the latter years 
 of the 2nd Punic war.^ 3. Herculis, in Batavia, 
 perhaps near //ewssen. — 4. Minervae {Castro), 
 in Calabria, with a temple of Minerva, S. of Hy- 
 druntum ; the most ancient town of the Salentini, 
 subsequently colonized by the Romans ; its har- 
 bour was called Portus Veneris {Porto Badisco). 
 — 5. Vetera (Xanien), in Gallica Belgica, on the 
 Rhine : many Roman remains have been found at 
 JCanien.^Q. Cornelia (GJiellaJt), a place in the Car- 
 thaginian territory (Zeugitana) in N. Africa, where 
 Scipio Africanus the elder established his camp 
 when he invaded Africa in the Second Punic War. 
 
CASTRUM. 
 
 It was between Utica and Carthage, on the N. 
 side of the river Bagradas, but its site is now S. of 
 the river in consequence of the alterations described 
 under Carthago. 
 
 Castnim. 1. Inui, a town of the Rutuli, on 
 the coast of Latiiim, confounded by some writers 
 with No. 2.-2. Novum {Torre di Chiaruccia)^ 
 a town in Etruria, and a Roman colony on the 
 coast. — 3. Novum {Giulia Nova), a town in Pi- 
 cenum, probably at the mouth of the small river 
 Batinum {Saiinello), colonized by the Romans, 
 B. c. 264, at the commencement of the 1st Punic 
 war. 
 
 Castillo {Ka(Tra.K<av: Cazlona)^^ town of the 
 Oretani on the Baetis, and near the frontiers of 
 Baetica, at the foot of a mountain which bore a 
 great resemblance to Parnassus, was under the 
 Romans an important place, a municipium with 
 the Jus Latii, and included in the jurisdiction of 
 Carthago Nova : its inhabitants were called Cae- 
 sari venules. In the mountains {Saltus Castulo- 
 7iensis] in the neighbourhood were silver and lead 
 mines. The wife of Hannibal was a native of 
 Castillo. 
 
 Caauentus (Basienfo), a river in Lucania, flows 
 into the sea near Metapontum. 
 
 Casystes (Kao-uo-TTjs: ChisineJi), a fine sea-port 
 on the coast of Ionia ; the harbour of Erythrae. 
 
 Catabathmus Magnus (Karo^a^/ios, i. e. de- 
 scent ; Marsa Sollern, i. e. Port of the Ladder), a 
 mountain and sea port, at the bottom of a deep 
 bay on theN.coast of Africa (about 25° 5' E. long.), 
 was generally considered the boundary between 
 Egypt and Cyrenaica. Ptolemy distinguishes from 
 this a place called Catabathmus Parvus, in the 
 interior of Africa, near the borders of Egypt, above 
 Paraetonium, 
 
 Catadiipa or -i (ra KaraSouTra, ol KaTaSouTTOi), 
 a name given to the cataracts of the Nile, and also 
 to the parts of Aethiopia in their neighbourhood. 
 [Nil us.] 
 
 Catalauui or Catelauui, a people in Gaul in 
 the modern CJiampacjne, mentioned only by later 
 writers : their capital was Durocatelauni or Ca- 
 telauui (Chalons sur Mai-ne), in the neighbour- 
 hood of which Attila was defeated by Aetius and 
 Theodoric, a. d. 451. 
 
 Catamitus, the Roman name for Ganymedes, of 
 which it is only a corrupt form. 
 
 Catana or Catma (KaTctfTj; Karavaios : Cafa- 
 ma)f an important town in Sicily on the E. coast 
 at the foot of Mt. Aetna, founded b. c. 730 by 
 Naxos, which was itself founded by the Chalci- 
 dians of Euboea. In b. c. 476 it was taken by 
 Hiero I., who removed its inhabitants to Leontini, 
 and settled 5000 Syracusans and 5000 Pelopon- 
 nesians in the town, the name of which he changed 
 into Aetna. Soon after the death of Hiero (467), 
 the former inhabitants of Catana again obtained 
 poBsession of the town, and called it by its original 
 name, Catana. Subsequently Catana was con- 
 quered by Dionysius, was then governed by native 
 tyrants, next became subject to Agathocles, and 
 finally in the 1st Punic war fell under the domi- 
 nion of Rome. It was colonized by Augustus with 
 some veterans. Catana frequently suffered from 
 earthquakes and eruptions of Mt. Aetna, It is 
 now one of the most flourishing cities in Sicily. 
 
 Cataonia (Karaofla), a district in the S. E. part 
 of Cappadocia, to which it was first added under 
 the Romans, with Melitene, which lies E. of it. 
 
 CATILINA. 
 
 155 
 
 These two districts form a large and fertile plain, 
 lying between the Anti-Taurus and the Taurus 
 and Amanus, and watered by the river Pyramus. 
 Cataonia had no large towns, but several strong 
 mountain fortresses. 
 
 Catarrhactes {KarappaKTr^s). 1. (Duden-Soo), 
 a river of Paniphylia, which descends from the 
 mountains of Taurus, in a great broken waterfall 
 (whence its name, fr. Ka.Tappi\yvvjxi), and wliich, 
 after flowing beneath the earth in two parts of its 
 course, falls into the sea E. of Attalia. ^2. The 
 term is also applied, first by Strabo, to the cata- 
 racts of the Nile, which are distinguished as C. 
 Major and C. Minor [NiLus], in which use it 
 must of course be regarded as a common noun, 
 equivalent to the Latin cataracta, but whether de- 
 rived from the name of the Pamphylian river, or 
 at once from the Greek verb, cannot be deter- 
 mined. 
 
 Catelauni. [Catalaunl] 
 
 Cathaei (KaQaioi), a great and warlike people 
 of India intra Gangem, upon whom Alexander 
 made war. Some of the best Orientalists suppose 
 the name to be that, not of a trJbe but, of the 
 warrior caste of the Hindoos, the Kshairiyas. 
 
 Catilina, L, Sergius, the descendant of an an- 
 cient patrician family which had sunk into poverty. 
 His youth and eai-ly manhood were stained by 
 every vice and crime. He first appears in history 
 as a zealous partizan of Sulla ; and during the hor- 
 rors of the proscription, he killed, with his own 
 hand, his brother-in-law, Q. Caecilius, a quiet in- 
 offensive man, and put to death by torture M. 
 Marius Gratidianus, the kinsman and fellow-towns- 
 man of Cicero. He was suspected of an intrigue 
 with the vestal Fabia, sister of Terentia, and was 
 said and believed to have made away with his 
 first wife and afterwards with his son, in order that 
 he might marry Aurelia Orestilla, who objected to 
 the presence of a grown-up step-child ; but not- 
 withstanding this infamy he attained to the dignity 
 of praetor in b. c. 68, was governor of Africa du- 
 ring the following year, and returned to Rome in 
 QQ, in order to sue for the consulship. The elec- 
 tion for Qb was carried by P. Autronius Paetus and 
 P. Cornelius Sulla, both of whom were soon after 
 convicted of bribery, and their places supplied by 
 their competitors and accusers, L. Aurelius Cotta 
 and L. Alanlius Torquatus. Catiline had been 
 disqualified for becoming a candidate, in conse- 
 quence of an impeachment for oppression in his 
 province, preferred by P. Clodius Pulcher, after- 
 wards so celebrated as the enemy of Cicero. 
 Exasperated by their disappointment, Autronius 
 and Catiline formed a project, along with Cn. 
 Piso, to murder the new consuls when they 
 entered upon their office upon the 1st of January'. 
 This design is said to have been frustrated solely 
 by the impatience of Catiline, who, upon the ap- 
 pointed day, gave the signal prematurely, before 
 the whole of the armed agents had assembled. 
 Encouraged rather than disheartened by a failure 
 which had so nearly proved a triumph, Catiline 
 now determined to organize a more extensive con- 
 spiracy, in order to overthrow the existing govern- 
 ment, and to obtain for himself and his followers 
 all places of power and profit. Having been ac- 
 quitted in (do upon his trial for extortion, he was 
 left unfettered to mature his plans. The time was 
 propitious to his schemes. The younger nobility 
 were thoroughly demoralised, with ruined for- 
 
156 
 
 CATILINA. 
 
 tunes, and eager for any change which might re- 
 lieve them from their embarrassments ; the Roman 
 populace "were restless and discontented, ready to 
 follow at the bidding of any demagogue ; while 
 inany of the veterans of Sulla, who had squandered 
 their ill-gotten wealth, were now anxious for a re- 
 newal of those scenes of blood which they had 
 foimd so profitable. Among such men Catiline 
 soon obtained numerous suppoi-ters ; and his great 
 mental and physical powers, which even his ene- 
 mies admitted, maintained his ascendency over his 
 adherents. The most distinguished men who 
 joined him, and were present at a meeting of the 
 conspirators which he called in June, 64, were P. 
 Cornelius Lentulus Siu'a, who had been consul in 
 B. c. 71, but having been passed over by the cen- 
 Gors, had lost his seat in the senate, which he 
 was now seeking to recover by standing a second 
 time for the praetorship ; C. Cornelius Cethegus, 
 distinguished throughout by his headstrong impe- 
 tuosity and sanguinaxy violence ; P. Autronius, 
 cpoken of above ; L. Cassius Longinus, at this 
 time a competitor for the consulship ; L. Yargun- 
 teius, who had been one of the colleagues of Cicero 
 in the quaestorship, and had subsequently been 
 condemned for bribery ; L. Calpumius Bestia, 
 tribune elect ; Publius and Servius Sulla, ne- 
 phews of the dictator ; M, Porcius Laeca, &c. 
 The first object of Catiline was to obtain the 
 consulship for himself and C. Antonius, whose co- 
 operation he confidently anticipated. But in this 
 object he was disappointed : Cicero and Antonius 
 were elected consuls. This disappointment ren- 
 dered him only more vigorous in the prosecution of 
 his designs ; more adherents were gained, and troops 
 were levied in various parts of Italy, especially in 
 the neighbourhood of Faesulae, under the super- 
 intendence of C. Manlius, one of the veteran cen- 
 turions of Sulla. Meantime, Cicero, the consul, was 
 imrelaxingin his efforts to preserve the state from the 
 threatened danger. Through the agency of Fulvia, 
 the mistress of Curius, one of the conspirators, he 
 became acquainted with everj' circumstance as soon 
 as it occurred, and was enabled to countemct all 
 the machinations of Catiline. Cicero at the same 
 time gained over his colleague Antonius, by pro- 
 mising him the province of Macedonia. At length 
 Cicero openly accused Catiline, and the senate, now 
 aware of the danger which threatened the state, 
 passed the decree, " that the consuls should take 
 care that the republic received no harm," in virtue 
 of which the consuls were invested for the time 
 being with absolute power, both civil and military. 
 In the consular elections which followed soonafter- 
 wai'ds, Catiline was again rejected. On the night 
 of the 6th of November, B.C. 63 he met the ring- 
 leaders of the conspiracy at the dwelling of M. 
 Porcius Laeca, and informed tbem that he had re- 
 solved to wait no longer, but at once to proceed to 
 open action. Cicero, informed as usual of these 
 proceedings, summoned the senate on the 8th of 
 November, and there delivered the first of his 
 -celebrated orations against Catiline, in which he 
 displayed a most intimate acquaintance with all 
 the proceedings of the conspirators. Catiline, who 
 was present, attempted to justify himself, but 
 scarcely had be commenced when his words were 
 drowned by the shouts of "enemy" and " parri- 
 cide" which burst from the whole assembly. 
 Finding that he could at present effect nothing 
 at Rome, he quitted the city in the night (8th — 
 
 CATO. 
 
 9 th November), and proceeded to the camp of 
 Manlius, after leaving the chief controul of alFaira 
 at Ptome in the hands of Lentulus and Cethegus, 
 On the 9th, when the flight of Catiline was 
 known, Cicero delivered his second speech, ad- 
 dressed to the people in the forum, in which he 
 justified his recent conduct. The senate declared 
 Catiline and Manlius public enemies, and soon, 
 afterwards Cicero obtained legal evidence of the 
 guilt of the conspirators within the city, through, 
 the ambassadors of the AUobroges. These men 
 had been solicited by Lentulus to join the plot, and 
 to induce their own countrymen to take part in the 
 insurrection. They revealed what they had heard 
 to Q. Fabius Sanga, the patron of their state, who 
 in his turn acquainted Cicero. By the instructions 
 of the latter, the ambassadors affected great zeal in 
 the undertaiiing, and having obtained a written 
 agreement, signed by Lentulus, Cethegus, and 
 Statilius, they quitted Rome soon after midnight 
 on the 3d of December, but were arrested on 
 the Milvian bridge, by Cicero's order. Cicero 
 instantly summoned the leaders of the conspi- 
 racy to his presence, and conducted them to 
 the senate, which was assembled in the temple of 
 Concord (4th of December). He proved the guilt of 
 the conspirators by the testimony of witnesses and 
 their own signatures. They were thereupon con- 
 signed to the charge of certain senators. Cicero 
 then summoned the people, and delivered what 
 is called his 3d oration against Catiline, in 
 which he informed them of all that had taken 
 place. On the following day, the nones (5th) of 
 December, the day so frequently referred to by 
 Cicero in after times with pride, the senate was 
 called together to deliberate respecting the punisb- 
 ment of the conspirators. After an animated de- 
 bate, of which the leading arguments are expressed 
 in the 2 celebrated orations assigned by Sallust to 
 Caesar and to Cato, a decree was passed, that Len- 
 tulus and the conspirators should be put to death. 
 The sentence was executed the same night in 
 the prison. Cicero's speech in the debate in the 
 senate is preserved in Lis 4th oration against Cati- 
 line. The consul Antonius was then sent against 
 Catiline, and the decisive battle was fought early 
 in 62. Antonius, however, unwilling to fight 
 against his former associate, gave the command on 
 the day of battle to his legate, M. Petreius. Cati- 
 line fell in the engagement, after fighting with the 
 most daring valour. — The history of Catiline's 
 conspiracy has been written by Sallust. 
 
 Catius, an Epicurean philosopher, a native of 
 Gallia Transpadana (Insuber), composed a trea- 
 tise in 4 books on the nature of things and on the 
 chief good (de Reram Nalura ei de summo Bono) ; 
 died B.C. 45. 
 
 Cato, DionysJus, the author of a small work, 
 entitled Didicha de. Moribus ad Filium^ consisting 
 of a series of sententious moral precepts. Nothing 
 is known of the author or the time when he lived, 
 but many writers place him under the Antonines. 
 The best edition is by Amtzenius, Amsterdam, 
 1754. 
 
 Cato, Porcius. 1. M., frequently surnamed 
 Censorius or Censor, also Cato Major, to distin- 
 guish him from his great-grandson Cato Uticensis 
 [No. 8]. Cato was born at Tusculum, B.C. 234, 
 and was brought up at his father's farm, situated 
 in the Sabine territory. In 217 he served his 
 first campaign in his 17th year, and during tho 
 
CATO. 
 
 remaining years of the 2d Punic war, lie greatly- 
 distinguished himself by his courage and military 
 abilities. In the intervals of war, he returned to 
 his Sabine farm, which he had inherited from his 
 father, and there led the same frugal and simple 
 life, which characterised him to his last days. En- 
 couraged by L. Valerius Flaccus, a young noble- 
 man in the neighbourhood, he went to Rome, 
 and became a candidate for office. He obtained 
 the qnaestorship in 204, and served under the pro- 
 consul Scipio Africanus in Sicily and Africa. From 
 this time we may date the enmity which Cato 
 always displayed towards Scipio ; their habits 
 and views of life were entirely different ; and Cato 
 on his retiuTi to Rome denounced in the strongest 
 terms the luxury and extravagance of his com- 
 mander. On his voyage home he is said to have 
 touched at Sardinia, and to have brought the poet 
 Ennius from the island to Italy. In 199 he was 
 aedile, and in 198 praetor; he obtained Sardinia 
 as his province, which he governed with justice 
 and economy. He had now established a reputa- 
 tion for pure morality and strict virtue. In 195 
 he was consul with his old friend and patron 
 L. Valerius Flaccus. He carried on war in Spain 
 with the greatest success, and received the honour 
 of a triumph on his return to Rome in 194. 
 In 191 he served, under the consul M'. Acilius 
 Glabrio, in the campaign against Antiochus in 
 Greece, and the decisive victory at Thermopylae 
 was mainly owing to Cato. From this time Cato's 
 military career, which had been a brilliant one, 
 appears to have ceased. He now took an active 
 part in civil affairs, and distinguished himself by 
 his vehement opposition to the Roman nobles, who 
 introduced into Rome Greek luxury and refinement. 
 It was especially against the Scipios that his most 
 violent attacks were directed and whom he pursued 
 with the bitterest animosity. He obtained the con- 
 demnation of L. Scipio, the conqueror of Antiochus, 
 and compelled his brother P. Scipio to quit Rome 
 in order tn avoid the same fate. [Scipio.] In 104 
 he was elected censor with L. Valerius Flaccus, 
 having been rejected in his application for the office 
 in 189. His censorship was a great epoch in his 
 lift}. He applied himself strenuously to the duties 
 of his office, regardless of the enemies he was 
 making : but all his efforts to stem the tide of 
 luxury which was now setting in proved unavail- 
 ing. His strong national prejudices appear to 
 have diminished in force as he grew older and 
 wiser. He applied himself in old age to the study 
 of Greek literature, with which in youth he had 
 no acquaintance, although he was not ignorant of 
 the Greek language. But his conduct continued to 
 be guided by prejudices against classes and nations, 
 whose influence he deemed to be hostile to the 
 simplicity of the old Roman character. He had an 
 antipathy to physicians, because they were mostly 
 Greeks, and therefore unfit to be trusted with Ro- 
 man lives. When Athens sent Cameades, Diogenes, 
 and Critolaus as ambassadors to Rome, he recom- 
 mended the senate to send them from the city an 
 account of the dangerous doctrines taught by Car- 
 neades. [Cakneades.] Cato retained his bodily 
 and mental vigour in his old age. In the year 
 hefore his death he was one of the chief instigators 
 of the third Punic war. He had been one of the 
 Roman deputies sent to Africa to arbitrate between 
 Masinissa and the Carthaginians, and he was so 
 etiuck with the iluurishing condition of Carthage that 
 
 CATO. 
 
 157 
 
 on his return home he maintained that Rome would 
 never be safe as long as Carthage was in existence- 
 From this time forth, whenever he was called upon, 
 for his vote in the senate, though the subject of 
 debate bore no relation to Carthage, his words were- 
 Delenda est CaHhago. Yevj shortly before his 
 death, he made a powerful speech in accusing 
 Galba on account of his cruelty and perfidy in Spain. 
 He died in 149, at the age of il5. — Cato "wrote 
 several v/orks, of which only the De He Rusiica has 
 come down to us, though even this work is notexactly 
 in the form in which it proceeded from his pen: it 
 is printed in the Scriptores Rci Rusticae, edited by 
 Gesner (Lips. 1773 — 4), and Schneider (Lips. 1794 
 — 7). His most important work was entitled Ori" 
 pines, but only fragments of it have been preser\-ed. 
 The 1st book contained the history of the Romam 
 kings ; the 2d and 3d treated of the origin of the 
 Italian towns, and from these two books the whole 
 work derived its title. The 4th book treated of 
 the first Punic war, the Sth book of the second 
 Punic war, and the 6th and 7th continued the nar- 
 rative to the year of Cato's death. — 2. M., son of 
 No. 1., by his first wife Licinia, and thence called 
 Liciniamis; was distinguished as a jurist. In the- 
 war against Perseus, 168, he fought with great, 
 bravery under the consul Aemilius Paulus, whose 
 daughter, Aemilia Tertia, he afterwards married. 
 He died when praetor designatus, about 152.^3^ 
 M., son of No. 1, by his second wife Salonia, and 
 thence called SalonianuSy was born 154, when his 
 father had completed his 80th year. — 4. M., son of 
 No. 2, consul 113, died in Africa in the same year, 
 ^5. C, also son of No. 2, consul 114, obtained 
 Macedonia as his province, and fought unsuccess- 
 fully against the Scordisci. He was accused of 
 extortion in Macedonia, and was sentenced to pay 
 a fine. He afterwards went to Tarraco in Spain, 
 and became a citizen of that town. — 6. II., son; 
 of No. 3, tribunus plebis, died when a candidate 
 for the pra«torship.^7. t., also son of No. 3, 
 consul 1)9, was killed in battle against the Socii. ^ 
 8. M., son of No. 6 by Livia, great-grandson of 
 Cato the Censor, and surnamed TJticensis from 
 Utica, the place of his death, was born 95. In 
 early childhood he lost both liis parents, and was 
 brought up in the house of his mother's brother, 
 M. Livius Drusus, along with his sister Porcia and 
 the children of his mother by her second husband, 
 Q. Servilius Caepio. In early years he discovered 
 a stem and unyielding character ; he applied him- 
 self with gi'eat zeal to the study of oratory and 
 philosophy, and became a devoted adherent of tffe 
 Stoic school ; and among the profligate nobles oF 
 the age he soon became conspicuous for his rigid mo- 
 rality. He served his first campaign as a volunteer, 
 72, in the servile war of Spartacus, and afterwards, 
 about C7, as tribunus militum in Macedonia. In 
 Qb he was quaestor, when he corrected numerous 
 abuses which had crept into the administration of 
 the treasury. In 63 he was tribune of the plebs^ 
 and supported Cicero in proposing that the Catili- 
 narian conspirators should suffer death. [Cati- 
 LiNA.] He now became one of the chief leaders 
 of the aristocratical party, and opposed with the 
 utmost vehemence the measures of Caesar, Pompey, 
 and Crassus. In order to get rid of him, he was 
 sent to Cyprlis in 58 with the task of uniting the 
 island to the Roman dominions. He returned in 5G 
 and continued to oppose the triumvirs ; but all his 
 efforts were vain, and he was rejected when ke 
 
158 
 
 CATO. 
 
 became a candidate for the praetorship. On the 
 breaking out of the civil war (49), he was entrusted, 
 as propraetor, with the defence of Sicily ; but, on 
 the landing of Curio with an overwhelming force, 
 he abandoned the island and joined Pompey in 
 Greece. After Pompey's victory at Dyrrachium, 
 Cato was left in charge of the camp, and thus was 
 not present at the battle of Pharsalia (48). After 
 this battle, he set sail for Corcyra, and thence 
 crossed over to Africa, where he joined Metellus 
 Scipio, after a terrible march across the desert. 
 The army wished to be led by Cato ; but he yielded 
 the command to the consular Scipio. In opposition 
 to the advice of Cato, Scipio fought with Caesar, 
 and was utterly routed at Thapsus (April 6th, 46). 
 All Africa now, with the exception of Utica, sub- 
 mitted to Caesar. Cato wanted the Romans in 
 Utica to stand a siege ; but when he saw that the}- 
 were inclined to submit, he resolved to die rather 
 than fall alive into the hands of the conqueror. 
 Accordingly, after spending the greater part of the 
 night in perusing Plato's Phaedo several times, he 
 stabbed himself below the breast. In falling he 
 overturned an abacus : his friends, hearing the 
 noise, ran up, found him bathed in blood, and, 
 while he was fainting, dressed his wound. When, 
 however, he recovered feeling, he tore open the 
 bandages, let out his entrails, and expired at the 
 age of 49. — Cato soon became the subject of bio- 
 graphy and panegyric. Shortly after his death ap- 
 peared Cicero's CXUo, which provoked Caesar's 
 Aniicato. In Lucan the character of Cato is a 
 person 16 cation of godlike virtue. In modem times, 
 the closing events of his life have been often 
 dramatised ; and few dramas have gained more 
 celebritj" than the Cato of Addison. — 9. M., a son 
 of No. 8, feU at the battle of Philippi, 4-2. 
 
 Cato, Valerius, a distinguished grammarian and 
 poet, lost his property in his youth during the 
 lisurpation of Sidhi. He is usually considered the 
 author of an extant poem in ] 83 hexameter verses, 
 entitled ZhVoe. Editt^d by Putsch, Jena, 1028. 
 
 Catti or Chatti, whose name is connected with 
 the old German word cat or cad *' war," one of the 
 most important nations of Germany, bounded by the 
 Visurgis ( Weser) on the E., the Agri Decumates 
 on the S., and the Rhine on the W., in the mo- 
 dern Hesse and the adjacent countries. They 
 were a branch of the Hermiones, and are first 
 mentioned by Caesar under the erroneous name 
 of Suevi. Although defeated by Drusus, Ger- 
 manicus, and other Roman generals, they were 
 never completely subjugated by the Romans; and 
 their power was greatly augmented on the decline 
 of the Chemsci. Their capital was Mattium. 
 
 Catnlltis, Valerius, a Roman poet, bom at Ve- 
 rona or in its immediate vicinity, e. c. 87. Catul- 
 lus inherited considerable property from his father, 
 who was the friend of Julius Caesar; but he 
 squandered a great part of it by indulging 
 freely in the pleasures of the metropolis. In 
 order to better his fortunes, he went to Bithynia 
 in the train of the praetor Memmius, but it 
 appears that the speculation was attended with 
 little success. It was probably during this ex- 
 pedition that his brother died in the Troad — a 
 loss which he deplores in the affecting elegy to 
 Hortalus. On his return he continued to reside at 
 Rome or at his country-seats on the promontorj' of 
 Sirmio and at Tibur. He probably died about 
 B. c, 47. The extant n-orks of Catullus consist of 
 
 CAUCASUS. 
 
 116 poems, on a variety of topics, and composed 
 in different styles and metres. Some are lyrical, 
 others elegies, others epigrams ; while the Nuptials 
 of Peleus and Thetis, in 409 Hexameter lines, is an 
 heroic poem. Some of his poems are translations 
 or imitations from the Greek, as, for instance, his 
 Ue Coma Berenices, which was taken from Calli- 
 maclms. In consequence of the intimate acquaint- 
 ance which Catullus displays with Greek. literature 
 and mythology, he was called docius by Tibullus, 
 Ovid, and others. Catullus adorned all he touched, 
 and his shorter poems are characterised by original 
 invention and felicity of expression. — Editions. 
 By Volpi, Patav. 1710 ; by Doering, Altona, 1834, 
 2nd ed. ; and by Lachmann, Berol. 1829. 
 
 Catiilus, Lutatius. 1. C., consul b. c. 242, de- 
 feated as proconsul in the following year the Car- 
 thaginian fleet off the Aegates islands, and thus 
 brought the first Punic war to a close, 241.— 
 2, Q., consul 102 with C. Marius IV., and as 
 proconsul next year gained along with Marius a 
 decisive victory over the Cirabri near Vercellae 
 ( VercelU)^ in the N. of Italy, Catulus claimed 
 the entire honour of this victory, and asserted that 
 Marius did not meet v/ith the enemy till the day 
 was decided ; but at Rome the whole merit was 
 given to Marius. Catulus belonged to the aristo- 
 cratical party ; he espoused the cause of Sulla ; was 
 included by Marius in the proscription of B7 ; and 
 as escape was impossible, put an end to his life by 
 the vapours of a charcoal lire. Catulus was well 
 acquainted with Greek literature, and famed for the 
 grace and purity with which he spoke and wrote 
 iiis own language. He was the author of several 
 orations, of an historical work on his own Consul- 
 ship and the Cimbric war, and of poems ; but all 
 these have perished with the exception of 2 epi- 
 grams. —3. Q,., son of No. 2, a distinguished 
 leader of the aristocracy, also won the respect and 
 confidence of the people b)' his upright character 
 and conduct. Being consul with M. Lepidus in 
 78, he resisted the efforts of his colleague to ab- 
 rogate the acts of Sulla, and the following spring 
 he defeated Lepidus in the battle of the Milviau 
 bridge, and forced him to take refuge in Sardinia. 
 He opposed the Gabinian and Manilian laws which 
 conferred extraordinary powers upon Pompey (67 
 and QG). He was censor with Crassus in Qb, and 
 died in 60. 
 
 Caturigea, a Ligurian people in Gallia Narbo- 
 nensis, near the Cottian Alps: their chief towns 
 were Eeurodunum, and Caturigae or Catori- 
 magus {Chorges). 
 
 Catus Decianus, procurator of Britain in the 
 reign of Nero, was by his extortion one of the chief 
 causes of the revolt of the people under Boadicea, 
 A. D. 62. He fled to Gaul. 
 
 Cauca {Coca)^ a town of the Vaccaei in His- 
 pania Tarraconenais ; birth-place of the emperor 
 Theodosius I, 
 
 Caucasiae Pylae. [Caucasus.] 
 Caucasus, Caucasii Montea ((S Kou/catros, rb 
 Ka.vK6.(Tiov opos, ra KavKatna 6p7] : Caucasus). 1. 
 A great chain of mountains in Asia, extending 
 W.N.W. and E. S. E. from the E. shore of the 
 Pontus Euxinus {Black Sea) to the W. shore of 
 the Caspian. Its length is about 700 miles ; its 
 greatest breadth 120, its least 60 or 70. Its 
 greatest height exceeds that of the Alps, its lofti- 
 est summit (ML Elbrooz, nearly in 43° N. lat. 
 and 43'^ E. long.), being 16,800 feet above the sea. 
 
CAUCI. 
 and to the E. of this there are seveml other summits 
 above the line of perpetual snow, which, in the 
 Caucasus, is from 10,000 to 11,000 feet above the 
 sea. The W. part of the chain ia much lower, no 
 summit W. of Mt. JElbrooz rising above the snow 
 line. At both extremities the chain sinks down 
 to low hills. There are two chief passes over the 
 chain, both of which were known to the ancients : 
 the one, between its E. extremity and the Caspian, 
 near DerbenU was called Albaniae and sometimes 
 Caspiae Pylab: the other, nearly in the centre 
 of the range, was called Caucasiae Pylae {Pass of 
 Danel). In ancient times, as is still the case, the 
 Caucasus was inhabited by a great variety of tribes, 
 speaking different languages (Strabo says, at least 
 70), but all belonging to that family of the human 
 race, which has peopled Europe and W. Asia, and 
 which has obtained the name of Caucasian from 
 the fact that in no other part of the world are such 
 perfect examples of it found, as among the moun- 
 taineers of the Caucasus. — That the Greeks had 
 some vague knowledge of the Caucasus in very 
 early times, is proved by the myths respecting 
 Prometheus and the Argonauts, from which it 
 seems that the Caucasus was regarded as at the 
 extremity of the earth, on the border of the river 
 Oceanus. The account which Herodotus gives is 
 good as far as it goes (L 203) ; but it was not till 
 the march of Pompey, in the Mithridatic War, 
 extended to the banks of the Cyrus and Araxes 
 and to the foot of the great chain, that means 
 were obtained for that accurate descriptlnn of the 
 Caucasus which Strabo gives in his 11th book. 
 The coimtry about the E. part of the Caucasus 
 was called Albania : the rest of the chain divided 
 Iberia and Colchis, on the S., from Sarmatia 
 Asiatica on the N.^2. When the soldiers of 
 Alexander advanced to that great range of moun- 
 tains which formed the N. boundary of Ariana, 
 the Paropamisus, they supposed that they had 
 reached the great Caucasian chain at the extremity 
 of the world mentioned by the early poets, and 
 they applied to it the name of Caucasus ; after- 
 wards, for the sake of distinction, it was called 
 Caucasus Indicus. [Paropamisus.] 
 Cauci. [Chauci.] 
 
 Caucones (KauHrwyey), the name of peoples both 
 in Greece and Asia, but whether of the same or 
 different tribes cannot be determined with cer- 
 tainty. The Caucones in the N.W. of Greece, 
 in Elis and Achaia, were supposed by the ancient 
 geographers to be an Arcadian people. The Cau- 
 cones in the N.W. of Asia Minor are mentioned 
 by Homer as allies of the Trojans, and are placed 
 in Bithynia and Paphlagonia by the geographers, 
 who regarded them as Pelasgians, though some 
 thought them Scythians. 
 
 Caudium (Caudinus), a town in Samnium on 
 the road from Capua to Beneventum. In the 
 neighbourhood were the celebrated rurculae Cau- 
 dinae, or Caudine Forks^ narrow passes in the 
 mountains, where the Roman army surrendered 
 to the Samnites, and was sent under the yoke, 
 B. c. 321 : it is now called the valley of Arpaia. 
 
 Caulon orCaulonia (Cauloniata: Castel Vetere), 
 a town in Bruttium, N. E. of Locri, originally 
 called Aulon or Aulonia ; founded by the inhabitants 
 of Croton or by the Achaeans ; destroyed by Dio^ 
 nysius the elder, who removed its inhabitants to 
 Syracuse and gave its territory to Locri ; after- 
 wards rebuilt, but again destroyed in the war with 
 
 CECROPS. 
 
 169 
 
 Pyrrhus ; rebuilt a third time and destroyed a 
 third time in the 2nd Punic war. It was cele- 
 brated for its worship of the Delphian Apollo. Its 
 name is preserved in the hill Caulone in the neigh- 
 bourhood of Castel Vetere. 
 
 Caimus, [Byblis.] 
 
 Caunus (^ Kavvos : Kavvio^ : Kaiffues), one of 
 the chief cities of Caria, on its S. coast, a little E. 
 of the mouth of the Calbis, in a very fertile but 
 unhealthy situation. It had a citadel called Im- 
 bros, an enclosed harbour for ships of war, and 
 safe roads for merchant vessels. It was founded 
 by the Cretans. Its dried figs (Caimeae ficus) were 
 highly celebrated. The painter Protogenes was 
 born here. 
 
 Caums, the Argestes {'Apyea-TTjs) of the Greeks, 
 the N.W. wind, is in Italy a stormy wind. 
 
 Cavares, or -i, a people in Gallia Narbonensis, 
 E. of the Rhone, between the Druentia and the 
 Isara. 
 
 Cavarinus, a Senonian, whom Caesar made king 
 of his people, was expelled by his subjects and 
 compelled to fly to Caesar, B. c. 54. 
 
 Caystrus (Kaycrrpo?, Ion, Kaiiffrpws: KaraSu, 
 i. e. the Black Riiei\ or KucJiuJc-Memder, i, e. Lit- 
 tle Maeander)^ a celebrated river of Lydia and 
 Ionia, rising in the Cilbiani M. (the E. part of 
 Tmolus), and flowing between the ranges of Tmo- 
 lus and Messogis into the Aegean, a little N. W. of 
 Ephesus. To this day it abounds in swans, as it 
 did in Homer's time. The valley of the Caystrus 
 is called by Homer " the Asian meadow," and is 
 probably the district to which the name of Asia 
 was first applied. There was an inland town of 
 the same name on its S, bank. 
 
 Cebenna Mons or Gehenna (ri K^fifxevov Spo^ : 
 Cevmnes)^ mountains in the S. of Gaul, 2000 stadia 
 in length, extending N. as far as Lugdunum and 
 separating the Arverni from the Helvii: Caesar 
 found them in the winter covered with snow 6 
 feet deep. 
 
 Cebes (Ke'^Tjs), of Thebes, a disciple and friend 
 of Socrates, was present at the death of his teacher. 
 He wrote 3 philosophical works, one of which, en- 
 titled ntfa| or Tahle^ is extant. This work is an 
 allegorical picture of human life, which is explained 
 by an old man to a circle of youths. The drift of 
 the book is to show, that only the development of 
 our mind and the possession of real virtue can make 
 us happy. Few works have enjoyed a greater po- 
 pubrity. Of the numerous editions the best are 
 by Schweighaiiser, Argent. 1006, and by Coraes in 
 his edition of Epictetus, Paris, 1826. 
 
 Cebrene {K^Qp-hv-q)^ a city in the Troad, on M. 
 Ida, which fell into decay when Antigonus trans- 
 planted its inhabitants to Alexandria Troas. A 
 little -river, which flowed past it, was called Cebren 
 {K^§pi]v)^ and the surrounding district Cebrenia 
 {KeipT]Aa.y 
 
 Cecropia. [Athenae, p, 102, b.] 
 
 Cecrops (KeVpojij/), a hero of tlie Pelasgic race, 
 said to have been the first king of Attica. He was 
 married to Agraulos, daughter of Actaeus, by whom 
 he had a son,Erysichthon, who succeeded him as king 
 of Athens, and 3 daughters, Agraulos, Herse, and 
 Pandrosos. In his reign Poseidon and Athena 
 contended for t)ie possession of Attica, but Cecrops 
 decided in favour of the goddess. [Athena,] 
 Cecrops is said to have founded Athens, the citadel 
 of which was called Cecropia after him, to have 
 divided Attica into 12 communities, and to have 
 
160 CECRYPHALIA. 
 
 introduced the first elements of civilized life ; he 
 instituted marriage, abolished bioody sacrifices, and 
 taught his subjects how to worship the gods. He 
 is sometimes called Sti^iWjs or geniinus^ an epithet 
 which some explain by his liaving instituted mar- 
 riage, while others suppose it to have reference to 
 the legends, in which the upper part of his body 
 was represented as that of a man and the lower 
 part as that of a serpent. The later Greek writers 
 describe Cecrops as a native of Sais in Egypt, who 
 led a colony of Egyptians into Attica, and thus 
 introduced from Egj'pt the arts of civilized life; 
 "but this account is rejected by some of the an- 
 cients themselves, and by the ablest modem critics. 
 
 Cecryplialia (KcKpu^aAeio), a small island in 
 the Saronic gulf, between Aegina and Epidaunis. 
 
 Cedreae (KeSpeot or -cTai, Ke5p€t£T7/y or -aros), 
 a town of Caria, on the Ceramic Gulf. 
 
 Cedrenus, Georgiua, a Byzantine writer, of 
 whose life nothing is known, the author of an his- 
 torical work, which begins with the creation of the 
 world, and goes down to A. d. 1057. The last 
 edition is by Bekker, Bonn, 18;-i8-39. 
 
 Celaenae (KeAcwrai, KiXaivWris), the greatest 
 city of S. Phrj'gia, before the rise of its neighbour, 
 Apamea Cibotus, reduced it to insignificance. It 
 lay at the sources of the rivers Maeander and 
 Marsyas. In the midst of it was a citadel built 
 by Xerxes, on a precipitous rock, at the foot of 
 which, in the Agora of the city, the Marsyas took 
 its rise, and near the river's source was a grotto 
 celebrated by tradition as the scene of the punish- 
 ment of Marsyas by Apollo. Outside of the city 
 was a royal palace, with pleasure-gardens and a 
 great park (TrapaSeto-Qy) full of game, which was 
 generally the residence of a satrap. The Maean- 
 der took its rise in the very palace, and flowed 
 tlirough the park and the city, below which it re- 
 ceived the Marsyas, 
 
 Celaeno (KeAatcci). 1. A Pleiad, daughter of 
 Atlas and Pleionc, beloved by Poseidon. — 3. One 
 of the Harpies. [Harpyiae.] 
 
 Celeia (C/Z/y), an important town in the S. E. of 
 Noricum, and a Roman colony with the surname 
 Claudia^ was in the middle ages the capital of a 
 Slavonic state called Zellla ; hence the modem 
 name of the town, which possesses Roman, remains. 
 
 Celenderis (KeAe^'Sepir ; Kltclindreh)^ a sea-port 
 town of Cilicia, said to have been founded by San- 
 dams the Syrian, and afterwards colonized by the 
 Samians. 
 
 Celer, together with Severus, the architect of 
 Nero'^s immense palace, the golden house. He and 
 Sevems began digging a canal from the lake Aver- 
 nus to the mouth of the Tiber. 
 
 Celer, P. Egtiatius. [Barea.] 
 
 Celetmm (Kastoria)^ a town in Macedonia on 
 a peninsula of the Lacus Castoris, probably the 
 same town afterwards called Biocletianopolis, 
 
 Celeus (KTjAefJy), king of Eleusis, husband of 
 !Mctanira, and father of Dcmophou and Triptole- 
 mufi. He received Demeter with hospitality at 
 Eleusis, when she was wandering in search of her 
 daughter. The goddess, in return, wished to make 
 his son D{!mophon immortal, and placed him intlie fire 
 in order to destroy his mortal parts ; but Metanira 
 screamed aloud at the sight, and Demophon was 
 destroyed by the flames. Oeuieter then bestowed 
 great favours upon Triptolemus. [Teiftole.mus.] 
 Celeus is described as the first priest and his daugh- 
 ters as the first priestesses of I)i*meter at Eleusis. 
 
 CELTAE. 
 
 Celsa {Vdilla Ru., nr. Xeha)^ a town in His- 
 pania Tarraconensis on the Iberus, with a stone 
 bridge over this river, and a Roman colony with 
 the luime Viclnx Julia Celsa, 
 
 Celsus. 1. One of the 30 tyrants, usurped the 
 purple in Africa, and was slain on the 7th day of 
 his reign, a. D. 265.^2. An Epicurean philoso- 
 pher^ lived in the time of the Antonines, and was 
 a friend of Lucian. He is supposed to be the same 
 as the Celsus who wrote the work against Christi- 
 anity called A.6yos aA?j07)s, which acquired so much 
 notoriety from the answer written to it by Origen. 
 [Origenes.] —3. a. Cornelius Celsus, probably- 
 lived under the reigns of Augustus and Tiberius, 
 He wrote several works, of which only one remains 
 entire, his treatise De Medidna^ " On Medicine," in 
 8 books. The first two books are principally oc- 
 cupied by the consideration of diet, and the general 
 principles of therapeutics and patholog)--; the re- 
 maining books are devoted to the consideration of 
 particular diseases and their treatment ; the third and 
 fourth to internal diseases ; the fifth and sixth to ex- 
 ternal diseases, and to phannaceutical preparations ; 
 and the last two to those diseases which more par- 
 ticulai'ly belong to surgery. The work has been 
 much valued from the earliest times to the present 
 day. — Editions. By Milligan, Edinb. 182(5; by 
 Ritter and Albers, Colon, ad Rhen. 1835.^4. 
 Julius Celsus, a scholar at Constantinople in the 7th 
 century after Christ, made a recension of the text of 
 Caesar's Commentaries. Many modem writers have 
 attributed to him the life of Caesar, which was in. 
 reality written by Petrarch. — 5. P. Juventius 
 Celsus, two Roman jui-ists, father and son, both of 
 whom are cited in the Digest Very little is 
 known of the elder Celsus. The younger Celsus, 
 who was the more celebrated, lived under Nerva 
 and Trajan, by whom he was highly favoured. 
 He wrote Digesla in 39 books, Epistolae^ Quaes- 
 tiones^ and. Instituiiones in 7 books. — 6. P. Ma- 
 rius Celsus, an able general first of Galba and 
 afterwards of Otho. After the defeat of Otho's 
 army at the battle of Bedriacum, Celsus was par- 
 doned by Vitellius, and was allowed by him to 
 enter on the consulship in July (a. d. 69). 
 
 Celtae, a powerful race, which occupied a great 
 part of W. Europe. The Greek and Roman 
 writers call them by 3 names, which are probably 
 only variations of one name, namely Celtae (KeATai", 
 KeAroi), Galatae (raAarai), and GaUi (raAAot). 
 Their name was originally given to all the people 
 of N. and W. Europe, who were not Iberians, and 
 it was not till the time of Caesar that the Romans 
 made any distinction between the Celts and the 
 Germans : the name of Celts then began to be con- 
 fined to the people between the Pyrenees and the 
 Rhine. The Celts belonged to the great Indo-Ger- 
 manic race, as their language proves. Like the 
 other Indo-Germanic races, they came from the 
 East, and, at a period long antecedent to all historical 
 records, settled in the W. of Europe. The most 
 powerful part of the nation appears to have taken 
 up their abode in the centre of the country called 
 after thera Galli.a, between the Garumna in the 
 S. and the Sequana and Matrona in the N. From 
 this country they spread over various parts of 
 Europe, and they appear in early times as a mi- 
 gratory race, ready to abandon their homes, and 
 settle in any district which their swords could win. 
 Besides the Celts in Gallia, there were 8 other dif- 
 ferent settlements of the nation, which may be dis- 
 
CELTIBERI. 
 
 tingiiished by the following names: — 1. Iberian 
 Celts, who crossed the Pyrenees and settled in 
 Spain. [Celtiberi.] 2. British Celts, the most 
 ancient inhabitants of Britain. [Britannia.] 3. 
 Belgic Celts, the earliest inhabitants of Gallia 
 Belgica, at a later time much mingled with Ger- 
 iTians. 4. Italian Celts, who crossed the Alps at 
 diiferent periods, and eventually occupied the greater 
 part of the N. of Italy, which was called after 
 them Gallia Cisalpina. 5. Celts in the Alps 
 and on the Danube, namely the Helvetii, Gothiiii. 
 Osi, Vindelici, Raeti, Norici, and Carni. 6. II- 
 lyrian Celts, who, under the name of Scordisci, 
 ■settled on Mt. Scordus. 7. Macedonian and 
 Thraclan Celts, who had remained behind in Ma- 
 cedonia, when tlie Celts invaded Greece, and who 
 are rarely mentioned. 8. Asiatic Celts, the Tolisto- 
 bogi, Trocmi and Tectosages, who founded the 
 kingdom of Galatia. — Some ancient writers 
 divided the Celts into two great races, one con- 
 sisting of the Celts in the S. and centre of Gaul, in 
 Spain, and in the N. of Italy, who were the proper 
 Celts, and the other consisting of the Celtic tribes 
 «n the shores of the Ocean and in the E. as far as 
 Scythia, who were called Gauls : to the latter race the 
 Cinibri belonged, and they are considered by some 
 to be identical with the Cimmeiii of the Greelvs. 
 This twofold division of the Celts appears to cor- 
 respond to the two races into which tlie Celts are 
 at present divided in Great Britahi, namely the 
 Gael and the Kymry, who diifer in language and 
 customs, the Gael being the inhabitants of Ireland 
 ^nd the N. of Scotland, and the Kymry of "Wales. 
 — The Celts are described by the ancient writers 
 -as men of large stature, of fair complexion, and 
 ■with flaxen or red hair. They were brave and 
 •warlike, impatient of control and prone to change. 
 They fought with long swords ; their first charge 
 in battle was the most formidable, but if firmly 
 resisted, they usually gave way. They were long the 
 terror of the Romans ; once they took Rome, and 
 laid it in ashes (b.c. 3fl0). — For details respecting 
 their later history and political organization, see 
 ■Gallia. 
 
 Celtiberi (Ke\Ti€Tjp€s), a powerful people in 
 Spain, consisting of Celts, who crossed the Py- 
 renees at an early period, and became mingled 
 with the Iberians, the original inhabitants of the 
 country. They dwelt chiefly in the central part of 
 Spain, in the highlands which separate the Iberus 
 from the rivers which flow towards the W., and 
 in which the Tagus and the Durius rise. They 
 •were divided into various tribes, the Arevacae, 
 Berones, and Pelendone.% which were the 
 3 most important, the Lusones, Belli, Dittani, 
 &c. Their chief towns were Segobriga, Nu- 
 MANTIA, Bilbilis, &c. Their country called 
 Celtiberia was mountainous and unproductive. 
 Thev were a brave and warlike people, and proved 
 formidable enemies to the Romans. They sub- 
 mitted to Scipio Africanus in the 2nd Punic war, 
 but the oppressions of the Roman governors led 
 them to rebel, and for many years they success- 
 fully defied the power of Rome. They were re- 
 duced to submission on the capture of Numantia 
 by Scipio Africanus the younger (b. c. 134), but 
 they again took up arms under Sertorius, and it 
 ■was not till his death (72) that they began to adopt 
 the Roman customs and language. 
 
 Celtici. 1. A Celtic people in Lusitania be- 
 tween the Tagus and Anas. — 2. A Celtic people 
 
 CENTAURI. Ifil 
 
 in Gallaecia near the promontory Nerlum, which 
 was called Celticum after them (C. Fiinsterrc). 
 
 CenaeuLi (Krivaiov aKpov : Kmiuia or Litar), 
 the N.W. promontorj-- of Euboea, opposite Ther- 
 mopylae, with a temple of Zeus Cenaeus. 
 
 Cenchreae (Ke^xpeat). 1. Tlie E. harbour of 
 Corinth on the Saronic gulf, important for the trade 
 and commerce with the E. — 2. A town in Argolis, 
 S. of Argos, on the road to Tegea. 
 
 Cenomani, a powerful Gallic people, originally 
 a branch of the Aulerci, crossed the Alps at an 
 early period, and settled in the N. of Italy in the 
 country of Brixia, Verona, and Mantua, and ex- 
 tended N. as far as the confines of Rhaetia. They 
 were at constant feud with the neighbouring tribes 
 of the Insubres, Boii, &c., and hence usually as- 
 sisted the Romans in their wars with these people. 
 
 Censorinus. 1. One of the 30 tyrants, assumed 
 the purple at Bologna, A. D. 270, but was shortly 
 afterwards put to death by his own soldiers. ^ 2. 
 Author of a treatise entitled de Die Natalia which 
 treats of the generation of man, of his natal hour, of 
 the influence of the stars and genii upon his career, 
 and discusses the various methods employed for 
 the division and calculation of time. The book is 
 dedicated to Q. Cerellius, and was composed A. n. 
 238. A fragment de Alciiis and lost tracts de 
 Accentibzis and dc Geomctria are ascribed to this 
 Censorinus, — Editions. By Havercarap, Lug. Bat. 
 1743; by Gruber, Noremb. 1806. 
 
 Censorinus, Karcius. 1. C, son of C. Marcius 
 Rutilus, first plebeian dictator (b. c. 356), was ori- 
 ginally called Rutilus, and- was the first member 
 of the family who had the surname Censorinus. 
 He was consul in e. c. 310, and conducted the war 
 in Samnium. He was censor 294, and a second 
 time 265, the only instance in which a person held 
 the office of censor twice. — 2. L., consul 149, the 
 first 3'ear of the tliird Punic war, conducted the 
 war against Carthage with his colleague M'. Ma- 
 nilius. ^3. C, one of the leaders of the Marian 
 party, fought against Sulla in the battle near the 
 CoUine gate, was taken prisoner, and put to death 
 by Sulla's order. Censorinus was one of the ora- 
 tors of his time, and versed in Greek literature.— 
 4, L., a partizan of M. Antony, praetor 43, and 
 consul 39.-5. C, consul B.C. 8, died in Asia 
 A. u. 2, while in attendance upon C. Caesar, the 
 grandson of Augustus. 
 
 Centauin. (K€i'Taupot),.that is, the Bull-killers, 
 were an ancient race, inhabiting Mount Pelion in 
 Thessaly. They led a wild and savage life, and 
 are hence called (piip^s or ^vjpes- in Homer. Tn 
 later accounts they were represented as half-horses 
 and half-men. Their origin is variously related. 
 According to the most ancient account Centaurus, 
 the offspring of Ixion and a cloud, begot the Hip- 
 pocentaurs by mixing with Magnesian mares. From, 
 most accounts it would appear that the Centaurs 
 and Hippocentaurs were originally regarded as two 
 distinct classes of beings, although the name of 
 Centaurs is applied to both by ancient as well as 
 modern writers. The Centaurs are particularly 
 celebrated in ancient story for their fight with the 
 Lapithae, which arose at the marriage-feast of Pi- 
 rithoua. This fight is sometimes placed in con- 
 nexion with a combat of Hercules with the Cen- 
 taurs. It ended by the Centaurs being expelled 
 from their country, and taking refuge on mount 
 Pindus, on the frontiers of Epirus. Chiron is the 
 most celebrated among the Centaurs. [Chiron.] 
 
362 CENTRITES. 
 
 We know that hunting the bull on horseback was 
 a national, custom in Thessaly, and that the Thes- 
 salians were celebrated riders. Hence may have 
 arisen the fable that the Centaurs were half-men 
 and half-horses, just as the Americans, when they 
 first saw a Spaniard on horseback, believed horse 
 and man to be one being. The Centaurs were 
 frequently represented in ancient works of art, and 
 generally, as men from the head to the loins, while 
 the remainder of the body is that of a horse with 
 its 4 feet and tail. 
 
 Centrites {Kei/rpiTTjs : 5e(//w), a small river of 
 Armenia, which it divided from the land of the 
 Carduchi, N. of Assyria. It rises in the mountains 
 S. of the Arsissa Palus (L. Van)^ and flows into 
 the Tigris. 
 
 Centumalus, Fulvius. L Cn., legate of the 
 dictator M. Valerius Corvus B.C. 301 ; consul 291?, 
 when he gained a victor}' over the Samnites ; and 
 propraetor 295, when he defeated the Etruscans. 
 — 2. Cn., consul 229, defeated the Illyrians sub- 
 ject to the queen Teuta. — 3. Cn., curule aedile 
 214; praetor 213, with Suessula as his province; 
 and consul 211; in the next year he was de- 
 feated by Hannibal near Herdonia in Apulia, 
 and was killed in the battle. — 4. M., praetor ur- 
 banus 1 92, superintended the preparations for the 
 war against Antiochus the Great. 
 
 Centum Cellae (Civita Vecchia), a sea-port town 
 in Etruria, first became a place of importance under 
 Trajan, who built a villa here and constructed an 
 excellent harbour. It was destroyed by the Sara- 
 cens in tlie 9th century, but w.is rebuilt on its 
 ancient site, and was hence called Civita Vecchia. 
 
 Centuripae (to KeyrdptTra, al K^vTOvpitrai : 
 KevTopiTricor, in Thuc. oi KeyrtSptTrey, Centiiri- 
 plnus : CenioThi\ an ancient town of the Siculi in 
 Sicilj', at the foot of Mt. Aetna, on the road from 
 Catana to Panormus, and not far from the river 
 Symaethus ; in its neighbourhood a great quantity 
 of com was gro^vn, and it became under the Ro- 
 mans one of the most flourishing cities in the 
 island. 
 
 Ceos (K^&jy, Ion. Keos : Ketos, Ion. KTji'os-, Ceus: 
 Zea)^ an island in the Aegean Sea, one of the Cy- 
 clades, between the Attic promontory Sunium and 
 the island C}'thnus. celebrated for its fertile soil 
 and its genial climate. It was inhabited by 
 lonians, and originally contained 4 towns, lulis, 
 Carthaea, Coressus, and Poeeessa; but the two 
 latter perished by an earthquake. Simonides was 
 a native of lulis in Ceos, whence we read of the 
 Ceac mavera neniae. (Hor. CaTm. ii. 1. 3iJ.) 
 
 Cepl:&,le (Kecpak-fj), an Attic demus, on the 
 right bank of the Erasinus, belonging to the tribe 
 Acamantis. 
 
 Cephallenia (K€<paXX7]via, KetpaXrivia : K^cpaK- 
 Xijv^ p].Ki<pa\Kriues: C'ephalo7da), called by Ho- 
 mer Same (2a^7/) or Samos (5a^o9), the largest 
 island in the Ionian sea, separated from Ithaca on 
 the E. by a narrow channel, contains 348 square 
 miles. It is said to have been originally inhabited 
 by Taphiang, and to have derived its name from 
 the mythical Cephalus. Even in Homer its 
 inhabitants are called Cephallenes, and are the 
 subjects of Ulysses : but the name Cephallenia 
 first occurs in Herodotus. The island is very 
 mountainous (Tranra\o€(r(rri) ; and the highest 
 mountain, called Aenos, on which stood a temple 
 of Zens, rises more than 4000 feet above the sea. 
 Cephallenia was a tetrapolis, containing the 4 
 
 CEPHISODOTUS. 
 towns, S.*ME, Pale, Cranii, and Proni. It 
 never attained political importance. In the Per- 
 sian wars the inhabitants of Pale are alone men- 
 tioned. In the Peloponnesian war Cephallenia 
 surrendered to the Athenians. Same ventured to 
 oppose the Romans, but was taken by M. Fulvius, 
 B, c. 189. In modem times the island was for a 
 long while in possession, of the Venetians, but is 
 now one of the 7 Ionian islands under the protec- 
 tion of Great Britain. 
 
 Cephaloedium {KecpaXoiSiov : Cephaloeditunus; 
 Cefaii or Cephalu), a town on the N. coast of Si- 
 cily in the territory of Plimera. 
 
 CeplialTis (KecpoKos). 1. Son of Hermes and 
 Herse, was carried off by Eos (Aurora), who be- 
 came by him the mother of Tithonus in Syria.— 
 2. Son of Deion and Diomede, and husband of 
 Procris or Procne, daughter of Erechthcus, whom 
 he tenderly loved. He was beloved by Eos, but 
 as he rejected her advances from love to his wife, 
 she advised him to try the fidelity of Procris. The 
 goddess then metamorphosed him into a stranger, 
 and sent him with rich presents to his house. 
 Procris was tempted by the brilliant presents to 
 yield to the stranger, who then discovered himself 
 to be her husband, whereupon she fled in shame to 
 Crete. Artemis made her a present of a dog and 
 a spear, which were never to miss their object, and 
 then sent her back to Cephalus in the disguise of 
 a youth. In order to obtain this dog and spear, 
 Ceplialus promised to love the youth, who then 
 made herself known to him as his wife Procris. 
 This led to a reconciliation between them. Procris 
 however still feared the love of Eos, and therefore 
 jealously watched Cephalus when he went out 
 hunting, but on one occasion he killed her by acci- 
 dent with the never-erring spear. A somewhat 
 different version of the same story is given by 
 Ovid. (Met. vii, 685, seq.) Subsequently Cepha- 
 lus fought with Amphitrj'on against the Teleboans, 
 upon tiie f;onque3t of wiiom he was rewarded with 
 the island which he called after his own name 
 Cephallenia. ^3. A Syracusan, and father of the 
 orator Lysias, came to Athens at the invitation of 
 Pericles. He is one of the speakers in Plato's 
 Republic. ^4. An eminent Athenian orator of the 
 Collylean demus, flourished b. c. 402. 
 
 Cepheus {Kv(p^os). 1. King of Ethiopia, son 
 of Belus, husband of Cassiepeia, and father of 
 Andromeda, was placed among the stars after his 
 death. ^ 2. Son of Aleus and Nearea or Cleobule, 
 one of the Argonauts. He was king of Tegea in 
 Arcadia, and perished, with most of his sons, in 
 an expedition against Hercules. 
 
 Cepliisia or Cephissia (Kyj^tcia more correct 
 than KTjtpta-ffia: K7}<pi(rifvs : A7i!:'«a),one of the 12 
 Cecropian towns of Attica, and afterwards a demus 
 belonging to the tribe Erechtheis, N.E. of Athens, 
 on the W* slope of Mt. Pentelicus. 
 
 Cepliiabdorus (K7j(/>io-(i5wpos). 1. An Athenian 
 comic poet of the old comedy, flourished b. c. 402. 
 ^2. An Athenian orator, a disciple of Isocrates, 
 wrote an apology for Isocrates against Aristotle, 
 entitled at irphs 'ApitrToreAT/ at/Tiypa^ai. 
 
 Cephisodotus {KT)(pia-6Soros), 1 An Athenian 
 general and orator, is mentioned on various occa- 
 sions from a c. 371 to 355.-2. An Athenian 
 sculptor, whose sister was the first wife of Phocion, 
 flourished 372. He belonged to that younger 
 school of Attic artists, who had abandoned the 
 stern and majestic beauty of Phidias, and adopted 
 
CEPHISOPHON. 
 
 a more animated and graceful style.^3. An Athe- 
 nian sculptor, usually called the Younger, a son of 
 the great Praxiteles, flourished 300. 
 
 CepMsoplion (Kif)(pi(To<paiv\ a friend of Euri- 
 pides, is said not only to have been the chief actor 
 in his dramas, but also to have aided him with his 
 advice in the c(jmposition of them. 
 
 CepJiisua or Cephissus {K-q<pi<T6s, K-qcpta-a-Ss). 
 1. The chief river in Phocis and Boeotia, rises near 
 Lilaea in Phocis, flows through a fertile valley in 
 Phocis and Boeotia, and falls into the lake Copais, 
 which is hence called Cephisis in the Iliad (v. 709). 
 [Copais,] ^2. The largest river in Attica, rises 
 in'the W. slope of Mt. Pentelicus, and flows past 
 Athens on the W. into the Saronic gulf near Pha- 
 lerum. — 3. There was also a river of this name 
 in Argolis, Salamis, Sicyonia, and Scyros. 
 
 Cer (Kt^p), the personified necessity of death 
 (Ktjp or Kijpes bava-roio). The KTjpes are de- 
 scrihed by Homer as formidable, dark, and hate- 
 ful, because they carry off men to_ the joyless house 
 of Hades. According to Hesiod, they ard the 
 daughters of Nyx (Night) and sisters of the 
 Moerae, and punisli men for their crimes. 
 
 Ceramus (^ Kepafios : Keramo\ a Dorian sea- 
 port town on the N. side of the Cnidian Cherso- 
 nesus on the coast of Caria, from which the Cera^ 
 mic gulf (5 K^pafx^iKbs koK-kos : Git^f of Kos, or, 
 Gol/b di Stanco) took its name. [Caria.] 
 
 Cerasus {Kepaaom: Kepaffowrtos; nr. Kli£re- 
 soun), a flourishing colony of Sinope, on the coast 
 of Pontus, at the mouth of a river of the same 
 name ; chiefly celebrated as the place from which 
 Europe obtiiined both the cheiiy and its name. 
 Lucullus is said to have brought back plants of the 
 cherry with him to Kome, but this refers probably 
 only to some particular sorts, as the Romans seem 
 to have had the tree much earlier. — Cerasus fell 
 into decay after the foundation of Pharnacia {Khe- 
 resoun). 
 
 Cerata (to Ke'para), the Horns, a mountain on 
 the frontiers of Attica and Megaris. 
 
 Ceratmii Montes {Kepavvia opri : Khimai-a), a 
 range of mountains extending from the frontier 
 of lllyricum along the coast of Epirus, derived their 
 name from the frequent thunder-storms which oc- 
 curred among them (K€paui/6s). These mountains 
 made the coast of Epirus dangerous to ships. They 
 were also called Acroceraunia, though this name 
 was properly applied to the promontory separating 
 the Adriatic and Ionian seas. The inhabitants 
 of these mountains were called Ceraunii. 
 
 Cerberus (Kepffepos), the dog that guarded the 
 entrance of Hades, is mentioned as early as the 
 Homeric poems, but simply as " the dog," and 
 without the name of Cerberus. (//. viii. 368, Od. 
 xi. 623.) Hesiod calls him a son of Typhaon and 
 Echidna, and represents him with 50 heads. Later 
 writers describe him as a monster with only 3 
 heads, with the tail of a serpent and with ser- 
 pents round his neck. Some poets again call 
 him many-headed or hundred- headed. The den 
 of Cerberus is usually placed on the further side of 
 the Styx, at the spot where Charon landed the 
 shades of the departed. 
 
 Cercasorum, or -us, or -esiira (KGpKdadJpos 
 ttSKls, Herod., K^pK€(rovpa^ Strab. : El-Arhts). a 
 city of Lower Egypt, on the W. bank of the Nile, 
 at the point where the river divided into its 3 
 principal branches, the E. or Pelusiac, the W. or 
 Canopic, and the N. between them. 
 
 CERON. 
 
 163 
 
 Cercetae or -ii (KepKeroi, probably the Cir- 
 cassians), a people of Sarmatia Asiatica, beyond 
 the Cimmerian Bosporus, on the E. coa^ of the 
 Palus Maeotis (.Sea of Azov). 
 
 Cercetius, a mountain in Thessaly, part of the 
 range of Pindus. 
 
 Cercina and Cercinitis (KepKlva, Kepuiviris : 
 Karkcnah Is., Bamlah and Glierba), 2 low islands 
 off the N. coast of Africa, in the mouth of the 
 Lesser Syrtis, united by a bridge, and possessing 
 a fine harbour. Cercina was the larger, and had 
 on it a town of the same name. 
 
 Cercine {Kepidu-n : Kara-daylt), a mountain in 
 Macedonia, between the Axius and StrjTnon, form- 
 ing the boundary between Sintice and Paeonia. 
 
 Cercinitis {Kipinvtris), a lake in Macedonia, 
 near the mouth of the Strymon, through which this 
 river flows, 
 
 Cercinium, a to\vn in Thessaly on the lake 
 Bob e is. 
 
 Cerco, Q. Lutatius, consul with A. Manlius 
 Torquatus, u. c. 241, in which year the first Punic 
 war was brought to a close by the victory of C. 
 Lutatius Catulus at the Aegates. Cerco, in con- 
 junction with his colleague, subdued the Falisci 
 or people of Falerii, who revolted from the Ro- 
 mans. 
 
 Cercopes (KcpKrwn-es), droll and thievish 
 gnomes, robbed Hercules in his sleep, but were 
 taken prisoners by him, and either given to Om- 
 phale, or killed, or set free again. Some placed 
 them at Thermopyla; (Herod, vii. 216) ; but the 
 comic poem Cercopes, which bore the name of 
 Homer, probably placed them at Oechalia in Eu- 
 boea, (3thers transferred them to Lydia, or the 
 islands called Pithecusae, which derived their 
 name from the Cercopes who were changed into 
 monkeys by Zeus for having deceived him. 
 
 Cercops (Ke'pKw^'). 1- One of the oldest Orphic 
 poets, also called a Pythagorean, was the author 
 of an epic poem, "■ on the descent of Orpheus to 
 Hades." — 2. Of Miletus, the contemporary and 
 rival of Hesiod, is said to have been the author of 
 an epic poem called Aegimius, which is also as- 
 scribed to Hesiod. 
 
 Cercyon. (KepKvajv), son of Poseidon or Hephae- 
 stus, a cruel tyrant at Eleusis, put to death his 
 daughter Alope, and killed all strangers whom he 
 overcame in wrestling ; he was in the end con- 
 quered and slain by Theseus. 
 
 Cerdylium (KepSuAtoi/), a small town in Mace- 
 donia on the right bank of the Strymon, opposite 
 Amphipolis. 
 
 Cerealis, Petilius, served under Vettius Bola- 
 nus, in Britain, a. d. 61 ; was one of the generals 
 who supported the claim of Vespasian to the em- 
 pire, 6y ; suppressed the revolt of Civilis on the 
 Rhine, 70 ; and was governor of Britain, 71, when 
 he conquered a great part of the Brigantes. 
 
 Cereatae, a town of the Hemici in Latium, be- 
 tween Sora and Anagnia. 
 
 Ceres. [Demetek.] 
 
 Cerilli (Cirella Vecchia)^ a town in Bruttium on 
 the coast, a little S. of the mouth of the Laus. 
 
 Cerinthus {KriptvBos), a town on the E, coast of 
 Euboeaj on the rivier Budorus, 
 
 Cerne (Kepvij), an island off the "W, coast of 
 Africa, to which the Phoenicians appear to have 
 traded. Its position is uncertain, and Strabo even 
 denied its existence. 
 
 Ceron, a foimtain in Histiaeotis in Thessaly, 
 
164 
 
 CERUETANT. 
 
 said to have made all the sheep black which drank 
 of it. 
 
 Ceiretani, an. Iberian people in Hispania Tar- 
 raconensis, inliabited the modem Cerdof/Jie in the 
 Pyrenees, and were subsequently divided into the 
 2 tribes of the Juliani and Augustani : they were 
 celebrated for their hams. 
 
 Cersobleptes (Kspa-o§\4irr7js),son of Cotys, king 
 of Thi-ace, on whose death in b. c. 358 he inherited 
 the kingdom in conjunction with Berisades and 
 Amadocus, who were probably his brothers. As 
 an ally of the Athenians Cersobleptes became in- 
 volved in war with Philip, by whom he was fre- 
 quently defeated, and was at length reduced to the 
 condition of a tributary, 343. 
 
 Cersus (Keprros: Merkes), a river of Cilicia, 
 flowing through the Pylae Syro-Ciliciae, into tiie E. 
 side of the Gulf of Issus. 
 
 Certonitim (KeproVio;/), a town in Mysia, men- 
 tioned only by Xenophon {Anab. vii. 8. § 8). 
 
 Cervidius Scaevola. [Scaevola.] 
 
 Ceryx (K-^pul), an Attic hero, son of Hermes 
 and Aglauroa, from whom the priestly family of 
 the Ceryces at Athens derived their origin. 
 
 Oestrus (Kecrr/jus: Jk-su), a considerable river 
 of Pamphylia, flowing from the Taurus S.-warda 
 into the Mediterranean. It was navigable in its 
 lower course, at least as far as the city of Perge, 
 which stood on its "VV. bank, 60 stadia (10 geog. 
 miles) above its mouth. 
 
 Cetei (K77T€:o(), a people of Mysia, the old in- 
 habitants of the country about Pergamus, mentioned 
 by Homer (OtL xi. 521). Their name is evidently 
 connected with that of the river Cetius. 
 
 Cethegus, Cornelius, an ancient patrician 
 family. They seem to have kept up an old fashion 
 of wearing their arms bare, to which Horace 
 alludes in the words cincinii CeiJiegi {Ars Po'i^i. 
 50) ; and Lucan (li. 543) describes the associate 
 of Catiline thug, earseiiigue mamis vesana Ceihcgi. 
 1. M., curule aedilo and pontifex maximus B. c. 
 213 ; praetor 211, when he had the charge of 
 Apulia ; censor 209, and consul 204. In the next 
 year he commanded as proconsul in Cisalpine Gaid, 
 where he defeated Mago, brother of Hannibal. He 
 died ]^Q. His eloquence was rated very high, so 
 that Ennius gave him the name of Siiada medulla^ 
 and Plorace twice refers to him as an ancient au- 
 thority for the usage of Latin words. (Epist. ii. 2. 
 ]16, Ars. Fott. 50.) ^2. C, commanded in Spain 
 as proconsul 200; was aedile 199; consul 197, when 
 he defeated the Insubrians and Cenomanians in 
 Cisalpine Gaul ; and censor 194.^3. P., cunile 
 aedile 187, praetor 185, and consul 181. The grave 
 of Numa was discovered in his consulship. ^4. 
 M., consul 160, when he drained a part of the 
 Pontine Marshes. — 5. P., a friend of Marius, pro- 
 scribed by Suila, 88, but in 83 went over to Sulla, and 
 was pardoned. ^ 6. C, one of CatiHne''s crew, was 
 a profligate from his early youth. "When Catiline 
 left Rome, 63, after Cicero's first speech, Cethegua 
 stayed behind under the orders of Lentulus. His 
 charge was to murder the leading senators ; but 
 the tardiness of Lentulus prevented anything being 
 done. Cethegua was arrested and condemned to 
 death with the other conspirators. 
 
 Cetius (KT)T€ioy), a small riVer of Mysia, flow- 
 ing from the N. through the district of Elaitis, and 
 falling into the Ca'icus close to Pergamus. 
 
 Ceutrones or Centrones, a people in Gallia 
 Belgica, dependents of the Nervii. 
 
 CHALCE. 
 
 Ceys (K^u'l), king of Trachj's, husband of 
 Alcyone. His death is differently related. [Al- 
 cyone.] He was the father of Hippasus, who fell 
 fighting as the ally of Hercules. 
 
 Cbaboras. [Aborrhas.] 
 
 Chabrias (XaSpias), a celebrated Athenian ge- 
 neral. In B.C. 392 he succeeded Iphicrates in the 
 command of the Athenian forces at Corinth. In 
 3G8 he assisted Evagoras in Cyprus against the 
 Persians. In 378 he was one of the commanders 
 of the forces sent to the aid of Thebes against 
 Agesilans, when he adopted for the first time that 
 manoeuvre for which he became so celebrated, — ■ 
 ordering his men to await the attack with their 
 spears pointed against the enemy and their shields 
 resting on one knee. A statue was afterwards 
 erected at Athens to Chabrias in this posture. In 
 376 he gained an important victory off Naxos over 
 the Lacedaemonian fleet under the command of 
 Pollis. In 361 he took the command of the naval 
 force of Tachos, king of Eg}-pt, who was in rebel- 
 lion, against Persia. In 'doii he was sent as the 
 Athenian commander in Thrace, but was compelled 
 by Charidemus to niake a peace unfavourable to 
 Athens. On the breaking out of the Social war in 
 357, Chabrias commanded the Athenian fleet. At 
 the siege of Chios he sailed into the harbour before 
 the rest of the fleet, and, when his ship was dis- 
 abled, he refused to save his life by abandoning it, 
 and fell fighting. 
 
 Chaerea, C. Cassiua, tribune of the praetorian 
 cohorts, formed the conspiracy by which the em- 
 peror Caligula was slain, a. d, 41. Chaerea was 
 put to death by Claudius upon his accession. 
 
 Chaeremon (Xaiprjuu)!/). 1. One of the most 
 celebrated of the later tragic poets at Athens, flou- 
 rished B. c. 380. He is erroneously called a comic 
 poet by some writers. There are 3 epigrams as- 
 cribed to Chaeremon in the Greek Anthology'. — 
 2. Of Alexandria, a Stoic philosopher, chief libra- 
 rian of the Alexandrian library, was aftcrwnrds 
 called to Rome, and became the preceptor of Nero, 
 in conjunction with Alexander of Aegae. He 
 wrote a historj' of Egypt, on Hieroglyphics, on 
 Comets, and a grammatical work. Martial (xi. 
 56) T,^Tote an epigram upon him. 
 
 ChaerephoE {Xaips<pu>u), a well-known disciple 
 of Socrates, was banished by the Thirty tyrants, 
 and returned to Athens on the restoration of demo- 
 cracy, B. c. 403. He was dead when the trial of 
 Socrates took place, 399. 
 
 Chaeronea (Xaipt^ueia : Xaipwvevs : Capiirna), 
 the Homeric Ame according to Pausanias, a town 
 in Boeotia on the Cephisus near the frontier of 
 Phocis, memorable for the defeat of the Athenians 
 by the Boeotians, B. c. 447, still more for Philip's 
 victoi-y over the Greeks, 338, and for Sulla's vic- 
 tory over the array of Mithridates, 86. Chaeronea 
 was the birthplace of Plutarch. Several remains 
 of the ancient city are to be seen at Capuma, 
 more particularly a theatre excavated in the rock, 
 an aqueduct, and the marble lion (broken in pieces), 
 which adorned the sepulchre of the Boeotians who 
 fell at the battle of Chaeronea. 
 
 Chalaeum {XdKaiov. Xa\a7os), a port-town of 
 the Locri Ozolae on the' Crissaean gulf, on the fron- 
 tiers of Phocis. 
 
 Cbalastra (XctAao-rpa, in Herod. XaheaTpij : 
 XaKaa-Tpaios : CvJacia), a town in Mygdonia in 
 Macedonia, at the mouth of the river Axius. 
 
 Chalce or -ae or -ia (XkAkt;, XdAKai, XaKKla ; 
 
CHALCEDON. 
 
 XaXicato^ or -Irijs : Charld\ an island of the Car- 
 pathian sea, near Rhodes, with a town of the same 
 name, and a temple of Apollo. 
 
 Chalcedon (XaA./cTjBt^'i', more correctly, KaAxi?- 
 Stii' : XaA/cTj5di'ios : Chalkedon^ Grk., Kadi-Kioi^ 
 Turk., Ru.), a Greek city of Bithynia, on the coast 
 of the Propontis at the entrance of tiie Bosporus, 
 neai'ly opposite to Byzantium, was founded by a 
 colony from Megara in B. c. 685. After a long 
 period of independence (only interrupted by its 
 capture by the Persians and its recovery by the 
 Athenians), it became subject to the kings of Bi- 
 thynia, and suffered by the transference of most of 
 its inhabitants to the new city of Nicomedia (d. c. 
 140). The Romans restored its fortifications, and 
 made It the chief city of the province of Bithynia, 
 or Pontica Prima. After various fortunes under 
 the empire, it was entirely destroyed by the Turks. 
 — The fourth oecumenical council of the Church 
 met here. A- d. 451. 
 
 Chalcidice (XaAKtSiKTj), a peninsula in Mace- 
 donia between the Tliermaic and Strymonic gulfs, 
 runs out into the sea like a .3-pronged fork, tenni- 
 nating in 3 smaller peninsulas, Pallene, Sitho- 
 NL\, and AcTE or Athos. It derived its name 
 from Chalcidian colonists. [Chalcis, No. ].] 
 
 Chalcidius, a Platonic phllosoplier who lived 
 probably in the 6th century of the Christian aera, 
 translated into Latin the Timaeus of Plato, on 
 which he likewise wrote a voluminous commentary. 
 Edited by Meursius, Leyden, 1617, and by Fa- 
 bricins, Hamburg, 1718, at the end of the '2nd 
 volume of the works of Hippolytus. 
 
 Chalcioecus (XaAKi'oiKos), " the goddess of the 
 brazen house," a surname of Athena at Sparta, 
 from the brazen temple which she had in that 
 city. 
 
 Chalcis (XaA/cis : XaAKiJeui-, Chalcidensis). 1. 
 (E^ripo or Negroponie\ the principal town of Eu- 
 boea, situated on the narrowest part of the Euri- 
 pus, and united with the mainland by a bridge. It 
 was a very ancient town, originally inhabited by 
 Abantes or Curetes, and colonized by Attic lonians 
 under Cothus. Its flourishing condition at an early 
 period is attested by the numerous colonies which 
 it planted in various parts of the Mediterranean. 
 It founded so many cities in the peninsula in 
 Macedonia between the Strymonic and Thermaic 
 gulfs, that the whole peninsula was called Chalci- 
 dice. In Italy it founded Cuma and in Sicily 
 Naxos. Chalcis was usually subject to Athens 
 during the greatness of the latter city, and after- 
 wards passed into the hands of the Macedonians, 
 Antiochus, Mithrldates, and the Romans. It was 
 a place of great military importance, as It com- 
 manded the navigation between tlic N. and S. of 
 Greece, and hence It was often taken and retaken 
 by the different parties contending for the supre- 
 macy in Greece. — The orator Isaeus and the poet 
 Lycophron were bom at Chalcis, and Aristotle died 
 here. ^ 2. A town in Aetolia at the mouth of the 
 Evenus, situated at the foot of the mountain Chalcis, 
 and hence a\&o c^WqA. Hypochalcis.^Z, [Kinnesnn, 
 Ru.), a city of Syria, in a fruitful plain, near the 
 termination of the river Chains ; the chief city of 
 the district of Chalcidice, which lay to the E. of 
 the Orontes.— 4. A city of Syria on the Belus, 
 in the plain of Marsyas, 
 
 Chalcocondyles, or, by contraction, Chalcon- 
 dyles, Laonicus or Nicolaus, a Byzantine histo- 
 rian, flourished A. D. 144G, and wrote a history of 
 
 CHAOS. 
 
 165 
 
 the Turks and of the later period of the Byzantine 
 empire, from the year l"29n down to the conquest 
 of Corinth and the invasion of the Peloponnesus by 
 the Turks in 1463, thus including the capture o£ 
 Constantinople in 1453. Edited by Fabrot, Paris, 
 1650. 
 
 Chaldaea (XaASata : XaASaTos), in the narrower 
 sense, was a province of Babylonia, about the lower 
 course of the Euphrates, the border of the Arabian 
 Desert, and the head of the Persian Gulf. It was 
 intersected by numerous canals, and was extremely 
 fertile. In a wider sense, the term is applied to 
 the whole of Babylonia, and even to the Babylo- 
 nian empire, on account of the supremacy which 
 the Chaldaeans acquired at Babylon. [Babylon.] 
 Xenophon mentions Chaldaeans in the mountains 
 N. of Mesopotamia ; and we have other statements 
 respecting this people, from which it is very diffi- 
 cult to deduce a clear view of their early history. 
 The most probable opinion is, that their original 
 seat was in the mountains of Armenia and Kur- 
 distan, whence they descended into the plains of 
 Mesopotamia and Babylonia. Respecting the Chal- 
 daeans as the ruling class in the Babyloniau mo- 
 narchy, see Babvlon. 
 
 CliaUis (XaAos : Kowcih)^ a river of N. S^^ria, 
 flowing S. past Beroeaand Chalcis, and terminating 
 in a marshy lake. 
 
 Cnialybes(XoAwg6s),a remarkable Asiatic people, 
 about whom we find various statements in the 
 ancient writers. They are generally represented, 
 both in the early poetic legends, and in the his- 
 torical period, as dwelling on the S. shore of the 
 Black Sea, about Themiscyra and the Thermodon 
 (and probably to a wider extent, for Herodotus 
 clearly mentions them among the nations W. of the 
 Halys), and occupying themselves in the working 
 of Iron. Xenophon mentions Chalybes in the 
 mountains on the borders of Armenia and Meso- 
 potamia, who seem to be the same people that he 
 elsewhere calls Chaldaeans ; and several of the 
 ancient geographers regarded the Chalybes and 
 Chaldaei as originally the same people. 
 
 Chalybon (XaAugwV: 0. T. Helbon), a consi- 
 derable city of N. Syria, probably the same as 
 Beroea, The district about it was called Chaly- 
 bonltis. 
 
 Chamaeleou (Xct^uatXe'w;/), a Peripatetic philo- 
 sopher of Heraclea on the Pontus, one of the imme- 
 diate disciples of Aristotle, wrote works on several 
 of the ancient Greek poets, and likewise on philo- 
 sophical subjects. 
 
 Chamavi, a people in Germany, who were com- 
 pelled by the Roman conquests to change their 
 abodes several times. They first appear in the 
 neighbourhood of the Rhine, but afterwards mi- 
 grated E., defeated the Bructcri, and setiled be- 
 tween the Weser and the Harz. At a later time 
 they dwelt on the Lower Rhine, and are men- 
 tioned as auxiliaries of the Franks. 
 
 Chaones (Xao^es), a Pelasgian people, one of 
 the 3 peoples which Inhabited Epikus, were at an 
 earlier period in possession of the whole of the 
 country, but subsequently dwelt along the coast 
 from the river Thyamis to the AcrocLi-aunian pro- 
 montory', which district was therefore called Cbao- 
 nia. By the poets Chaonius is used as equivalent 
 to Epirot. 
 
 Chaos {Xdos)^ the vacant and infinite space 
 which existed according to the ancient cosmogonies 
 previous to the creation of the Avorld and out of 
 
 u 3 
 
16(3 
 
 CHARADRA. 
 
 which the gods, men, and all things arose. Chaos 
 was called the mother of Erebus and Nyx. 
 
 Charadra {XapdSpa : Xapadpa7os). 1, A town 
 in Phocis on the river Charadrns, situated on an 
 eminence not far from Lilaea. — 2. A town in Epi- 
 riis, N.W. of Ambracia. ^3. A town In Messe- 
 nia, built by Pelops. 
 
 Charadrus (XapaBpo?). 1. A small river in 
 Phocis, a tributaiy of the Cephisus. — 2. A small 
 river in Argolis, a tributary of the Inachus. — 3. A 
 small river in Messenia. rises near Oechalia. 
 
 Charax (Xdpa^)^ of Pergamua, an historian, 
 wrote a work in 40 books, called 'EWrjyiKd, and 
 another named XpoviKa. 
 
 Ckarax (Xapa|, i. e. a palisaded camp : Xapa- 
 Kijj/iJ?), the name of seveml cities, which took their 
 origin from military stations. The most remitrkable 
 of them stood at the mouth of the Tigris. [Alex- 
 -ANDRiA, No. 4,] There were others, which only 
 need a bare mention, in the Chersonesus Taurica, 
 in N. Media, near Celaenae in Phrygia, in Corsica, 
 and on the Great Syrtis in Africa, and a few more. 
 
 Charaxua {Xdpa^ns) of Mytileue, son of Sea- 
 mandronymns and brother of Sappho, fell in love 
 with RjioDOPis. 
 
 Chares (XdpTjs). 1, An Athenian genemi, who 
 for a long series of years contrived by profuse cor- 
 ruption to maintain his influence with the people, 
 in spite of his very disreputable character. In 
 B. c. 367 he was sent to the aid of the Phliasians, 
 who were hard pressed by the Arcadians and Ar- 
 gives, and he succeeded in relieving them. In 
 the Social war, after the death of Cliabrias, 356, 
 he had the command of the Athenian fleet along 
 with Iphicrates and Timotheus. His colleagues 
 having refused, in consequence of a storm, to risk 
 an engagement, Chares accused them to the people, 
 and they were recalled. Being now left in the 
 sole command, and being in want of money, he 
 entered into the service of Artabazus, the revolted 
 satrap of Western Asia, but was recalled by the 
 Athenians on the complaint of Artaxerxes III In 
 the Olynthian war, 349, he commanded the merce- 
 naries sent from Athens to the aid of Olynthus. In 
 340 he commanded the force sent to aid Byzantium 
 against Philip ; but he effected nothing, and was 
 accordingly superseded by Phocion. In 333 he 
 was one of the Athenian commanders at the battle 
 of Chaeronea. When Alexander invaded Asia in 
 334, Chares was living at Sigeum ; and in 333 he 
 commanded for Darius at Mytilene. — 2. Of Myti- 
 lene, an officer at the court of Alexander the Great, 
 wrote a history of Alexander in 10 books. ^3. Of 
 Lindusin Rhodes, a statuarvm bronze, the favourite 
 pupil of Lysippus, flourished B.C. 290. His chief 
 work was the statue of the Sun, which, under the 
 name of " The Colossus of Rhodes," was celebrated 
 as one of the 7 wonders of the world. Its height 
 was upwards of 105 English feet, it was 1"2 years 
 in erecting, and cost 300 talents. It stood at the 
 entrance of the harbour of Rhodes, but there is no 
 authority for the statement that its legs extended 
 over the mouth of the harbour. It was overthrown 
 and broken to pieces by an earthquake 56 years 
 after its erection, b. c. 224. The fragments re- 
 mained on the ground 9'2'd years, till they were 
 sold by the general of the caliph Othnrnn IV., to a 
 ■Tew of Eraesa, who carried them away on 900 
 camels, A. i). 672. 
 
 Cliaricles (XapiKA^s). 1. An Athenian dema- 
 gogue, son of Apollodorus, was one of the commis- 
 
 CHARIS. 
 
 sioners appointed to investigate the affair of the 
 mutilation of the Hermai', B.C. 415 ; was one of 
 the commanders of the Atiienian fleer, 413 ; and 
 one of the 30 tyrants on the capture of Athens by 
 Lvsander, 404. —2. An eminc^nt physician a£ 
 Rome, attended the emperor Tiberius. 
 
 Chariclo (XapucAw). 1. A nymph, daughter of 
 Apollo, wife of the centaur Chiron, and mother of 
 Carystus and Ocyroe. — 2. A nymph, wife of 
 Eucres and mother of Tiresias, 
 
 Chandemus {Xapldrjfios). 1. Of Oreus in 
 Euboea, of mean origin, became the captain of a 
 band of mercenaries, and served in this capacity 
 imder the Athenian generals Iphicrates and Timo- 
 theus. He ne,\t entered the service of the satrap 
 Artabazus, who had revolted against Artaxerxes 
 III., and subsequently of Cotys, king of Thrace, 
 whose daughter he married. On the murder of 
 Cotys, 358, Charidemus adhered to the cause of 
 his sou Cersobleptes, and on behalf of the latter 
 carried on the stiii^gle with the Athenians for the 
 possession of the Chersonesus. In 349 he was 
 appointed by the Athenians commander in the 
 Olynthian war, but next year was superseded and 
 replaced by Chares,— 2. An Athenian, one of the 
 orators whose surrender was required by Alexan- 
 der in B. c. 335, aft(.-r the destruction of Thebes, 
 fled to Asia, and took refuge with Darius, by 
 whose orders he was put to death, 333, shortly 
 before the battle of Issus. 
 
 Cliafilaiis, or diariUus (XapiAaos, XdpiWos), 
 king of Sparta, son of Polydectes, is said to have 
 received his name from the general joy excited by 
 the justice of his uncle Lycurgus when he placed 
 him, yet a new-boni infant, on the royal seat, and 
 bade the Spartans acknowledge him for their king. 
 He carried on war against Argns and Tegea ; he 
 was taken prisoner by .the Tegeans, but was dis- 
 missed without ransom on giving a promise (which, 
 he did not keep), that the Spartans should abstain 
 in future from attacking Tegea. 
 
 Charis (Xdpis), the personirication of Grace and 
 Beauty. In the Iliad (xviii,* 382) Charis is de- 
 scribed as the wife of Hephaestus, but in the 
 Odyssey Aphrodite appears as the wife of Hephaes- 
 tus, from which we may infer, if not the identity 
 of Aphrodite and Charis, at least a close connection 
 in the notions entertained about the 2 divinities. 
 The idea of personified grace and beauty was at an 
 early period dirided into a plurality of beings, and 
 even in the Homeric poems the plural Charites oc- 
 curs several limes. — The Charites^ called Gratiae 
 by the Romans, are usually described as the 
 daughters of Zeus, and as 3 in number, namely, 
 Euphrosyne, Aglaia, and Thalia. The names of 
 the Charites sufficiently express their character. 
 They were the goddesses who enhanced the en- 
 joyments of life by refinement and gentleness. 
 They are mostly described as in the service of 
 other divinities, and they lend their grace and 
 beauty to every thing that delights and elevates 
 gods and men. The gentleness and gracefulness 
 which they impart to man's ordinary pleasures are 
 expressed by their moderating the exciting in- 
 fluence of wine (Hor. Cann. iii. 19. 15), and by 
 their accompanying Aphrodite and Eros. Poetry, 
 however, is the art which is especially favoured 
 by them, and hence they are the friends of the 
 Muses, with whom they live together in 01}'Tnpus. 
 In early times the Charites were represented 
 dressed, but afterwards their figures were always 
 
CflARISIUS. 
 
 linked : specimens of both representations of the 
 Charites are still extant. They appear unsuspi- 
 cious maidens in the full bloom of life, and they 
 usually embrace each other. 
 
 Charisius. 1. Aurelius Arcadius, a Roman 
 jurist, lived in the reign of Constantine the Great, 
 and wrote 3 works, De Tesiihus^ De Muneiihus 
 civilibus, and De Officio Praefccii praeiorio, all of 
 which are cited in the Digest.— 2. Flavius Sosi- 
 pater, a Latin grammarian, who flourished a. d. 
 400, author of a treatise in 5 books, drawn up for 
 tlie use of his son, entitled Instituiiones Gramma- 
 iicae^ which has come do^vn to us in a very im- 
 perfect state. Edited by Putschius in Gramma- 
 ttcae Latinae Auciores Antigni, Hanov, 1605, and 
 by Lindemann, in Coitus Grammai. Latin. Vete- 
 ?■?(??!, Lips. 1840. 
 
 Charites. [Charis.] 
 
 Chariton (Xapirwi')^ of Aphrodisias, a town of 
 Caria, the author of a Greek romance, in 8 books, 
 on the Loves of Chaereas and Callirrhoe. The 
 name is probably feigned (from x°-P^^ ^^d 'A(ppo5L 
 tt;), as the time and position of the author cer- 
 tainly are. He represents himself as the secretary 
 of the orator Athenagoras, evidently refeiriiig to 
 the Syracusan orator mentioned by Thucydides 
 (vi, 35, 36) as the political opponent of Hermo- 
 crates. Nothing is known respecting the real life 
 or the time of the author ; but he probably did not 
 live earlier than the 5th century after Christ. 
 Edited by D'Orville, 3 vols. Amst 1750, with a 
 valuable commentary ; reprinted with additional 
 notes by Beck, Lips. 1783. 
 
 Charmande (XapjUorSjj: nv. Hadiilia ov Hit), 
 a great city of Mesopotamia, on the Euphrates. 
 
 Charmides {XapfxiZTjs), 1. An Athenian, son 
 of Glaucon, cousin to Critias, and uncle by the 
 mother's side to Plato, who introduces him in the 
 dialogue which bears his name as a very young 
 man at the commencement of the Pcloponnesian 
 war. In B. c. 404 he was one of the Ten, and 
 was slain fighting against Thrasybulus at the Pi- 
 raeus.— 2. Called also Charmadas by Cicero, a 
 friend of Philo of Larissa, in conjimction with 
 whom he is said by some to have been the founder 
 of a 4th Academy. He flourished b. c. 100. 
 
 Charon {Xdpuv). 1. Son of Erebos, conveyed 
 in his boat the shades of the dead across the rivers 
 of the lower world. For this service he was paid 
 with an obolus or danace, which coin was placed 
 in the mouth of every corpse previous to its burial. 
 He is represented as an aged man with a dirty 
 beard and a mean dress. — 2. A distinguished 
 Theban, concealed Pelopidas and his fellow-con- 
 spirators in his house, when they returned to 
 Thebes with the view of delivering it from the 
 Spartans, B. c. 379-^3. An historian of Larapsacus, 
 flourished B. c. 464, and wrote works on Aethiopia, 
 Persia, Greece, &c., the fragments of which are 
 collected by Miiller, Fragm. Histor. Graec. Paris, 
 1841. 
 
 Cliarondas (Xaptvv^as), a lawgiver of Catana, 
 who legislated for his own and the other cities of 
 Chalcidian origin in Sicily and Italy. His date 
 is uncertain. He is said by some to have been a 
 disciple of Pythagoras ; and he must have lived 
 before the time of Anaxilaus, tyrant of Rhegium, 
 B. c. 494 — 476, for the Rhegiana used the laws of. 
 Charondas till they were abolished by Anaxilaus. 
 The latter fact sufficiently refutes the common ac- 
 count that Charondas drew up a code of laws for 
 
 CHEPHREN. 
 
 167 
 
 Thurii, since this city was not founded till 443. A 
 tradition relates that Charondas one day forgot to 
 hiy aside his sword before he appeared in the as- 
 sembly, thereby violating one of his own laws, and 
 that on being reminded of this by a citizen, he 
 exclaimed, "By Zeus, I will establish it," and 
 immediately stabbed himself. The laws of Cha- 
 rondas were probably in verse. 
 
 Charops {Xdporp). 1. A cliief among the Epi- 
 rots, sided with the Romans in their war with 
 Philip v., B.c.l98.^2. A grandson of the above. 
 He received his education at Rome, and after his 
 return to his own country adhered to the Roman. 
 cause ; but he is represented by Polybius as a 
 monster of cruelty. He died at Brundisium, 157. 
 
 Charybdis. [Scylla.] 
 
 Chasiiari, or Chasuarii, or Chattiiarii, a people 
 of GeiTuanj', allies or dependents of the Cherusci. 
 Their position is uncertain. They dwelt N. of the 
 Chatti ; and in later times they appear between 
 the Rhine and the Mnas as a part of the Franks. 
 
 Chatti [Catti.] 
 
 Chauci or Canci, a powerful people in theN.E. 
 of Germany between the Amisia (Ems) and the 
 Albis {Elbe\ divided by the Visurgis ( Weser), 
 which flowed through their territory into Majores 
 and Minores, the former W. and the latter E. of 
 the river. They are described by Tacitus as the 
 noblest and the justest of the German tribes. They 
 formed an alliance with the Romans a. d. 5, and 
 assisted the latter in their wars against the Che- 
 rusci; but this alliance did not last long. They 
 were at war with the Romans in the reigns of 
 Claudius and Nero, but were never subdued. They 
 are mentioned for the last time in the 3rd centurj', 
 when the}' devastated Gaul, but their name sub- 
 sequently became merged in the general name of 
 Saxons. 
 
 Chelidon, the mistress of C. Verres, often men- 
 tioned by Cicero. 
 
 Chelidonia (XeAiSovis), wife of Cleonymus, to 
 whom she proved unfaithful in consequence of a 
 passion for Acrotatus, son of Areus I. 
 
 Chelidoniae Insulae {XeKMviai vr\<Toi : Khe- 
 lidoni), a group of 5 (Strabo only mentions 3) 
 small islands, surrounded by dangerous shallows, 
 off the promontory called Hiera or Ciielidonia 
 XlOielidoni) on the S. coast of Lycia. 
 
 Chelonatas (XeAwfaras : C. Toniese)^ a pro- 
 montory in Elis, opposite Zacynthus, the most 
 westerly point of ths Peloponnesus. 
 
 Chemmis aft. Panopolis (Xe^^ty, TlaLv6Tvo\is: 
 XejU|UtT7js : Ekhmim^ Hu.), a great city of the 
 Thebais, or Upper Egypt, on the E. bank of the 
 Nile, celebrated for its manufactures of linen, its 
 stone-quarries, and its temples of Pan and Perseus. 
 It was the birthplace of the poet Nonniis. 
 
 Chenoboscia {Xi\voSo(TKia -. Kasccs-Said, Ru.), a 
 city of Upper Egypt, on the right bank of the 
 Nile, opposite t)iospolis Parva. 
 
 Cheops (Xe'oij/), an early king of Egypt, godless 
 and tyrannical, reigned 50 years, and built the 
 first and largest pyramid by the compulsory labour 
 of his subjects, 
 
 Chephren (Xe(/>p7Jj/), king of Egypt, brother and 
 successor of Cheops, whose example of tyranny he 
 folhtwed, reigned 56 years, and built the second 
 pyramid. The Egyptians so hated the memory of 
 these brothers, that the}' called the pyramids, not 
 by their names, but by that of Philltion, a shepherd 
 who at that time fed his flocks near the place. 
 
168 CHERSIFHRON. 
 
 Cliersipliron {X€pa-i<(ipcov) or Ctesiphon, an 
 architect of Cnossus in Crete, in conjunction with 
 his son Metagenes, built, or commenced building, 
 the great temple of Artemis at Epliesus. He flou- 
 rished B. c. 560. 
 
 ChersonesTis (X€pa6ln^a■os, Att. X(^^6i'r)(ros), 
 "a land-island." that is, "a peninsula" (from 
 X^po-os "land" and vijffoy "island"). 1. Ch. 
 Thracica {Peninsula of the Dardanellp.s or of Gal- 
 Upoli\ usually called at Athens "■ The Chersone- 
 sus " without any distinguishing epithet, the narrow 
 slip of land, 420 stadia in length, running between 
 the Hellespont and the Gulf of Melas, and con- 
 nected with the Thracian mainland by an isthmus, 
 ■which was fortified by a wall, 36 stadia across, 
 near Cardia. The Chersonese was colonized by 
 the Athenians under Miltiades, the contemporary 
 of Pisistratus. — 2. Taurica or Scythica (Cnmea)^ 
 the peninsula between the Pontus Euxinua, the 
 Cimmerian Bosporus, and the Palus Maeotis, united 
 to the mainland by an isthmus 40 stadia in width. 
 The ancients compared this peninsula with the 
 Peloponnesus both in form and size. It produced 
 a great quantity of com, which was exported to 
 Athens and other parts of Greece. The E. part 
 of the peninsula was called TpTjx^V or the Rugged 
 (Herod, iv, 09). Respecting the Greek kingdom 
 established in this country see Bosporu.s. — There 
 "was a town on the S. coast of this peninsula called 
 Chersonesus, founded by the inhabitants of the 
 Pontic Heraclea, and situated on a small peninsula, 
 called 1} fitKpa Xep. to distinguish it from the 
 larger, of which it formed a part. — 3, Cimbrica 
 (Jutland.) See CiMERl. — 4. (C Chersonisi\ a 
 promontory in Argolis between Epidaurus and 
 Troezen. — 5. (CAersoneso), a town in Crete on t'hc 
 Prom. Zeph3'Tium, the harbour of Lyctus in the 
 interior. 
 
 Chemsci, the most celebrated of all the tribes of 
 ancient Germany. The limits of their territory 
 cannot be fixed with acciu*acy, since the an- 
 cients did not distinguish between the Chemsci 
 proper and the nations belonging to the league of 
 which the Chemsci were at the head. The Che- 
 msci proper dwelt on both sides of the Visurgis 
 ( Wcser)^ and their territories extended to the Harz 
 and the Elbe. They were originally in alliance 
 "with the Romans, but they subsequently formed a 
 powerful league of the German tribes for the pur- 
 pose of expelling the Romans from the country, 
 and under the chief Arminius they destroyed the 
 army of Varus and drove the Romans beyond the 
 Rhine, a. d. 9. In consequence of internal dissen- 
 sions among the German tribes the Cherusci soon 
 lost their influence. Their neighbours the Catti 
 succeeded to their power. 
 
 Chesixun (X'^jioi/), a promontory of Samos, 
 ■with a temple of Artemis, who was worshipped 
 here under the surname of XTjirtar. Near it was 
 a little river Chesius, flowing past a town of the 
 same name. 
 
 ChTlon (XeiAojy, XiXcov), of Lacedaemon, son of 
 Damagetus, and one of the Seven Sages, flourished 
 E. c. 590. It is said that he died of joy when his 
 son gained the prize for boxing at the Olympic 
 games. The in.stitution of the Ephoralty is erro- 
 neously ascribed by some to Ciiilon. 
 
 Chimaera {Xi/j-aipa), a fire-breathing monster, 
 the fore part of whose body was that of a lion, the 
 hind part that of a dragon, and the middle that of 
 a goat. According to Hesiod, she was a daughter 
 
 CHIOS. 
 
 of Typhaon and Echidna, and had 3 heads, one of 
 each of the 3 animals before mentioned. She made 
 great havoc in Lyciaandthe surrounding countries, 
 and was at length killed by Bellerophon. Virgil 
 places her together with other monsters at the en- 
 trance of Orcus. The origin of the notion of this 
 fire-breathing monster must probably be sought for 
 in the volcano of the name of Chimaera near Pha- 
 selis, in Lycia. In the works of art recentlj' dis- 
 covered in Lye ia, we find several representations' 
 of the Chimaera in the simple form of a species of 
 lion still occurring in that country. 
 
 Chimerion, a promontory and harbour of Thes- 
 protia in Epirus. 
 
 Chion (Xiiav)f of Heraclea on the Pontus, a dis- 
 ciple of Plato, put to death Clearchus, the tyrant 
 of his native town, and was in consequence killed, 
 B.C. 353. There are extant 13 letters which are 
 ascribed to Chion, but which are undoubtedly of 
 later origin. Edited b}-^ Coberus, Lips, and Dresd. 
 l/Go, and by Orelli, in his edition of Memnon, 
 Lips. 1816. 
 
 Chione (Ki6p7j). 1. Daughter of Boreas and 
 Orithyia, became by Poseidon the mother of Eu- 
 molpus. ^2. Daughter of Daedalion, beloved by 
 Apollo and Hermes, gave birth to t\vins, Autolycus 
 and Phihimraon, the former a son of Hemies and 
 the latter of Apollo. She was killed by Artemis- 
 for having compared her beauty to that of the- 
 goddess. 
 
 Chionidea (XiwviSijs andXioi'i57js), an Athenian 
 poet of the old comedy, flourished B. c. 460, and 
 was the first poet who gave the Athenian comedy 
 that form which it retained down to the time of 
 Aristophanes. 
 
 Chios (Xios: X?os, Chms : Grk. A7ho, Ital. 
 Scdo, Turk. Sakl-Andassi^ i. e. Mastic-island)., onc- 
 of the largest and most famous islands of the- 
 Aegean, lay opposite to the peninsula of Clazomenae,. 
 on the coast of Ionia, and was reckoned at 900 
 stadia (90 geog. miles) in circuit. Its length from 
 N. to S. is about 30 miles, its greatest breadth 
 about 10, and the width of the strait, which divides 
 it from the mainland, about 8. It is said to have 
 borne, in the earliest times, the various names of 
 Aethalia, Macris, and Pityusa, and to have been 
 inhabited by Tyrrhenian Pelasgians and Leleges. 
 It was colonized by the lonians at the time of their 
 great migration, and became an important member 
 of the Ionian league ; but its population was mixt. 
 It remained an independent and powerful maritime- 
 state, under a democratic fonn of government, till 
 the great naval defeat of the Ionian Greeks by the 
 Persians, B.C. 494, after which the Chians, who 
 had taken part in the fight with 100 ships, were 
 subjected to the Persians, and their island was laid 
 waste and their young women carried ofi^ into sla- 
 very. The battle of Mycale, 479, freed Chios 
 from the Persian yoke, and it became a member 
 of the Athenian league, in which it was for a long 
 time the closest and most favoured ally of Athens j 
 but an unsuccessful attempt to revolt, in 41 '2, led to 
 its conquest and devastation. It recovered its in- 
 dependence, with Cos and Rhodes, in 358, and 
 afterwards shared the fortunes of the other states 
 of Ionia. — Chios is covered with rocky mountains,, 
 clothed with the richest vegetation. It was cele- 
 brated for its wine, which was among the best 
 known to the ancients, its figs, gum-mastic, and 
 other natural products, also for its marble and 
 potter}', and for the beauty of its women, and the: 
 
CIIIRISOPHUS. 
 
 luxurious life of its inhabitants. — Of all the states 
 ■which aspired to the honour of being the birtliplace 
 of Plomer, Cliios was generally considered by the 
 ancients to have the best claim ; and it numbered 
 among its natives the tragedian Ion, the historian 
 Theopompiis, the poet Theocritus, and other emi- 
 nent men. Its chief city, Chios {Khio\ stood on 
 the E. side of the island, at the foot of its highest 
 mountain, Pelinaeus : the other principal places in 
 it wore Posidium, Phanae, Notium, Elaeus, and 
 Leuconium, 
 
 Chirisoplms (Xeip((ro<f)os\ a Lacedaemonian, 
 ■was sent by the Spartans to aid Cyrus in his ex- 
 pedition against his brother Artaxerxes, b. c. 401. 
 After the battle of Cunaxa and the subsequent 
 arrest of the Greek generals, Chirisophus was ap- 
 pointed one of the new generals, and in conjunction 
 with Xenophon had the chief conduct of the re- 
 treat. 
 
 Chiron (Xe'ipwv), the wisest and justest of all 
 the Centaurs, son of Cronos and Philyra, and hus- 
 band of Na'is or Chariclo, lived on mount Pelion. 
 He was instructed by Apollo and Artemis, and 
 was renowned for his skill in hunting, medicine, 
 music, gymnastics, and the art of prophecy. All 
 the most distinguished heroes of Grecian story, as 
 Peleus, Achilles, Diomedcs, &c., are described as 
 the pupils of Chiron in these arts. His friendship 
 ■with Peleus, who was his grandson, is particularly 
 celebrated. Chiron saved him from the other Cen- 
 taurs, who were on the point of killing him, and he 
 also restored to him the sword which Acastus had 
 concealed. Chiron further informed him in what 
 manner he might gain possession of Thetis, who 
 was destined to marry a mortal. Hercules, too, 
 ■was his friend ; but one of the poisoned arrows of 
 this hero wag nevert^ieless the cause of his death. 
 While fighting with the other Centaurs, one of the 
 poisoned arrows of Hercules struck Chiron, who, 
 although immortal, would not ^ve any longer, and 
 gave his immortality to Prometheus. According 
 to others, Chiron, in looking at one of the arrows, 
 dropped it on his foot, and wounded himself. Zeus 
 placed Chiron among the stars. 
 
 Chitone {Xitcoi/t}), a surname of Artemis, de- 
 rived either from the Attic demus of Chitone, or 
 because the goddess is represented with a short 
 chiton. 
 
 CMoe (XAo'ij), the Blooming, a surname of De- 
 meter as the protectress of the green fields : hence 
 Sophocles {Oed. Col. 1600) calls her Atj^^t?;/) 
 
 CMoris (XXwpt^). 1. Daughter of the Theban 
 Amphion and Niobe : she and her brother Amyclas 
 were the only children of Niobe not killed by 
 Apollo and Artemis. She is often confounded with 
 2io. 2. — 2. Daughter of Amphion of Orchomenos, 
 wife of Neleus, king of Pylos, and mother of 
 Nestor. — 3. Wife of Zephyrus, and goddess of 
 flowers, identical with the Roman Flora. 
 
 Clioarene (Xoap-qy-r)), a fertile valley in the W. 
 of Parthia, on the borders of Media, between 2 
 ranges of the Caspii M. 
 
 Choaspes (XoauTnjs). 1. {Kcrah, or Kara-Su\ 
 a river of Susiana, falling into the Tigris. Its 
 ■water was^ so pure that the Persian kings used to 
 carry it with them in silver vessels, when on fo- 
 reign expeditions. It is wrongly identified by 
 some geographers with the Eulaeus.^3. {Aitoch), 
 a river in the Paropamisus, falling into the Cophes 
 (CoZtu/), apparently identical with the Suastus of 
 
 CHRYSIPPUS. 
 
 1(?9 
 
 Ptolemy and the Guraeus of Arrian ; and if so the 
 Choes of Arrian ia probably the Kama : hut the 
 proper naming of these rivers is veiy difficult. 
 
 Choerades {Xoipd^^s)^ two small rocky islands 
 off the coast of Italy, near Tarentum. 
 
 Choerilus {Xoip'iKos ovXoipiKKas). 1. Of Athens, 
 a tragic poet, contemporary with Thespis, Phryni- 
 chus, and Aeschylus, exhibited tr.igedies for 40- 
 years, B.C. B'1'6 — 483, and gained the prize liJ 
 times. ^ 3. Of Samos, the author of an epic poem 
 on the Persian wars ; the chief action of the poem 
 appears to have been the battle of Salamis. He 
 was born about i70, and died at the court of 
 Archelaus, king of Macedonia, consequently not 
 later than 399, which was the last year of Ar- 
 chelaus. —3. Of lasos, a worthless epic poet in 
 the train of Alexander the Groat, is said to have 
 received from Alexander a gold stater for every 
 verse of his poem. (Hor. Ep. ii. I. 232, Art, 
 FocL 357.) 
 
 Choes. [Choaspes, No. 2.] 
 
 Chollidae (XoWeTSai or XoWiSat : XoWelSri^ 
 -iStjj), a demus in Attica belonging either to the 
 tribe Leontis or Acamantis. 
 
 Chonia (Xoivia)^ the name in early times of a 
 district in the S. of Italy, inhabited by the Cliones 
 (Xwi/es), an Oenotrian people, who derived their 
 name from the town of Chone (XcJyTj). Chonia 
 appears to have included the S. E. of Lucania and 
 the whole of the E. of Bruttium as far as the pro- 
 montor}'' Zephyrium. 
 
 Cliorasmii {Xojpda-fnoi), a people of Sogdiana, 
 who inhabited the banks and islands of the lower 
 course of the Oxus. They were a branch of the 
 Sacae or Massagetae. 
 
 Chosroes. 1. King of Parthia. [Arsaces 
 XXV.] ^ 2. King of Persia. [Sassanidae.] 
 
 Cluysa or -e (Xfiiica, -77), a city on the coast of 
 the Troad, near Thebes, with a temple of Apollo 
 Smintheus ; celebrated by Homer, but destroyed 
 at an early period, and succeeded by another city 
 of the same name, on a height further from the sea, 
 near Hamaxitos. This second city fell into decay 
 in consequence of the removal of its inhabitants to 
 Alexandria Troas. 
 
 Chrysantas {XpvcrdvTas), described by Xeno- 
 phon in the Cyropaedia as a brave and wise Persian, 
 high in the favour of Cyrus, who rewarded him 
 with the satrapy of Lydia and Ionia. 
 
 Chrysaor {Xpvadoip). 1. Son of Poseidon and 
 Medusa, husband of Callirrhoe, and father of Ge- 
 ryones and Echidna.— 2. The god with the golden 
 sword, a surname of several divinities, as Apollo, 
 Artemis, and Demeter. 
 
 Chrysas (XpuVas), a small river in Sicily, an 
 affluent of the Symaethus, was worshipped as a god 
 in Assorus, in the neighbourhood of which there 
 was a Fanum Chrysae. 
 
 Chryseis {Xpvaifis)^ daughter of Chryses, priest 
 of Apollo at Chryse, was taken prisoner by Achilles 
 at the capture of Lymessus or the Hypoplacian. 
 Thebe. In the distribution of the booty she was 
 given to Agamemnon. Her father Chryses came 
 to the camp of the Greeks to solicit her ransom,, 
 but was repulsed by Agamemnon with harsh 
 words. Thereupon Apollo sent a plague into the 
 camp of the Greeks, and Agamemnon was obliged 
 to restore her to her father to appease the anger of 
 the god. Her proper name was Astynome. 
 
 Chryses. [Chryseis.] 
 
 Chrysippus {Xpva-nrizos). 1. Son of Pelops and 
 
no CHRYSOCERAS. 
 
 Axioclie, was hated by his step-mother Hippoda- 
 mia, who induced her sons Atreiis and Thy- 
 estes to kill him. — 2. A Stoic philosopher, son of 
 Apollonius of Tarsus, born at Soii in Cilicia, b. c. 
 2iiO. When young, he lost his paternal property, 
 and went to Athens, where he became the disciple 
 of the Stoic Cleanthes. Disliking the Academic 
 scepticism, he became one of the most strenuous 
 supporters of the principle, th.it knowledge is at- 
 tainable and may be estiiblished on certain founda- 
 tions. Hence, though nox the founder of the Stoic 
 school, he was the first person who based its doc- 
 trines on a plausible system of reasoning, so that it 
 was said, " if Chiysippus had not existed, the 
 Porch could not have been." He died 207, aged 
 73. He possessed great acuteness and sagacity, 
 and his industry was so great, that he is said to 
 have seldom written less than 500 lines a-day, 
 and to have left behind him 705 works. ^3. Of 
 Cnidos, a physician, sometimes confounded with 
 the Stoic philosopher, but he lived about a cen- 
 tury earlier. He was son of Erineus, and pupil 
 of Kudoxus of Cnidos : his works, which are not 
 now extant, are quoted by Galen. 
 
 Clirysoceras, the " Golden Horn,'" the promon- 
 tory on which part of Constantinople was built. 
 
 Clirysogoims, L. Cornelius, a favourite freed- 
 man of Sulla, and a man of profligate character, 
 was the false accuser of Sex. Roscius, whom Cicero 
 defended, b. c. RO. 
 
 Chrysopolis (Xpv(r6Tro\is : Scutari)^ a fortified 
 place on the Bosporus, opposite to Byzantium, at 
 the spot where the Bosporus was generally crossed. 
 It was originally the port of Chalcedon. 
 
 Chrysorrhoas (Xpva-o^pSas -. Barrada)^ also 
 called Bardines, a rivc-r of Coele-Syria, flowing 
 from the E. side of Anti-Libanus, past Damascus, 
 into a lake now called Bahr-el-Merj. 
 
 Clirysostomus, Joannes {XpvcrSffroixos, gol- 
 den-mouthed, 80 sumained from the power of his 
 eloquence), usually called St. Chrysostom, was 
 born at Antioch, of a noble famih", .\. D. .^347. He 
 received instruction in eloquence from Libanius ; 
 and after being ordained deacon (3^1) and pres- 
 byter (306) at Antioch, he became so celebrated 
 as a preacher that he was chosen archbishop of 
 Constantinople, on the death of Nectarias, 397. 
 Chr}'sostom soon gave great offence at Constan- 
 tinople by the simplicity of his mode of living, 
 by the sternness with ivhich he rebuked the im- 
 morality of the higher classes, and by the severity 
 which he showed to the worldly-minded monks 
 and clergy. Among his enemies was the empress 
 Eudoxia; and they availed themselves of a dis- 
 pute which had arisen between Chrj'sostom and 
 Theophilus, patriarch of Alexandria, to accuse 
 Cbrysostom of Origenism, and to obtain his depo- 
 sition by a synod held at Chalcedon in 403. But 
 the same causes which had brought on Chrj-sostom 
 the hatred of the higher orders had made him the 
 idol of the people. A few AayB after he had left 
 the city an earthquake happened, which the en- 
 raged people considered as a proof of the divine 
 anger at his banishment. Eudoxia, fearing a po- 
 pular insurrection, recalled him, but 2 months after 
 his return he again excited the anger of the em- 
 press, and was banished a second time to the 
 desolate town of Cucusus, on the borders of Isauria 
 and Cilicia. He met with much sympathy from 
 othei- churches, and his cause was advocated by 
 Innocent, bishop of Rome ; but all this excited 
 
 CICERO, 
 
 jealousy at Constantinople, and he was ordered to 
 be removed to Pityus in Pontus. He died on the 
 journey at Comana in Pontus, 407, in the 60th 
 year of his age. His bones were brought back to 
 Constantinople in 438, and he received the honour 
 of canonization. His works are most voluminous. 
 They consist of: 1. Homilies, Sermons on different 
 parts of Scripture and points of doctrine and prac- 
 tice. 2. Commentaries on the Scriptures. 3. Epis- 
 tles. 4. Treatises on various subjects, e. g. the 
 Priesthood, Providence, &c, 5. liiturgies. The 
 best edition of his works is by Montfaucon, Paris, 
 1718-3iJ, 13 vols. fo. 
 
 Chtlionms {X66vios) and Chthonia {XB6via), 
 epithets of the gods and goddesses of the lower 
 world (from x^'^^'/*the earth,") as Hades, Hecate, 
 Demeter, Persephone, &:c. 
 
 Chytri (XvTpoi). 1. (Chylri), a town in Cy- 
 prus on the road from Cer}-nia to Salamis. — 2. 
 "Warm springs at Salamis. 
 
 Ciaca, a border fortress of the Romans, in Lesser 
 Am-ienia. 
 
 Cibalae or CitaHs, a tovm in Pannonia on the 
 lake Hiulcas between the Dravus and Savus, near 
 which Constantine gained a decisive tictory over 
 Licinius, A. D. 314 : the birth-place of Valentinian 
 and Gratian. 
 
 Cibotus. [Alexandria, No. 1 ; Apamea, 
 No. 3.] 
 
 Cibyra {KiSvpa : Ki€vpdT7}s : Cihyrdta). 1. 
 ETagna (^ /j.eyd\7}: Buniz or Arondon 9 Ru.), a 
 great city of Phrygia Magna, in the fertile district 
 of Milyas, on the borders of Caria, said to have 
 been founded by the Lydians, but afterwards 
 peopled by the Pisidians. In Strabo's time, 4 
 native dialects were spoken in it, besides Greek, 
 namely, those of the Lydians, the Pisidians, the 
 Milyae, and the Solymi. Under its native princes, 
 the cit}"" ruled over a large district called Cibyratis 
 (KtgupaTis), and cauld send into the field an army 
 of 30,000 men. In b. c. 83, it was added to the 
 Roman empire, and was made the seat of a con- 
 vcntus juridicus. After being nearly destroyed 
 by an earthquake, it was restored by Tiberius, 
 under the names of Caesarea and Civitas Cibyratica. 
 The city was very celebrated for its manufactures, 
 especially in iron. — 2. Parva (K. niKpd : Fbura), 
 a city of Pamphylia, on the borders of Cilicia. 
 
 C. Cicereius, secretary of the elder Scipio Afri- 
 canus, was a candidate for the praetorship, b. c. 
 1 74, along with Scipio's son, but resigned in favour 
 of the latter. He was praetor in the following 
 year, and conquered the Corsicans, but was refused 
 a triumph. In 172 and 167 he was one of the 
 ambassadors sent to the Iliyrian king, Gentius ; 
 and in 168 he dedicated on the Alban mount a 
 temple to Juno Moneta. 
 
 Cicero, Tnllins. I.M., grandfather of the orator, 
 lived at his native town Arpinum, which received 
 the full Roman franchise in B.C. 188.^3. M., 
 son of No. 1, also lived at Arpinum, and died 64. 
 — 3. L., brother of No. 2, was a friend of M. 
 Antonius the orator. — 4. L., son of No. 3, school- 
 fellow of the orator, died 68, much regretted by 
 his cousin. — 6. M., the orator, eldest son of No. 
 2 and Helvia, was born on the 3rd of January, 
 B. c. 106, at the family residence in the vicinity of 
 Arpinum. He was educated along with his brother 
 Quintus, and the two brothers displayed such ap- 
 titude for learning that his father removed with, 
 them to Rome, where they received instruction 
 
CICERO. 
 
 from the best teachers in the capital. One of their 
 most celebrated teachers was the poet Archiaa of 
 Arrtioch. After receiving the manly gown (91) 
 the young Marcus was placed under the care of 
 Q. Mucins Scaevola, the augur, from whom he 
 learnt the principles of jurisprudence. In 89 he 
 served his 1st and only campaign under Cn. Pora- 
 peius Strabo in the Social war. During the civil 
 ■wars between Marina and Sulla, Cicero identified 
 himself with neither party, but devoted his time to 
 the study of law, philosophy, and rhetoric, fie 
 received instruction in philosophy from Phaedrus 
 the Epicurean, Philo, the chief of the New Aca- 
 demy, and Diodotus the Stoic, and in rhetoric from 
 Molo the Rhodian. Having carefully cultivated 
 his powers, Cicero came forward as a pleader in 
 the forum, as soon as tranquillity was restored by 
 the final overthrow of the Marian party. His first 
 extant speech was delivered in 81, when he was 
 26 years of age, on behalf of P. Quintius. Next 
 year (80) he defended Sex. Roschis of Ameria, 
 charged with parricide by Chrysogonua, a favoui'ite 
 freedman of Sulla. Shortly'afterwards (79) Cicero 
 went to Greece, ostensibly for the improvement of 
 his health, which was very delicate, but perhaps 
 because he dreaded the resentment of Siilia. He 
 first went to Athens, where he remained 6 months, 
 studying philosophy under Antiochus of Ascalon, 
 and rhetoric under Demetrius Syrus ; and here he 
 made the acquaintance of Pomponius Atticus, who 
 remained his firm friend to the close of his life. 
 From Athens he passed over to Asia Minor, re- 
 ceiving instruction from the most celebrated rhe- 
 toricians in the Greek cities of Asia ; and finally 
 passed some time at Rhodes (78), where he once 
 more placed himself under the care of Molo. After 
 an absence of 2 years, Cicero returned to Rome 
 (77), with his health firmly established and his 
 oratorical powers greatly improved. He again came 
 forward as an orator in the forum, and soon obtained 
 the greatest distinction. His success in the forum 
 paved for him the way to the high offices of state. 
 In 75 he was quaestor in Sicily under Sex. Pedu- 
 caeus, praetor of Liiybaeum, and discharged the 
 duties of his office with an integrity and impar- 
 tiality which secured for him the affections of the 
 provincials. He returned to Rome in 74, and for 
 the next 4 years was engaged in pleading causes. 
 In 70 he distinguishedhimselfby the impeachment 
 of Verres, and in 69 he was curule aedile. In 
 66 he was praetor, and while holding this office he 
 defended Cluentius in the speech still extant, and 
 delivered his celebrated oration in favour of the 
 Manilian law, which appointed Pompey to the 
 command of the Mithridatic war. Two years 
 afterwards he gained the great object of his ambi- 
 tion, and although a novus homo was elected consul 
 with C. Antonius as a colleague. He entered upon 
 the office on the 1st of January, 63. Hitherto 
 Cicero had taken little part in the political strug- 
 gles of his time. Aa far as he had interfered in 
 public affairs, he had sided with the popular party, 
 which had raised him to power ; but he appears 
 never to have had any real sympathy with that 
 party ; and as soon as he had gained the highest 
 office in the state he deserted his former friends, 
 and connected himself closely with the aristocracy. 
 The consulship of Cicero was distinguished by the 
 outbreak of the conspiracy of Catiline, which was 
 suppressed and finally crushed by Cicero's pru- 
 dence and energy, [Catilina.] For this service 
 
 CICERO. 
 
 171 
 
 Cicero received the highest honours j he was ad- 
 dressed as " father of his coimtry," and thanks- 
 givings in his name were voted to the gods. But 
 as soon as he had laid down the consulship, the 
 friends of the conspirators, who had been con- 
 demned to death by the senate, and whose sen- 
 tence had been carried into execution by Cicero, 
 accused him loudly of having put Roman citizens 
 to death illegally. Cicero had clearly been guilty 
 of a violation of the fundamental principles of the 
 Roman constitution, which declared, that no citizen 
 could be put to death until sentenced by the whole 
 body of the people assembled in the comitia. 
 Cicero's enemies were not slow in availing them- 
 selves of this vulnerable point. , The people, whose 
 cause he had deserted, soon began to show unequi- 
 vocal signs of resentment against him. Shortly 
 afterwards (62) he mortally offended Clodius by 
 bearing witness against him, when the latter was 
 accused of a violation of the mysteries of the Bona 
 Dea. Clodius vowed deadly vengeance against 
 Cicero. To accomplish his purpose more securely, 
 Clodius was adopted into a plebeian family, was 
 then elected tribune of the plebs, and as tribune 
 (58) brouglit forward a bill, interdicting from fire 
 and water (i.e. banishing) any one who should 
 be found to have put a Roman citizen to death 
 untried. The triumvirs, Caesar, Pompey, and 
 Crassus, left Cicero to his fate ; and despairing of 
 offering any successful opposition to the measure 
 of Clodius, Cicero voluntarily retired from Rome 
 before it was put to the vote, and crossed over to 
 Greece. He took up his residence at Thessalonica 
 in Macedonia. Here he gave way to unmanly 
 despair ; and his letters during this period are 
 filled with groans, sobs, and tears. Meanwhile 
 his friends at Rome had not deserted him ; and, 
 notwithstanding the vehement opposition of Clo- 
 dius, they obtained his recall from banishment in 
 the course of next year. In August, 67, Cicero 
 landed at Brundisium, and in September he was 
 again at Rome, where he was received with dis- 
 tinguished honour. Taught by experience Cicero 
 would no longer join the senate in opposition to 
 the triumvirs, and retired to a great extent from 
 public life. In 52 he was compelled much against 
 his will to go to the East as governor of Ciiicia. 
 Here he distinguished himself by his integrity and 
 impartial administration of justice, but at the same 
 time made himself ridiculous by the absurd vanity 
 which led him to assume the title of imperator and 
 to aspire to the honours of a triumph on account of 
 his subduing some robber tribes in his province. 
 He returned to Italy towards the end of 50, and 
 arrived in the neighbourhood of Rome on the 4th 
 of January 49, just as the civil war between Caesar 
 and Pompey broke out. After long hesitating 
 which side to join, he finally determined to throw 
 in his lot with Pompey, and crossed over to Greece 
 in June. After the battle of Pharsalia (48), Cicero 
 abandoned the Pompeian party and returned to 
 Brundisium, where he lived in the greatest anxiety 
 for many months, dreading the vengeance of Cae- 
 sar, But his fears were groundless : he was not 
 only pardoned by Caesar, but, when the latter 
 landed at Brundisium in September, 47, he greeted 
 Cicero with the greatest kindness and respect, and 
 allowed him to return to Rome. Cicero now re- 
 tired into privacy, and during the next 3 or 4 years 
 composed the greater part of his philosophical and 
 rhetorical works. The murder of Caeaar on the 
 
172 
 
 CICERO. 
 
 15th of Marcli, 44, again brought Cicpro into pub- 
 lic life. He put himselfat the liead of the repub- 
 lican party, and in his Philippic onitions attacked 
 M. Antony with unmeasured vehemence. But 
 this proved his ruin. On the formation of the 
 triumvirate between Octavjan, Antony, and Lepi- 
 dus (27th of November, 43), Ctcero^'s name was in 
 the list of the proscribed. Cicero was warned of 
 his danger wliile at his Tusculan villa, and em- 
 barked at Antium, intending to escape by sea, but 
 was driven by stress of weather to Circeii, from 
 wlience he coasted along to Formiae, where he 
 landed at his villa. From Formiae his attendants 
 earned him in a litter towards the shore, but were 
 overtaken by the soldiers before they could reach 
 the coast. They were ready to defend their mas- 
 ter with their lives, but Cicero commanded them 
 to desist, and stretching fnrward called upon his 
 executioners to strike. They instantly cut off his 
 head and hands, which were conveyed to Rome, 
 and, by the orders of Antony, nailed to the Ros- 
 tra. Cicero perished on the 7th of December, 43, 
 and at the time of his death had ncarlj'- completed 
 his 64th year. — By his first wife Terentia Cicero 
 had 2 children, a daughter Tullia, whose death 
 in 45 caused him the greatest sorrow, and a son 
 Marcus. [No. 7.] His wife Tcrentin, to whom 
 lie had been united for 30 years, lie divorced in 
 46, in consequence, it would appear, of some dis- 
 putes connected with pecuniary transactions ; and 
 soon afterwards he married a young and wealthj"- 
 maiden, Publit.ia, his ward, but, as might have 
 been anticipated, found little comfort in this new 
 alliance, which was speedily dissolved. — As a 
 statesman and a citizen Cicero cannot command 
 our respect. He did good service to his country 
 by the suppression of the conspiracy of Catiline ; 
 but this was almost the only occasion on which he 
 showed vigour and decision of character. His o^vn 
 letters condemn him. In them his inordinate vanity, 
 pusillanimity, and political tergiversation, appear 
 in the clearest colours. — It is as an author that 
 Cicero deserves the highest praise. In his works 
 the Latin langunge appears in the greatest perfec- 
 tion. They may be divided into the following 
 subjects.— i. Rhetorical "Works. 1. lihflorlconim 
 s. Da hiventione RJtetorica Liliri II. This appears 
 to have been the earliest of Cicero's prose works. 
 It was intended to exhibit in a systematic form all 
 that was most valuable in the works of the Greek 
 rhetoricians, but it was never completed. — 2. De 
 PaHitiorie Orutona Dicdogus. A catechism of 
 Rhetoric, according to the method of the middle 
 Academy, by way of question and answer, drawn 
 up by Cicero for the instruction of his son Marcus, 
 written in 46. — 3. Dc Omiore ad QuintiLm Fra- 
 irem Lilrri HI. A systematic work on the art of 
 Orator}-, written in 55 at the request of his brother 
 Quiritus. This is the most perfect of Cicero's rhe-* 
 torical works. Best edition by Kllendt, Regiomont. 
 1040. — 4. BiutiLs s, De Claris Oratorihus. It 
 contains a critical history of Roman eloquence, from 
 the earliest times down to Hortensius inclusive. 
 Editions by Meyer, Halae, 18;3Ji, and by Ellendt, 
 Regiomont. 1844. —5. Ad M. Bruium Orator, in 
 which Cicero gives his views of a faultless orator : 
 written 45, Edited by Meyer, Lips. 1027. — 6. 
 De Opiifiio Geneve Oratormn. An introduction to 
 Cicero's translation of the orations of Aeschines 
 and Demosthenes in the case of Ctesiphon : the 
 translation itself has been lost. — 7. Topica ad C. 
 
 CICERO. 
 
 Trchaiium. An abstract of the Topics of Aristotlp, 
 illustrated by e.tamples derived chiefly from Roman, 
 law instead of from Greek philosophy : it was 
 written in July 44. — 8. Rhcioricoruin ad C. He- 
 renniuvi Libii IV. The author of this work is un- 
 certain, but it v.'as certainly not written by Cicero. 
 
 — II. PMlosophical Works. I. Political 
 Philosophy. — 1. De RepidjUca Lilri VL A 
 work on the best form of government and the duty 
 of the citizen, in the form of a dialogue, founded 
 on the Republic of Plato ; written in 54. This 
 work disappeared in the 10th or llth century of 
 our aera with the exception of the episode of the 
 Somnium Scipionis, which had been preserved by 
 Macrobius ; but in 1 022, Angelo Mai found among 
 the Palimpsests in the Vatican a portion of the 
 lost treasure. Thus the greater part of the 1st and 
 2nd books and a few fragments of the others were 
 discovered. Editions by Mai, Rome, 1022, and 
 by Creiizer and Moser, Frankf. 1026. — 2. De 
 Lenihus Libri III. A dialogue, founded on the 
 Laws of Plato ; probably written 52. A portion 
 of the 3 books is lost, nnd it originally consisted 
 of a greater number. Edited by Moser and Creu- 
 zer, Frankf. 1824, and by Bake, Lugd. Bat. 1842. 
 
 — II. Philosophy OF Morals. 1. DeO^iciis^ 
 LihH III. Written in 44 for the use of his son 
 Mai'cus, at that time residing at Athens. The 
 first 2 books were chiefly taken from Panaetius» 
 and the 3rd book was founded upon the work of 
 the Stoic Hecato ; but the illustrations are taken, 
 almost exclusively fj'om Roman history and Roman 
 literature. Edited by Beier, Lips. 1020 — 1021, 
 2 vols, — 2. Caio I\Itjors.De Sciieclule, addressed 
 to Atticus, and written at the beginning of 44 : it 
 points out how the burden of old age may be most 
 easily supported. — 3. Laelius s. De AruicUla, 
 written after the preceding, to which it may be 
 considered as forming a companion: also addressed 
 to Atticus. — 4. De Gloria Libri 11. , written 44, 
 is now lost, though Petrarch possessed a MS. o£ 
 the work. — 5. De Consolaiione s. De Ludu vii- 
 nuendo, written 45, soon after the death of his 
 daughter Tullia, is also lost. — III. Speculative 
 Philosophy. 1. Acadcmicorum Libri II.,ci trea- 
 tise upon the Academic philosophy, written 45 
 Edited by Goerenz, Lips. 1010, and Orelli, Turic. 
 1827. — 2. De Finihus Bonorum et JMaloriim Li- 
 bii r. Dedicated to M. Brutus, in which are dis- 
 cussed the opinions of the Epicureans, Stoics, and 
 Peripatetics, on the Supreme Good, that is, the' 
 finis, or end, towards which all our thoughts and 
 actions are or ought to be directed. Written in 
 45. Edited by Otto, Lips. 1331, and by Madvig, 
 Copenhagen, 1839. — 3. Tusculanaritm DispiUa- 
 tionum Libri V. This work, addressed to M. Bru- 
 tus, is a series of discussions on various important 
 points of practical philosophy supposed to have 
 been held in the Tusculanum of Cicero. Written 
 in 45. Edited by Klihner, Jenae, 1835, and by 
 Moser, Hannov. 3 vols. 1836— 1837. — 4. Para- 
 doxa, 6 favourite Paradoxes of the Stoics explained 
 in familiar language, written early in 46. — 5. 
 HoHensius s. De Philosophia^ a dialogue in praise 
 of philoi ophy, of which fragments only are extant, 
 written in 45. — 6. Timaeus s. De Ui}iverso, a 
 translation of Plato's Timaeus, of which we possess 
 a fragment. — IV. THEor.OGY. 1. De Nutura 
 Dcorum LibH III. An account of the speculations 
 of tlie Epicureans, the Stoics, and the Academi- 
 cians, on the existence, attributes, and providence 
 
CICERO. 
 
 of a Divine Being ; dedicated to M. Brutus, and 
 "written early in 44. Edited by Moser and Creu- 
 zer, Lips. 1818. — 2. De Divinatione Libri IL^ a 
 continuation of the preceding wDrlc. It presents 
 the opinions of the different schools of philosnpliy 
 upon the reality of the science of divination. Writ- 
 ten in 44, after the death of Caesar. Edited by 
 Creuzer, Kayser, and Moser, Frankf. 1828. — 3. 
 DeFato Liher Sinr/ularis^ only a fragment. — III. 
 Orations. The following is a list of Cicero's ex- 
 tant speeches, with the date at which each was 
 delivered. Some account of each oration is given 
 separately with the biography of the person prin- 
 cipally concerned. 1. Pro P. Quintio, B.C. 81. — 2. 
 Pro Se:c. Roscio Amerino, 80. — 3. Pfo Q. Roscio 
 Comoedo, 76.-4. Pro M. Tullio, 71. — 5. In 
 Q. Caecilium, 70.—- fi. In Verrem Actio I., 5th 
 August, 70. — 7. In Verrem Actio II. Not deli- 
 vered.— 8. Pro M. Fonteio, 69.-9. Pro A. 
 Caecina, 69, probably. — 10. Pro Lege Manilia, 
 66. — 11. Pro A. Cluentio Avito, 66. — 12. Pro 
 C. Cornelio, 55. — 13. Oratio in Toga Candida, 
 64. • — 14. De Lege Agraria, 3 orations, 63. — 15. 
 Pro C. Rabirio, 63. — 16. In Catilinam, 4 ora- 
 tions, 63. — 17. Pro Murena, 63. — 18. Pro P. 
 Cornelio Sulla, 62. — 19. Pro A. Lieinio Archia, 
 61._20. Pro L.Valerio Flacco, 59. — 21. Post 
 Reditum in Senatu, 5th Sept. 57. — 22. Post Re- 
 ditum ad Quirites, 6th or 7th Sept. 57.-23. Pro 
 Domo sua ad Pontifices, 29th Sept. 57. — 24. 
 De Haruspicura Responsis, 5G. — 25. Pro P. Sex- 
 tio, 56.-26. In Vatinium, 56.-27. Pro M. 
 Caelio Rufo, 56. —28. Pro L. Cornelio Balbo, 56. 
 — 29. De Provinciis Consularibus, 56. — 30. In L. 
 Pisonem, 55. — 31. Pro Cn. Plancio, 55. — 32. 
 Pro C. Rabirio Postumo, 54. — 33. Pro M. Aemi- 
 lio Scauro, 54. — 34. Pro T. Annio Milone, 52. — 
 35. Pro M. Marcello, 47- — 36. Pro Q. Ligario, 
 4G. — 37. Pro Rege Deiotaro, 45.-38. Ora- 
 tiones Philippicae, 14 orations against M. Anto- 
 nius, 44 and 43. ^ IV. Epistles. Cicero during 
 tlie most important period of his life maintained a 
 close correspondence with Atticus and with a wide 
 circle of literary and political friends and con- 
 nexions. "We now have upwards of 800 letters, 
 undoubtedly genuine, extending over a space of 26 
 years, and commonly arranged in the following 
 manner : — 1. Epistolarum ad Familiares s. Epis- 
 tolarum ad Diversos Libri XVI^ a series of 426 
 epistles, commencing with a letter to Pompey, 
 ■written in 62, and tenninating with a letter to 
 Caasius, July 43. They are not placed in chro- 
 nological order, but those addressed to the same 
 individuals, with their replies, where these exist, 
 are grouped together without reference to the date 
 of the rest. — 2. Epistolai-um ad T. Pomponium 
 Atticum LibH XVI, a series of 396 epistles ad- 
 dressed to Atticus, of which 11 were written in 
 €8, 61^ 65^ and 62, the remainder after the end of 
 62, and the last in Nov. 44. They are for the 
 most part in chronological order, although disloca- 
 tions occur here and there. — 3. Epistolarum ad 
 Q. Fratrcm Libri III^ a series of 29 epistles ad- 
 dressed to his brother, the first written in 59, the 
 last in 54. — 4. We find in most editions Episto- 
 larum ad Brutum Liber, a series of 1 8 epistles all 
 written after the death of Caesar. To these are 
 added 8 more, first published by Cratander. The 
 genuineness of these 2 books is doubtful. — The 
 most useful edition of Cicero's letters is by Schiitz, 
 6 vols, Svo., 1809—1812, in which they are ar- 
 
 CILICIA. 173 
 
 ranged in chronological order. — Cicero also wrote 
 a great number of other works on historical and 
 miscellaneous works, all of which are lost. He 
 composed several poems, most of them in his earlier 
 years, but 2 at a later period, containing a history 
 of his consulship, and an account of his exile and 
 recall. A line in one of these poems contained the 
 unluck}' jingle so well known to us from Juvenal 
 (x. 122), O foriunatam natam me consule JRomavt. 
 — The best edition of the collected works of Cicero 
 is by Orelli, Turic. 1826—1837, 9 vols. 8vo., in 
 13 parts. — 6. Q,, brother of the orator, was born 
 about 102, and was educated along with his bro- 
 ther. In 67 he was aedile, in 62 praetor, and for 
 the next 3 years governed Asia as propraetor. He 
 returned to Rome in 58, and warmly exerted him- 
 self to procure the recall of his brother from banish- 
 ment. In 55 he went to Gaul as legatus to Caesar, 
 whose approbation he gained by his military abi- 
 lities and gallantry: he distinguished himself par- 
 ticularly by the resistance he offered to a vast host 
 of Gauls, who had attacked his camp, when he 
 was stationed for the winter with one legion in the 
 country of the Nervii. In 51 he accompanied his 
 brother as legate to Cilicia ; and on the breaking 
 out of the civil war in 49 he joined Pompey. After 
 the battle of Pharsalia, he was pardoned by Caesar. 
 He was proscribed by the triumvirs, and was put 
 to death in 43. Quintus wrote several works, 
 which are all lost, with the exception of an address 
 to his brother, entitled De Petitione Consulatus. 
 Quintus was married to Pomponia, sister of Atti- 
 cus ; but, from incompatibility of temper, their 
 union was an unhappy one. — 7. M., only son of 
 the orator and his wife Terentia, was bom 65. 
 He accompanied his father to Cilicia, and served 
 in Pompey's army in Greece, although he was 
 then only 16 years of age. In 45 he was sent to 
 Athens to pursue his studies, but there fell into 
 iiTegular and extravagant habits. On the death 
 of Caesar (44) he joined the republican part}', 
 served as military tribune under Brutus in Mace- 
 donia, and after the battle of Philippi (42) fled to 
 Sex. Pompey in Sicily. When peace was con- 
 cluded between the triumvirs and Pompey in 39, 
 Cicero retm*ned to Rome, was favourably received, 
 by Octavian, who at length assumed him as his 
 colleague in the consulship, (b. c. 30, from 13th 
 Sept.) By a singular coincidence, the despatch 
 announcing the capture of the fleet of Antony, 
 which was immediately followed by his death, was 
 addressed to the new consul in his official capacity, 
 and thus, says Plutarch, " the divine justice re- 
 served the completion of Antony''s punishment for 
 the house of Cicero."^ 8. Q., son of No. 6, and 
 of Pomponia, sister of Atticus, was bom 66 or 
 67, and perished with his father in the proscrip- 
 tion, 43. 
 
 Cichyms {Kix^pos), called Ephyra ('E(^upr;) 
 in Homer, a town of Thesprotia in Epirus, between 
 the Acherusian lake and the sea. 
 
 Cicones (Ki/coi/es), a Thracian people on the 
 Hebrus, and near the coast. 
 
 Cicynna {Kluvvva. : KtKuweus), a demus of At- 
 tica, belonging to the tribe Cecropis, and afterwards 
 to the tribe Acamantis. 
 
 Cilicia (KiAiKia : KtAi^, fera. KfAio-cra), a dis- 
 trict in the S. E. of Asia Minor, bordering to the 
 E. on Syria, to the N. on Cappadocio. and Lycaonia, 
 to the N. W. and W. on Pisidia and Pamphylia. 
 On all sides, except the W,, it is enclosed by 
 
174 
 
 CILICIAE. 
 
 natural boundfiriea, namely, the Mediterranean on 
 the S., M. Amanus on the E., and M. Taurus on the 
 N. The "W. part of Cilicia is intersected by the 
 offshoots of the Taurus, while in its E. part the 
 mountain chains enclose much larger tracts of 
 level country : and hence arose the division of the 
 country into C. Aspera (K. 7/ rpax^^a^ or rpax^i^- 
 Tis), and C. Campestris (K. tJ TreSia?) ; tlie latter 
 was also called Cilicia Propria (t} iUajs K,). Nu- 
 merous rivers, among which are the Pyramus, 
 Sarus, Cydnus, Calycadnus, and smaller moun- 
 tain streams, descend from the Taurus. The E. 
 division, through which most of the larger rivers 
 flow, was extremely fertile, and the naiTOwer 
 valleys of Cilicia Aspera contained some rich 
 tracts of land ; the latter district was famed for its 
 fine breed of horses. The first inhabitants of the 
 country are supposed to have been of the Syrian 
 race. The mythical story derived their name 
 from Cilix, the son of Agenor, who started, iivith 
 his brothers Cadmus and Phoenbc, for Europe, but 
 stopped short on the coast of Asia Minor, and 
 peopled with his followers the plain of Cilicia. The 
 country remained independent till the time of the 
 Persian Empire, under which it formed a satrapy, 
 but appears to have been still governed by its 
 native princes. Alexander subdued it on his march 
 into Upper Asia ; and, after the division of his 
 empire, it formed a part of the kingdom of the Se- 
 leucidae ; its plains were settled by Greeks, and 
 the old inhabitants were for the most part driven 
 back into the mountains of C. Aspera, where they 
 remained virtually independent, practising robbery 
 by land and piracy by sea, till Pompey drove 
 them from the sea in his war against the pirates, 
 and, having rescued the level coimtry from the 
 power of Tigranes, who had overrun it, he erected 
 it into a Roman province, b. c. 67 — G6. The 
 mountain country was not made a province till the 
 reign of Vespasian. The people bore a low cha- 
 racter among the Greeks and Romans. The 
 Carians, Cappadocians, and Cilicians, were called 
 the 3 bad K's. 
 
 Ciliciae Pylae or Portae (at U6kai rris Ki- 
 KiKias : Koimboghaz)^ the chief pass between Cap- 
 padocia and Cilicia, through the Taurus, on the 
 road from Tyana to Tarsus. This was the way by 
 which Alexander entered Cilicia. 
 
 Cilicium Mare (t} KiXtKia ba.\a(rffa\ the N. E. 
 portion of the Mediterranean, between Cilicia and 
 Cyprus, as far as the Gulf of Issus. 
 
 CHix (KtAi|), son of Agenor and Telephassa, was, 
 with his brothers, Cadmus and Phoenix, sent out 
 by their father in search of Europa, who had been 
 carried off by Zeus. Cilix settled in the country 
 called after him Cilicia. 
 
 Cilia (KtAAa), a small town in the Troad, on 
 the river Cilleus, at the foot of M. Cillaeus, in the 
 ranffe of Garganis, celebrated for its temple of 
 Apollo surnamed Cillaeus. Its foundation was 
 ascribed to Pelops. 
 
 Cilnii, a powerful family in the Etruscan town 
 of Arretium, were driven out of their native town 
 in B. c. 301, but were restored by the Romans. 
 Th: Cilnii were nobles or Lucumones in their 
 state, and some of them in ancient times may have 
 held even the kingly dignity, (Comp. Hor. Carm. 
 i, 1.) The name has been rendered chiefly me- 
 morable by C. Cilnius Maecenas. [Maecenas.] 
 
 Cimber, C. Annius, had obtained the praetor- 
 ship from Caesar, and was one of Antony's sup- 
 
 CIMOLIS. 
 
 porters, B.C. 43, on which account he is attackec? 
 by Cicero. He was charged with having killed 
 his brother, whence Cicero calls him ironically 
 Philadelplms. 
 
 Cimber, L. Tilliua (not Tullius), a friend of 
 Caesar, who gave him the province of Bithynia, 
 but subsequently one of Caesar's murderers, b. c. 
 44. On the fatal day, Cimber was foremost in 
 the ranks, under pretence of presenting a petition 
 to Caesar praying for his brother's recall from 
 exile. After the assassination, Cimber went to hi& 
 province and raised a fleet, with which he rendered 
 service to Cassius and Bnitus. 
 
 Cimbri, a Celtic people, probably of the same 
 race as the CjTnry. [Celtae.] They appear to 
 have inhabited the peninsula, which was called after 
 them Chersonesus Cimbrica {Jutland)^ though 
 the greatest uncertaintj'' prevailed among the an- 
 cients respecting their original abode. In conjunc- 
 tion with the Teutoni and Ambrones, they migrated 
 S., with their wives and children, towards the close 
 of the 2nd century B. c. ; and the whole host is 
 said to have contained 300,000 fighting men. They 
 defeated several Roman armies, and caused the 
 greatest alarm at Rome. In B.C. 113 they de- 
 feated the consul Papirius Carbo, near Noreia, and 
 then crossed over into Gaul, which they ravaged 
 in all directions. In 109 they defeated the consul 
 Junius Silanus, in 1 07 the consul Cassius Longinas^ 
 who fell in the battle, and in 105 they gained 
 their most brilliant victory near the Rhone over 
 the united armies of the consul Cn. Mallius and 
 the proconsul Servilius Caepio. Instead of crossing 
 the Alps, the Cimbri, fortunately for Rome, marched 
 into Spain, where they remained 2 or 3 years^ 
 The Romans meantime had been making prepa- 
 rations to resist their formidable foes, and had 
 placed their troops under the command of Marius. 
 The barbarians returned to Gaul in 102. In that 
 year the Teutoni were defeated and cut to pieces 
 by Marius, near Aquae Sextiae {Aix) in Gaul ; 
 and next year (101) the Cimbri and their allies 
 were likewise destroyed by Marius and Catulus,. 
 in the decisive battle of the Campi Randii, near 
 Verona, in the N. of Italy. In the time of Au- 
 gustus, the Cimbri, who were then a people of no 
 importance, sent an embassy to the emperor. 
 
 Cimmus or Ciminius Mons {Monte Cimmo, 
 also il/. Fogliano)^ a range of mountains in Etruria, 
 thickly covered with wood (Saltus Ciminius, Silva 
 Ciminia), near a lake of the same name, N.W. of. 
 Tarquinil between the Lacus Vulsiniensis and 
 Soracte, 
 
 Cimmerii (K(/x/nc'pioi), the name of a mythical 
 and of a historical people. The mythical Cimmcrii,, 
 mentioned by Homer, dwelt in the furthest W. on 
 the ocean, enveloped in constant mists and dark- 
 ness. Later writers sought to localise tliem, and 
 accordingly placed them either in Italy near 
 the lake A vermis, or in Spain, or in the Tauric 
 Chersonesus. — The historical Cimmerii dwelt on 
 the Palus Maeotis {Sea of Azov\ in the Tauric 
 Chersonesus, and in Asiatic Sarmatia. Driven 
 from their abodes by the Scythians, they passed 
 into Asia Minor on the N. E., and penetrated W. 
 as far as Aeolisand Ionia. They took Sardis B.C. 
 635 in the reign of Ardys, king of Lydia, but they 
 were expelled from Asia by Alyattcs, the grandson 
 of Ardys. 
 
 Cimmerius BospSrua. [Bosporus.] 
 
 Cim.oliB (Ki/4toAis: CivioH or Argentiere)^ an 
 
CIMON. 
 
 island in the Aegaean sea, one of the Cyclades, be- 
 tween Siphnos and Melos, celebrated for its fine 
 white earth, used by fullers for cleaning cloths. 
 
 Cimon (Ki'juwi/). 1. SonofStesagoras, and father 
 of Miltiades, victor at Marathon, gained 3 OljTnpic 
 victories with his four-horse chariot, and after his 
 3rd victory was secretly murdered by order of the 
 sons of Pisistratus. ^ 2. Grandson of the preceding, 
 and son of the great Miltiades. On the death of 
 his father (b. c. 489), he was imprisoned because 
 he was unable to pay his fine of 50 talents, which 
 was eventually paid by Callias on his marriage 
 with Elpinice, Cimon''s sister. Cimon first distin- 
 g^iished himself on the invasion of Greece by 
 Xerxes (480), and after the battle of Plataea was 
 brought forward by Aristides. He frequently com- 
 manded the Athenian fleet in their aggressive war 
 against the Persians. His most brilliant succe&s 
 was in 466, when he defeated a large Persian 
 fleet, and on the same day landed and routed their 
 land forces also on the river Eurymedon in Pam- 
 phylia. The death of Aristides and the banish- 
 ment of Themistocles left Cimon without a rival 
 at Athens for some years. But his influe/ice gra- 
 dually declined as that of Pericles increased. In 
 461 Cimon marched at the head of some Athenian 
 troops to the assistance of the Spartans, who 
 were hard pressed by their revolted subjects. The 
 Athenians were deeply mortified by the insulting 
 manner in which their offers of assistance were 
 declined, and were enraged with Cimon who had 
 exposed them to this insult. His enemies in con- 
 sequence succeeded in obtaining his ostracism this 
 year. He was subsequently recalled, in what year 
 is uncertain, and through his intervention a 5 year's 
 truce was made between Athens and Sparta, 450. 
 In 449 the war was renewed with Persia, Cimon 
 received the command, and with 200 ships sailed 
 to Cyprus ; here, while besieging Citium, illness or 
 the effects of a wound carried him off, — Cimon 
 was of a cheerful convivial temper ; frank and affa- 
 ble in his manners. Having obtained a great for- 
 tune by his share of the Persian spoils, he displayed 
 unbounded liberality. His orchards and gardens 
 were thrown open ; his fellow demcsmen were free 
 daily to his table, and his public bounty verged on 
 ostentation. With the treasure he brought from 
 Asia the S. wall of the citadel was built, and at 
 his own private charge the foundation of the long 
 walls to the Piraeus was laid down. — 3. Of Cleo- 
 nae, a painter of great renown, flourished about 
 B. c. 460, and appears to have been the first painter 
 of perspective. 
 
 Cinadon (Kiud^ov)^ the chief of a conspiracy 
 against the Spartan peers (o/xoioi) in the first year 
 of Agesilaus II. (b. c. 398-^397.) The plot was 
 discovered, and Cinadon and the other conspirators 
 were put to death. 
 
 Cinaethou (KiuaiBwv)^ of Lacedaemon, one of 
 the most fertile of the Cyclic poets, flourished b. c. 
 765. 
 
 Cinara or Cinams (Zinara), a small island in 
 the Aegaean sea, E. of Naxoa, celebrated for its 
 artichokes (Kiudpa). 
 
 Cinciiinatus, L. Quintius, a favoilrite hero of 
 the old Roman republic, and a model of old 
 Roman frugality and integritj'. He lived on his 
 farm, cultivating the land with his own hand. 
 In E. c. 460 he was appointed consul sufltectus in 
 the room of P. Valerius. In 458 he was called 
 from the plough to the dictatorship, in order to 
 
 CINNA. 
 
 175 
 
 deliver the Roman consul and anny from tlie pe- 
 rilous position in which they had been placed by 
 the Aequians. He saved the Roman ami)'', de- 
 feated the enemy, and, after holding the dictator- 
 ship only \§ days, returned to his farm. In 439, 
 at the age of 80, he was a 2nd time appointed 
 dictator to oppose the alleged machinations of Sp. 
 Maelius. ■ — Several of the descendants of Ciiicinna- 
 tus held the consulship and consular tribunate, but 
 none of them is of sufficient importance to require 
 a separate notice. 
 
 Cincius Alimeutua. [Alimentus.] 
 
 Cineas (Kti^eas), a Thessalian, the friend and 
 minister of Pyrrhus, king of Epirus. He was the 
 most eloquent man of his day, and reminded his 
 hearers of Demosthenes, whom he heard speak in 
 his youth. Pyrrhus prized his persuasive powers 
 so highly, that " the words of Cineas (he was wont 
 to say) had won him more cities than liis own 
 arms," The most famous passage in his life is his 
 embassy to Rome, with proposals for peace from 
 Pyrrhus, after the battle of Heraclea (b. c. 280). 
 Cineas spared no arts to gain favour. Thanks to 
 his wonderful memory, on the day after his arrival 
 he was able (we are told) to address all the senators 
 and knights by name. The senate, however, re- 
 jected his proposals mainly through the dying 
 eloquence of old App. Claudius Caecus. The am- 
 bassador returned and told the king that there 
 was no people like that people, — their city was a 
 temple, their senate an assembly of kings. Two 
 years after (278), when Pyrrhus was about to 
 cross over into Sicily, Cineas was again sent to 
 negotiate peace. He appears to have died in Sicily 
 shortly afterwards. 
 
 Cinesias (Kivrjaias)^ a dithyrambic poet of 
 Athens, of no merit, ridiculed by Aristophanes and 
 other comic poets. But he had his revenge ; for 
 he succeeded in procuring the abolition of the Cho- 
 ragia, as far as regarded comedy, about B. c. 390. 
 
 Cinga [Cinea)^ a river in Hispania Tarraconensis, 
 falls with the Sicoris into the Iberus. 
 
 Cingetorix, a Gaul, one of the first men in the 
 city of the Treviri (Treves, Trier)^ attached. him- 
 self to the Romans, though son-in-law to Indntio- 
 maris, the head of the independent party. When 
 this leader had been put to death by Caesar, he 
 became chief of his native city, 
 
 Cing^um (Cingulanus : Cingolo), a town in 
 Picenum on a rock, built by Labienus, shortly be- 
 fore the breaking out of the civil war, b. c. 49. 
 
 Cinna, Cornelius, 1, L., the famous leader of 
 the popular party during the absence of Sulla jn 
 the East. (b. c. 87—84.) In 87 Sulla allowed 
 Cinna to be elected consul with Cn. Octavius, on 
 condition of his taking an oath not to alter the 
 constitution as then existing. But as soon as Sulla 
 had left Italy, be began his endeavour to over- 
 power the senate, and to recall Marius and his 
 party. He was, however, defeated by his colleague 
 Octavius in the forum, was obliged to fly the city, 
 and was deposed by the senate from the consulate. 
 But he soon returned ; with the assistance of Ma- 
 rius, who came back to Italy, he collected a power- 
 fnl army, and laid siege to Rome. The capture 
 of the city, and the massacre of Sulla's friends 
 which followed, more properly belong to the life 
 of Marius. For the next 3 years (86, 8o, 84) 
 Cinna was consul. In 84 Sulla prepai'ed to return 
 from Greece; and Cinna was slain by his own 
 troops, when he ordered them to cross over from 
 
176 
 
 CIJNI^A. 
 
 Italy to Greece, where he intended to encounter 
 Sulla. — 2. L., son of No. 1., joined M. Lcpidus in 
 his attempt to overthrow the constitution of Sulla 
 78; and on the defeat and death of Lepidns in 
 Sardinia, he went with M.Perperna to join Sertorius 
 in Spain. Caesar procured his recalT from exile. 
 He was made praetor by Caesar in 44 ; but was 
 notwithstanding one of the enemies of the dictator. 
 Though he would not join the conspirators, he ap- 
 proved of their act ; and so great was the rage of 
 the mob against him, that they nearly murdered 
 him. See below Cinna, Helvius. 
 
 Cinna, C. Helvius, a poet of considerable re- 
 jinwn, the friend of Catullus. In B. c. 44 he was 
 tribune of the plebs, when he was murdered by the 
 mob, who mistook him for his namesake Cornelius 
 Cinna, though he was at the time walking in Cae- 
 sar's funeral procession. His principal work was 
 an epic poem entitled SmiiTna. 
 
 Cinnamus, Joannes i^liaawns Klwaixos), one 
 of the most distinguished Byzantine historians, lived 
 under the emperor Manuel Comnenus (who reigned 
 A. D. 1143 — 1180), and wrote the history of this 
 emperor and of his father Calo-Joaones, in 6' books, 
 which have come down to us. Edited by Du 
 Cange, Paris, 1670, fol., and by Meineke, Bonn, 
 186, 8vo. 
 
 Cinyps or Cinyphus (Ktwi//, Ktyv^os : Wad- 
 Kluihan or Klnifo)^ a small river on the N. coast 
 of Africa, between the Syrtes, forming the E. 
 boundary of the proper territory of the African 
 Tripolis. The district about it was called by the 
 same name, and was famous for its fine-haired 
 goats. 
 
 Cinyras [Kivupas)^ son of Apollo, king of Cy- 
 prus, and priest of the Paphian Aphrodite, which 
 latter office remained hereditary in his family, the 
 Cinyradae. He was married to Metharne, the 
 daughter of the Cyprian king Pygmalion, by whom 
 he had several children, and among them was 
 Adonis. According to some traditions, he unwit- 
 tingly begot Adonis by his own daughter Smyrna, 
 and killed himself on discovering the crime he had 
 committed. According to other traditions, he had 
 promised to assist Agamemnon ; but as he did not 
 keep his word, he was cursed by Agamemnon, and 
 perished in a contest with Apollo. 
 
 Cipus or Cippus, Genuciua, a Roman praetor, 
 on whose head it is said that horns suddenly grew, 
 as he was going out of the gates of the city, and, as 
 the haruspices declared that if he returned to the 
 -city he would be kiiig, he imposed voluntary exile 
 upon himself. 
 
 Circe (Ki'p/c?]), a mythical sorceress, daughter of 
 Helios (the Sun) by the Oceanid Perse, and sister 
 x)f Aeetes, lived in the island of Aeaea. Ulysses 
 Jarried a whole year with her, after she had changed 
 several of his companions into pigs. By Ulysses 
 she became the mother of Agrius and Telegonus. 
 The Latin poets relate that she metamorphosed 
 Scylla, and Picus king of the Ausonians. 
 
 Circeii (Circeiensis : C'ircello^ and the Ru. Ciita 
 Vecchia), an ancient town of Latium on the pro- 
 montory Circeium, founded by Tarquinius Super- 
 bus, never became a place of importance, in conse- 
 quence of its proximity to the unhealthy Pontine 
 marshes. The oysters caught off Circeii were cele- 
 brated. (Hor. Sat. ii. 4. 33 ; Juv. iv. 140.) Some 
 writers suppose Circe to have resided on this pro- 
 montorj', and that hence it derived its name. 
 
 CircesiUm (KipK-rja-ioy ; Kerhsiah), a city of 
 
 Mesopotamia, on the E. bank of the Euphrates, at 
 the mouth of the Aborrhas : the extreme border 
 fortress of the Roman Empire. 
 
 Circus. [Roma.] 
 
 Cirphis (Kipipis), a town in Phocis, on a moun- 
 tain of the same name, which is separated by a 
 valley from Parnassus. 
 
 Cirrha. [Crissa.] 
 
 Cirta, aft. Constantina {Consiantiveh^ Ru.), a 
 city of the Massj'lii in Numidia, 50 Roman miles 
 from the sea ; the capital of Syphax, and of Masi- 
 nissa and his successors. Its position on a height, 
 surrounded by the river Ampsagas, made it almost 
 impregnable, as the Romans found in the Jugur- 
 thine, and the French in the Algerine, wars. It 
 was restored by Constantine the Great, in honour 
 of whom it received its later name. 
 
 Cisseus (Kio-fl-guy), a king in Thrace, and father 
 of Theano, or, according to others, of Hecuba, who 
 is hence called Cisseis {KiacnfCs). 
 
 Cissia (Kttrtr/a), a very fertile district of Su- 
 siana, on the Choaspes. The inhabitants (Kitrcioi) 
 were a wild free people, resembling the Persians in 
 their manners. 
 
 Cissus (Kitro-tJs), a to^vn in Macedonia on a 
 mountain of the same name, S. of Thessalonica, to 
 which latter place its inhabitants were transplanted 
 by Cassander. 
 
 Cisthene (Kia-QTivri). 1. A town on the coast 
 of Mysia, on the promontory of Pyrrha, on the 
 Gulf of Adrainyttium.^2. {CasteWRojfo), an island 
 and town on the coast of Lycia.— 3. In the my- 
 thical geogi'aphy of Aeschylus {Prom. 799) the 
 "plains of Cisthene" are made the abode of the 
 Gorgon s. 
 
 Cithaeron (Ki6aLp(Lv ; Cltliaeron^ and its highest 
 summit Elatia)^ a lofty range of mountains, se- 
 parated Boeotia from Megaris and Attica. It was 
 covered with wood, abounded in game, and was 
 the scene of several celebrated legends in mythology-. 
 It was said to have derived its name from Cithaeron, 
 a mythical king of Boeotia. Its highest summit 
 was sacred to the Cithaeronian Zeus, and here was 
 celebrated the festival called Daedala. {Diet of 
 Ant, s. V.) 
 
 Citharista, a sea-port town (Ceiresie\ and a 
 promontory (C. d'Aigle) in Gallia Narbonensis, 
 near Massilia. 
 
 Citium {KiTiov. Ktrieii?). 1. (Nr. Lameca, 
 Ru.), one of the 9 chief towns of Cyprus, with a 
 harbour and salt-works, 200 stadia from Salamis, 
 near the mouth of the Tetius : here Cimon, the 
 celebrated Athenian, died, and Zeno, the founder 
 of the Stoic school, was born. — 3. A town in Ma- 
 cedonia, on a mountain Citius, N. W". of Beroea. 
 
 Ciu3 (Ki'oy : Kios or Keios, Cianus ; Ghio, also 
 Gliemlio and Kemlik), an ancient city in Bithynia, 
 on a bay of the Propontis called Cianus Sinus, was 
 colonized by the Milesians, and became a place of 
 much commercial importance. It joined the Aeto- 
 lian league, and was destroyed by Philip III., 
 king of Macedonia ; but was rebuilt by Priisias, 
 king of Bithynia, from whom it was called Prusias. 
 
 Civilis, Claudius, sometimes called Julius, the 
 leader of the Batavi in their revolt from Rome, 
 A. D. 69 — 70. He was of the Batavian royal race, 
 and, like Hannibal and Sertorius, had lost an eye. 
 His brother Julius Paulus was put to death on a 
 false charge of treason b}' Fonteius Capito (a. d. 
 67 or 68), who sent Civilis in cliains to Nero at 
 Rome, where he was heard and acquitted by Galba. 
 
CIZARA. 
 
 He was afterwards prefect of a cuTiorL, tut under 
 Vitellius he became an object of suspicion to the 
 army, and with difficulty escaped with his life. 
 He vowed vengeance. His countrymen, who were 
 shamefully treated by the officers of Vitellius, were 
 easily induced to revolt, and they were joined by 
 the Canninefates and Frisii. He took up arms 
 under pretence of supporting the cause of Vespa- 
 sian, and defeated in succession the generals of 
 Vitellius in Gaul and Germany, but he continued 
 in open revolt even after the death of Vitellius. 
 In 70 Civilis gained fresh victories over the Ro- 
 mans, but was at length defeated in the course of 
 the year by Petilius Cerealis, who had been sent 
 into Germany with an immense army. Peace was 
 concluded with the Batavi on terms favourable to the 
 latter, but we do not know what became of Civilis. 
 
 Cizara (Ki^apa), a mountain fortress in the dis- 
 trict of Phazemonitis in Pontus ; once a royal resi- 
 dence, but destroyed before Strabo's time. 
 
 Cladaus (KAaSaos or KAaSeos), a river in Elis, 
 flows into the Alpheus at Olympia, 
 
 Clampetia, called by the Greeks Lampetia 
 CAa/xTreria, Ao^Tre'reia), a town of Bnittium, on 
 the W. coast : in ruins in Pliny's time. 
 
 Clanis. 1. {Chiano)j a river of Etniria, rises S. 
 of Arretium, forms 2 small lakes near Cluslum, W. 
 of lake Trasimenus, and flows into the Tiber E. of 
 Vulsinii. — 2. The more ancient name of the Liris. 
 — 3. (Glan in Steiermark), a river in the Noric 
 Alps. 
 
 Clanius. [Liternus.] 
 
 Clams {h KKapos), a small to^Ti on the Ionian 
 coast, near Colophon, with a celebrated temple and 
 oracle of Apollo, surnamed Clarius. 
 
 Clarus, Sex. Erucius, a friend of the younger 
 Pliny, fought under Trajan in the E., and took 
 Seleucia, a. d. 115. — His son Sextus was a patron 
 of literature, and was consul under Antoninus Pius, 
 A. D. 146. 
 
 Classicus, Jiilius, a Trevir, was prefect of an 
 ala of the Treviri in the Roman army under Vitel- 
 lius, A. D. 69, but afterwards joined Civilis in his 
 rebellion against the Romans. [Civilis.] 
 
 ClastidxTim iCasteggio or Schiateggio\ a fortified 
 town of the Ananes in Gallia Cispadana, not far 
 from the Po, on the road from Dertona to Placentia. 
 
 Clatema, a fortified to\vn in Gallia Cispadana, 
 not far from Bononia ; its name ia retained in the 
 small river %Ladema, 
 
 Claudia. 1. Quinta, a Roman matron, not 
 a Vestal Virgin, as is frequently stated. When 
 the vessel conveying the image of Cybele from 
 Pessinus to Rome, had stuck fast in a shallow at 
 the mouth of the Tiber, the soothsayers announced 
 that only a chaste woman could move it. Claudia, 
 ■who had been accused of incontinency, took hold 
 of the rope, and the vessel forthwith followed her, 
 E.C. 204. — 2. Or Clodia, eldest of the 3 sisters of 
 P. Clodius Pulcher, the enemy of Cicero, married 
 Q. Marcius Rex. — 3. Or Clodia, second sister of 
 P. Clodius, married Q. Metellus Celer, but became 
 infamous for her debaucheries, and was suspected 
 of having poisoned her husband. Cicero in his 
 letters frequently calls her Boal7ns-.^4. Or Clodia, 
 youngest sister of P. Clodius, married L. Lucullus, 
 to whom she proved unfaithful. All 3 sisters are 
 said to have had incestuous intercourse with tlieir 
 brother Publius. 
 
 Claadia Gens, patrician and plebeian. The 
 patrician Claudii were of Sabine origin, and came 
 
 CLAUDIUS. 
 
 in 
 
 to Rome in b. c. 504, when they were received 
 among the patricians. [Claudius, No. 1.] They 
 were noted for their pride and haughtiness, their 
 disdain for the laws, and their hatred of the ple- 
 beians. They bore various surnames, which are 
 given under Claudius, with the exception of those 
 with the cognomen Nero, who are better known 
 under the latter name. — The plebeian Claudii 
 were divided into several families, of which the 
 most celebrated was that of Marcellus. 
 
 Claudianus, Claudius, the last of the Latin 
 classic poets, flourished under Theodosius and his 
 sons Arcadius and Honorius. He was a native of 
 Alexandria and removed to Rome, where we find 
 him in a. d. 395. He enjoyed the patronage of 
 the all-powerful Stilicho, by whom he was raised 
 to offices of honour and emolument. A statue was 
 erected to his honour in the Forum of Traj.an by 
 Arcadius and Honorius, the inscription on which 
 was discovered at Rome in the 15th century. He 
 also enjoyed the patronage of the empress Serena, 
 through whose interposition he gained a wealthy 
 wife. The last historical allusion in his writings 
 belongs to 404 ; whence it is supposed that he may 
 have been involved in the misfortunes of Stilicho, 
 who was put to death 408. He was a heathen. 
 His extant works are : — 1. The 3 panegyrics on 
 the 3rd, 4th, and 6th consulships of Honorius. 2, 
 A poem on the nuptials of Honorius and Maria* 
 
 3. Four short Fescennine lays on the same subject. 
 
 4. A panegyric on the consulship of Probinus and 
 Olybrius. 5. The praises of Stilicho, in 2 booksj 
 and a panegyric on his consulship, in 1 book- 
 6. The praises of Serena, the wife of Stilicho. 7- 
 A panegyric on the consulship of Flavins Malliua. 
 Theodorus. 8. The Epithalamium of Palladius and 
 Celerina. 9. An invective against Rufinns, in 1 
 books. 10. An invective against Eutropius, m *2 
 books. 11. De Bello GiMonico, the first book of an . 
 historical poem on the war in Africa against Gildo. 
 
 12. De Bello Getico, an historical poem on the suc- 
 cessful campaign of Stilicho against Alaric and the 
 Goths, concluding with the battle of Poilentia^ 
 
 13. Rajitus Proserpinae^ 3 books of an unfinished- 
 epic on the rape of Proserpine. 14. Gu/antomuchia^ 
 a fragment extending to 128 lines only. 15- 
 5 short epistles. 16. Eidyllia, a collection of 7 
 poems chiefly on subjects connected with natural 
 history. 17. Epigrammata, a collection of short 
 occasional pieces. — The Christian hymns found 
 among liis poems in most editions are certainly 
 Rpurious. — The poems of Claudian are distinguished 
 by purity of language, and real poetical genius. Th& 
 best edition is by Burmann, Amst. 1760. 
 
 Claudiopolis (KAaySttjTroAis), the name of somt* 
 cities called after the emperor Claudius, the chief 
 of which were: 1. In Bithynia [Bithynium]^ 
 2.. A colony iu the district of Cataouia, in Cai>^ 
 padocia. 
 
 Claudius, patrician. See Claudia Gens. — 1. 
 App. Claudius Sabinus Ee^ensis, a Sabine of 
 the town of RegiUum or Regilli, who in his o^vn. 
 country bore the name of Attus Clausus, being the 
 advocate of peace with the Romans, when hostilities- 
 broke out between the two nations, withdrew with 
 a large train of followers to Rome, b. c. 504. He 
 was received into the ranks of the patricians, and 
 lands beyond the Anio were assigned to liis follow- 
 ers, who were formed into a new tribe called the 
 C]audi;in. He exhibited the characteristics which 
 marked his descendants, and showed the most bittej 
 
 N 
 
173 
 
 CLAUDIUS. 
 
 hatred towards the plebeians. He was consul 4D5, 
 and his conduct towards the plebeians led to their 
 secession to the Mons Sacer 494.^ 2. App. CL Sab. 
 Begin., son of No. 1, consul 47^, treated the sol- 
 diers whom he commanded with such severity, 
 that his troops deserted him. Next year he was 
 impeached by 2 of the tribunes, but, according to 
 the common story, he died or killed himself before 
 the trial. — 3. C. CI. Sab. Regill., brother of No. 
 2, consul 460, when App. Herdonius seized the 
 Capitol. Though a staunch supporter of the patri- 
 cians, he warned the decemvir Appius against an 
 immoderate use of his power. His remonstrances 
 being of no avail, he withdrew to Regillum, but 
 returned to defend Appius when impeached. ^4. 
 App. CI. Crassus EegHl. Sab., the decemvir, 
 commonly considered son of No. 2, but more pro- 
 bably the same person. He was consul 451, and 
 on the appointment of the decemvirs in that year, 
 he became one of them, and was reappointed the 
 following year. His real character now betrayed 
 itself in the most tyrannous conduct towards the 
 plebeians, till his attempt against Virginia led to 
 the overthrow of the depemvirate. App. was im- 
 peached by Virginius, but did not live to abide his 
 trial. He either killed himself, or was put to death 
 in prison by order of the tribunes. — 5. App. 
 Claudius Caecus, became blind before his old age. 
 In his censorship (312), to which he was elected 
 without having been consul previously, he built 
 the Appian aqueduct, and commenced the Appian 
 road, which was continued to Capua. He re- 
 tained the censorship 4 years in opposition to the 
 law which limited the length of the office to 18 
 months. He was twice consul in 307 and 296 ; 
 and in the latter year he fought against the Sam- 
 nites and Etruscans. In his old age, Appius by 
 his eloquent speech induced the senate to reject 
 the terras of peace which Cineas had proposed on 
 behalf of p3'-rrhus. Appius was the earliest Roman 
 writer in prose and verse whose name has come 
 down to us. He was the author of a poem known 
 to Cicero through the Greek, and he also wrote a 
 legal treatise, De Uswpationibus. He left 4 sons 
 and 5 daughters. — 6. App. CI. Caudes, brother 
 of No. 5, derived his surname from his attention to 
 naval affairs. He was consul 264, and conducted 
 the war against the Carthaginians in Sicily. — 7. 
 P. CI. Pulcher, son of No. 5, consul 249, attacked 
 the Carthaginian fleet in the harbour of Drepana, in 
 defiance of the auguries, and was defeated, with 
 the loss of almost all his forces. He was recalled 
 and commanded to appoint a dictator, and there- 
 upon named M. Claudius Glycias or Glicia, the son 
 of a freedman, but the nomination was immediately 
 superseded. He was impeached and condemned. 
 ^ 8. C. CI. Centho or Cento, son of No. 5, consul 
 240, and dictator 213. — 9. Tib. CI. Nero, son of 
 No. 5. An account of his descendants is given 
 under Nero.— -10, App. CI. Pulcher, son of No. 
 7, aedile 217, fought at Cannae 216, and was 
 praetor 215, when he was sent into Sicily. He was 
 consul 212, and died 211 of a wound which he 
 received in a battle with Hannibal before Capua, — 
 11. App. CI. Pulcher, son of No. 10, served in 
 Greece for some years under Flaraininus, Baebius, 
 and Glabrio (197—191). He was praetor 187 and 
 consul 185, when he gained some advantages over 
 the Ingaunian Ligurians. He was sent as ambas- 
 sador to Greece 184 and 176. — 12. P. CI. Pul- 
 cher, brother of No. 11, curule aedile 189, praetor 
 
 CLAumus. 
 
 180, and consul 184. — 13. C. CI. Pulcher, bro- 
 ther of Nos. 11 and 12, praetor 180 and consul 
 177, when he defeated the Istrians and Ligurians. 
 He was censor 160 with Ti. Sempronius Gracchus, 
 He died 167-— 14. App. CL Cento, aedile ) 78 and 
 praetor 175, when he fought with success against 
 the Celtiberi in Spain. He afterwards served in 
 Thessaly (173), Macedonia (172), and Illyricum 
 (170). — 15. App. CI. Pulcher, son of No. 11, 
 consul 143, defeated the Salassi, an Alpine tribe. 
 On his return a triumph was refused him ; and when 
 one of the tribunes attempted to drag him from 
 his car, his daughter Claudia, one of the Vestal 
 Virgins, walked by his side up to the capitol. He 
 was censor 136. He gave one of his daughters in 
 marriage to Tib. Gracchus, and in 133 with Tib. 
 and C Gracchus was appointed triumvir for the 
 division of the lands. He died shortly after Tib. 
 Gracchus. — 16. C. Claudius Pulcher, curule 
 aedile 99, praetor in Sicily 95, consul in 92. 
 — 17. App. CI. Pulcher, consul 79, and after- 
 wards governor of Macedonia. ^18. App. CI. Pul- 
 cher, praetor 89, belonged to Sulla's party, and 
 perished in the great battle before Rome 82. — 
 19. App. CI. Pulcher, eldest son of No. 18. In 
 70 he served in Asia under his brother-in-law, 
 Lucullus ; in 57 he was praetor, and though he did 
 not openly oppose Cicero's recall from banishment, 
 he tacitly abetted the proceedings of his brother 
 Publius. In 56 he was propraetor in Sardinia ; 
 and in 54 was consul with L. Domitius Ahenobarbus, 
 when a reconciliation was brought about between 
 him and Cicero, through the intervention of Pompey. 
 In 53 he went as proconsul to Cilicia, which he 
 governed with tyranny and rapacity. In 51 he 
 was succeeded in the government by Cicero, whose 
 appointment Appius received with displeasure. On. 
 his return to Rome he was impeached by Dolabella, 
 but was acquitted. In 50 he was censor with L. 
 Piso, and expelled several of Caesar's friends from 
 the senate. On the breaking out of the civil war, 
 49, he fled with Pompey from Italy, and died in 
 Greece before the battle of Pharsalia. He was an 
 augur, and wrote a work on the augural discipline, 
 which he dedicated to Cicero. He was also distin- 
 guished for his legal and antiquarian knowledge, 
 — 20. C. CL Pulcher, second son of No. 18, was 
 a legatus of Caesar, 58, praetor 56, and propraetor 
 in Asia 55. On his return he was accused of ex- 
 tortion by M. Servilius, who was bribed to drop 
 the prosecution. He died shortly afterwards.^ 
 31. P. CI. Pulcher, usually called Clodius and not 
 Claudius, the youngest son of No. 18, the notorious 
 enemy of Cicero, and one of the most profligate 
 characters of a profligate age. In 70 he served 
 under his brother-in-law, L. Lucullus in Asia; but 
 displeased at not being treated by Lucullus with 
 the distinction he had expected, he encouraged the 
 soldiers to mutiny. He then betook himself to his 
 other brother-in-law, Q. Marcius Rex, proconsul in 
 Cilicia, and was entrusted by him with the com- 
 mand of the fleet. He fell into the hands of the 
 pirates, who however dismissed him without ran- 
 som, through fear of Pompey. He next went to 
 Antioch, and joined the Syrians in making war on 
 the Arabians. On his return to Rome in 65 he 
 impeached Catiline for extortion in his government 
 of Africa, but was bribed by Catiline to let him 
 escape. In 64 he accompanied the propaetor L. 
 Murena to Gallia Transalpina, where he resorted 
 to the most nefarious methods of procuring money. 
 
eSbAUDIUS. 
 In 62 he profaned the mysteries of the Bona Dea, 
 wliich were celebrated by the Rom;in matrons in 
 the house of Caesar, who was then praetor, by en- 
 terinjT the house disguised as a female musician, in 
 order to meet Pompeia, Caesar's wife, with whom 
 he had an intrigue. He was discovered, and next 
 year, 61, when quaestor, was brought to trial, but 
 obtained an acquittal by bribing the judges. He 
 had attempted to prove an alibi, but Cicero^'s evi- 
 dence shewed that Clodius was with him in Rome 
 only 3 hours before he pretended to have been 
 at Interamna. Cicero attacked Clodius in the se- 
 nate with great vehemence. In order to revenge 
 himself upon Cicero, Clodius was adopted into a 
 plebeian family that he might obtain the formida- 
 ble power of a tribune of the plebs. He was tri- 
 bune 58, and. supported by the triumvirs Caesar, 
 Pompey, and Crassus. drove Cicero into exile ; but 
 notwithstanding all his efforts he was unable to 
 prevent the recall of Cicero in the following year. 
 [Cicero.] In 56 Clodius was aedile and at- 
 tempted to bring his enemy Milo to trial. Each 
 had a large gang of gladiators in his pay, and fre- 
 quent fights took place in the streets of Rome 
 between the 2 parties. In 53, when Clodius was 
 a candidate for the praetorship, and Milo for the 
 consulship, the contests between them became more 
 violent and desperate than ever. At length, on the 
 20th of January, 52, Clodius and Milo met, appa- 
 rently by accident, on the Appian road near Bovillae. 
 An affray ensued between their followers, in which 
 Clodius was murdered. The mob was infuriated 
 at the death of their favourite; and such tumults 
 followed at the burial of Clodius, that Pompey was 
 appointed sole consul in order to restore order to 
 the state. For the proceedings which followed see 
 Milo. The second wife of Clodius was the noto- 
 rious FuLviA. — 22. App. CI. Pulclier, the elder 
 son of No. 20, was one of the accusers of Milo on 
 the death of P. Clodius, 52.-23. App. CI. Pul- 
 cher, brother of No. 21, joined his brother in 
 prosecuting Milo. Aa the two brothers both bore 
 the praenomen Appius, it is probable that one of 
 them was adopted by their uncle Appius. [No. 
 ]9J.^24. Sex. Clodius, probably a descendant 
 of a freedman of the Claudia gens, was a man of 
 low condition, and the chief instrument of P. Clo- 
 dius in all his acts of violence. On the death of 
 the latter in 52, he urged on the people to revenge 
 the death of his leader. For his acts of violence 
 on this occasion, he was brought to trial, was con- 
 demed, and after remaining in exile 8 years, was 
 restored in 44 by M. Antoninus. 
 
 Claudius I., Roman emperor A. d. 41 — 54. His 
 full name was TiB. Claudius Drusus Nero 
 Germanicus. He was the younger son of Drusus, 
 the brother of the emperor Tiberius, and of An- 
 tonia, and was bom on August 1st, B.C. 10, at 
 Lyons in Gaul. In youth he was weak and sickly, 
 and was neglected and despised by his relatives. 
 When he grew up he devoted the greater part of 
 his time to literary pursuits, but was not allowed 
 to take any part in public affairs. He had reached 
 the age of 50, when he was suddenly raised by the 
 soldiers to the imperial throne after the murder of 
 Caligula. Claudius was not cruel, but the wealc- 
 ness of his character made him the slave of his 
 wives and freedmen, and thus led him to consent 
 to acts of tyranny which he would never have 
 committed of his own accord. He was married 4 
 times. At the time of his accession he was married 
 
 CLEANTHES. 
 
 179 
 
 to his 3rd wife, the notorious Valeria Messallna, 
 wiio governed him for some years, together with 
 the freedmen Narcissus, Pallas, and others. After 
 the execution of Messalina, 48, a fate which she 
 richly merited, Claudius was still more unfortunate 
 in choosing for his wife his niece Agrippina. She 
 prevailed upon him to set aside his own son, Bri- 
 tannicus, and to adopt her son, Nero, that she 
 might secure the succession for the latter. Claudius 
 soon after regretted this step, and was in conse- 
 quence poisoned by Agrippina, 54. — Several public 
 works of great utility were executed by Claudius. 
 He built, for example, the famous Claudian aquae- 
 duct {Aqua Claudia\ the port of Ostia, and the 
 emissary by which the water of lake Fucinus was 
 carried into the river Liris. In his reign the 
 southern part of Britain was made a Roman pro- 
 vince, and Claudius himself went to Britain in 43, 
 where he remained, however, only a short time, 
 leaving the conduct of the war to his generals. — 
 Claudius wrote several historical works, all of 
 which have perished. Of these one of the most 
 important was a history of Etruria, in the compo- 
 sition of which he made use of genuine Etruscan 
 sources. 
 
 Claudius IL (M. Aurelius Claudius, sur- 
 named Gothicus), Roman emperor a. d. 268 — 
 270, was descended from an obscure family in 
 Dardania or lllyria, and by his military talents 
 rose to distinction under Decius, Valerian, and 
 Gallienus. He succeeded to the empire on the 
 death of Gallienus (268), and soon after his acces- 
 sion defeated the Alemanni in the N. of Italy. 
 Next year he gained a great victory over an im- 
 mense host of Goths near Naissus in Dardania, 
 and received in consequence the surname Gothicus. 
 He died atSirmium in 270, and was succeeded by 
 Aurelian. 
 
 Clazomenae {al KXa^oneval : KXa^o/xenos : Ke- 
 lisman)^ an important city of Asia Minor, and a 
 member of the Ionian Dodecapolis, lay on the N. 
 coast of the Ionian peninsula, upon the gulf of 
 Smyrna. The city was said to have been founded 
 by the Colophonians under Paralus, on the site of 
 the later town of Chytrium, but to have been re- 
 moved further E., as a defence against the Per- 
 sians, to a small island, which Alexander after- 
 wards united to the mainland by a causeway. It 
 was one of the weaker members of the Ionian 
 league, and was chiefly peopled, not by lonians, 
 but by Cleonaeans and Phliasians. Under the 
 Romans it was a free city. It had a considerable 
 commerce, and was celebrated for its temple of 
 Apollo, Artemis, and Cybele, and still more as the 
 birthplace of Anaxagoras. 
 
 Cleander {KAfavdpos). 1. Tyrant of Gela, 
 reigned 7 years, and was murdered b.c. 498. He 
 was succeeded by his brother Hippocrates, one of 
 whose sons was also called Cleander. The latter was 
 deposed by Gelon when he seized the government, 
 491. — 2. A Lacedaemonian, harmost at Byzan- 
 tium 400, when the Cyrean Greeks returned from 
 Asia. ^3, One of Alexander's officers, was put to 
 death by Alexander in Carraania, 325, in conse- 
 quence of his oppressive government in Media. — 
 4. A Phrj'gian slave, and subsequently the profli- 
 gate favourite and minister of Commodus. In a 
 popular tumult, occasioned by a scarcity of corn, 
 he was torn to death by the mob. 
 
 Cleautbes (K\4aveT]s). 1. A Stoic, born at 
 Assos in Troas about b. c. 300. He entered life 
 
 N 2 
 
100 
 
 CLEARCHUS: 
 
 as a boxer, nnd hnd only 4 draclimas of hh own 
 when he bcfpin to study philosophy. He first 
 placed himself under Crates, and then under Zeno, 
 whose disciple he continued for 19 years. In order 
 to support himself, he worked all niglit at drawing 
 water from gardens ; but as he spent the whole 
 day in philosophical pursuits, and had no visible 
 means of support, he was summoned before the 
 Areopngus to account for his way of living. The 
 judges were so delighted by the evidence of in- 
 dustry which he produced, that they voted him 10 
 minae, though Zeiio would not permit him to accept 
 them. He was naturally slow, but his iron in- 
 dustry overcame all difficulties ; and on the death 
 of Zeno in 263, Cleanthes succeeded him in his 
 school. He died about 220, at the age of 80, of 
 voluntary starvation. A hymn of his to Zeus is 
 still extant, and contains some striking sentiments. 
 Edited by Stui-z, 1785, and Mersdorf, Lips. 1835, 
 — 2. An ancient painter of Corinth. 
 
 Clearclms (KAe'apxos). 1. A Spartan, distin- 
 guished himself in several important commands 
 during the latter part of the Peloponnesian war, 
 imd at the close of it persuaded the Spartans to 
 send him as general to Thrace, to protect the Greeks 
 in that quarter against the Thracians. But having 
 been recalled by the Ephors, and refusing to obey 
 their orders, he was condemned to death. He 
 thereupon crossed over to Cyrus, collected for him 
 a large force of Greek mercenaries, and marched 
 with him into Upper Asia, 401, in order to dethrone 
 his brother Artaxerxes, being the only Greek who 
 ■was aware of tlie prince's real object. After the 
 batlle of Cunaxa and the death of Cyrus, Clearchus 
 and the other Greek generals were made prisoners 
 by the treachery of Tissaphernes, and were put to 
 death. — 2. A citizen of Heraclea on the Euxine, 
 obtained the tyranny ofhis native town, b. c. 365, 
 by putting himself at the head of the popular party. 
 He governed with cruelty, and was assassinated 
 353, after a reign of 12 years. He is said to have 
 been a pupil both of Plato and of Isocrates. ^ 3. Of 
 Soli, one of Aristotle's pupils, author of a number 
 of works, none of which are extant, on a great va- 
 riety of subjects. ^4. An Athenian poet of the 
 new comedy, whose time is unknown. 
 
 Clemens. 1. T. Flavins, cousin of the emperor 
 Domitian, by whom he was put to death. He ap- 
 pears to have been a Christian. — 2. Somanns, 
 bishop of Rome at the end of the first century, 
 probably the same as the Clement whom St. Paul 
 mentions (Phil. iv. 3). He wrote 2 epistles in 
 Greek to the Corinthian Church, of which the 1st 
 and part of the 2nd are extant. The 2nd, how- 
 ever, is probably not genuine. The Recognitiones^ 
 which bear the name of Clement, were not written 
 by him. The epistles are printed in the Patres 
 Apostolic'.^ of which the most convenient editions 
 are by Jacobson, Oxford, 1838 ; and by Hefele, 
 Tiibingen, 1830.^3. Alexandrinua, so called 
 from his long residence at Alexandria, was ardently 
 devoted in early life to the study of philosophy, 
 which had a great influence upon his views of 
 Christianity. He embraced Christianity through 
 the teaching of Pantaenus at Alexandria, was or- 
 dained pr sbyter about a. d. IDO, and died about 
 220. Hence he flourished under the reigns of 
 Severus and Caracalla, 193 — 217. His 3 principal 
 works constitute parts of a whole. In the Horta- 
 tory Address to l/te Greeks {A6yos UpoTpeTrTiK6s^ 
 Sec.) his design was to convince the lieatheus and 
 
 CLEOMENES. 
 
 to convert them to Christianity. The Paedagogue 
 {Tia.i^a.y(ay6s) takes up the new convert at the 
 point to which he is supposed to have been brought 
 b}' the hortatory address, and furnishes him with 
 rules for the regulation of his conduct. The Stro- 
 maia (STpw/xoreTs) are in 8 books: the title (S'tro- 
 mata, i. e. patch-work) indicates its miscellaneous 
 character. It is rambling and discursive, but con- 
 tains much valuable information on many points of 
 antiquity, particularly the history of philosophy. 
 The principal information respecting Egyptian, 
 hieroglyphics is contained in the 5th book. The^ 
 object of the work was to delineate the perfect 
 Christian or Gnobiic^ after he had been instructed 
 by the Teaelier and thus prepared by sublime spe- 
 culations in philosophy and theology. — Editions^ 
 Bv Potter, Oxon. 1715, fol. 2 vols. ; by Klotz, Lips- 
 1830—34, 8vo. 4 vols. 
 
 Cleobis. [BiTON.] 
 
 Cleobiiliiie [Kk^uBuKivri)., or Cleobule (K\€o~ 
 6ov\t})^ daughter of Cleobulus of Lindus, celebrated 
 for her skill in riddles, of which she composed a 
 number in hexameter verse ; to her is ascribed a 
 well-known one on the subject of the year: — " A 
 father has 12 children, and each of these 30 daugh- 
 ters, on one side white, and on the other side blacky 
 and though immortal they all die." 
 
 Cleob^us (KAetJfioi/Xoy), one of the Seven Sages, 
 of Lindus in Rhodes, son of Evagoras, lived about: 
 B. c. 580. He wrote lyric poems, as well as riddles^ 
 in verse; he was said by some to have been the author 
 of the riddle on the year, generally attributed tO' 
 his daughter Cleobuline. He was greatly distin- 
 guislied for strength and beauty of person. 
 
 Cleochares (KXeoxapTjs), a Greek orator of" 
 Myrlea in Blthynia, contemporary with the orator 
 Demochares and the philosopher Arcesilas, towards 
 the close of the 3rd century b. c. 
 
 Cleombrotus (KAetJ/i^poros). 1. Son of Anax- 
 andrides, king of Sparta, became regent after the- 
 battle of Thermopylae, B.C. 480, for Plistarchus,. 
 infant son of Leonidas, but died in the same year,, 
 and was succeeded in the regency by his son Pau- 
 sanias. — 2. I. King of Sparta, son of Pausanias^ 
 succeeded his brother Agesipolis I., and reigned b. c. 
 380 — 371. He commanded the Spartan troops- 
 several times against the Thebans, and fell at the- 
 battle of Leiictra (371), after fighting most bravely- 
 ^3. II. King of Sparta, son-in-law of Leonidas 
 II., in whose place he was made king by the party 
 of Afiis IV. about 243. On the return of Leonidas, 
 Cleombrotus was deposed and banished to Tegea^ 
 about 240. —4, An Academic philosopher of Am- 
 bracia, said to have killed himself, after reading 
 the Phaedon of Plato ; not that he had any suffer- 
 ings to escape from, but that he might exchange- 
 this life for a better. 
 
 Cleomedes (K\60ju^5tjs). 1. Of the island As- 
 typalaea, an athlete of gigantic strength.^2. A 
 Grei-k mathematician, probably lived in the 2nd 
 and 3rd centuries of the Christian acra ; the author 
 of a Greek treatise in 2 books on the Circular 
 Theory of ilie Heavenly Bodies (Ku/cAik^s ©ew/jfas 
 Mereajpo);/ Bt'&Aia 5uo), which is still extant. 
 It is rather an exposition of the system of the unir 
 verse than of the geometrical principles of astronomy. 
 Edited by Balfour, Burdigal. 1605 ; by Bake^ 
 Lugd. Bat. 1020 ; and by Schmidt, Lips. 1832. 
 
 Cieomenes (KAco^eyijy). 1, King of Sparta, 
 son of An axand rides, reigned B.C. 520 — 491. He 
 was a man of an enterprisuig but wild character- 
 
CLEOMENES. 
 His gxeatfst exploit was his deffnt of the Argivcs, 
 in which 6000 Argive citizens fell ; but the date 
 of this event is doubtful. In 510 he commanded 
 the forces by whose assistance Hippias was driven 
 from Athens, and not long after he assisted Isagoras 
 and the aristocratical party, against Clisthenes. 
 By bribing the priestess at Delphi, he effected the 
 ■deposition of his colleague Demaratus, 491. Soon 
 <ifterwards he was seized with madness and killed 
 himself. — 2. King of Sparta, son of Cleombrotna 
 I., reigned 370 — 309 ; but during this long period 
 we have no information about him of any im- 
 portance. — 3. King of Sparta, son of Leonidas II., 
 Teigned 236 — 2"22. While still young, he married 
 Agiatis, the widow of Agis IV. ; and following the 
 i?xaniple of the latter, he endeavoured to restore 
 the ancient Spai'tan constitution, and to regenerate 
 the Spartan character. He was endowed-with a 
 noble mind, strengthened and purified by philo- 
 sophy, and possessed great energy of purpose. His 
 iirst object was to gain for Sparta her old renown 
 in war ; and for that purpose he attacked the 
 Acliaeans, and carried on war with the League 
 ■with great success. Having thus gained military 
 renown he felt himself sufRciently strong in the 
 winter of 226 — 225 to put the Ephors to death 
 and restore the ancient constitution. The Achaeans 
 now called in the aid of Antigonus Doson, king of 
 Macedonia, and for the next 3 years Cleomenes 
 carried on war against their united forces. He 
 was at length completely defeated at the battle of 
 Sellasia (222), and fled to Egypt, where he was 
 liiindly received by Ptolemy Euergetes, but on the 
 death of that king he was imprisoned by his successor 
 Philopator. He escaped from prison, and attempted 
 to raise an insurrection, but finding no one join 
 -him, he put himself to death, 220. 
 
 Cleomenes. 1. A Greek of Naucratis in Egypt, 
 appointed by Alexander the Great nomarch of the 
 Arabian district (v6fxos) of Egypt, and receiver of 
 ^he tribute from the districts of Egypt, b. c. 331. 
 His rapacity knew no bounds, and he collected im- 
 mense wealth by his extortions. After Alexander''s 
 •death he was put to death by Ptolemy, who took 
 possession of his treasures. — 2. A sculptor, son of 
 ApoUodorus of Athens, executed the celebrated 
 Etatiie of the Venus de Medici, as appears from an 
 inscription on the pedestal. He lived between 
 B.C. iiG3 and 146. 
 
 Cleiin {K\€(t}p), son of Cleaenetus, was ori- 
 ginally a tanner, and first came forward in public 
 as an opponent of Pericles. On the death of this 
 great man, b. c. 429, Cleon became the favourite 
 of the people, and for about 6 years of the Pelo- 
 ponnesian war (420 — 422) was the head of the 
 part}' opposed to peace. He is represented by 
 Aristophanes as a demagogue of the lowest kind, 
 mean, ignorant, cowardly, and venal ; and this 
 view of his character is confirmed by Thucydides. 
 But much weight cannot be attached to the satire 
 ■of the poet ; and the usual impartiality of the his- 
 torian may have been warped by the sentence of 
 his banishment, if it be true, as has been conjec- 
 tured with great probability, that it was through 
 Cleon that Thucydides was sent into exile. Cleon 
 may be considered as the representative of the 
 middle classes of Athens, and by his read}', though 
 somewhat coarse, eloquence, gained great influence 
 over them. In 427 he strongly advocated in the 
 assembly that the Mytilenaeans should be put to 
 ^uath. In 424 he obtained his greatest glorj' by 
 
 CLEOPATRA. 181 
 
 taking prisoners the Spartans in the island of 
 Sphacteria, and bringing them in safety to Athens. 
 Pufted up by this success, he obtained the com- 
 mand of an Athenian army, to oppose Brasidas in 
 Thrace ; but he wiis defeated by Brasidas, under 
 the walls of AmphipoHs, and fell in the battle, 422. 
 
 — The chief attack of Aristophanes upon Cleon 
 was in the Knights (424), in which Cleon figures 
 as an actual dramatis persona, and, in default of 
 an artificer bold enough to make the mask, was re- 
 presented by the poet himself with his face sraear*^ 
 with wine lees, 
 
 Cleonae {KXiO)vai: KAewfaTos). 1. An ancient 
 to^vn in Argolis, on the road from Corinth to Argos, 
 on a river of the same name which flows into the 
 Corinthian gulf, and at the foot of Mt. Apesas ; 
 said to have been built by Cleones, son of Pelops. 
 
 — 3. A town in the peninsula Athos in Chalcidice. 
 
 — 3. Kyampolis. 
 
 Cleonymus (KAetiru^os). 1 An Athenian, fre- 
 quently attacked by Aristophanes as a pestilent 
 demagogue. — 2. A Spartan, son of Sphodrias, 
 much beloved by Archidamus, tlie son of Agesi- 
 laus : he fell at Leuctra, B.C. 371- — 3. Younger 
 son of Cieomenes II., king of Sparta, was excluded 
 from the throne on -his father^'s death, 309, m con- 
 sequence of his violent ajid tyrannical temper. In 
 303 he crossed over to Italy to assist the Taren- 
 tines against the Lucanians. He afterwards with- 
 drew from Italy, and seized Corcyra ; and in 272 
 he invited Pyrrhus to attempt the conquest of 
 Sparta. [AcnoTATUS.] 
 
 Cleopatra (KAeoTar/ja). 1. (Myth.) Daughter 
 of Idas and Marpessa, and wife of Meleager, is 
 said to have hanged herself after her husband's 
 death, or to have died of grief. Her real name 
 was Alcyone. — 2. (Hist.) Niece of Attalus, mar- 
 ried Philip, B. c. 337, on whose murder she was 
 put to death by Olympias. — 3. Daughter of Philip 
 and Olympias, and sister of Alexander the Great, 
 married Alexander, king of Epirus, 336. It was 
 at the celebration of her nuptials that Philip was 
 murdered. Her husband died 326. After the 
 death of her brother she Avas sought in marnnge by 
 several of his generals, and at length promised to 
 marry Ptolemy ; but having attempted to escape 
 from Sardis, where she had been kept for j-ears in 
 a sort of honourable captivity, she was assassinated 
 by Antigonus.^4. Daughter of Antiochus III. 
 the Great, married Ptolemy V. Epiphanes, 193.— 
 5. Daughter of Ptolemy V. Epiphanes and No. 4, 
 married her brother Ptolemy VI. Philometor, and 
 on his death, 146, her other brother Ptolemy VI, 
 Physcon. She was soon afterwards divorced by 
 Physcon, and fled into Syria. — 6. Daughter of 
 Ptolemy VI. Philometor and of No. 5, married 
 first Alexander B.ilas (150), the Syrian usurper, 
 and on liis death Demetrius Nicator. Duriufr the 
 captivity of tlie latter in Parthia, jealous of the con- 
 nexion which he there formed with Rhodogune, 
 the Parthian princess, she married AntinclmsVlI. 
 Sidetes, his brother, and also murdered Demetrius 
 on his return. She likewise murdered Seleucus, her 
 sou by Nicator, who on his father's death assumed 
 the government without her consent. Her other 
 son by Nicator, Antiochus VJII. Grypus, suc- 
 ceeded to the throne (125) through her influence ; 
 and he compelled her to drink the poison which 
 she had prepared for him also. [Antiochus VIII.] 
 She had a son by Sidetes, Antiochus IX., sur- 
 named C3'zicenus. — 7. Another daiigliter of Pto- 
 
182 CLEOPATRA. 
 
 lemy VI. Philometor and No. 5, married lier uncle 
 Physcon, when the latter divorced her mother. On 
 the death of Physcon she reigned in conjunction witli 
 her elder son, Ptolemy VIII. Lathynis, and then 
 in conjunction with her younger son Alexander. 
 She was put to death by the latter in 89.-8. 
 Daughter ot Ptolemy Physcon and No. 7, married 
 first her brother Ptolemy VIII. Lathyrus, and next 
 Antiochns IX. Cyzicenua. She was put to death 
 by Tiyphaena, her own sister, wife of Antiochus 
 Grypus. — 9. Usually called Selene, another daugh- 
 ter of Ptolemy Physcon, married 1st her brotlier 
 Lathyrus (on her sister No. 8 being divorced), ■2dly 
 Antiochus XI. Epiphanes, and 3rdly Antiochus X. 
 Eusebes. -— 10. Daughterof Ptolemy VIII. Lathj-- 
 rus, usually called Berenice. [Berenice, No, 4.] 
 — 11. Eldest daughter of Ptolemy Auletes, cele- 
 brated for her beauty and fascination, was 17 at 
 the death of her father (51), who appointed her 
 heir of his kingdom in conjunction with her younger 
 brother, Ptolemy, whom she was to marry. She 
 was expelled from the throne by Pothinus and 
 Achillas, hia guardians. She retreated into SjTia, 
 and there collected an army with which she was 
 preparing to enter Egypt, when Caesar arrived in 
 Egypt in pursuit of Porapej', 47. Her charms 
 gained for her the support of Caesar, who replaced 
 her on the throne in conjunction with her brother. 
 This led to the Alexandrine war, in the course of 
 which young Ptolemy perished. Cleopatra thus 
 obtained the undivided rule. She was, however, 
 associated by Caesar with another brother of the 
 same name, and still quite a child, to whom she 
 was also nominally married. She had a son by 
 Caesar, called Caesabion, and she afterwards 
 followed him to Rome, where she appears to have 
 been at the time of his death, 44. She then re- 
 turned to Egypt, and in 41 she met Antony in 
 Cilicia. She was now in her 28th year, and in 
 the perfection of matured beauty, whicli, in con- 
 junction with her talents and eloquence, completely 
 won the heart of Antony, who henceforth appears 
 as her devoted lover and slave. He returned with 
 her to Egypt, but was obliged to leave her for a short 
 time, in order to marry Octavia, the sister of Au- 
 gUBtus. But Octavia was never able to gain his 
 affections ; he soon deserted his wife and returned 
 to Cleopatra, upon whom he conferred the most ex- 
 travagant titles and honours. In the war between 
 Octavian and Antony, Cleopatra accompanied her 
 lover, and was present at the battle of Actium (31), 
 in the midst of which she retreated with her fleet, 
 and thus hastened the loss of the daj'. She fled 
 to Alexandria, where she was joined by Antony. 
 Seeing Antony's fortunes desperate, she entered 
 into negotiations with Augustus, and promised to 
 make away with Antony. She fled to a mauso- 
 leum she had built, and then caused a report of her 
 death to be spread. Anton}', resolving not to sur- 
 vive her, stabbed himself, and was drawn up into 
 the mausoleum, where he died in her arms. She 
 then tried to gain the love of Augustus, but her 
 charms failed in softening his colder heart. Seeing 
 that he detennined to carry her captive to Rome, 
 she put an end to her own life, either by the poison 
 of an asp, or by a poisoned comb, the former suppo- 
 sition being adopted by most writers. She died in 
 the 39th year of her age (b. c. 30), and with her 
 ended the dynasty of the Ptolemies in Egypt, which 
 was now made a Roman province. •—12. Daughter 
 of Antony and No, 11, born with her twin brother 
 
 CLITARCHUS. 
 
 Alexander in 40, along with whom she was carried 
 to Rome after the death of her parents. Augustus 
 married her to Juba, king of Numidia. — 13. A 
 daughter of Mithri dates, married Tigranes, king 
 of Armenia. 
 
 Cleopatris. [Arsinoe, No. 6.] 
 
 Cleophon (KA.60(J>wr), aii Athenian demagogue, 
 of obscure, and, according to Aristophanes, of 
 Thracian origin, vehemently opposed peace with 
 Sparta in the latter end of the Peloponnesian war. 
 During the siege of Athens by Lysander, b. c. 404, 
 he was brought to trial by the aristocratical party, 
 and was condemned and put to death. 
 
 Cleostratus (KA-efJcrrpaTOs), an astronomer of 
 Tenedus, said to have introduced the division of 
 the Zodiac into signs, probably lived between B.C. 
 543 and 432. 
 
 Clevnm, alsoGlevnm and Glebon {Gloucester), 
 ti, Roman colony in Britain. 
 
 Glides {alKAft^es: as. Andre), "the Keys,'* 
 a promontory on the N. E. of Cypms, with 2 islands 
 of the same name lying off it. 
 
 Climax (KXT/xa^ : Ekder)^ the name applied to 
 the "W. termination of the Taurus range, which 
 extends along the W. coast of the Pamphylian Gulf, 
 N. of Phaselis in Lycia. Alexander made a road 
 between it and the sea. There were other moun- 
 tains of the same name in Asia and Africa. 
 
 Climbemim. [Ausci.] 
 
 Clinias {KKeivias). 1. Father of the famous 
 Alcibiades, fought at Artemisium b. c. 480, in a 
 ship built and manned at his own expense: he fell 
 447, at the battle of Coronea.^2. A younger bro- 
 ther of the famous Alcibiades. ^ 3, Father of Ara- 
 tus of Sicyon, was murdered by Abantidas, whO' 
 seized the tyranny, 264.^4. A Pythagorean phi- 
 losopher, of Tarentum, a contemporarj' and friend 
 of Plato. 
 
 Clio. [MusAE.] 
 
 Clisthenes {KXei(TB€vt]s), 1. Tyrant of Sicyon. 
 In B. c. 595, he aided the Amphictyons in the 
 sacred war against Cirrha, which ended, after 10 
 years, in the destruction of the guilty city. He 
 also engaged in war with Argos. His death cannot 
 be placed earlier than 5iJ2, in which year he won 
 the victory in the chariot-race at the Pythian games. 
 His daughter Agarista was given in marriage to- 
 Megacles the Alcraaeonid. ^ 2. An Athenian, son 
 of Megacles and Agarista, and grandson of No. 1,. 
 appears as the head of the Alcmaeonid clan on the 
 banishment of the Pisistratidae. Finding, however, 
 that he could not cope with his political rival Isa- 
 goras except through the aid of the commons, he- 
 set himself to increase the power of the latter. 
 The principal change which he introduced was th& 
 abolition of the 4 ancient tribes and the establish- 
 ment of 10 new ones in their stead, b. c. 510. He 
 is also said to have instituted ostracism. Jsagoras 
 and his party called in the aid of the Spartans, 
 but Clisthenes and his friends eventually tri- 
 umphed. ^3. An Athenian, whose foppery and 
 effeminate profligacy brought him under the lash 
 of Aristophanes. 
 
 ClitarchuB (KAeirapxcs). 1. Tyrant of Eretria in 
 Euboea, was supported by Philip against the Athe- 
 nians, but was expelled from Eretria by Phocion, 
 B. c. 341. ^ 2. Son of the historian Dinon, accom- 
 panied Alexander the Great in his Asiatic expedi- 
 tion, and wrote a history of it. This work was 
 deficient in veracity and inflated in style, but ap- 
 peal's nevertheless to have been much read. 
 
CLTTERNUM. 
 
 Clitem-om or Cliteraia (Cliterninus), a town 
 of the Frentani, in the territory of Larinum. 
 
 Glitomaclius (KAcird/iaxos), a Carthaginian by 
 birth, and called Hasdnibal in his own language, 
 came to Athens in the 40th year of his age, and 
 tbere studied under Carneades, on whose death he 
 became the head of the New Academy, b. c. 129. 
 Of his works, which amounted to 400 books, only 
 a few titles are preserved. His main object in 
 ■writing them was to make known the philosopliy 
 of his master Carneades. When Carthage was 
 taken in 146, he wrote a work to console his un- 
 fortunate countrymen. 
 
 Clitor or Clitorium (KXeirap ; KK^irSpios : nr. 
 Mazi^ Ru.), a town in the N. of Arcadia on a 
 river of the same name, a tributary of the Aroanius : 
 there was a fountain in the neighbourhood, the 
 waters of which are said to have given to persons 
 who drank of them a dislike for wine. (Ov. Met, 
 zv. 322.) 
 
 Clitxinmiis {Cliiumno), a small river in Umbria, 
 springs from a beautiful rock in a grove of cypress- 
 trees, where was a sanctuary of the god Clitumnus, 
 and falls into the Tinia, a tributary of the Tiber. 
 
 Clitus {KKuTos or KAeiros). 1. Son of Bar- 
 dylis, king of Illyria, defeated by Alexander the 
 Great, b, c. 335.^2. A Macedonian, one of Alex- 
 ander's generals and friends, sumamed the Black 
 (MeAas). He saved Alexander's life at the battle 
 of Granicus, 334. In 328 he was slain by Alex- 
 ander at a banquet, when both parties were heated 
 with wine, and Clitus had provoked the king's 
 resentment by insolent language. Alexander was 
 inconsolable at his friend's death. — 3. Another of 
 Alexander's officers, sumamed the White (Aeu/cfJs-) 
 to distinguish him from the above. ^4, An officer 
 who commanded the Macedonian fleet for Antipater 
 in the Lamian war, 323, and defeated the Athenian 
 fleet. In 321, he obtained from Antipater the sa- 
 trapy of Lydia, from which he was expelled by 
 Antigonus, 319. He afterwards commanded the 
 fleet of Poiysperchon, and was at first successful, 
 but his ships were subsequently destroyed by An- 
 tigonus, and he was killed on shore, 318. 
 
 Cloacina or Cluacina, the '* Purifier" (from 
 cloare or cluere, " to wash " or " purify "), a surname 
 of Venus at Rome. 
 
 Clodius, another form of the name Claudius, just 
 as we find both caudex and codex, claustrum and 
 dostrum, Cauda and coda. [Claudius.] 
 Clodius AlbinuB, [Albinus.] 
 Clodius Macer. [Macer.] 
 Cloelia, a Roman virgin, one of the hostages 
 given to Porsena, is said to have escaped from the 
 Etruscan camp, and to have swum across the Tiber 
 to Rome. She was sent back by the Romans to 
 Porsena, who was so struck with her gallant deed, 
 that he not only set her at liberty, but allowed her 
 to take with her a part of the hostages. Porsena 
 also rewarded her with a horse adorned with 
 splendid trappings, and the Romans with the statue 
 of a female on horseback, which was erected in the 
 Sacred Way, 
 
 Cloelia or Cluilia Gens, ofAlban origin, said 
 to have been received among the patricians on the 
 destruction of Alba. A few of its members with 
 the surname Siculus obtained the consulship in the 
 early years of the republif . 
 
 Clonas (KAoras), a poet, and one of the earliest 
 musicians of Greece, either an Arcadian, or a 
 Boeotian, probably lived about b. c. 620. 
 
 "CNEMIS. 
 
 183" 
 
 Clonias (KX(Ji/i09), leader of the Boeotians in 
 the war against Troy, slain by Agenor. 
 
 Clota Aestuarium {Frith of Clyde), on the W. 
 coast of Scotland. 
 
 ClOtho. [MOJRAE.] 
 
 Mentius Habitus, A., of Larinum, accused in 
 B. c. 74 his own step-father, Statius Albius Oppia- 
 nicus, of having attempted to procure his death bv 
 poison. Oppianicus was condemned^ aiid it was 
 generally believed that the judges had been bribed 
 by Cluentius. In 66, Cluentius was himself ac- 
 cused by young Oppianicus, son of Statius Albius 
 who had died in the interval, of 3 distinct acts of 
 poisoning. He was defended by Cicero in the 
 oration still extant. 
 
 Clunia (Ru. on a hill between Coruna del Conde 
 and Pejinalha de Castro), a town of the Arevacae 
 in Hispania Tarraconensis, and a Roman colony. 
 Clupea or Clypea. [Aspis.] 
 Clusium (Clustniis : Chius-i)^ one of the most 
 powerful of the 12 Etruscan cities, situated on an 
 eminence above the river Clania, and S. W. of the 
 Lacus Clusinus (L. di Ckiusl). It was more an- 
 ciently called Gamers or Camars, whence we may 
 conclude that it was founded by the Umbrian race 
 of the Camertes. It was the royal residence of 
 Porsena, and in its neighbourhood was the cele- 
 brated sepulchre of this king in the form of a laby- 
 rinth, of which such marvellous accounts have come 
 down to us. {Diet of Ant. art. Labyrintkus.) Sub- 
 sequently Clusium was in alliance with the Romans, 
 by whom it was regarded as a bulwark against the 
 Gauls. Its siege by the Gauls, b. c. 391, led, as 
 is well kno^vn, to the capture of Rome itself by the 
 Gauls. Clusium probably became a Roman colony, 
 since Pliny speaks of Clusini Veteres et Novi. In 
 its neighbourhood were warm baths, (Hor. Mp. i. 
 15. 9.)^ 
 
 Clusius (Cliiese), a river in Cisalpine Gaul, a 
 tributary of the Ollius, forming the boimdary be- 
 tween the Cenomani and Insubres. 
 
 Cluvius, a family of Campanian origin, of which 
 the most important person was M. Cluvius Kufus, 
 consul suffectus a.d. 45,and governor of Spain undei 
 Galba, a. d. 69, on whose death he espoused the 
 eause of Vitellius. He was an historian, and wrote 
 an account of the times of Nero, Galba, Otho, and 
 Vitellius. 
 
 Clymene (KKv/j-evrj). 1. Daughter of Oceanus 
 and Tethys, and wife of lapetus, to whom she bore 
 Atlas, Prometheus, and others.^2. Daughter of 
 Iphis or Minyas, wife of Phylacus or Cephalus, to 
 whom she bore Iphiclus and Alcimede. According 
 to Hesiod and others she was the mother of Phae- 
 ton by Hellos.^3. A relative of Menelaus and a 
 companion of Helena, with whom she was carried 
 off by Paris. 
 
 Clytaemnestra {KXuTaifxvqa-rpa)^ daughter of 
 Tyndareus and Leda, sister of Castor, and half- 
 sister of Pollux and Helena. She was married to 
 Agamemnon. During her husband's absence at 
 Troy she lived in adultery with Aegisthus, and 
 on his return to Mj'cenae she murdered him with 
 the help of Aegisthus. [Agamemnon.] She was 
 subsequently put to death by her son Orestes, who 
 thus avenged the murder of his father. For de- 
 tails see Orestes. 
 
 Cnemis {Kurifiis), a range of mountains on the 
 frontiers of Phocis and Locris, from which the N. 
 Locrians were called Epicnemidii. A branch of 
 these mountains mns ot^t into the sea, forming the 
 
 N 4 
 
-154 
 
 CNEPH. 
 
 promontory Cnemides {Kvyj/xiOis), with a town of 
 the same name upon it, opposite the promontory 
 Cenaeum in Eiiboea. 
 
 Cnepi. (Kj/vjtp), or Cnuphus (Kvou(pi'!)^ an 
 Egyptian divinity, worshipped in the form of a ser- 
 pent, and regarded as the creator of the world. 
 
 Cnidus or Gnidus (KviSor: KviSios : Ru. at 
 Cape A'?7o), a celebrated city of Asia Minor, on the 
 promontory of Triopiuni on the coast of Caria, was 
 a Lacedaemonian colony, and the chief city of the 
 Dorian Hexapolis. It was built partly on the 
 mainland and partly on an island joined to the 
 coast by a causeway, and had two harbours. It 
 had a considerable commerce ; and it was resorted 
 to by travellers from all parts of the civilized 
 world, that they might see t!ie statue of Aphrodite 
 by Praxiteles, which stood in her temple here. 
 The city possessed also temples of Apnllo and Po- 
 seidon. The great naval defeat of Pisander by 
 Conon (b. c. 394) took place off Cnidus. Among 
 the celebi-afced natives of the city were Ctesias, 
 Eudoxus. Sostratus, and Agatharcides. It is said 
 to have been also called, at an early period, Triopia, 
 from its founder Triopas, and, in later times, Stadia. 
 
 Cnosus or Gnosus, subsequently Cnossus or 
 Gnossus (Kvu}(t6s, Tvwff6s^ KvaxraSs, Ti^cjoao-ds : 
 Ktfacrtos, Kvc^cra-ios : Mah-o Teikho)^ an ancient 
 to\iTi of Crete, and the capital of king Minos, was 
 situated in a fertile country on the river Caeratus 
 (which was originally the name of the town), at a 
 short distance from the N. coast. It was at an 
 early time colonized by Dorians, and from it Dorian 
 institutions spread over the island. Its power was 
 weakened by the growing importance of Gortyn 
 and Cydonia ; and these towns, when united, v/ere 
 more than a match for Cnossus. — Cnossus is fre- 
 quently mentioned by the poets in consequence of 
 its connection with Minos, Ariadne, the Minotaur, 
 and the Labyrinth ; and the adjective Cnossius is 
 frequently used as equivalent to Cretan. 
 
 Cobus or Cohlbus (Kw&os), a river of Asia, 
 flowing from the Caucasus into the E. side of the 
 Kuxine. 
 
 Cocalu-g (Kw/taAos), a mythical king of Sicily, 
 who kindly received Daedalus on his flight from 
 Crete, and with the assistance of his daughters 
 put Minrs to deach, when the latter came in 
 pursuit of Daeflaliis. 
 
 Gocceius Herva. [Nerva.] 
 
 Cocbti (Kc^x'?), a city on the Tigris, neai- Cte- 
 fiiphon. 
 
 Cocintlium or Cocintum {Punta di Slilo), a 
 promontory on the S. E. of Bruttium in Italy, with 
 a town of the same name upon it. 
 
 Codes, Eoratius, that is, Horatins the " one- 
 eyed,"' a hero of the old Roman lays, is said to 
 have defended the Sublician bridge along with Sp. 
 Lartius and T. Herminius against the whole Etrus- 
 can army under Porsena, while the Romans broke 
 down the brii'ge behind them. When the work 
 ■was nearl}' finished, Horatius sent back his 2 com- 
 panions. As soon as the bridge was quite destroyed, 
 he plunged into the stream and swam across to the 
 city in safety amid the arrows of the enemy. The 
 state raised a statue to his honour, which was 
 placed in the comitium, and allowed him as much 
 land as he could plough round in one day. Poly- 
 bius relates that Horatius defended the bridge 
 alone, and perished in tlie river. 
 
 Cocossates, a people in Aqultania in Gaul, 
 mentioned along with the Tarhelli. 
 
 COELETAE. 
 
 Cocylium (KoktjKiou ), an Aeolian city in Mysia, 
 whose inhabitants (KoicvXtrai) are mentioned by 
 Xeiiophon ; but which was abandoned before Plin^'-'s 
 time. 
 
 Cocytus (Kw/cyro's), a river in Eplrus, a tri- 
 butary of the Acheron. Like the Acheron, the 
 Cocytus was supposed to be connected with the 
 lower world, and hence came to be described as a 
 river m the lower world. Homer {Od. x. 513) 
 makes the Cocytus a tributary of the Styx ; but 
 Virgil {Aen. vi. 295) represents the Acheron as 
 flowing into the Cocytus. 
 
 Codanus Sinus, the S. W. part of the Baltic, 
 whence the Danish islands are culled Codanonia. 
 Codomannus. [Darius.] 
 Codrus {K65pos). 1. Son of Melanthus, and 
 last king of Athens. When the Dorians invaded 
 Attica from Peloponnesus (about B.C. 1068 ac- 
 cording to mythical chronology), an oracle declared, 
 that they should be victorious if the life of the 
 Attic king was spared. Codrus thereupon re- 
 solved to aacriiice himself for his country. He 
 entered the camp of the enemy in disguise, com- 
 menced quarrelling with the soldiers, and was slain 
 in the dispute. When the Dorians discovered the 
 death of the Attic king, they returned home. 
 Tradition adds, that as no one was thought worthy 
 to succeed such a patriotic king, the kingly dignity 
 was abolished, and Medon, son of Codrus, was 
 appointed archon for life instead.— 3. A Roman 
 poet, ridiculed by Virgil. Juvenal also speaks of 
 a wretched poet of the same name. The name is 
 probably fictitious, and appears to have been ap- 
 plied by the Roman poets to those poetasters who 
 annoyed other people by reading their productions 
 to them, 
 
 Coela (to Ko7Ka r^s "EuSolas), "the Hollows of 
 Euboca," the W. coast of Euboea, between the 
 promontories Caphareus and Chersonesns, very dan- 
 gerous to ships: here apart of the Persian fleet 
 was wrecked, li. c. 480. 
 
 Coele (KoiA.7j), an Attic demus belonging to the 
 tribe Hippothoontis, a little way beyond the Me- 
 litian gate at Athens : here Cimon and Thucydides 
 were buried. 
 
 Coelesyria (if KoiKij 2vpla, i. e. BoHow S^ria), 
 was tlie name given, after the Macedonian con- 
 quest, to the great valley [El-Bukaa\ between the 
 two ranges of M. Lebanon (Libanus and Anti- 
 Libanus), in the S. of Syria, bordering upon Phoe- 
 nicia on the W. and Palestine on the S. In the 
 wars between the Ptolemies and the Seleucidae, 
 the n;ime was applied to the whole of the S. por- 
 tion of Syria, which became subject for some time 
 to the kings of Egypt ; but, under the Romans, 
 when Phoenicia and Judaea were maile distinct 
 provinces, the name of Coelesyria was confined to 
 Coelesyria proper together with the district E. of 
 Anti-Libanus, about Damascus, and a portion of 
 Palestine E. of the Jordan ; and this is the most 
 usual meaning of the term. Under the later em- 
 perors, it was considered as a part of Piioenicia, 
 and was called Phoenice Libanesia- The country 
 wiis for the most part fertile, especially the E. dis- 
 trict about the river Chrysoi'rhoas: the valley of 
 Ciielesyria proper was watered by the Leontes. 
 The inhabitants were a mlxt people of Syrians, 
 Phoenicians, and Greeks, called Syrophoenicians 
 (2up(»(f'oij'7(cej). 
 
 Coeletae or Coelaletae, a people of Thrace, di- 
 vided into Majores and Minores, iu the distr.'ct 
 
COELIUS. 
 
 Coeletica, between the Hebrus and the gulf of 
 Mel as. 
 
 Coelius. [Caelios.] 
 
 Coelossa {KoiKiaaaa), n mountain in the Sicy- 
 onian terntory, near Phlius, an offshoot of the Ar- 
 cadian mountain Cyllene. 
 
 Coelus {KoiAhs \i/j.T)p) or Coela (KuTAa), a sea- 
 port town in the Thracian Chersonese, near which 
 was the Kuvhs ff^/ua, or the grave of Hecuba. 
 
 [CyNOSSE'MA.] 
 
 Coemas (KoT^/os-), son-in-law of Parmenion, one 
 of the ablest generals of Alexander the Great, died 
 on the Hyphasis, B. c. 327. 
 
 Coenyra (Kolwpa), a place in the island Thasos, 
 opposite Samothrace. 
 
 Goes (Kulijs), of Mytilene, dissuaded Darius 
 Hystaspis, in his Scythian expedition, from breaking 
 up his bridge of boats over the Danube. For this 
 good counsel he was rewarded by Darius with the 
 tyranny of Mytilene. On the breaking out of the 
 Ionian revolt, b. c. 501, he was stoned to death by 
 the Mytilenaeans. 
 
 Colapis {K6\ci}Tp in Dion Cass. : Kulpa\ a river 
 3n Pannonia, flows into the Savus : on it dwelt the 
 Colapiani. 
 
 Colchis (KoXx^J: Kd'a^os), a country of Asia, 
 bounded on the W. by the Euxine, on the N, by 
 the Caucasus, on tlie E. by Iberia; on the S. and 
 S.W. tiie boundaries were somewhat indefinite, and 
 were often considered to extend as far as Trapezus 
 (Trehizond). The land of Colchis (or Aea), and 
 its river Phasis are famous in the Greek raytho- 
 logj-. [AuGONAUTAE.] The name of Colchis is 
 first mentioned by Aeschylus and Pindar. The 
 historical acquaintance of the Greeks with the 
 country may be ascribed to the commerce of the 
 Milesians. It was a very fertile country, and 
 yielded timber, pitch, hemp, flax, and wax, as 
 articles of commerce ; but it was most famous for 
 its manufactures of linen, on account of which, and 
 of certain physical resemblances, Herodotus sup- 
 posed the Colchians to have been a colony from 
 Egypt. The land was governed by its native 
 prmces, until Mithridates Eupator made it subject 
 to the kingdom of Pontus. After the Mithridatic 
 v/ar, it was overrun by the Romans, but they did 
 not subdue it till the time of Trajan. Under the 
 later emperors the country was called Lazica, from 
 the name of one of its principal tribes, the Lazi. 
 
 Colias (KajXiaF), a promontory on the W, coast 
 of Attica, 20 stadia S. of Phalerum, with a temple 
 of Aphrudite, whore some of the Persian ships 
 were cast after the battle of Salamis. Colias is 
 usually identified with the cape called the Three 
 Towers (Tpe7s Xlvpyoi)^ but it ought to be placed 
 S.E. near"A7(os Kofffxas. 
 
 CoUatia (Collatinus). 1. {CasteUaccio\ a Sa- 
 bine town in Latium, near the right bank of the 
 Anio, taken by Tarquinius Priscus. — 2. A town 
 in Apulia, only mentioned under the empire. 
 
 Collatinus, L. TarqmniTis, son of Egerius, and 
 nephew of Tarquinius Priscus, derived the surname 
 Collatinus from the town CoUatia, of which his 
 father had been appointed governor. He was mar- 
 ried to Ijucretia, and it was the rape of the latter 
 by Sex. Tarquinius that led to the dethronement 
 of Tfarquinius Superbus, Collatinus and L. Junius 
 Brutus were the first consuls ; but as the people 
 could not endure the rule of any of the hated race 
 of the Tarquins, Collatinus resigned his office and 
 retired from Rome to Laviniunu 
 
 COLOTES. 185 
 
 Collina Porta. [Roma.] 
 
 CoUytua {Ko\\vt6s, also Ko\vtt6s: Ko\Ai/- 
 Teus), a demus in Attica, belonging to the tribe 
 Aegeis, was included within the walls of Athens, 
 and formed one of the districts into which the city 
 was divided : it was the demus of Plato and the 
 residence of Timon the misanthrope. 
 
 Colonae {Ko\uvai)^ a small town in the Troad, 
 mentioned in Greek history, but destroyed before 
 the time of Pliny. 
 
 Colonia Agrippina or Agrippmensis (Cologne 
 on the Rhine), originally the chief town of the 
 Ubii, and called Oppidum or Civcias Ubiorum,, was 
 a place of small importance till a. n. 51, when a 
 Roman colony was planted in the town by the em- 
 peror Claudius, at the instigation of his wife Agrip- 
 pina, who was born here, and from whom it derived 
 its new name. Its inhabitants received the jus 
 Italicum. It soon became a large and flourishing 
 city, and was the capital of Lower Germany. At 
 Cologne there are still several Roman remains, an 
 ancient gate, with the inscription C. C.A.A. i. e. 
 Colonia Claudia Augusta Agrippinensis^ the founda- 
 tions of tlie Roman walls, &c. 
 
 Colonia Eqtiestris, [NovionuNUM ] 
 
 Colonns {KoKtJivSs: Ko\(av€vs -vIttjs, -vtarTji), 
 a demus of Attica, belonging to the tribe Aegeis, 
 afterwards to the tribe Antiochis, 10 stadia, or a 
 little more than a mile N.W. of Athens ; near the 
 Academy, lying on and round a hill ; celebrated 
 for a temple of Poseidon (hence called Ko\oot/iiS 
 "lirireios), a grove of the Euraenides, and the tomb 
 of Oedipus. Sophocles, who was a native of this 
 demus, has described the scenery and religious as- 
 sociations of the spot, in his Oedipus Coloneus. — 
 There was a hill at Athens called Colonus Agoraeus 
 {KoXcovhs 6 ayopaios). 
 
 Colophon (Ko\o(pc6v : Zille^ Ru.), one of the 12 
 Ionian cities of Asia Minor, was said to have been 
 founded by Mopsus, a grandson of Tiresias. It stood 
 about 2 miles from the coast, on the river Halesus, 
 which was famous for the coldness of its water, 
 between Lebedus and Ephesus, 120 stadia (12 
 geog. miles) from the former and 70 stadia (7 g. m.) 
 from the latter : its harbour was called Notium. 
 It was one of the most powerful members of the 
 Ionian confederacy, possessing a considerable fleet 
 and excellent cavalry ; but it suffered greatly in 
 war, being taken at different times by the Lydians, 
 the Persians, Lysimachus, and the Cilician pirates. 
 It was made a free city by the Romans after their 
 war with Antiochus the Great. Besides claiming 
 to be the birth-place of Homer, Colophon was thi? 
 native city of Mimnermus, Hermesianax, and Ni- 
 cander. It was also celebrated for the oracle of 
 Apollo Clarius in its neighbourhood. [Clarus.] 
 
 Colossao (KoAotraai, aft. KoAdaa-ai : KoKoa-a-q^ 
 ra5, Strab., KoAoiro-aeiJs, N. T. ; Kho7tas, Ru.), a 
 city of Great Phrygia on the river Lycus, once of 
 great importance, but so reduced by the rise of the 
 neighbouring cities of Laodicea and Hierapolis, 
 that the later geographers do not even mention it, 
 and it might have been forgotten but for its place 
 in the early history of the Christian Church. In 
 the middle ages it was called Xaivai, and hence 
 the modem name of the village on its site. 
 
 Colotes (KoAt^TTjs). 1. Of Lampsacus, a bearer 
 of Epicurus, against whom Plutarch wrote 2 of hia 
 works.— 2. A sculptor of Paros, flourished b. c. 
 444, and assisted Phidias in executing the colossus 
 of Zeus at Olympia. 
 
186 
 
 COLUMELLA. 
 
 Columella, L. Junius Moderatua, a native of 
 Gades in Spain, and a contemponiry of Senticn. We 
 have no particulars of his life ; it appears, from his 
 own account, that at some period of his life, he 
 visited Syria and Cilicia ; but Rome appears to have 
 been his ordinary residence. He wrote a work 
 upon agriculture {De Re Rustica)^ in 12 books, 
 which is still extant. It treats not only of agri- 
 culture proper, but of the cultivation of the vine 
 and- the olive, of gardening, of rearing cattle, of 
 bees, &c. The 10th book, which treats of garden- 
 ing, is composed in dactylic hexameters, and forms 
 a sort of supplement to the Georgics. There is 
 also extant a work De Arboribus^ in one book. The 
 Style of Columella is easy and ornate. The best 
 edition of his works is by Schneider, in the Scnp- 
 iores Rei Rusticae^4: vols. 8vo., Lips. 1794. 
 Columuae Herculis. [Abyla ; Calpe.] 
 Colutlius (K(JA.ou0us), a Greek epic poet of Ly- 
 copolis in Egypt, lived at the beginning of the titfa 
 centiuy of our era. He is the author of an extinct 
 poem on *' The Rape of Helen" {'EAecT/s apirayr})^ 
 consisting of 392 hexameter lines. Edited by 
 Bekker, Berl. 1816, and Schaefer, Lips. 1825. 
 
 ColyttUS. [COLLYTUS.] 
 
 Oomana {Kdiiai/a). 1. C. Pontica {Gumimk, 
 Ru.), a flourishing city of Pontus, upon the river 
 Iris, celebrated for its temple of Artemis Taurica, 
 the foundation of which tradition ascribed to 
 Orestes. The high-priests of this temple took 
 rank next after the king, and their domain was 
 increased hy Pompey after the Mithridatic war.— 
 2. Cappadociae, or C. Chryse (Bosian), lay in a 
 narrow valley of the Anti-Taurus, in Cataonia, 
 and was also celebrated for a temple of Artemis 
 Taurica, the foundation of which was likewise 
 ascribed by tradition to Orestes. 
 
 Combrea (Kto/iffpeia), a town in the Macedonian 
 district of Crossaea. 
 
 Cominium, a tovm in Samniura, destroyed by 
 the Romans in tlie Samnite wars. 
 
 Conunagene {Ko/j-fiaynv-n), the N. E.-most dis- 
 trict of Syria, was bounded on the E. and S. E. by 
 the Euphrates, on the N. and N.W. by the Tau- 
 rus, and on the S. by Cyrrhestice. It formed a 
 part of the Greek kingdom of Syria, after the fall 
 of which it maintained its independence under a 
 race of kings who appear to have been a branch of 
 the family of the Seleucidae, and was not united 
 to the Roman empire till the reign of Vespasian. 
 Under Constantino, if not earlier, it was made a 
 part of Cyrrhestice. The district was remarkable 
 for its fertility. 
 
 Commius, king of the Atrebates, was advanced 
 to that dignity by Caesar, who had great confidence 
 in him. He was sent by Caesar to Britain to ac- 
 company the ambassadors of the British states on 
 their return to their native country, but he was 
 cast into chains by the Britons, and was not re- 
 leased till the Britons had been defeated by Caesar, 
 and found it expedient to sue for peace. In b. c. 
 52 he joined the other Gauls in their great revolt 
 against the Rom9,ns, and continued in aims even 
 after the capture of Alesia. 
 
 Commodus, L. Ceionius, was adopted by Ha- 
 drian. A. D. 13h', when he tonk the name of L- 
 Aelius Vjsrus Caesar. His health was weak ; 
 he died on the Ist of January, 138, and was in- 
 terred in the mausoleum of Hadrian. Hia son L. 
 Aureiius Verus was the colleague of Antoninus 
 Pius in the empire. [Verus.J 
 
 CONISALUS. 
 
 Commodus, L. Aureiius, Roman emperor, a. d. 
 180 — 102, son of M. Aureiius and the younger 
 Faustina, was born at Lanuvium, Ifil, and ivas 
 thus scarcely 20, when he succeeded to the em- 
 pire. He was an unworthy son of a noble father. 
 Notwithstanding the great care which his father 
 had bestowed upon his education, he turned out 
 one of the most sanguinary and licentious tyrants 
 that ever disgraced a throne. It was after the 
 suppression of the plot against his life, which had 
 been organised by his sister Lucilla, 183, that 
 he first gave uncontrolled swa}-^ to his ferocious 
 temper. He resigned the government to various 
 favourites who followed each other in rapid succes- 
 sion (Perennis, Cleander, Laetus, and Eclectus), 
 and abandoned himself without interruption to the 
 most sliameless debauchery. But he was at the 
 same time the slave of the most childish vanity, 
 and sought to gain popular applause by fighting as 
 a gladiator, and slew many thousands of wild 
 beasts in the amphitheatre with bow and spear. 
 In consequence of these exploits he assumed the 
 name of Hercules, and demanded that he should 
 be worshipped as that god, 191. In the following 
 year his concubine Marcia found on his tablets, 
 while he was asleep, that she was doomed to perish 
 along with Laetus and Eclectus and other leading 
 men in the state. She forthwith administered 
 poison to him, but as its operation was slow. Nar- 
 cissus, a celebrated athlete, was introduced, and 
 by him Commodus was strangled, Dec. Slst, 192. 
 
 Comjieua. [Anna Comnena.] 
 
 CompliituJii, a town of the Carpetani in His- 
 pania Tarragon en sis, between Segovia and Bilbilis, 
 
 Compsa (Compsanus : Conza), a town of the 
 Hirpini in S:imnium,nearthe sources of theAufidus. 
 
 CdnLum (Comensis: Como), a town in Gallia 
 Cisalpina, at the S. extremity of the W. branch of 
 the Lacus Larius (Z. di Como). It was originally 
 a town of the Insubrian Gauls, and was colonized 
 by Pompeius Strabo, by Cornelius Scipio, and by 
 Julius Caei^ar. Caesar settled there 6000 colonists, 
 among whom were 500 distinguished Greek fa- 
 milies; and this new population so greatly exceeded 
 the number of the old inhabitants, that the town 
 was called Novum Comum^ a name, however, 
 which it did not retain. Comum was a place of 
 importance, and carried on considerable commerce 
 with the N. It was celebrated for its iron-manu- 
 factories : it was the birthplace of the younger 
 Pliny. 
 
 Concordia, a Roman goddess, the personification 
 of concord, had several temples at Rome. The 
 earliest was built by Camillas in coni mem oration 
 of the reconciliation between the patricians and 
 plebeians, after the enactment of the Licinian roga- 
 tions, B. c. 367. In this temple the senate fre- 
 quently met. Concordia is represented on coins as 
 a matron, holding in her left hand a cornucopia, 
 and in her right either an olive branch or a patera, 
 
 Condate, the name of many Celtic towns, said 
 to be equivalent in meaning to Confluentes, i. e. the 
 union of two rivers. 
 
 Condrusi, a German people in Gallia Belgica, 
 the dependents of the Treviri, dwelt between the 
 Eburones and the Treviri in the district of Condros 
 on the Maas and Ourthe. • 
 
 Confluentes (Coblenz)^ a town in Germany at 
 the confluence of the Moselle and the Rhine, 
 
 Conisalns {KovitraKos), a deity worshipped at 
 Athens along with Priapus. 
 
CONON. 
 
 Conon (KSvcdv). 1. A distinguished Athenian 
 genera], held Beveral important commands in the 
 latter part of the Peloponnesian war. After the 
 defeat of the Athenians by Lysander at Aegos 
 Potami (it. c, 405), Conon, who was one of the 
 generals, escaped with 8 ships, and took refuge 
 with Evagoras in Cyprus, where he remained for 
 some years. He was subsequently appointed to 
 the command of the Persian fleet along with Phar- 
 nabazus, and in this capacity was able to render 
 the most effectual service to his native country. In 
 394 he gained a decisive victory over Plsander, 
 the Spartan admiral, off Cnidus. After clearing 
 the Aegean of the Spartans, he returned to Athens 
 in 393, and commenced restoring the long walls 
 and the fortifications of Piraeus. When the Spar- 
 tans opened their negotiations with Tiribazus, the 
 Persian satrap, Conon, was sent by the Athenians 
 to countei-act the intrigues of Antalcidas, but was 
 thrown into prison by Tiribazus. According to 
 some accounts, he was sent into the interior of 
 Asia, and there put to death. But according to 
 the most probable account, he escaped to Cyprus, 
 where he died. —2. Son of Timotheus, grandson 
 of the preceding, lived about 31 8. — 3. Of Samos, 
 a distinguished mathematician and astronomer, 
 lived in the time of the Ptolemies Philadelphus 
 and Euergetes (b.c. 283 — 222), and was the friend 
 of Archimedes, who praises him in the highest 
 terms. None of his works are preserved ^4. A 
 grammarian of the age of Augustus, author of a 
 work entitled AtTj-yfjceis, a collection of 50 narra- 
 tives relating to the mythical and heroic period. 
 An epitome of the work is preserved by Photius. 
 
 Conopa (KoJcdjTra ; Kojvcaneus — irirTjs — iraios), 
 a village in Aetolia on the Achelous, enlarged by 
 Arsinoe, wife of Ptolemy II., and called after her 
 name. 
 
 Consentes Dii, the 12 Etruscan gods who formed 
 tbe council of Jupiter. They consisted of 6 male 
 and 6 female divinities : we do not know the names 
 of all of them, but it is certain that Juno, Minerva, 
 Summanus, Vulcan, Saturn, and Mars were among 
 them. 
 
 Consentia (Consentinus : Cosenza\ chief town 
 of the Bruttii on the river Crathis; here Alaric died. 
 
 P. Consentiiis, a Roman grammarian, probably 
 flourished in the 5th century of the Christian era, 
 and is the author of 2 extant grammatical works, 
 one published in the Collection of grammarians by 
 Putschius, Hanov. 1605 {De Duah-us Partibus Ora- 
 tio7iis. Nomine et Verbo\ and the other by Buttman, 
 Berol. 1817. 
 
 C- Considiixs Longns, propraetor in Africa, left 
 his province shortly before the breaking out of the 
 civil war b. c. 49, entrusting the government to Q. 
 Ligarius. He returned to Africa soon afterwards, 
 and held Adrumetum fur the Pompeian party. 
 After the defeat of the Pompeians at Thapsus, he 
 attempted to fly into Mauretania, but was mur- 
 dered by the Gaetulians. 
 
 Constans, youngest of the 3 sons of Constantine 
 the Great and Fausta, received after his father's 
 death (a. d. 337) Illyricum, Italy, and Africa as 
 his share of the empire. After successfully resist- 
 ing his brother Constantine, who was slain in in- 
 vading his territory (340), Constans became master 
 of the whole West. His weak and profligate cha- 
 racter rendered him an object of contempt, and he 
 was slain in 350 by the soldiers of the usurpiT 
 Magnentjus. 
 
 CONSTANTINUS. 
 
 187 
 
 Constantia. 1. Daughter of Constantius Chlo- 
 niB and half sister of Constantine the Great, mar- 
 ried to Licinius, the colleague of Constantine in the 
 empire. — 3. Daughter of Constantius 11. and 
 grand-daughter of Constantine the Great, married 
 the emperor 'Gratian, 
 
 Constantia, the name of several cities, all of 
 which are either of little consequence, or better 
 knovm by other names. 1. In Cyprus, named 
 after Constantius [Salamis]. 2. In Phoenicia, 
 after the same [Antaradus]. 3. In Palestine, 
 the port of Gaza, named after the sister of Con- 
 stantine the Great, and also called Magiuna. 4. 
 In Mesopotamia. [Antonikopolis.] 
 
 Constantina, daughter of Constantine the Great 
 and Fausta, married to Hannibalianus, and after 
 the death of the latter to Gallus Caesar. 
 
 Constantina, the city. [Cirta.] 
 
 Constantinopolis iKMVffTavTivQu Tr6\i^ : Con- 
 stantinople)^ built on the site of the ancient Byzan- 
 tium by Constantine the Great, who called it after 
 his own name and made it the capital of the 
 Roman empire. It was solemnly consecrated 
 A. D. 330. It was built in imitation of Rome. 
 Thus it covered 7 hills, was divided into 1 4 regiones, 
 and was adorned with various buildings in imita- 
 tion of the capital of the Western world. Its 
 extreme length was about 3 Roman miles ; and its 
 walls included eventually a circumference of 13 or 
 14 Roman miles. It continued the capital of the 
 Roman empire in the E. till its capture by the 
 Turks in 1453. An account of its topography and 
 history does not fail within the scope of the present 
 work. 
 
 Constantinus. 1. 1. Sumamed ''the Great," Ro- 
 man emperor, a.d. 306 — 337, eldest son of the em- 
 perorConstantiusChIorusandHelena,wa3 bom a.d. 
 272, at Naissus (Nissa), a town in upper Moesia, 
 He was early trained to arms, and served with 
 great distinction under Galerius in the Persian 
 war. Galerius became jealous of him and detained 
 him for some time in the E.; but Constantine at 
 last contrived to join his father in Gaul just in 
 time to accompany him to Britain on his expedition 
 against the Picts, 306. His father died at York 
 in the same year, and Constantine laid claim to a 
 share of the empire. Galerius, who dreaded a 
 struggle with the brave legions of the West, ac- 
 knowledged Constantine as master of the countries 
 beyond the Alps, but with the title of Caesar only 
 The commencement of Constantine's reign, however, 
 is placed in this year, though he did not receive 
 the title of Augustus till 308, Constantine took 
 up his residence at Treviri (Treves), where the 
 remains of his palace are still extant. He governed 
 with justice and firmness, beloved by his subjects, 
 and feared by the neighbouring barbarians. It 
 was not long however before he became involved 
 in war with his rivals in the empire. In the same 
 year that he had been acknowledged Caesar (306), 
 Maxentius, the son of Maximian, had seized the 
 imperial power at Rome. Constantine entered into 
 a close alliance with Maxentius by marryino- his 
 sister Fausta. But in 310 Maximian formed a 
 plot against Constantine, and was put to death by 
 his son-in-law at Massilia. Maxentius resented 
 the death of bis father, and began to make prepa- 
 rations to attack Constantine in Gaul. Constantine 
 anticipated his movements, and invaded Italy at 
 the head of a large army. The struggle was brought 
 to a close by the defeat of Maxentius at the village 
 
u 
 
 CONSTANTIUS 
 
 of Saxa Rubra near Rome, October 27th, 31 "2. 
 Maxentius tried to escape over the Milvian bridge 
 into Rome, but perished iu tlie river. It was in 
 this campaign that Constantine is said to have 
 been converted to Christianity. On his march from 
 theN.to Rome, either at A u tun in Gaui, or near 
 Andemach on the Rhine, or at Verona, he is said to 
 have seen in the sky a luminous cross with the 
 inscription iu toutw vUa, By this, Conquer; 
 and on the night before the last and decisive battle 
 ■with Maxentius, a vision is Baid to have appeared 
 to Constantine in his sleep, bidding him inscribe 
 the shields of his soldiers with the sacred monogvam 
 of tlie name of Christ. The tale of the cross seems 
 to have growTi out of that of the vision, and even 
 the latter is not entitled to credit. It was Con- 
 stantine's interest to gain the affections of his 
 uumetous Christian subjects in his struggle with 
 his rivals ; and it was probably only self-interest 
 which led him at first to adopt Christianity. But 
 "whether sincere or not in his conversion, his con- 
 duct did little credit to the religion which he 
 professed. The miracle of his conversion was com- 
 memorated by the imperial standard oHhe Labarum^ 
 at the summit of which was the monogram of the 
 name of Christ. Constantine, by his victory over 
 Maxentius, became the sole master of the \V. 
 Meantime, important events took place in the E. 
 On the death of Galenas in oil, Licinius and 
 Maximinus had divided the East between them; 
 Tjut in 313 a war broke out between them, Maxi- 
 niin was defeated, and died at Tarsus. Thus there 
 were only two emperors left, Licinius in the E. and 
 Constantine in the W. ; and between them also war 
 broke out in 314, although Licinius had married 
 in the preceding year Constantia, the sister of 
 Constantine. Licinius was defeated at Cibalis in 
 Pannonia and afterwards at Adrianople. Peace 
 was then concluded on condition that Licinius 
 should resign to Constantine Tllyricum, Macedonia, 
 and Achaia, 314. This peace continued undis- 
 turbed for 9 years, during which time Constantine 
 ■was frequently engaged in war with the barbarians 
 on the Danube and the Rhine. In these wars his 
 son Crispus greatly distinguished himself. In 323 
 the war between Constantine and Licinius was 
 renewed. Licinius was again defeated in 2 ^qreat 
 battles, first near Adrianople, and again at Chal- 
 cedon. He sun'endered himself to Constantine 
 on condition of having his life spared, but he 
 was shortly afterwards put to death at Thes- 
 salonica by order of Constantine. Constantine 
 was now sole master of the empire. He resolved 
 to remove the scat of empire to Byzantium, 
 which he called after his own name Constan- 
 tinople, or the city of Constantine. The new 
 city was solemnly dedicated in 330. Constantino 
 reigned in peace for the remainder of his life. In 
 32o he supported the orthodox bishops at the great 
 Christian council of Nicaea (Nice), which con- 
 demned the Arian doctrine by adopting the word 
 Sfj.oo{i<nou. In 324 he put to death his eldest son 
 Crispns on a charge of treason, the truth of which 
 however seems very doubtful. He died in May, 
 337, and was baptized shortly before his death by 
 Eusebius. His three sons Consf'iintine, Constantlus 
 and Constans succeeded him in the empire.— 2. 11. 
 Roman emperor, 337 — 340, eldest of the 3 sons of 
 Constantine the Great, by Fausta, received Gaul, 
 Britain, Spain, and part of Africa at his father's 
 death. Dissatisfied with his share of the empire, 
 
 CONSTANTIUS. 
 
 he made war upon his younger brother Constans, 
 who governed Italy, but was defeated and slain, 
 near Aquileia. — 3. An usurper, who assumed the 
 purple in Britain in the reign of Arcadius and 
 Honorlus, 407. He also obtained possession of 
 Gaul and Spain, and took up his residence in the 
 former countr}'. He reigned 4 years, but was 
 defeated in 411 by Constantiiia, the general of Ho- 
 norius, was taken prisoner and carried to Ravenna, 
 where he was put to death. — 4. Constantine is 
 likewise the name of many of the later emperors 
 of Constantinople. Of these Constantine VII. 
 PorphjTogenitus, who reigned 911 — 9.59, was cele- 
 brated for his literary works, many of which have 
 come do-wn to us. 
 
 Constantius. 1. I. Sumamed CMoms, "the 
 pale," Roman emperor, a. d. 305-306, was the son 
 of Eutropius, a noble Dardanian, and of Claudia, 
 daughter of Crispus, brother of Claudius II. He 
 was one of the two Caesars appointed by Maxi- 
 mian and Diocletian in 292, and received the go- 
 vernment of Britain, Gaul, and Spain with Treviri 
 (Treves) as his residence. At the same time he 
 married Theodora, the daughter of the wife of 
 Maximian, divorcing for that purpose his wife 
 Helena. As Caesar he rendered the empire im- 
 portant services. His first effort was to reunite 
 Britain to the empire, which after the murder of 
 Carausius was governed by Allectus. After a 
 struggle of 3 years (293—296) with Allectus, 
 Constantius established his authority in Britain, 
 He was equally successful against the Alcmanni, 
 whom he defeated with great loss. Upon the ab- 
 dication of Diocletian and Maximian, in 305, Con- 
 stantius and Galerius became the August!. Con- 
 stantius died 15 months afterwards (July, 306) at 
 Eboracum (York) in Britain, on an expedition 
 against the Picts, in which he was accompanied by 
 his son Constintine, afterwards the Great, who suc- 
 ceeded him in his share of the government. ^ 2. 
 II. Roman emperor, 337 — 3G1, third son of Con- 
 stantine the Great by his second wife Fausta. On 
 the death of his father in 337, he received the 
 E. as his share of the empire. Upon his accession 
 he became involved in a serious war with the Per- 
 sians, which was carried on with a few interrup- 
 tions during the greater part of his reign. This 
 war prevented him from taking any part in the 
 struggle between his brothers Constantine and 
 Constans, which ended in the defeat and death of 
 the former, and the accession of the latter to the 
 sole empire of the AV., 340. After the death of 
 Constans in 350, Constantius marched into the W. 
 in order to oppose Magnentius and Vetranio, both 
 of whom had nssumed the purple. Vetranio sub- 
 mitted to Constantius, and Magnentius was finally 
 crushed in 353. Thus the whole empire again became 
 subject to one ruler. In 354 Constantius put to death 
 his cousin Gallus, whom he had left in command 
 of the E., while he marched against the usurpers 
 in the W. In 355 Constantius made Julian, the 
 brother of Gallus, Caesar, and sent him into Gaul 
 to oppose the barbarians. In 360 Julian was pro- 
 claimed Augustus by tlie soldiers at Paris. Con- 
 stantius prepared for war and set out for Europe, 
 but died on his march in Cilicia, 361. He was suc- 
 ceeded by Julian. — 3, III. Emperor of the West 
 (a. D. 421), a distinguished general of Honorius. 
 He defeated the usurper Constantine in 411, and 
 also fought successfully against the barbarians. He 
 was rewarded for these services with the hand of 
 
Pl.icidia, the sister of Honoriiis. In 42] lie was 
 declared Aiii^ustus by Honorius, but died in the 
 7th month of his reign. 
 
 Coastis, an ancient Roman divinity, who was 
 identified by some in later times with Neptune. 
 Hence Livy (i. 9) ckUs him Neptunus Equestris. 
 He was regarded by some as the god of secret de- 
 liberations, but he was most probably a god of the 
 lower world. Respecting his festival of the Con- 
 sualia^ see Diet of A nt. s. v. 
 
 Contrebia, one of the chief towns of tlie Celti- 
 beri in Hispania Tarraconensis, S. E. of Saragossa. 
 
 Convenae, a people in Aquitania near the Py- 
 renees and on both sides of the Garumna, a mixed 
 race which had served under Sertorius, and were 
 settled in Aquitania by Pompey. They possessed 
 the Jus Latii. Their chief town was Lugdunum 
 (-Sf. BeHrand de Comminges), situated on a solitary 
 rock : in its neighbourhood were celebrated warm 
 baths. Aquae Convenarum (Bagneres). 
 
 Copae (Ka-rraL : KwTraieiJs : nr. TopogHa), an an- 
 cient town in Boeotia on the N. side of the lake 
 Copais, which derived its name from this place. It 
 was originally situated on an island in the lake, 
 ■which island was subsequently connected with the 
 mainland by a mole. 
 
 Copais {Kwirats \i}xvq\ a lake in Boeotia, and 
 the largest lake in Greece, formed chiefly by the 
 river Cephisus, the waters of which are emptied 
 into the Euboean sea by several subterraneous 
 canals, called Katahothra by the modern Greeks. 
 The lake was originally called CepMsis, under 
 which name it occurs in Homer, and subsequently 
 different parts of it were called after the towns 
 situated on it, Haliartus, Orchomenus, Onchestus, 
 Copae, &c.; but the name Copais eventually became 
 the most common, because near Copae the waters 
 of the lake are the deepest and are never dried up. 
 In the summer the greater part of the lake is dry, 
 and becomes a green meadow, in which cattle are 
 pastured. The eels of this lake were much prized 
 in antiquity, and they retain their celebrity in 
 modem times, 
 
 Cophenor, Coplies (Kufcp-nv^ Arrian., Kco({>r}s 
 Strab. Cabul)^ the only grand tributary river which 
 flows into the Indus from the W. It was the 
 boundary between India and Ariana. 
 
 C. Coponius, praetor b. c. 49, fought on the side 
 of Pompey; he was proscribed by the triumvirs in 
 43, but his wife obtained his pardon from Antony 
 by the sacrifice of her honour. 
 
 Coprates {Koirpdrrts : Abzal), a river of Su- 
 siana, flowing from the N. into the Pasitigris on 
 its W. aide. 
 
 Copreus (Kowpeus), son of Pelops, who after 
 murdering Iphitus, fled from Elis to Mycenae, 
 where he was purified by Eurystheus. 
 
 Coptos {KotttSs: Kofi, Ru.), a city of the The- 
 ba'is or Upper Eg}'pt, lay a little to the E. of the 
 Nile, some distance below Thebes. Under the 
 Ptolemies, it was the central point of the commerce 
 with Arabia and India, by way of Berenice and 
 Myos-Hormos. It was destroyed by Diocletian, 
 but again became a considerable place. The neigh- 
 bourhood was celebrated for its emeralds and other 
 precious stones, and produced also a light wine. 
 
 Cora f Coranus : Cori% an ancient town in Latium 
 in the Volscian mountains, S.E. of Velitrae, said 
 to have been founded by the Argive Corax. At 
 Cori there are remains of Cyclopian walls and of 
 an ancient temple. 
 
 COPlCYRA. T85» 
 
 Coracesium (KopanTja-iop : Ahnja)^ a very stroni? 
 city of Cllicia Aspera, on the borders of Pantphylia, 
 standing upon a steep rock, and pnssessintr a good 
 harbour. It was the only place in Cilida whiL-h 
 opposed a successful resistance to Alexnudfr, and', 
 after its strength had been tried more than once in 
 the wars of the Seleucidae, it became at last the 
 head-quarters of the Cilician pirates, and was taken 
 hj Pompey. 
 
 Corassiae (Kopaffo-i'ai), a group of small islands 
 in the Icarian sea, S.W. of Icaria, They must not 
 be confounded, as they often are, with the islands 
 Corseae or Corsiae {kSpcr^at or Kfipo-mz), off the 
 Ionian coast and opposite the promontory Ampelos. 
 in Samos. 
 
 Corax (K(Jpa|), a Sicilinn rhetorician, who ac- 
 quired so much influence over the citizens by his 
 oratorical powers, that he became the leading mart 
 in Syracuse, after the expulsion of Thrasybulus, 
 B.C. 467. lie wrote the earliest work on the art 
 of rhetoric, and his treatise (entitled Teji^rT?) was- 
 celebrated in antiquity. 
 
 CorbiUo, Cn. Domitius, a distinguished general 
 under Claudius and Nero. In a. d. 47 he carried! 
 on war in Germany with success, but his fame 
 rests chiefly upon his glorious campaigns against 
 the Parthians in the reign of Nero. Though be- 
 loved by the army he continued faithful to Nero, 
 but his only reward was death. Nero, who had 
 become jealous of his fame and influence, invited 
 him to Corinth. As soon as he landed at Cen- 
 chreae, he was informed that orders had been issued 
 for his death, whereupon he plunged his sword into 
 his breast, exclaiming, " Well deserved ! " 
 
 Corcyra (KepKu/ja, later KdpKvpa: KcpKvpa7os : 
 Corfu from the Byzantine Kopu<^w), an island in 
 the Ionian sea, off the coast of Epirus, about 38' 
 miles in length, but of very unequal breadth. It 
 is generally mountainous, but possesses many 
 fertile vallies. Its two chief towns were Corcyra, 
 the modem to\vn of Cojfu^ in the middle of the E. 
 coast, and Cassiope, N. of the former. The ancients 
 universally regarded this island as the Homeric 
 Sclieria (^x^p'^v), where the enterprising and sea- 
 loving Phaeacians dwelt, governed by their king 
 Alcinous. The island is said to have also borne 
 the name of Drepane (Apeiroivn) or the " Sickle '* 
 in ancient times. About b. c. 700 it was colonised 
 by the Corinthians under Chersicrates, one of the 
 Bacchiadae, who drove out the Liburnians, who 
 were then inhabiting the island. It soon became 
 rich and powerful by its extensive commerce; it 
 founded many colonies on the opposite coast, Epi- 
 damnus, Apollonia, Leucas, Anactorium; and it 
 exercised such influence in the Ionian and Adriatic 
 seas as to become a formidable rival to Corinth. 
 Thus the two states early became involved in war, 
 and about B.C. 664, a battle was fought between 
 their fleets, which is memorable as the most ancient 
 sea-fight on record. At a later period Corcyra by 
 invoking the aid of Athens against the Corinthians 
 became one of the proximate causes of the Pelo- 
 ponnesian war, 431. Shortly afterwards her power 
 declined in consequence of civil dissensions, in 
 which both the aristocratical and popular parties 
 were guilty of the most horrible atrocities against 
 each other. At last it became subject to the 
 Romans with the rest of Greece. — Corfu is at 
 present one of the 7 Ionian islands under the pro- 
 tection of Great Britain and the seat of government. 
 
 Corcyra Nigra {Curzola, in Slavonic Karkar\ 
 
"f5(3- 
 
 CORD UBA. 
 
 an island off the coast of lUjTicum, surnamed the 
 " Black," on account of its numerous forests, to 
 distinguish it from the more celebrated Corcyra. 
 It contained a Greek town of the same name 
 founded by Cnidos. 
 
 Cordiiba {Cordova)^ one of the largest cities in 
 Spain, and the capital of Baetica, on the right bank 
 of the Baetis ; made a Roman colony B.C. 152, 
 and received the surname Patricia, because some 
 Roman patricians settled there; taken by Caesar in 
 45 because it sided with the Pompeians; birthplace 
 of the two Senecas and of Lucan. In the middle 
 ages it was the capital of the kingdom of the 
 Moors, but is now a decaying place with 55,000 
 inhabitants. 
 
 Corduene. [Gordyene,] 
 
 Cordus, Cremiitius, a Roman historian under 
 Augustus and Tiberius, was accused in a.d. 25 
 of having praised Brutus and denominated Cassius 
 " the last of the Romans." As the emperor had 
 determined upon his death, he put an end to his 
 own life by starvation. His works were condemned 
 to be burnt, but some copies were preserved by his 
 daughter Marcia and by his friends. 
 
 Cdre (KfJpTj), the Maiden, a name by which 
 Persephone is often called. [Per.sephone.] 
 
 Coressus (K6pe(Ta-os). 1. A lofty mountain in 
 Ionia, 40 stadia (4 geog. miles) from Ephesus, 
 with a place of the same name at its foot, ^ 2. A 
 town in the island of Ceos. 
 
 Coreasus. [Ceos.] 
 
 Corfmium (Corfiniensis), chief town of the Pe- 
 ligni in Samnium, not far from the Atemus, strongly 
 fortified, and memorable as the place which the 
 Italians in the Social war destined to be the new 
 capital of Italy in place o£ Rome, on which account 
 it was called lialica. 
 
 Cifriima [KSpivva), a Greek poetess, of Tanagra 
 in Boeotia, sometimes called the Theban on account 
 of her long residence in Thebes. She flourished 
 about B. c. 490, and was a contemporary of Pindar, 
 whom she is said to have instructed, and over whom 
 she gained a victory at the public games at Thebes. 
 Her poems were written in the Aeolic dialect. 
 They were collected in 5 books, and were chiefly 
 lyrical. Only a few fragments have been pre- 
 served. 
 
 Corintlilacus Isthmus {'lo-9iihs KophOov)^ often 
 called simply the Isthmus, lay between the Co- 
 rinthian and Saronic gulfs, and connected the Pelo- 
 ponnesus with the mainland or Hellas proper. In 
 its narrowest part it was 40 stadia or 5 Roman, 
 miles across : here was the temple of Poseidon and 
 the Isthmian games were celebrated : and here also 
 was the Diolcos {A(oKkos)^ or road by which ships 
 were dragged across from the bay of Schoenus 
 to the harbour of Lechaeum. Four unsuccessful 
 attempts were made to dig a canal across the Isth- 
 mus, namely, by Demetrius Poliorcetes, Julius 
 Caesar, Califiaila, and Nero. 
 
 Corinthiacus Sinus (KopivQiaKhs or Koph6ios 
 kSKtto^: G. of Lepanto\ the gulf between the N. 
 of Greece , and Peloponnesus, beginn, according to 
 some, at the mouth of the Achelous in Aetolia and 
 the promontory Araxus in Acliaia, according to 
 others, at the straits between Rhium and Antir- 
 rhium. In early times it was called the Crissaean 
 Gulf (KpifTo-alos «(i\7roy), and its eastern part the 
 Alcyonian Sea (?) 'AakvovIs ^dXafftxa). 
 
 Corinthus (KSpivQos: Kophdios), called in Ho- 
 mer Ephyra (^Zfpvp-n)^ a city on the above-men- 
 
 —eemmi^m. 
 
 tioned Isthmus. Its territory, called Corinthia 
 {KopivQia), embraced the greater part of the Isth- 
 mus with the adjacent part of the Peloponnesus : 
 it was bounded N. by Megaris and the Corinthian 
 gulf, S. by Argolis, W. by Sicyonia and Phliasia, 
 and E. by the Saronic gulf. In the N. and S. the 
 country is mountainous, but in the centre it is a 
 plain with a solitary and steep mountain rising 
 from it, the Acrocorintlms {'AKpoK6pivQos)^ 1900 
 feet in height, which served as the citadel of Co- 
 rinth. The city itself was built on the N. side of 
 this mountain ; and the walls, which included the 
 Acrocorinthus, were 86 stadia in circumference. 
 It had 2 harbours, Cenchreae on the E. or Sa- 
 ronic gulf, and Lechaeum on the W. or Crissaean 
 gulf. Its favourable position between two seas, the 
 difficulty of carr}'ing goods round Peloponnesus, 
 and the facility with which they could be trans- 
 ported across the Isthmus, raised Corinth in very 
 early times to great commercial prosperity, and 
 made it the emporium of the trade between Europe 
 and Asia, Its navy was numerous and powerf"u]. 
 At Corinth the first triremes were built, and the 
 first sea-fight on record was between the Corinthi- 
 ans and their colonists the Corcyraeans. Its great- 
 ness at an early period is attested by numerous 
 colonies, Ambracia, Corcyra, Apollonia, Potidaea, 
 &c. It was adorned with magnificent buildings, 
 and in no other city of Greece, except Athens, were 
 the fine arts prosecuted with so much vigour and 
 success. Its commerce brought great wealth to its 
 inhabitants ; but with their wealth, they became 
 luxurious and licentious. Thus the worship of 
 Aphrodite (Venus) prevailed in this city, and in 
 her temples a vast number of courtezans was main- 
 tained. — Corinth was originally inhabited by the 
 Aeolic race. Here ruled the Aeolic Sisyphus and 
 his descendants. On the conquest of Peloponnesus 
 by the Dorians, the royal power passed into the 
 hands of the Heraclid Aletes. The conquering 
 Dorians became the ruling class, and the Aeolian 
 inhabitants subject to them. After Aletes and his 
 descendants had reigned for 5 generations, royalty 
 was abolished ; and in its stead was established an 
 oligarchical form of government, confined to the 
 powerful family of the Bacchiadae. This family 
 was expelled B. c. QBb by Cypselus, who became 
 tyrant and reigned 30 years. He was succeeded, 
 625, by his son Periander, who reigned 40 years. 
 On the death of the latter, 585, his nephew Psam- 
 metichus reigned for 3 years, and on his fall in 
 581, the government again became an aristocracy. 
 In the Peloponnesian war Corinth was one of the 
 bitterest enemies of Athens. In 346 Timophanes 
 attempted to make himself master of the city, but 
 he was slain by his brother Timoleon. It main- 
 tained its independence till the time of the Mace- 
 donian supremac}', when its citadel was garrisoned 
 by Macedonian troops. This garrison was ex- 
 pelled by Aratus in 243, whereupon Corinth joined 
 the Achaean league, to which it continued to be- 
 long, till it was taken and destroyed in 146 by L. 
 Mummius, the Roman consul, who treated it in 
 the must barbarous manner. Its inhabitants were 
 sold as slaves ; its works of art, which were not 
 destroyed by the Roman soldiery, were conveyed 
 to Rome ; its buildings were razed to the ground ; 
 and thus was destroyed the lumen iotiiLS Graeciae^ 
 as Cicero calls the city. For a century it lay in 
 ruins ; only the buildings on the Acropolis and a 
 few temples remained standing. In 46 it was 
 
COmOLANUS. 
 
 rebuilt by Caesar, who peopled it with a colony of 
 veterans and descendants of freednien. It was 
 now called Colonia Julia Corinlhus ; it became 
 the capital of the Roman province of Achaia, and 
 soon recovered much of its ancient prosperity, but 
 at the same time it became noted for its former 
 licentiousness, as we see from St. Paul's epistles to 
 the inhabitants. — The site of Corinth is indicated 
 by 7 Doric columns, which are the only remains of 
 the ancient city. 
 
 Coriolanus, the hero of one of the most beautiful 
 of the early Roman legends. His original name 
 ■was C. or Cm. Marcius^ and he received the sur- 
 name Coriolanus from the heroism he displayed at 
 the capture of the Volscian town of Corioli. His 
 baughty bearing towards the commons excited their 
 fear and dislike, and when he was a candidate for 
 the consulship, they refused to elect him. After 
 this, when there was a famine in the city, and a 
 Greek prince sent com from Sicily, Coriolanus ad- 
 vised that it should not be distributed to the com- 
 mons, unless they gave up their tribunes. For this 
 he was impeached and condemned to exile, b. c. 
 491. He now took refuge among the Volscians, 
 and promised to assist them in war against the 
 Romans. Attius TuUius, the king of the Vols- 
 cians, appointed Coriolanus general of the Volscian 
 array. Coriolanus took many towns, and advanced 
 unresisted till he came to the fossa Cluilia, or 
 Cluilian dyke close to Rome, 489, Here he en- 
 camped, and the Romans in alarm sent to him 
 embassy after embassy, consisting of the most dis- 
 tinguished men of the state. But he would listen 
 to none of them. At length the noblest matrons 
 of Rome, headed by Veturia, the mother of Corio- 
 lanus, and Volumnia his wife, with his 2 little 
 children, came to his tent. His mother's reproaches, 
 and the tears of his wife and the other matrons, 
 bent his purpose. He led back his army, and 
 lived in exile among the Volscians till his death ; 
 though other traditions relate that he was killed 
 by the Volscians on his return to their country. 
 
 Gonoli (Coriolanus), a town in Latium, capital 
 of the Volsci, from tiie capture of which in b. c. 
 493, C. Marcius obtained the surname of Corio- 
 lanus. 
 
 Cormaaa (Kopfxao-a), an inland town of Pam- 
 phylia, or of Pisidia, taken by the consul Manlius. 
 
 Cornelia. 1. One of the noble women at Rome, 
 guilty of poisoning the leading men of the state, 
 6. c. 331. — 2. Elder daughter of P. Scipio Afri- 
 canus the elder, married to P. Scipio Nasica. — 
 3. Younger sister of No. 2, married to Ti. Sein- 
 proniua Gracchus, censor 1 G9, was by him the 
 mother of the two tribunes Tiberius and Caius. 
 She was virtuous and accomplished, and united in 
 her person the severe virtues of the old Roman 
 matron, with the superior knowledge and refine- 
 ment which then began to prevail in the higher 
 classes at Rome. She superintended with the 
 greatest care the education of her sons, whom she 
 survived. She was almost idolized by the people, 
 who erected a statue to her, with the inscription, 
 Cornelia, mother of the Gracchi. — 4. 
 Daughter of L. Cinna, married to C. Caesar, after- 
 wards dictator. She bore him his daughter Julia, 
 and died in his quaestorship, 68.^5, Daughter of 
 Metellus Scipio, married first to P. Crassus, the 
 son of the triumvir, who perished in the expedi- 
 tion against the Parthians, 63. Next year she 
 maaied Pompey the Great, by whom she was 
 
 -GORO-NEA. 
 
 1 O T 
 
 tenderly loved. She accompanied Pompey to 
 Egypt after the battle of Pharsaiia. and saw hira 
 murdered. She afterwards returned to Rome, and 
 received from Caesar the ashes of her husband, 
 which she preserved on his Alhan estate. 
 Cornelia Orestilla. [Orestilla.] 
 Cornelia Gen8, the most distinguished of all 
 the Roman gentes. All its great families belonged 
 to the patrician order. The names of the patrician 
 families are : — Arvina, Cethegus, Cinna, Cos- 
 
 SUS, DuLABELLA, LeNTULUS, MaLUGINENSIS, 
 
 Mammula, Merula, RtJFiNus, Scipio, Sisen- 
 NA, and SojLLA. The names of the plebeian fami- 
 lies are Balbus and Gallc/s, and we also find 
 various cognomens, as Chrysogonus, &c. given 
 to freed twcn of this gens. 
 
 Cornelius Nepos. [Nepos.] 
 
 Comiculum (Corniculanus), a town in Latium 
 in the mountains N. of Tibur, taken and destroyed 
 by Tarquinius Priscus, and celebrated as the resi- 
 dence of the parents of Servius Tullius. 
 
 Cornificius. 1. Q., a friend of Cicero, was tri- 
 bune of the plebs, B. c. 69, and one of Cicero's 
 competitors for the consulship in 64. When the 
 Catilinarian conspirators were arrested, Cethegus 
 was committed to his care. ^2. Q., son of No. 1. 
 In the civil war (48) he was quaestor of Caesar, 
 who sent hira into Illyricum with the title of 
 propraetor: he reduced this province to obedience. 
 In 45 he was appointed by Caesar governor 
 of Syria, and in 44 governor of the province of 
 Old Africa, where he was at the time of Caesar's 
 death. He maintained this province for the 
 senate, but on the establishment of the triumvirate 
 was defeated and slain in battle by T. Sextius. 
 Cornificius was well versed in literature. Many- 
 have attributed to him the authorship of the 
 " Rhetorica ad Herennium," usually printed with 
 Cicero's works ; but this is only a conjecture. The 
 Cornificius who is mentioned by Quintilian as the 
 author of a work on rhetoric, was probably a dif- 
 ferent per?on from the one we are speaking of. 
 — 3. L., one of the generals of Octavianus in the 
 war against Sex. Pompey, and consul 35. 
 
 Cornus, a town on the W. of Sardinia. 
 
 Comutus, L. Annaeus, a distinguished Stoic 
 philosopher, was born at Leptis in Libya. He 
 came to Rome, probably as a slave, and was eman- 
 cipated by the Annaei. He was the teacher and 
 friend of the poet Persius, who has dedicated his 
 5th satire to him, and who left him his library and 
 money. He was banished by Nero, A. D. 68, for 
 having too freely criticised the literarj' attempts of 
 the emperor. He wrote a large number of works, 
 all of wiiich are lost : the most important of them 
 was on Aristotle's Categories. 
 
 CoTOebxiS (KSpoiSos). 1. APhrygian, son of Myg- 
 don, loved Cassandra, and for that reason fought on 
 the side of the Trojans: he was slain by Neopto- 
 lemus or Diomedes.— 2. An Elean, who gained the 
 victory in the stadium at the Olympic games, b. c. 
 776: from this time the Olympiads begin to be 
 reckoned. 
 
 Corone (Kopcvvij ; Kopojvevs -ccttciJj), a town in 
 Messenia on the W. side of the Messenian gulf, 
 founded B.C. 371 by the Messenians after their 
 return to their native country, with the assistance 
 of the Thebans: it possessed several public build- 
 ings, and in its neighbourhood was a celebrated 
 temple of Apollo. 
 
 Coronea {Kop^yeia; Kop(ai/a7oSj Kopi6v€ios,-vios), 
 
-192— 
 
 CORONIS. 
 
 1. A town iu Boeotia, S.W. of t}ie lake Copals, 
 situate on a height between the rivers Phiilaru3 
 and Curalius ; a member of the Boeotian League ; 
 in its neighbourhood was the temple of Athena 
 Itorica, "vvhere the festival of the Pamboeotia was 
 celebrated. Near Coronea the Boeotians gained a 
 memorable victory over the Athenians under Tol- 
 mides, B. c. 447 ; and here Agesilaus defeated the 
 allied Greeks, 394.-2. A town in Phthiotia in 
 Thessaly. 
 
 Coronis (Kopoivis). 1. The mother of Aescu- 
 XAPius.^2. Daughter of Phoronens, king of 
 Phocis, metamorphosed by Athena into a crow, 
 ■when pursued by Poseidon. 
 
 Corseae. [Corassiae.] 
 
 Coraia {Kopaela, also Knpa-iat)^ a town In 
 Boeotia on the borders of Phocis. 
 
 Corsica, called Cymus by the Greeks {Kvpt/os : 
 KupvioSj Kvpva7os, Corsus : Cors^lca), an island N. 
 of Sardinia, spoken of by the ancients as one of 
 the 7 large islands in the Mediterranean. The 
 ancients, however, exaggerate for the most part the 
 size of the island ; its greatest length is 1 1 6 miles, 
 and its greatest breadth about 51. It is moun- 
 tainous and was not much cultivated in antiquity. 
 A range of mountains running from S. to N. sepa- 
 rates it into 2 parts, of which the E. half was 
 more cultivated, while the W. half was covered 
 almost entirely with wood. Honey and waz were 
 the principal productions of the island ; but the 
 honey had a bitter taste from the yew.-trees with 
 "which the island abounded. {Cyrneas taxos, Virg. 
 £JcL ix. 30.) The inhabitants were a rude moun- 
 tain race, addicted to robbery, and paying little 
 attention to agriculture. Even in the time of the 
 Roman empire their character had not much im- 
 proved, as we see from the description of Seneca, 
 ■who was banished to this island. The most an- 
 cient inhabitants appear to have been Iberians ; 
 but in early times Liguriana, Tj'rrhenians, Car- 
 thaginians, and even Greeks [Aleria], settled 
 in the island. It was subject to the Carthaginians 
 at the commencement of the Ist Punic war, but 
 soon afterwards passed into the hands of the Ro- 
 mans, and subsequently formed a part of the Roman 
 province of Sardinia. The Romans founded several 
 colonies in the island, of which the most important 
 were Mariana and Aleria. 
 
 Corsote {Kopa-ur^: Ersey, Ru.), a city of Me- 
 sopotamia, on the Euphrates, near the mouth of 
 the Mascas or Saocoras {Wady-el-Seha), which 
 Xenophon found already deserted. 
 
 Cortona. (Cortonensis : Coriona)^ one of the 
 12 cities of Etruria, lay N.W. of tlie Trasimene 
 lake, and was one of the most ancient cities in Italy. 
 It is said to have been orginally called Corythus 
 from its reputed founder Corythus, who is repre- 
 sented as the father of Dardanus. It is also called 
 Cro(on, Coikomia, Cyrtcmium, &c. The Creston 
 mentioned by Herodotus (i. 57) was probably 
 Creston in Thrace and not Cortona, as many mo- 
 dern writers have supposed. Crotona is said to 
 have been originally founded by the Umhrians, 
 then to have been conquered by the Pelasgians, 
 and subsequently to have passed into the hands of 
 the Etruscans. It was afterwi'n' colonized by 
 the Romans, but under their d^'i 'U sunk into 
 insignificance. The remains of tlie Pelasgic walls of 
 this city are some of the most remarkable in all 
 Italy: there is one fragment 120 feet in length, 
 composed of blocks of enormous magnitude. 
 
 COS. " 
 
 Coruncanius, Ti,, consul b. c. 280, with P. Va- 
 lerias Laevinus, fought with success against the 
 Etruscans and Pyrrhus. He was the first plebeian 
 who was created pontifex maximus. He was one 
 of the most remarkable men of his age, possessed a 
 profound knowledge of pontifical and civil law, and 
 was the first person at Rome who gave regular in- 
 struction in law. 
 
 Corvinus Messala. [Messala.] 
 
 CorvTis, M. ValSriiia, one of the most illustrioTis 
 men in the early history of Rome. He obtained 
 the surname oiCoi-vus, or "Raven," because, when 
 serving as military tribune under Camillus, b. c. 
 349, he accepted the challenge of a gigantic Gaul 
 to single combat, and was assisted in the conflict 
 by a raven which settled upon his helmet, and flew 
 in the face of the barbarian. He was 6 times 
 consul, B.C. 343, 346, 343, 335, 300, 299, and 
 twice dictator, 342, 301, and by his military 
 abilities rendered the most memorable services to 
 his country. His most brilliant victories were 
 gained in his third consulship, 343, when he de- 
 feated the Samnites at Mt. Gaurus and at Suessula ; 
 and in his other consulships he repeatedly defeated 
 the Etruscans and other enemies of Rome. He 
 reached the age of 100 years, and is frequently re- 
 ferred to by the later Roman writers as- a memor- 
 able example of the favours of fortune. 
 
 Oorybantes, priests of Cybele or Rhea in 
 Phrygia, who celebrated her worship with enthu- 
 siastic dances, to the sound of the drum and the 
 cymbal. They are often identified with the Cu- 
 retes and the Idaean Dactyli, and thus are said to 
 have been the nurses of Zeus in Crete. They were 
 called Galli at Rome. 
 
 Corycxa {Kaiptmia or KtapvKls), a nymph, who 
 became by Apollo the mother of Lycorus or Lyco- 
 reus, and from whom the Corycian cave in mount 
 Parnassus was believed to have derived its name. 
 The Muses are sometimes called by the poets Cory' 
 cides Nymphae. 
 
 Corycus (KcipuKos: Kojpureioy, Corycius). K 
 (Koraka), a high rocky hill on the coast of Ionia, 
 forming the S.W. promontory of the Erythraean 
 peninsula. — 2. A city of Pamphylia, near Phaselis 
 and Mt. Olympus ; colonized afresh by Attalus IT, 
 Philadelphus ; taken, and probably destroyed, by 
 P. Servilius Isaui-icua. — 3. (Ru. opp. the island oi 
 Kkorgos), a city in Cilicia Aspera, with a good 
 harbour, between the mouths of the Lamus and 
 the Calycadnus. 20 stadia (2 geog. miles) from the 
 city, was a grotto or glen in the mountains, called 
 the Corycian Cave (KuipiJftrioi/ ^.vrpov) celebrated 
 by the poets, and also famous for its saffron. At 
 the distance of 100 stadia (10 geog. miles) from 
 Corycus, was a promontory of the same name. 
 
 Corydallus {KopvZaKX6s \ KopuSaAAeus), a de- 
 mus in Attica belonging to the tribe Hippothoontis, 
 situate on the mountain of the same name, which, 
 divides the plain of Athens from that of Eleusis. 
 
 Coryphasium (Kopv^affiov), a promontory in 
 Messenia, enclosing the harbour of Pylos on the N., 
 with a town of the same name upon it. 
 
 Corythus (K(ipu0os), an Italian hero, son of 
 Jupiter, husband of Electra, and father of lasius 
 and Dardanus, is said to have founded Corythua 
 {Cortona). 
 
 Cos, Coos, Coiis (Kws-, Kd&js ; Kwos, CoUs ; Kos, 
 Stanco)^ one of the islands called Sporades, lay off the 
 coast of Caria, at the mouth of the Ceramic Gulf, op- 
 posite to Halicamassus, In early times it was called 
 
COSA. 
 
 Meropis and Nympliaea. It was colonized by 
 Aeolians, but became a member of the Dorian 
 confederacy. Its chief city, Cos, stood on the N.E. 
 side of the island, in a beautiful situation, and had 
 a good harbour. Near it stood the Asclepieum, 
 or temple of Asclepius, to whom the island was 
 sacred, and from whom its chief family, the Ascle- 
 piadae, claimed their descent. The island was very 
 fertile ; its chief productions were wine, ointments, 
 and the light transparent dresses called " Coae 
 Testes." It was the birthplace of the physician 
 Hippocrates, who was an Asclepiad, of the poet 
 Philetas, and of the painter Apelles, whose pictures 
 of Antigonus and of Venus Anadyomene adorned 
 the Asclepieum. Under the Romans, Cos was 
 favoured hy Claudius, who made it a free state, 
 and by Antoninus Pius, who rebuilt the city of 
 Cos after its destruction by an earthquake. 
 
 CosaorCossa (Cossanus). 1. (Ansedonia^ ahont 
 5 miles S. E. of Orbeiello), a city of Etruria near 
 the sea, with a good harbour, called liercuUs Partus, 
 was a very ancient place ; and after the fall of Falerii 
 one of the 12 Etruscan cities. It was colonized 
 by the Romans b. c. 273, and received in 197 an 
 addition of 1000 colonists. There are still exten- 
 sive ruins of its walls and towers, built of poly- 
 gonal masonry. ^ 3. A town in Lucania near 
 Thurii. 
 
 Cosconius. 1. C, praetor in the Social war, 
 B. c. 89, defeated the Samnites. ^2. C, praetor in 
 the consulship of Cicero 63 ; governed in the fol- 
 lowing year the province of Further Spain ; was 
 one of the 20 commissioners, in 59, to carry into 
 execution the agrarian law of Julius Caesar, but 
 died in this year.— 3. C, tribune of the plebs 59, 
 aedile S7, and one of the judices at the trial of P. 
 Sextius, 56. 
 
 Cosmas (Kocrfxas), commonly called Indico- 
 PLEUSTES (Indian navigator), an Egyptian monk, 
 flourished in the reign of Justinian, about a. d. 535. 
 In early life he followed the employment of a mer- 
 chant, and visited many foreign countries, of which 
 he gave an account in his To-rroypacpia XpiffriaviKT), 
 Topographia Christiana, in 12 books, of which the 
 greater part is extant. 
 
 Cosroes. 1. Kirgof Parthia. [Arsaces XXV.] 
 .— 2. King of Persia. [Sassanidae.] 
 
 Cossaea (Koo-trai'a), a district in and about M. 
 Zagros, on the N.E. side of Susiana, and on the 
 confines of Media and Persis, inhabited by a rude, 
 warlike, predatory people, the Cossaei iKoa-<Tcuot), 
 whom the Persian kings never subdued, but on 
 the contrary, purchased their quiet by paying them 
 tribute. Alexander conquered them (b.c. 325-24), 
 and with difficulty kept them in subjection j after 
 his death, they soon regained their independence. 
 Their name is supposed to have been the origin of 
 the modem name of Susiana, Khuzistan, and is 
 possibly connected with the Cush of the 0. T. 
 
 Cossus, Cornelius, the name of several illustrious 
 Romans in the early history of the republic. Of 
 these the most celebrated was Ser. Cornelius Cossus, 
 consul B. c. 428, who killed Lar Tolumnius, the 
 king of the Veii, in single combat, and dedicated 
 his spoils in the temple of Jupiter Feretrius — the 
 2nd of the 3 instances in which the spolia opima 
 were won. 
 
 Cossutius, a Roman architect, who rebuilt at 
 the expense of Antiochus Epiphanes the temple of 
 the Olympian Zeus at Athens, about d, c. 168, in 
 the most magnificent Corinthian style. 
 
 COTYS. 
 
 193 
 
 Cosyra (Pantelaria), also written Cossyra, Co" 
 syrus, Cosura, Cossura, a small island in the Medi- 
 terranean near Malta. 
 Cothon. [Carthago.] 
 
 Cotiao, a king of the Dacians, conquered in the 
 reign of Augustus by Lentulus. 
 
 Cotta, Aurelius. 1. C, consul b. c. 252 and 
 248, in both of which years lie fought in Sicily 
 against the Carthaginians with success. — 2. C, 
 consul 200, fought against the Boii and the other 
 Gauls in the N. of Italy. — 3. L, tribune of the 
 plebs 154, and consul 144. —4. L., consul 119, 
 opposed C. Marius, who was then tribune of the 
 plebs.— 5. C, was accused under the lex Varia, 91, 
 of supporting the claims of the Italian allies, and 
 went into voluntary exile. He returned to Rome 
 when Sulla was dictator, 82; and in 75 he was 
 consul with L. Octavius. He obtained the govern- 
 ment of Gaul, and died immediately after his 
 return to Rome. He was one of the most distin- 
 guished orators of his time, and is introduced by 
 Cicero as one of the speakers in the De Oratore, 
 and the De Natura Deorum, in the latter of which 
 works he maintains the cause of the Academics.— 
 6. M., brother of No. 5, consul 74, with L. Licinius 
 Lucullus, obtained Bithynia for his province, and 
 was defeated by Mithridates near Chalcedon.-^?, 
 L., brother of Nos. 5 and 6, praetor 70, when he 
 carried the celebrated law {lex Aurelia jvdiciaria) 
 which entrusted the judicia to the senators, equites, 
 and tribuni aerarii. He was consul 65 with L. 
 Manlhis Torquatus, after the consuls elect, P. 
 SullaandP.Autronius Paetus, had been condemned 
 of ambitus. He supported Cicero during his con- 
 sulship, and proposed his recall from exile. In the 
 civil war he joined Caesar, whom he survived. 
 
 Cotta, L. AiiruncTileius,one of Caesar's legates in 
 Gaul, perished along with Sabinus in the attack made 
 upon them by Ambiorix, b. c. 54. [Ambiorix.] 
 
 Cottius, son of Donnus, king of several Ligurian 
 tribes in the Cottian Alps, which derived their 
 name from him. [Alpes.] He submitted to Au- 
 gustus, who granted him the sovereignty over 12 
 of these tribes, with the title of Praefectus. Cottius 
 thereupon made roads over the Alps, and erected 
 (b. c. 8} at Segusio {Suza), a. triumphal arch in 
 honour of Augustus, extant at the present day. 
 His authority was transmitted to his son, upon 
 whom Claudius conferred the title of king. On his 
 death, his kingdom was made a Roman province 
 by Nero. 
 
 Cottus, a giant with 100 hands, son of Uranus 
 and Gaea, 
 
 Cotyla, L. Varius, one of Antony's most in- 
 timate friends, fought on his side at Mutina, 
 B. c. 43. 
 
 Cotylus (K(Jtu\os), the highest peak of M. Ida 
 in the Troad, containing the sources of the rivers 
 Scamander, Granicus, and Aesepus. 
 
 Cotyora {KoTvc»pa\ a colony of Sinope, in the 
 territory of the Tibareni, on the coast of Pontus 
 Polemoniacus, at the W. end of a bay of the same 
 name, celebrated as the place where the 10,000 
 Greeks embarked for Sinope. The foundation of 
 Pharnacia reduced it to insignificance. 
 
 Cotys or CotyttO {KSrvs orKoryTTw), a Thracian 
 divinity, whose festival, the Cotyttia (Did. of Ant. 
 s. v.), resembled that of the Phrj-gian Cybele, and 
 was celebrated with licentious revelry. In later 
 times her worship was introduced at Athens and 
 Corinth. Those Avho celebrated her festival were 
 
194 UUTIS. 
 
 called Bapiae^ from the purifications which were 
 originally connected with the solemnity. 
 
 Cotys (Kdrus). 1. King of Thrace, B. c. 382— 
 358, was for a short time a friend of the Athenians, 
 but carried on war with them towards the close of 
 his reig:n. He was cruel and sanguinary, and was 
 much addicted to gross luxury and drunkenness. 
 He was murdered by two brothers whose father 
 he had injured.— 2. King of the Odrysae in Thrace, 
 assisted Perseus against Rome, b. c. 168. His son 
 was taken prisoner and carried to Rome^ whereupon 
 he sued for peace and was pardoned by the Romans. 
 —3. A king of Thrace, who took part against Caesar 
 with Pompey, 48.-4. King of Thrace, son of 
 Rhoemetalces, in the reigns of Augustus and 
 Tiberius. He carried on war with his uncle Rhe- 
 scuporis, by whom he was murdered, a. d. 19. 
 Ovid, during his exile at Tomi, addressed an epistle 
 to him {Ex Forit. ii. 9). 
 
 Cragus (Kpa.yos\ a mountain consisting of 8 
 summits, being a continuation of Taurus to the 
 W., and forming, at its extremity, the S.W". pro- 
 montory of Lycia ( Yedy-Booroon^ i. e. Seven Ctipes), 
 Some of its summits show traces of volcanic action, 
 and the ancients had a tradition to the same effect. 
 At its foot was a town of the same name, on the 
 sea-shore, between Pydna and Patara. Parallel to 
 it, N. of the river Glaucus, was the chain of Ajiti- 
 cragus. The greatest height of Cragus exceeds 
 3000 feet. 
 
 Cranae (KparaTj), the island to which Paris first 
 carried Helen from Peloponnesus (Horn. 11. iii. 
 445), is said by some to be an island ofi^ Gythium 
 in Laconia, by others to be the island Helena off 
 Attica, and by others again to be Cythera. 
 
 Cranaus [Kpapads)^ king of Attica, the son-in- 
 law and successor of Cecrops. He was deprived of 
 his kingdom by his son-in-law Amphictj'on. 
 
 Cranii-ium (Kpdvtoi, Kpduiov : Kpdt'ios : Kra- 
 nia nr. Argostoli), a town of Cephallenia on the 
 S. coast. 
 
 Cranon or Crannon (Kpavdu^ Kjiai/fwi/ : Kpav- 
 vcSutos)^ in ancient times Ephyra, a town in Pe- 
 lasgiotis in Thessaly, not far from Ijarissa. 
 
 Grantor [KpdvTwp), of Soli in Cilicia, an Acade- 
 mic philosopher, studied at Athens under Xeno- 
 crates and Polemo, and flourished b. c. 300. He 
 was the author of several works, all of which are 
 lost, and was the first who wrote commentaries on 
 Plato's works. Most of his writings related to 
 moral subjects (Hon Ep. i. 2. 4). One of his most 
 celebrated works was On Grief, of which Cicero 
 made great use in the 3rd book of his Tusculan 
 Disputations, and in the Consolatio, which he com- 
 posed on the death of his daughter, TuUia. 
 
 Crassipes,Fiirius,Cicero''s son-in-law, the second 
 husband of Tullia, whom he married b. c. 56, but 
 from whom he was shortly afterwards divorced. 
 
 Crassus, Licinius. 1. P., praetor b.c. 176, and 
 ■ consul 171, when he carried on the v/ar against 
 Perseus. — 2. C, brother of No. 1, praetor 172, 
 and consiil 168. — 3, C, probably son of No. 2, 
 tribune of the plebs l4o, was distinguished as a 
 popular leader. — 4. P., surnamed Dives or itlzc/;, 
 elected pontifex maximus 212, curule aedile 
 211, praetor 208, and consul 205 with Scipio 
 Africanus, when he earned on war against Hannibal 
 in the S- of Italy. He died 183.^5. P., surnamed 
 Dives Mudanus, son of P. Mucins Scaevola, was 
 adopted by the son of No. 4. In 131 he was 
 consul and pontifex maximus, and was the first 
 
 UliAtJftUtt. 
 
 priest of that rank who went beyond Italy. He 
 carried on war against Aristonicus in Asia, but 
 was defeated and slain. He was a good orator and 
 jurist. ^ 6. M., surnamed AgelastiLS^ because he 
 is said never to Itave laughed, was grandfather of 
 Crassus the triumvir. ^7. P., surnamed Dives, son- 
 of No. 6, and father of tlie triumvir. He was the 
 proposer of the lex Licinia, to prevent excessive 
 expense in banquets, but in what year is uncertain. 
 He was consul 97, and carried on war in Spain for 
 some years. He was censor 89 with L. Julius 
 Caesar. In the civil war he took part with Sulla, 
 and put an end to his own lile, when Marius and 
 Cinna returned to Rome at the end of 87- — 8, M., 
 surnamed Dives, the triumvir, younger son of 
 No. 7. His life was spared by Cinna, after the 
 death of his father; but fearing Cinna, he after- 
 wards escaped to Spain, where he concealed himself 
 for 8 months. On the death of Cinna in 84, he 
 collected some forces and crossed over into Africa, 
 whence he passed into Italy in 83 and joined Sulla, 
 on whose side he fought against the Marian party. 
 On the defeat of the latter, he was rewarded by 
 donations of confiscated property, and thus greatly 
 increased his patrimony. His ruling passion was 
 money, and he devoted all his energies to its accu- 
 mulation. He was a keen and sagacious speculator. 
 He bought multitudes of slaves, and, in order tc 
 increase their value, had them instructed in lucrative 
 arts. He worked silver mines, cultivated farms, 
 and built houses, which he let at high rents. In 
 71 he was appointed praetor in order to carry on 
 the war against Spartacus and the gladiators; he 
 defeated Spartacus, who was slain in the battle, and 
 he was honoured with an ovation. In 70 Crassus 
 was consul with Pompey; he entertained the popu- 
 lace at a banquet of 10,000 tables, and distributed 
 com enough to supply the family of every citizen 
 for 3 months. He did not, however, co-operate cor- 
 dially with Pompey, of whose superior influence 
 he was jealous. He was afterwards reconciled to 
 Pompey by Caesar's mediation, and thus was formed 
 between them, in 60, the so-called triumvirate. [See 
 p. 133, b.] In 55 Crassus was again consul with 
 Pompey, and received the province of Syria, where 
 he hoped both to increase his wealth and to acquire 
 military glory by attacking the Parthians. He set 
 out for his province before the expiration of his 
 consulship, and continued his march notwithstand- 
 ing the unfavourable omens which occurred to him 
 at almost ever}'" step. After crossing the Euphrates 
 in 54,he did not follow up the attiick upon Parthia, 
 but returned to Syria, where he passed the winter. 
 In S3 he again crossed the Euphrates; he was 
 misled by a crafty Arabian chieftain to march into 
 the plains of Mesopotamia, where he was attacked 
 by Surenas, the general of the Parthian king, 
 Orodes. In the battle which followed Crassus was 
 defeated with immense slaughter, and retreated 
 with the remainder of his troops to Carrhae (the 
 Haran of Scripture). The mutinous threats of his 
 troops compelled him to accept a perfidious invita- 
 tion from Surenas, who ofiered a pacific interview, 
 at which he was slain either by the enemy, or by 
 some friend who desired to save him from the dis- 
 grace of becoming a prisoner. His head was cut 
 off and sent to Orodes, who caused melted gold to 
 be poured into the mouth of his fallen enemy, say- 
 ing. " Sate thyself now with that metal of which 
 in life thou wert so greedy." — 9. M., surnamed 
 Dives, son of No. 8, served under Caesar in Gaul, 
 
CRASTINUS. 
 
 and at the breaking out of the civil war in 49, was 
 praefect in Cisalpine Gaul. ^10. P., younger son 
 of No. 8., was Caesar's legate in Gaul from 58 to 
 55. In 54 he followed his father to Syria, and fell 
 in the battle against the Parthians. — 11. L., the 
 celebrated orator. At the age of 21 (b. c. 1 19), he 
 attracted great notice by his prosecution of C.Carbo. 
 He was consul in 95 with Q. Scaevola, when he 
 proposed a law to compel all who were not citizens 
 to depart from Rome : the rigour of this law was 
 one of the causes of the Social war. He was after- 
 wards proconsul of Gaul. In 92 he was censor, 
 when he caused the schools of the Latin rheto- 
 ricians to be closed. He died in 91, a few days 
 after opposing in the senate the consul L. Philippus, 
 an enemy of the aristocracy. Crassus was fond of 
 elegance and luxury. His house upon the Pahitium 
 wa3 one of the most beautiful at Rome, and was 
 adorned with costly works of art. As an orator he 
 surpassed all his contemporaries. In the treatise 
 De Oraiore Cicero introduces him as one of the 
 speakers, and he is understood to express Cicero*s 
 o\vn sentiments. 
 
 Crastmus, one of Caesar's veterans, commenced 
 the battle of Pharsalia, b. c. 48, and died fighting 
 bravely in the foremost line. 
 
 Cratems (KpaTepos). 1. A distinguished general 
 of Alexander the Great, on whose death (b. c. 323) 
 he received in common with Antipater the govern 
 ment of Macedonia and Greece. He arrived in 
 Greece in time to render effectual assistance to 
 Antipater in the Lamian war. At the close of this 
 war he married Phila, the daughter of Antipater. 
 Soon after he accompanied Antipater in the war 
 against the Aetolians, and in that against Perdiccas 
 in Asia. He fell in a battle against Eumenes, in 
 321.^2. Brother of Antigonus Gonatas, compiled 
 historical documents relative to the history of 
 Attica. ^3. A Greek physician, who attended the 
 family of Atticus, mentioned also by Horace {Sat. 
 il 3. 161). 
 
 Crates (Rpdr-qs). 1. An Athenian poet of the 
 old comedy, began to flourish b. c. 449, and was 
 one of the most celebrated of the comic poets. He 
 excelled chiefly in mirth and fun, and was the first 
 Attic poet who brought drunken persons on the 
 stage. — 2. Of Tralles, an orator or rhetorician of 
 the school of Isocrates. — 3. Of Thebes, a pupil of 
 the CyTiic Biogenes, and one of the most distin- 
 guished of the Cynic philosophers, flourished about 
 320. Though heir to a large fortune, he re- 
 nounced it all, and lived and died as a true Cynic, 
 disregarding all external pleasures, and restricting 
 himself to the most absolute necessaries. He re- 
 ceived the surname of the " Door-opener," because 
 it was his practice to visit every house at Athens, 
 and rebuke its inmates. He married Hipparchia, 
 the daughter of a family of distinction, who threat- 
 ened to commit suicide when her parents opposed 
 her union with the philosopher. He wrote several 
 works which are lost, for the epistles extant under 
 his name are not genuine. — 4. Of Athens, the 
 pupil and friend of Polemo, and his successor in 
 the chair of the Academy, about 270. He was 
 the teacher of Arcesilaiis, Theodorus, and Bion 
 Borysthenites. ^5. Of Mallus in Cilicia, a cele- 
 brated grammarian. He was brought up at Tarsus, 
 whence he removed to Pergamos, where he founded 
 the Pergamene school of grammar, in opposition to 
 the Alexandrian. He wrote a commentary on the 
 Homeric poems, in opposition to Aristarchus, and 
 
 CREMONA. 
 
 195 
 
 supported the system oianomaly (waJixaXla) against 
 that of analogy {avaKoyia). He also wrote com- 
 mentaries ou the otiier Greek poets, and works on 
 other subjects, of which only fragments have come 
 down to us. In 157 he was sent by Attalus as an 
 ambassador to Rome, where he introduced for the 
 first time the study of grammar. 
 ^ Crathis {Kp^Qis). 1. (Crai;a),a river in Achaia, 
 rises in a mountain of the same name in Arcadia, 
 receives the Styx flowing down from Nonacris, 
 and falls into the sea near Aegae, ^2. (Crati), a 
 river in lower Italy, forming tiie boundary on the 
 E. between Lucania and Bruttii, and falling into 
 the sea near Sybaris. At its mouth was a cele- 
 brated temple of Minerva: its waters were fabled 
 to dye the hair blond. 
 
 Cratittus {KpaT7i/os). 1. One of the most cele- 
 brated of the Athenian poets of the old comedy, 
 was born B.C. 519, but did not begin to exhibit 
 till 454, when he was 6o years of age. He ex- 
 hibited 21 plays and gained 9 victories. He waB 
 the poet of the old comedy. He gave it its pe- 
 culiar character, and he did not, like Aristophanes 
 live to see its decline. Before his time the comie 
 poets had aimed at little beyond exciting the laugh- 
 ter of their audience : he was the first who made 
 comedy a terrible weapon of personal attack, and 
 the comic poet a severe censor of public and private 
 vice. He is frequently attacked by Aristophanes, 
 who charges him with habitual intemperance, an 
 accusation which was admitted by Cratinus him- 
 self, who treated the subject in a very amusing 
 way in his IIutiVtj. This play was acted in 423, 
 when the poet was 96 years of age ; it gained the 
 prize over the Connus of Amipsias and the Clouds 
 of Aristophanes. Cratinus died in the following 
 year, at the age of 97.-2. Tiie younger, an 
 Athenian poet of the middle corned}', a contem- 
 porary of Plato tiie philosopher, flourished as late 
 as 324. 
 
 Cratippus {Kpamnros). 1. A Greek historian 
 and contemporary of Thucydides, whose work he 
 completed. ^ 2. A Peripatetic philosopher of My- 
 tilene, a contemporary of Pompey and Cicero, the 
 latter of whom praises him highly. He accom- 
 panied Pompey in his flight after the battle of Phar- 
 salia, B. c. 48. He afterwards settled at Athens, 
 where young M. Cicero was his pupil in 44. Through 
 the influence of Cicero, Cratippus obtained from 
 Caesar the Roman citizenship. 
 
 Cratos (Kparos), the personification of strength, 
 a son of Uranus and Ge. 
 
 Cratylus (KparvKos), a Greek philosopher, a 
 pupil of Heraclitus, and one of Plato's teachers. 
 Plato introduces him as one of the speakers in the 
 dialogue which bears his name. 
 
 Cremera, a small river in Etruria, which falls 
 into the Tiber a little above Rome : memorable for 
 the death of the 300 Fabii. 
 
 Crenma {KpTiuva: Glierme^ Ru.), a strongly 
 fortified city of Pisidia, built on a precipitous rock 
 in the Taui'us range, and noted for repeated obsti- 
 nate; defences : a colony under Augustus. 
 
 Cremni {Kp7]}j.voi\ an emporium of the free 
 Scythians on the W. side of the Palus Maeotis. 
 
 Cremona (Cremonensis: Cremona), a Roman 
 colony in the N. of Italy, N. of the Po, and at no 
 great distance from the confluence of the Addua 
 and the Po, was founded together with Placentia 
 B.C. 219 as a protection against the Gauls and 
 Hannibal's invading army. It soon became a 
 
 o 2 
 
196 
 
 CllEMONIS. 
 
 place of great importance and one of the most 
 flourishing cities in the N. of Italy; but having 
 espoused the cause of Vitellius, it was totally de- 
 stroyed by the troops of Vespasian, A. D. 69. It 
 was rebuilt by Vespasian, but never recovered its 
 former greatness, 
 
 Cremonis Ju^m. [Alpes.] 
 Cremutius Cordus. [Cordus.] 
 Creon {Kp4uv). L King of Corinth, son of 
 Lycaethus, whose daughter. Glance or Creusa, mar- 
 ried Jason. Medea, thus forsaken, sent Glance a 
 garment which burnt her to death when she put it 
 on ; the palace took fire, and Creon perished in the 
 flames. ^ 2. Son of Menoecus, and brother of Jo- 
 caste, the wife of Laius. After the death of Laius, 
 Creon governed Thebes for a short time, and then sur- 
 rendered the kingdom to Oedipus, who had delivered 
 the country from the Sphinx. [Oedipus.] "When 
 Eteocles and Polynices, the sons of Oedipus, fell in 
 battle by each other's hands, Creon became king 
 of Thebes. His cruelty in forbidding burial to 
 the corpse of Polynices, and his sentencing An- 
 tigone to death for disobeying his orders, occa- 
 sioned the death of his own son Haemon. For 
 details see Antigone. 
 
 Cre6ph.ylii3 ( Kpew(^i;A.os), of Chios, one of the 
 earliest epic poets, said to have been the friend or 
 son-in-law of Homer. The epic poem Olxa\ia or 
 Olxa^ias aAwtriy, ascribed to him, related the con- 
 test which Hercules, for the sake of lole, undertook 
 mth Eurytus, and the capture of Oechalia. 
 
 Cresphontes {KpT}(T(p6vTT}s), an Heraclid, son of 
 Aristomachns, and one of the conquerors of Pelo- 
 ponnesus, obtained Measenia for his share. During 
 an insurrection of the Messenians, he and two of 
 his sons were slain. A third son, Aepytus, avenged 
 his death, [Aepytus.] 
 
 Crestoma {KpTja-Tuvia : tJ Kprja-roiyiK-f}), a dis- 
 trict in Macedonia between the Axias and Str}'mon, 
 near Mt. Cercine, inhabited by the Crestonaei 
 (Kp-rja-rcji/aioi), a Thracian people: their chief town 
 was Creston or Crestone {Kp-fi^rwy, Kprjaruvrj), 
 founded by the Pelasgians. This town is erro- 
 neously supposed by some writers to be the same 
 as ConTONA in Italy. 
 
 Creta (Kpiirij: KpTjraTos: Candia), one of the 
 largest islands in the Mediterranean sea, nearly 
 equidistant from Europe, Asia, and Africa, but 
 always reckoned as part of Europe. Its length 
 from E. to W. is about 160 miles : its breadth is 
 very unequal, being in the widest part about 35 
 miles, and in the narrowest only 6. A range of 
 mountains runs through the whole length of the 
 island from E. to W., sending forth spurs N. and 
 S. : in the centre of the island rises Mt. Ida far above 
 all the others. [Ida.] The rivers of Crete are nu- 
 merous, but are little more than mountain- torrents, 
 and are for the most part dry in summer. The 
 country was celebrated in antiquity for its fertility 
 and salubrity. — Crete was inhabited at an early 
 period by a numerous and civilized population. 
 Homer speaks of its hundred cities {Kp^T-rj 6kot(J^- 
 TToAty, Jl. ii. 649) ; and before the Trojan war my- 
 thology told of a king Minos, who resided at 
 Cnossus, and ruled over the greater part of the 
 isknd. He is said to have given laws to Crete, 
 and to have been the first prince who had a navy, 
 with which he suppressed piracy in the Aegaean. 
 After his descendants hjid governed the island 
 for some generations, royalty was abolished, and 
 the cities became independent republics, of which 
 
 CRISPUS. 
 
 Cnossus and Gortyna were the most important, 
 and exercised a kind of supremacy over the rest. 
 The ruling class were the Dorians who settled 
 in Crete about 60 years after the Dorian conquest 
 of Peloponnesus, and reduced the former inhabit- 
 ants, the Pelasgians and Achaeans, to subjection. 
 The social and political institutions of the island 
 thus became Dorian, and many of the ancients sup- 
 posed that the Spartan constitution was borrowed 
 from Crete. The chief magistrates in the cities 
 were the Cosmi^ 1 in number, chosen from certain 
 families : there was also a Gerusia^ or senate ; and 
 an Ecclesia or popular assembly, which, however, 
 had very little power. (For details, see Did. of 
 Ant. art. Cosmi.) At a later time the power of 
 the aristocracy was overthrown and a democratical 
 form of government established. The ancient 
 Doric customs likewise disappeared, and the people 
 became degenerate in their morals and character. 
 The historian Polybius accuses them of numerous 
 vices, and the Apostle Paul, quoting the Cretan 
 poet Epiraenides, describes them as " alway liars, 
 evil beasts, slow bellies" {Titus, i. 12). — The 
 Cretans were celebrated as archers, and frequently 
 served as mercenaries in the armies of other nations. 
 The island was conquered by Q. Metellus, who 
 received in consequence the surname Creticus (B.C. 
 68 — 66), and it became a Roman province. Crete 
 and Cyrenaica subsequently formed one province. 
 
 Creteus or Catreus (Kpijreus), son of Minos by 
 Pasiphae or Crete, and father of Althemenes. 
 
 Cretheus (KpTjfleuy), son of Aeolus and En- 
 arete, wife of Tyro, and father of Aeson, Pheres, 
 Amythaon, and Hippolyte : he was the founder of 
 lolcus. 
 
 Cretopolis (KpT^TdiroXis), a town in the district 
 of Milyas in Asia Minor, assigned sometimes to 
 Pisidia, sometimes to Pamphylia. 
 
 Creusa {Kpeuva-a). 1. A Naiad, daughter of 
 Oceanus, became by Peneus the mother of Hyp- 
 seus and Stilbe. ^2. Daughter of Erechtheus and 
 Praxithea, wife of Xuthus, and mother of Achaeus 
 and Ion. She is said to have been beloved by 
 Apollo, whence Ion is sometimes called her son by 
 this god. — 3. Daughter of Priam and Hecuba, 
 wife of Aeneas, and mother of Ascanius. She 
 perished on the night of the capture of Troy, hav- 
 ing been separated from her husband in the con- 
 fusion. — 4. Daughter of Creon, who fell a victim 
 to the vengeance of Medea. [Creon, No. 1.] 
 
 Creusis or Creusa (Kpeutris, Kp4ou<ra : Kpev- 
 ffievs), a town on the E. coast of Boeotia, the 
 harbour of Thespiae, 
 
 Crimisa or Crimissa {Kpl/iia-a^ Kpf^nro-a : C. 
 deW* Alice), a promontory on the E. coast of Brut- 
 tium, with a town of the same name upon it, said 
 to have been founded by Philoctetes, a little S. of 
 the river Crimiaus. 
 
 CrimTsuB or Crimissus (Kpifiia-6s, Kpifxiffffos), 
 a river in the W. of Sicily, falls into the Hypsa ; 
 on its banks Timoleon defeated the Carthagijiians, 
 B. c. 339. 
 
 Crinagoras (Kpivay6pas),o? Mytilene, the author 
 of 50 epigrams in the Greek Anthology, lived in the 
 reign of Augustus. 
 
 Crispimis, a person ridiculed by Horace (Sat. i. 
 1. 120), is said to have written bad verses on the 
 Stoic philosophy, and to have been sumamed 
 Aretalogus. 
 
 Crispus, Flavius Julius, eldest son of Constan- 
 tine the Great, was appointed Caesar ^.d, 317, 
 
CRISPUS. 
 
 and gained great distinction in a campaign against 
 the Franks and in the war with Licinius. But 
 having excited the jealousy of his step-mother 
 Fausta, he was put to death by his father, 326. 
 
 Grlspus Paasienus, husband of Agrippina, and 
 step-father of the emperor Nero, was distinguished 
 as an orator. 
 
 Crispus, Vibius, of Vercelli, a contemporary of 
 Quintilian, and a distinguished orator. 
 
 Crissa or Crisa (Kpia-ira, Kptaa : Kpi<rffa~os), 
 and Ciirha (Kl^ia : Ki^paioj), towns in Phocis, re- 
 garded by some ancient, as well as by some modern 
 writers as the same ; but it seems most probable 
 that Crissa was a town inland S. W. of Delphi, 
 and that Cirrha was its port in the Crissaean gulf. 
 The inhabitants of these to^vns levied contributions 
 upon the pilgrims frequenting the Delphic oracle, 
 in consequence of which the Amphictyons declared 
 war against them, B. c. 595, and eventually de- 
 stroyed them. Their territory, the rich Crissaean 
 plain, was declared sacred to the Delphic god, and 
 was forbidden to be cultivated. The cultivation 
 of this plain by the inhabitants of Amphissa led to 
 the Sacred War, in which Philip was chosen ge- 
 neral of the Amphictyons, 338. Crissa remained 
 in ruins, but Cirrha was afterwards rebuilt, and 
 became the harbour of Delphi, 
 
 Critias (Kpirlai). 1. Son of Dropides, a con- 
 temporary and relation of Solon^s. — 2. Son of 
 Callaeschnis, and grandson of the above, was one 
 of the pupils of Socrates, by whose instructions he 
 profited but little in a moral point of view. He 
 waa banished from Athens, and on his return he 
 became leader of the oligarchical party. He was 
 one of the 30 tyrants established by the Spartans 
 B.C. 404, and was conspicuous above all his col- 
 leagues for rapacity and cruelty. He was slain at 
 the battle of Munychia in the same year, fighting 
 against Thrasybulus and the exiles. He was a 
 distinguished orator, and some of his speeches were 
 extant in the time of Cicero. He also wrote poems, 
 dramas, and other works. Some fragments of his 
 elegies are still extant. 
 
 Critolaus (KpiT6\aoi), 1. Of Phaselis in Lycia, 
 studied philosophy at Athens under Ariston of 
 Ceos, whom he succeeded as the head of the Peri- 
 patetic school. In B. c. 155 he was sent by the 
 Atlienians as ambassador to Rome with Cameades 
 and Diogenes. [Carneadzs.] He lived up- 
 wards of 82 years, but we have no further parti- 
 culars of his life. — 2. General of the Achaean 
 League, 147, distinguished by his bitter enmity to 
 the Romans. He was defeated by Metellus, and 
 was never heard of after the battle. 
 
 Criton (KpiVa;'). 1. Of Athens, a friend and 
 disciple of Socrates, whom he supported with his 
 fortune. He had made every arrangement for the 
 escape of Socrates from prison, and tried, in vain, 
 to persuade him to fly, as we see from Plato's 
 dialogue named after him. Criton wrote 1 7 dia- 
 logues on philosophical subjects, which are lost. — 
 2. A physician at Rome in the 1 st or 2nd century 
 after Christ, perhaps the person mentioned by 
 Martial {Epigr. xi. 60.6) : he wrote several medical 
 works, 
 
 Criu-metopon (KpioO ^Lhrnrov), i. c. " Ram's 
 Front."—!. A promontory at the S. of the Tauric 
 Chersonesus.— 2. A promontory at the S. W. of 
 Crete. 
 
 Crius {Kptos), one of the Titans, son of Uranus 
 and Ge. 
 
 CROTON. 197 
 
 CrScodilopoUs {KpomidKuv ■it6\is). 1. (Em- 
 
 heshunda ?), a city of Upper Egypt, in the Nomos 
 Aphroditopolites, ^ 2. [Arsinoe, No, 7.] 
 
 Crocus, the beloved friend of Smilar, was 
 changed by the gods into a saffron plant. 
 
 Crocylea (to. Kpo/tiiAeia), according to Homer 
 (H, ii. 633), a place in Ithaca, but according to 
 Strabo, in Leucas in Acamania, 
 
 Croesus (KpoT(Tos), last king of Lydia, son of 
 Alyattes, reigned B. c. 560 — 546, but was pro- 
 bably associated in the kingdom during his father's 
 life. The early part of his reign was most 
 glorious. He snbdued all the nations between 
 the Aegaean and the river Halys, and made the 
 Greeks in Asia Minor tributary to him. The 
 fame of his power and wealth drew to his court at 
 Sardis all the wise men of Greece, and among 
 them Solon, whose interview with the king was 
 celebrated in antiquity. In reply to the question 
 who was the happiest man he had ever seen, the 
 sage taught the king that no man should be 
 deemed happy till he had finished his life in a 
 happy way. Alarmed at the growing power of 
 the Persians, Croesus sent to consult the oracle of 
 Apollo at Delphi, whether he should march against 
 the Persians. Upon the reply of the oracle, that, 
 if he marched against the Persians, he would 
 overthrow a great empire, he collected a vast army 
 and marched against Cyrus. Near Sinope an 
 indecisive battle was fought between the two 
 armies ; whereupon he returned to Sardis, and 
 disbanded his forces, commanding them to re- 
 assemble in the following spring. But Cyrus 
 appeared unexpectedly before Sardis ; Croesus 
 led out the forces still remaining with him, but 
 was defeated, and the city was taken after a 
 siege of 14 days. Croesus, who was taken alive, 
 was condcnmed to be burnt to death. As he 
 stood before the pyre, the warning of Solon came 
 to his mind, and he thrice uttered the name of 
 Solon. Cyrus inquired who it was that he called 
 on ; and, upon hearing the stor}-, repented of hia 
 purpose, and not only spared the life of Croesus, 
 but made him his friend. Croesus survived Cyrus, 
 and accompanied Cambyses in his expedition 
 against Egypt. 
 
 Crommyon or CromySn (Kponuvdv, Kpo/ivdv), 
 a town in Megaris on the Saronic gulf, afterwards 
 belonged to Corinth ; celebrated in mythology on 
 account of its wild sow, which was slain by Theseus, 
 Cronius Hons (Rpdviof opos), a mountain in 
 Elis near Olympia, with a temple of Cronus. 
 
 Cronus {Kp6i>os), the youngest of the Titans, 
 son of Uranus and Ge, father by Rhea of Hestia 
 Demeter, Hera, Hades, Poseidon, and Zeus. At 
 the instigation of his mother, Cronus unmanned 
 his father for having thrown the Cyclopes, who 
 were likewise his children by Ge, into Tartarus, 
 Out of the blood thus shed sprang up the Erinnyea. 
 When the Cyclopes were delivered from Tartarus, 
 the government of the world was taken from 
 Uranus and given to Cronus, who in his tur» lost 
 it through Zeus, as was predicted to him by Ge 
 and Uranus. [Zeus.] The Romans identified 
 their Saturnus with Cronus. [Saturnus.] 
 
 Cropia (KpwTreia), an Attic demus belonging to 
 the tribe Leontis. 
 
 Croton or Crotona (Crotoniensis, Crotonensia, 
 Crotooiata : Crotona), a Greek city on the E. coast 
 of Bruttium, on the river Aesarus, and in a very 
 heallliy locality, was founded by the Achaeans 
 
190 
 
 CRUSTUMERIA. 
 
 under Myscellug of Aegae, assisted by tlie Spartans, 
 B.C. 710. Its extensive commerce, the virtue of 
 its inhabitants, and the excellence of its institutions, 
 made it the most powerful and flourishing town in 
 the S. of Italy. It owed much of its greatness to 
 Pythagoras, who established his school here. Gym- 
 nastics were cultivated here in greater perfection 
 than in any other Greek city ; and one of its 
 citizens, Milo, was the most celebrated athlete in 
 Greece. It attained its greatest power by the de- 
 struction of Sj'baris in 5 1 ; but it subsequently 
 declined in consequence of the severe defeat it sus- 
 tained from the Locrians on the river Sagras. It 
 suffered greatly in the wars with Dionysius, Aga- 
 thocles, and Pyrrhus ; and in the 2nd Punic war 
 L considerable part of it had ceased to be inhabited. 
 It received a colony from the Romans in 1.95. 
 
 Crostumeria, -rium, also Crustumxum (Crus- 
 turalnus), a town of the Sabines, situated in the 
 mountains near the sources of the AUia, was con- 
 quered both by Romulus and Tarquinius Priscus, 
 and is not mentioned in later times. 
 
 Cteatus. [MoLioNEs.] 
 
 Ctesias (Krija-ias), of Cnidus in Caria, a con- 
 temporary of Xenophon, was private physician of 
 ArUxerexes Mnemon, whom he accompanied in 
 his war against his brother Cjtus, b. c. 401, He 
 lived 17 years at the Persian court, and wrote in 
 the Ionic dialect a great work on the history of 
 Persia (Ilepo-ma), in 23 books. The first 6 con- 
 tained the history of the Assyrian monarchy dovm 
 to the foundation of the kingdom of Persia. The 
 next 7 contained the history of Persia down to 
 the end of the reign of Xerxes, and the remain- 
 ing 10 carried the history down to the time when 
 Ctesias left Persia, i. e. to the year 398. All 
 that is now extant is a meagre abridgment in 
 Photius and a number of fragments preserved in 
 Diodorus and other writers. The work of Ctesias 
 was compiled from Oriental sources, and its state- 
 ments are frequently at variance with those of 
 Herodotus. Ctesias also wrote a work on India 
 ('Ii/5iKa) in one book, of which we possess an 
 abridgment in Photius. Tliis work contains nu- 
 merous fables, but it probably gives a faithful pic- 
 ture of India, as it was conceived by the Persians. 
 The abridgment which Photius made of the Per- 
 sica and Indica of Ctesias has been printed sepa- 
 rately by Lion, Gdttingen, 1823, and by Bahr, 
 Frankfort, 1824. 
 
 Ctesibius (Krt]a-l§Los), celebrated for his me- 
 chanical inventions, lived at Alexandria in the 
 ■reigns of Ptolemy Philadelphus and Euergetes, 
 about E. c. 250. His father was a barber, but 
 his own taste led him to devote himself to me- 
 chanics. He is said to have invented a clepsydra 
 or water-clock, a hydraulic organ (i/SoauAis), and 
 other machines, and to have been the first to dis- 
 cover the elastic force of air and apply it as a 
 moving power. He was the teacher, and has been 
 supposed to have been the father of Hero Alexan- 
 drinus. 
 
 Ctesiplion, (KrtjiTKpcau), son of Leosthenes of 
 Anaphlystus, was accused by Aeschines for having 
 proposed the decree, that Demosthenes should be 
 honoured with the crown. [Aeschines.] 
 
 Ctesiphon (Kr-na-KpoiV -. KTrja-Kpatynos : Taldi 
 Kesra^ Ru.), a city of Assyria, on the M. bank of 
 the Tigris, 3 Roman miles from Seleucia on the W. 
 bank, first became an important place under the 
 Parthians, whose kings used it for some time as a 
 
 CUNAXA. 
 
 winter residence, and afterwards enlarged and for- 
 tified it, and mad^ it the capital of their empire. 
 It is said to have contained at least 100,000 inha- 
 bitants. In the wars of the Romans with the 
 Parthians and Persians, it was taken, first by Trajan 
 (a. d. 115), and by several of the later emperors, 
 but Julian did not venture to attack it, even after 
 his victory over the Persians before the city. 
 
 Ctesippus {KTT](nTnrQs). 1. Two sons of Her- 
 cules, one by Delanira, and the other by Asty- 
 damia. — 2. Son of Polytherses of Same, one of 
 the suitors of Penelope, killed by Philoetius, the 
 cow-herd. 
 
 Cularo, afterwards called Gratianopolis (Gre- 
 noble) in honour of the emperor Gratian, a town in 
 Gallia Narbonensis on the Isara {here), 
 
 Ctilleo or Culeo, Q. Terentius. 1. A senator of 
 distinction, was taken prisoner in the second Punic 
 war, and obtained his liberty at the conclusion of 
 the war, b.c. 201. To show his gratitude to P. 
 Scipio, he followed his triumphal car, wearing the 
 pileus or cap of liberty, like an emancipated slave. 
 In 187 he was praetor peregrinus, and in this year 
 condemned L. Scipio Asiaticus, on the charge of 
 having misappropriated the money gained in the 
 war with Ajitiochus. — 2. Tribune of the plebs, 
 58, exerted himself to obtain Cicero's recall from 
 banishment. In the war which followed the death 
 of Caesar (43), CuUeo was one of the legates of 
 Lepidus. 
 
 Cumae (KiJjur;: Ki;/,toios, Cumanus), a town in 
 Campania, and the most ancient of the Greek co- 
 lonies in Italy and Sicily, was founded by Cumae 
 in Aeolis, in conjunction with Chalcis and Eretria 
 in Euboea, Its foundation is placed in b. c. 1050, 
 but this date is evidently too early. It was situ- 
 ated on a steep hill of Mt Gaurus, a little N. of 
 the promontory Misenum. It became in early 
 times a great and flourishing city ; its commerce 
 was extensive ; its territory included a great part 
 of the rich Campanian plain ; its population was 
 at least 60,000 ; and its power is attested by its 
 colonies in Italy and Sicily, — Puteoli, Palaeopolis, 
 afterwards Neapolis, Zancle, afterwards Messana. 
 But it had powerful enemies to encounter in the 
 Etniscans and the Italian nations. It was also 
 weakened by internal dissensions, and one of its 
 citizens Arigtodemus made himself tyrant of the 
 place. Its power became so much reduced that it 
 was only saved from the attacks of the Etruscans 
 by the assistance of Hiero, who annihilated the 
 Etruscan fleet, 474. It maintained its independ- 
 ence till 417, when it was taken by the Campa- 
 nians and most of its inhabitants sold as slaves. 
 From this time Capua became the chief city of 
 Campania ; and although Cumae was subsequently 
 a Roman municipium and a colony, it continued 
 to decline in importance. At last the Acropolis 
 was the only part of the town that remained, and 
 this was eventually destroyed by Narses in his 
 wars with the Goths. — Cumae was celebrated as 
 the residence of the earliest Sibyl, and as the place 
 where Tarquinius Superbus died. — Its ruins are still 
 to be seen between the Lago di Patria and Fusaro, 
 
 Ctinaxa (Koui'o^a}, a small town in Babylonia, 
 on the Eujihrates, famous for the battle fought here 
 between the younger Cyrus and his brother Ar- 
 taxerxes Mnemon, in which the former was killed 
 (b.c. 401). Its position is uncertain. Plutarch 
 {Artucr. 8) places it SCO stadia (50 geog. miles) 
 above Babylon ; Xenophon, who does not mention 
 
CUPIENNIUS. 
 
 It by name, makes the battle field 360 stadia (36 
 geog. miles) from Babylon, 
 
 Cupiennaus, attacked by Horace (Sat. i. 2. 36), 
 is said by tbe Scholiast to have been a friend of 
 Augustus, but is probably a fictitious name. 
 
 Cupra (Cuprensis). 1. Maritima {Marano at 
 the mouth of the Monecchia)^ a town in Picenum, 
 with an ancient temple of Juno, founded by the 
 Pelasgians and restored by Hadrian. — 2. Mon- 
 tana^ a town near No. 1 in the mountains. 
 
 Cures (Gen. Curium), an ancient town of the 
 Sabines, celebrated as the birth-place of T. Tatius 
 and NumaPompilius: from this town the Romans 
 are said to have derived the name of Quirites. 
 
 Curetes (KoupTjres), a mythical people, said to 
 be the most ancient inhabitants of Acarnania and 
 Aetolia ; the latter country was called Curetis from 
 them. They also occur in Crete as the priests of 
 Zeus, and are spoken of in connexion with the 
 Corybantes and Idaean Dactyli. The infant Zeus 
 was entrusted to their care by Rhea ; and by 
 clashing their weapons in a warlike dance, they 
 drowned the cries of the child, and prevented his 
 father Cronus from ascertaining the place where 
 he was concealed. 
 
 Cimas. [Curium.] 
 
 CuTLatii, a celebrated Alban family. 3 brothers 
 of this family fought with 3 Roman brothers, the 
 Horatii, and were conquered by the latter. In 
 consequence of their defeat, Alba became subject 
 to Rome. 
 
 Ciiriatius Matemus. [Maternus.] 
 
 Curio, C. Scribonius. 1. Praetor e. c. 121, was 
 one of the most distinguished orators of his time. ^ 
 2. Son of No. 1, tribune of the plebs, b. c. 90 ; after- 
 wards served under Sulla in Greece ; was praetor 
 82; consul 76 ; and after his consulship obtained 
 the province of Macedonia, where he carried on 
 Tvar against the barbarians as far N. as the Da- 
 nube. He was a personal enemy of Caesar, and 
 supported P. Clodius, when the latter was accused 
 of violating the sacra of the Bona Dea. In 57 he 
 was appointed pontlfex maximus, and died 53. 
 He had some reputation as an orator, and was a 
 friend of Cicero.^ 3. Son of No. 2, also a firiend of 
 Cicero, was a most profligate character. He was 
 married to Fulvia, afterwards the wife of Antony. 
 He at first belonged to the Pompeian party, by 
 ■whose influence he was made tribune of the plebs, 
 50 ; but he was bought over by Caesar, and em- 
 ■ployed his power as tribune against his former 
 friends. On the breaking out of the civil war 
 (49), he was sent by Caesar to Sicily with the 
 title of propraetor. He succeeded in driving Cato 
 out of the island, and then crossed over to Africa, 
 where he was defeated and slain by Juba and P. 
 Attius Varus. 
 
 Curiosolitae, a Gallic people on the Ocean in 
 Armorica near the Veneti, in the country of the 
 modem Corseult near St. Malo. 
 
 Curium (Kouptoe: Kovpuvs: nr. Pfscojsta Ru.), 
 a town on the S. coast of Cypnis, near the pro- 
 montory Curias, W. of the mouth of the Lycus. 
 
 Curius Dentatus, [Dentatus.] 
 
 Curius, M.', an intimate friend of Cicero and 
 Atticus, lived for several years as a negotiator at 
 Patrae in Peloponnesus. In his will he left his 
 property to Atticus and Cicero. Several of Ci- 
 cero's letters are addressed to him. 
 
 Cursor, I. Papirius. 1. A distinguished Ro- 
 man general in the 2nd Samnite war, was 5 times 
 
 CYAXARES. 
 
 \S^ 
 
 consul {B.C. 333, 320, 319, 315, 313), and twice 
 dicUtor (325, 309). He frequently defeated the 
 Samnites, but his greatest victory over them was 
 gained in his 2nd dictatorship. Although a great 
 general, he was not popular with the soldiers on ac- 
 count of his severity. — 2. Son of No. 1, was, like 
 his father, a distinguished general. In both his 
 consulships (293, 272) he gained great victories 
 over the Samnites, and in the 2nd he brought the 
 3rd Samnite war to a close. 
 
 Curtius, Mettus or Mettius, a distinguished 
 Sabine, fought with the rest of his nation against 
 Romulus. According to one tradition, the Lacus 
 Curtius^ which was part of the Roman forum, was 
 called after hira ; because in the battle with the 
 Romans he escaped with difficulty from a swamp, 
 into which his horse had plunged. But the more 
 usual tradition respecting the name of the Lacus 
 Curtius related that in b. c. 362 the earth in the 
 forum gave way, and a great chasm appeared, 
 which the soothsayers declared could only be filled 
 up by throwing into it Rome's greatest treasure ; that 
 thereupon M. Curtius, a noble youth, mounted his 
 steed in full armour ; and declaring that Rome pos- 
 sessed no greater treasure than a brave and gallant 
 citizen, leaped into the abyss, upon which the 
 earth closed over him. 
 
 Curtius Montauus. [Montanus.] 
 
 Curtius Kufus, Q., the Roman historian of 
 Alexander the Great. Respecting his life, and the 
 time at which he lived, nothing is known with 
 certainty. Some critics place him as early as the 
 time of Vespasian, and others as late as Constan- 
 tine ; but the earlier date is more probable than 
 the later. The work itself, entitled De Rebus 
 Gestis Alexandri Magni, consisted of 10 books, 
 but the first 2 are lost, and the remaining 8 are 
 not without considerable gaps. It is written in a 
 pleasing though somewhat declamatory style. It 
 is taken from good sources, but the author fre- 
 quently shows his ignorance of geography, chrono- 
 log}', and tactics. The best editions are by Zumpt, 
 Berlin, 1826, and Miitzell, Beriin, 1843. 
 
 Cutiliae Aquae. [Aquae, No. 3.] 
 
 Cyane (Kuav??), a Sicilian nymph and playmate 
 of Proserpine, changed into a fountain through grief 
 at the loss of the goddess. 
 
 Cyaneae Insiilae {Kvav4ai v^aoi or irerpai^ 
 Urek-Jaki), 2 small rocky islands at the entrance 
 of the Thracian Bosporus into the Euxine, the 
 Pianctae (UXdyKrai) and Symplegades {:s,vfj.- 
 ■K\T}ydSes) of mythology, so called because they are 
 said to have been once moveable and to have 
 rushed together, and thus destroyed every ship 
 that attempted to pass through them. After the 
 ship Argo had passed througli them in safety, they 
 became stationary. [See p, 76, a.] 
 
 Cyaxares (Kua^ciprjs), king of Media b.c. 634 
 ■ — 594, son of Phraortes, and grandson of Deioces. 
 He was the most warlike of the Median kings, and 
 introduced great military reforms. He defeated 
 the Assyrians, who had slain his father in battle, 
 and he laid siege to Ninus (Nineveh). But while 
 he was before the city, he was defeated by the 
 Scythians, who held the dominion of Upper Asia 
 for 28 years (634— G07), but were at length driven 
 out of Asia by Cyaxares. After the expulsion of 
 the Scythians, Cyaxares again turned his arms 
 against Assyria, and with the aid of the king of 
 Babylon (probably the father of Nebuchadnezzar), 
 he took and destroyed Ninus, in 606'. He subse- 
 
 o 4 
 
200 
 
 CYBELE. 
 
 quently carried on war for 5 years against Alyattes, 
 king of Lydia. [Alyattes.] Cyaxares died in 
 594, and was Bucceeded by his son Astyages. — 
 Xenophon speaks of a Cyaxares II., king of Media, 
 son of Astyagee, respecting whom see Cyrus. 
 Cybele. [Rhea.] 
 
 Cfybistra (to Kuffitrrpa), an ancient city of Asia 
 Minor, several times mentioned by Cicero {Ep. ad 
 Fam.-Ky. 2, 4, odAtt. v. 18, 20), who describes it as 
 lying at the foot of Mt Taurus, in the part of Cap- 
 padocia bordering on Cilicia. Strabo places it 300 
 stadia ( 30 geog. miles) from Tyana. Mention is 
 made of a place of the same name (now Kara 
 Hissar), between Tyana and Caesarea ad Argaeum ; 
 but this latter can hardly be believed to be identical 
 with the former. 
 
 Cyclades (KuKXaSes), a group of islands in the 
 Aegaean sea, so called because they lay in a 
 circle {4v KVK\if}) around Delos, the most important 
 of them. According to Strabo they were 12 in 
 number ; but their number is increased by other 
 writers. The most important of them were Delos, 
 Ceos, Cythnos, Seriphos, Rhenia, Siphnos, 
 CiMOLOs, Naxos, Paros, Syros, Myconos, 
 Tenos, Andros. 
 
 Cyclopes (KukAwttcs), that is, creatures with 
 round or circular eyes, are described differently by 
 different writers. Homer speaks of them as a gi- 
 gantic and lawless race of shepherds in Sicily, who 
 devoured human beings and cared nought for Zeus; 
 each of them bad only one eye in the centre of his 
 forehead : the chief among them was Polyphemus. 
 According to Hesiod the Cyclops were Titans, sons 
 of Uranus and Ge, were 3 in number, Arges, 
 Steropes, and Brontes, and each of them had only 
 one eye on his forehead. They were thrown into 
 Tartajus by Cronus, but were released by Zeus, and 
 in consequence they provided Zeus with thunder- 
 bolts and lightning, Pluto with a helmet, and Po- 
 seidon with a trident. They were afterwards 
 killed by Apollo for having furnished Zeus with 
 the thunderbolts to kill Aesculapius. A still later 
 tradition regarded the Cyclopes as the assistants of 
 Hephaestus. Volcanoes were the workshops of 
 that god, and Mt. Aetna in Sicily and the neigh- 
 bouring isles were accordingly considered as their 
 abodes. As the assistants of Hephaestus they 
 make the metal armour and ornaments for gods 
 and heroes. Their number is no longer confined 
 to 3 ; and besides the names mentioned by Hesiod, 
 we also find those of Pyracmon and Acamas. 
 The name of Cyclopian walls was given to the walls 
 built of great masses of unhewn stone, of which 
 specimens are still to be seen at Mycenae and 
 other parts of Greece, and also in Italy. They 
 were probably constructed by the Pelasgians ; and 
 later generations, being struck by their grandeur, 
 ascribed their building to a fabulous race of Cyclops. 
 Cycnus {Kvkvos). 1. Son of Apollo by Hyrie, 
 lived in the district between Pleuron and Calydon, 
 and was beloved by Phyllius ; but as Phyllius 
 refused him a bull, Cycnus leaped into a lake and 
 was metamorphosed into a swan. "^2. Son of Po- 
 seidon, was king of Colonae in Troas, and father 
 of Tenes and Hemithea. His second wife Philo- 
 nome fell in love with Tenes, her step-son, and as 
 he refused her offers, she accused him to his father, 
 who threw Tenes with Hemithea in a chest into 
 the sea. Tenes escaped and became king of Te- 
 nedos. [Tenes.] In the Trojan War both 
 Cycnus and Tenes assisted the Tn)jans, but both 
 
 CYME. 
 
 were slain by Achilles. As Cycnus could not be 
 wounded by iron, Achilles strangled him with 
 the thong of his helmet, or killed him with a 
 stone. When Achilles was going to strip Cycnus 
 of his armour, the body disappeared, and waa 
 changed into a swan. ^3. Son of Ares and Pe- 
 lopia, slain by Hercules at Itone. ^4. Son of 
 Ares and Pyreno, likewise killed by Hercules. 
 ^5, Son of Sthenelus, king of the Ligurians, and 
 a friend and relation of Phaethon. VVhile he was 
 lamenting the fate of Phaethon on the banks of the 
 Eridanus, he was metamorphosed by Apollo into a 
 swan, and placed among the stars. 
 
 Cydias, a celebrated painter from the island of 
 Cythnus, b. c. 364, whose picture of the Argonauts 
 was exhibited in a porticus by Agrippa at Rome. 
 Cydippe. [Acontius.] 
 
 Cydnus (KvBvos : Tersoos-Chai), a river of Ci- 
 licia Campestris, rising in the Taurus, and flowing 
 through the midst of the city of Tarsus, where it 
 is 120 feet wide (Kinneir: Xenophon says 2 ple- 
 thra=202 feet). It was celebrated for the clear- 
 ness and coldness of its water, which was esteemed 
 useful in gout and nervous diseases, but by bathing 
 in which Alexander nearly lost his life. At its 
 month the river spread into a lagune, which formed 
 the harbour of Tarsus, but which is now choked 
 with sand. In the middle ages the river was called 
 Hierax. 
 
 CydSnia, more rarely Cydonis (KuSwi/ia, KuBay- 
 vis : KvdwvtdrTjs : Khania), one of the chief cities 
 of Crete, the rival and opponent of Cnossus and 
 Gortyna, was situated on the N. W. coast, and 
 derived its name from the Cydones {KvSojves), a 
 Cretan race, placed by Homer in the W. part of 
 the island. At a later time a colony of Zacyn- 
 thians settled in Cydonia ; they were driven out 
 by the Samians about b. c. 524 ; and the Samiana 
 were in their turn expelled by the Aeginetans. 
 Cydonia was the place from which quinces [Cydonia 
 mala) were first brought to Italy, and its inhabit- 
 ants were some of the best Cretan archers (Ct/do- 
 nio arcu^ Hor. Carm. iv. 19. 17). 
 
 Cyllarus (KiJAAapos), a beautiful centaur, killed 
 at the wedding feast of Pirithous. The horse of 
 Castor was likewise called Cyllarus. 
 
 Cyllene (Ku\Ai)i/7j). 1. {Zyria)^ the highest 
 moimtain in Peloponnesus on the frontiers of Ar- 
 cadia and Achaia, sacred to Hermes (Mercury), 
 who had a temple on the summit, was said to have 
 been bom there, and was hence called Cyllenius. 
 — 2. A sea-port town of Elis. 
 
 Cylon (KuA-wf), an Athenian of noble family, 
 married the daughter of Theagenes, tyrant of Me- 
 gara, and gained an Olympic victory b. c. 640. 
 Encouraged by the Delphic oracle, he seized the 
 Acropolis, intending to make himself tyrant of 
 Athens. Pressed by famine, Cylon and his ad- 
 herents were driven to take refuge at the altar 
 of Athena, whence they were induced to withdraw 
 by the archon Megacles, the Alcmaeonid, on a 
 promise that their lives should be spared. But 
 their enemies put them to death as soon as they 
 had them in their power. 
 
 Cyme (KiJftij : Kv^xaios : SandahU)^ the largest of 
 the Aeolian cities of Asia Minor, stood upon the 
 coast of Aeolis, on a bay named after it, Cumacus 
 (also Ela'iticus) Sinus {b Ku/xalos k6\tto5 : Gv2fof 
 Sandakli\ and had a good harbour. It was founded 
 by a colony of Locrians from Mt. Phricius, and 
 hence it had the epithet *ptKw»'(s. It was the 
 
CYNA. 
 
 native place of Hesiod and Ephorus, and the mo- 
 ther city of Side in Pamphylia and Cumae in 
 Campania. 
 
 Cyna. [Cvnane.] 
 
 Cynaeglrus {Kvvaiy€tpos\ brother of the poet 
 Aeschylus, distinguished himself by his valour at 
 the battle of Marathon, B.C. 490. According to 
 Herodotus, when the Persians were endeavouring 
 to escape by sea, Cynaegirus seized one of their 
 ships to keep it back, but fell with his right hand 
 cut off. In the later versions of the story Cynae- 
 girus is made to perform still more heroic deeds. 
 
 Cynaetha {Kvyai$a: Kwaidevs, -floieuy), a town 
 in tihe N. of Arcadia, whose inhabitants, unlike the 
 other Arcadians, had a dislike to music, to which 
 circumstance Polybiua attributes their rough and 
 demoralized character. 
 
 Cynane, Cyna, or Cynna {Kwdv-nj Kvva, KJwa), 
 half-sister to Alexander the Great, daughter of 
 Philip by Audata, an Illyrian woman. She was 
 married to her cousin Amyntas ; and after the 
 death of Alexander she crossed over to Asia, in- 
 tending to marry her daughter Eurydice to Arrhi- 
 daeus, who had been chosen king. Her project 
 alarmed Perdiccaa, by whose order she was put to 
 death. 
 
 Cynesii or Cynetes (Kvv^fftot, Kuctjtcs), a peo- 
 ple, according to Herodotus, dwelling in the ex- 
 treme W, of Europe, beyond the Celts, apparently 
 in Spain. 
 
 Cynisca (Kyj'itrKa), daughter of Archldamua II. 
 king of Sparta, was the first woman who kept 
 horses for the games, and the first who gained an 
 Olympic victory. 
 
 Cynopolis {Kwhs -jrSXis : Samallout), a city of 
 the Heptanomis, or Middle Egypt, on an island 
 in the Nile ; the chief seat of the worship of Anu- 
 bis. There was a city of the same name in the 
 Delta. 
 
 Cynos (Kvuos: KvvtoSj KuraTos), the chief sea- 
 port in the territory of the Locri Opuntii. 
 
 Cynosarges (tS Kvf6<rapyes)^ a gymnasium, 
 sacred to Hercules, outside Athens, E. of the city 
 and before the gate Diomea, for the use of those 
 who were not of pure Athenian blood : here taught 
 Antisthenes, the founder of the Cynic school. 
 
 Cynoscephalae(Kuj/isK€0aAot), "Dog's Heads." 
 1. Two hills near Scotussa in Thessal}', where Fla- 
 minius gained his celebrated victory over Philip of 
 Macedonia, B. c. 197. — 2. A hill between Thebes 
 and Thespiae in Boeotia. 
 
 Cynossema {Kwhs c^/xa), " Dog's Tomb," a 
 promontory in the Thracian Chersonesus near 
 Madytus, so called because it was supposed to be 
 the tomb of Hecuba, who had been previously 
 changed into a dog. 
 
 Gynosiira (Kwoffoupd), an Idaean nymph, and 
 one of the nurses of Zeus, who placed her among 
 the stars. [Arctos.] 
 
 Cynosura {Kvv6(roupa), " Dog's Tail," a pro- 
 montory in Attica, S. of Marathon. 
 
 Cynthia and CyntluU3 (KvyBla and KuVflios), 
 aumames respectively of Artemis and Apollo, which 
 they derived from Mt. Cynthus in the island of 
 Delos, their birthplace. 
 
 Cynuria (Kvyuupia: Kvpovptos), a district on 
 the frontiers of Argolis and Laconia, for the pos- 
 session of wiiich the Argives and Spartans carried 
 on frequent wars, and which the Spartans at length 
 obtained about b. c. 550. [See p. 77, a.J The 
 inhabitants were lonians. 
 
 CYPRUS. 201 
 
 Cyparissia (Kim-apto-o-ta). 1. A town in Mes- 
 senia on the W. coast, S. of the river Cyparissus, 
 and on a promontory and bay of the same name. 
 Homer (//. ii. 593) speaks of a town Cyparisseeis 
 (Kvrraptffffiieis) subject to Nestor, which is pro- 
 bably the same as the preceding, though Strabo places 
 it in Triphylia. — 12. A town in Laconia on a pe» 
 ninsula near the Asopus. 
 
 Cyparissus (KuTrapto-cos), son of Telephus, be- 
 loved by Apollo or Silvanus. Having inadver- 
 tently killed his favourite stag, he was seized with 
 immoderate grief, and metamorphosed into a cypress. 
 
 Cyparissus (Kwrapitrffoy), a small town in Pho- 
 cis on Parnassus near Delphi. 
 
 Cyphanta (to Kv<l>avTa), a town on the E. coast 
 of Laconia near Brasiae. 
 
 Cypria, Cypris, surnames of Aphrodite, from 
 the island of Cyprus. 
 
 Cyprianus, a celebrated father of the Church, 
 was a native of Africa. He was a Gentile by 
 birth, and before his conversion to Christianity he 
 taught rhetoric with distinguished success. He 
 was converted about a. d. 246, was ordained a 
 presbyter 247, and wag raised to the bishopric of 
 Carthage 248. When the persecution of Decius 
 burst forth (250), Cyprian fled from the storm, and 
 remained 2 years in retirement. A few years 
 afterwards the emperor Valerian renewed the per- 
 secution against the Christians. Cyprian was ba- 
 nished by Paternus the proconsul to the maritime 
 city of Curubis, where he resided 11 months. Ha 
 was then recalled by the new governor, Galeriua 
 Maximus, and was beheaded in a spacious plain 
 without the walls a. d. 258. He wrote several 
 works which have come down to us. They are 
 characterised by lucid arrangement, and eloquent, 
 though declamatory style. The best editions are 
 by Fell, Oxford, 1682, foL, to which are subjoined 
 the Annates Cyprianici of Pearson ; and that com- 
 menced by Baluze, and completed by a monk of 
 the fraternity of St Maur, Paris, 1726, fol. 
 
 Cyprus (KiJirpos : KuTrptos: Cyprus^ called by 
 the Turks Kehris)^ a large island in the Mediter- 
 ranean, S. of Cilicia and W. of Syria. It is called 
 by various names in the poets, Cerastia or Cerastis, 
 Macai-ia, Sphecia, Acama7itisy Amathusia, and also 
 Paphos. The island is of a triangular form : its 
 length from E. to W. is about 140 miles ; its 
 greatest breadth, which is in the "W". part, is about 
 50 miles from N. to S., but it gradually narrows 
 towards the E. A range of mountains, called 
 Olympus by the ancients, runs through the whole 
 length of the island from E. to W., and rises in 
 one part more than 7000 feet in height. The plains 
 are chiefly in theS. of the island, and were cele- 
 brated in ancient as well as in modem times for 
 their fertility. The largest plain, called the Sala- 
 minian plain, is in the E. part of the island near 
 Salamis. The rivers are little more than mountain 
 torrents, mostly dry in summer. — Cypnis was 
 colonized by the Phoenicians at a very early pe- 
 riod ; and Greek colonies were subsequently planted 
 in the island, according to tradition soon after the 
 Trojan war. We read at first of 9 independent 
 states, each governed by its own king, Salamis, 
 CiTiuM, Amathus, Curium, Paphos, Marium, 
 Soli, Lapethus, Cerynia. The island was sub- 
 dued by Amasis, king of Egypt, about b. c. 540. 
 Upon the downfal of the Egyptian monarciiy, it 
 became subject to the Persians ; but Evagoras 
 of Salamis, after a severe struggle with the Per- 
 
202 
 
 CYPSELA. 
 
 sians, established its independence about 385, and 
 banded down the sovereignty to his son Nicocles. 
 It eventually fell to the share of the Ptolemies in 
 Egypt, and was governed by them, sometimes 
 united to Egj'pt, and sometimes by separate princes 
 of the royal family. In 58 the Romans made Cy- 
 prus one of their provinces, and sent M- Cato to 
 take possession of it. — Cyprus was one of the 
 ■chief seats of the worship of Aphrodite (Venus), 
 who is hence called Cypris or Cypria, and whose 
 "worship was introduced into the island by the 
 Phoenicians. 
 
 Cypsela (ra Ki;i|/6Aa : Kml/eAti/os, -Xt]v6s). 1. 
 A town in Arcadia on the frontiers of Laconia. — 
 3. A town in Thrace on the Hebrus and the Eg- 
 natia Via. 
 
 Cypselus (Kui|/e\oy). 1. Father of Merope and 
 ^andfather of Aepytns. [Aepytus.] — 2. Of 
 Corinth, son of Aeetjon. The mother of Cypselus 
 belonged to the house of the Bacchiadae, that is, 
 to the Doric nobility of Corinth. According to 
 tradition, she married Aeetion, because, being ugly, 
 she met with no one among the Bacchiadae who 
 would have her as his wife. As the oracle of 
 Delphi had declared that her son would prove for- 
 midable to the ruling party at Corinth, the Bacchi- 
 adae attempted to murder the child. But his 
 mother concealed him in a chest (kut|/€A7j), from 
 which he derived his name, Cypselus. "When he 
 had grown up to manhood, he expelled the Bac- 
 chiadae, with the help of the people, and then 
 establislted himself as tyrant. He reigned 30 years, 
 B. c. Qbb — Q'2b^ and was succeeded by his son Pe- 
 riander. The celebrated chest of Cypselus, con- 
 sisting of cedar wood, ivory, and gold, and richly 
 adorned with figures in relief, is described at length 
 by Pausanias (v. 17, &:c.). 
 
 CyTaTmis {Kvpawis)^ an island off the N. coast 
 of Africa mentioned by Herodotus (iv. 9b) ; pro- 
 babl}'' the same as Cercine. 
 
 Cyrenaica (^ Kupij^aia, tj Kvptivai-n X"P^i He- 
 rod : Dernah or Jehel-Akhdar^ i. e, the Green Moun- 
 tain^ the N- E. part of Tiipoli), a district of N. 
 Africa, between Marmarica on the E. and the 
 Regio Syrtica on the "W., was considered to ex- 
 tend in its widest limits from the Philaenorum 
 Arae at the bottom of the Great Syrtis to the 
 Chersonesus Magna or N. headland of the Gulf of 
 Platea {G. of Bomba)^ or even to the Catabathmus 
 Magnus {Marsa Solium) ; but the part actually 
 possessed and cultivated by the Greek colonists 
 can only be considered as beginning at the N. 
 limit of the sandy shores of the Great Syrtis, at 
 Boreum Pr. {Ras Teyonas^ S. of Ben-Ghazi)^ be- 
 tween which and the Chersonesus Magna the 
 country projects into the Mediterranean in the 
 form of a segment of a circle, whose chord is above 
 150 miles long and its arc above 200. From its 
 position, formation, climate, and soil, this region is 
 perhaps one of the most delightful on the surface 
 of the globe. Its centre is occupied by a mode- 
 rately elevated table-land, whose edge runs pa- 
 rallel to the coast, to which it sinks down in a 
 succession of terraces, clothed with verdure, in- 
 tersected by mountain streams running through 
 ravines filled with the richest vegetation, exposed 
 to the cool sea-breezes from the N., and sheltered 
 by the mass of the mountain from the sands and 
 hot winds of the Sahara. These slopes produced 
 the choicest fruits, vegetables, and flowers, and 
 Bome very rare plants, such as the silphium and the 
 
 CYRENE. 
 
 cnr'hs KvptivaXos. The various harvests, at the dif- 
 ferent elevations, lasted for 8 months of the year. 
 With these physical advantages, the people naturally 
 became prone to luxury. The country was, how- 
 ever, exposed to annual ravages by locusts. The 
 belt of mountainous land extends inwards from 
 the coast about 70 or 80 miles. — The first occupa- 
 tion of this country by the Greeks, of which we 
 have any clear account, was effected by Battus, 
 who led a colony from the island of Thera, and first 
 established himself on the island of Platea at the 
 E. extremity of the district, and afterwards built 
 Gyrene (b. c. 631), where be founded a dynasty, 
 which ruled over the country during 8 reigns, 
 thongh with comparatively little power over some 
 of the other Greek cities. Of these the earliest 
 founded were Teuchira and Hesperis, then 
 Barca, a colony from Cyrene; and these, with 
 Cyrene itself and its port Apollonia, formed the 
 original Libyan Pentapolis, though this name 
 seems not to have come into general use till under 
 the Ptolemies. The comparative independence of 
 Barca, and the temporary conquest of the country 
 by the Persians under Cambyses, diminished the 
 power of the later kings of Cyrene, and at last the 
 dynasty was ove^thro^vn and a republic established 
 in the latter part of the 5th century b. c. Wlien 
 Alexander invaded Egypt, the Cyrenaeans formed 
 an alliance with liim ; but their country was made 
 subject to Egypt by Ptolemy the son of Lagus. It 
 appears to have flourished under the Ptolemies, 
 who pursued their usual policy of raising new cities 
 at the expense of the ancient ones, or restoring 
 the latter under new names. Thus Hesperis became 
 Berenice, Teuchira was called Arsinoe, Barca was 
 entirely eclipsed by its port, which was raised into 
 a city under the name of Ptolemais, and Cyrene 
 suffered from the favours bestowed upon its port 
 Apollonia. The country was now usually called 
 Perrtapolis, from the 5 cities of Cyrene, Apollonia, 
 Ptolemais, Arsinoe, and Berenice. In b. c. Qb^ the 
 last Egyptian governor, Apion, an illegitimate son 
 of Ptolemy Physcon, made the country over to 
 the Romans, who at first gave the cities their free- 
 dom, and afterwards formed the district, under the 
 name of CjTenaica, with the island of Crete, into 
 a province. Under Constantine Cyrenaica was 
 separated from Crete, and made a distinct province, 
 under the name of Libya Superior. The first 
 great blow to the prosperity of the country was 
 given by the murderous conflict which ensued on 
 an insurrection of the Jews (who had long settled 
 here in great numbers) in the reign of Trajan. As 
 the Roman empire declined, the attacks of the 
 native Libyan tribes became more frequent and 
 formidable, and the sufferings caused by their in- 
 roads and by locusts, plague, and earthquakes, are 
 most pathetically described by Syuesius, bishop 
 of Ptolemais, in the 5th century. In the 7th 
 century the country was overrun by the Persians, 
 and soon afterwards it fell a final prey to the great 
 Arabian invasion. 
 
 Cyrene (Kyp7)»^), daughter of Hypseus, mother 
 of Aristaeus by Apollo, was carried by the god 
 from Mt. Pelion to Libya, where the city of Cy- 
 rene derived its name from her. 
 
 Cyrene {Kvp-i)v7\ : Kvprivatos : Ghrennah^ very 
 large Ru.), the chief city of Cyrenaica in N. 
 Africa, was founded by Battus (b. c. 631) over a 
 fountain consecrated to Apollo, and called Cyre 
 {KvpT} : * AttSWwvos Kp-t]vri), which supplied the 
 
CYRESCHATA. 
 
 city witb. water, and then ran down to the sea 
 through a beautiful ravine. The city stood 80 
 stadia (8 geog. miles) from the coast, on the edge 
 of the upper of two terraces of table land, at the 
 height of 1800 feet above the sea, in one of the 
 finest situations in the world. The road which 
 connected it with its harbour, Apollonia, still exists, 
 and the ruins of Cyrene, though terribly defaced, 
 are very extensive, comprising streets, aqueducts, 
 temples, theatres, tombs, paintings, sculpture, and 
 inscriptions. In the iace of the terrace on which 
 the city stands is a vast subterraneous necropolis. 
 For the history of the city and surrounding country. 
 Bee Cyrenaica. Among its celebrated natives 
 were the philosopher Aristippus, the poet Calli- 
 tnachus, and the Christian bishop and orator Sy- 
 nesius. 
 
 Cyrescliata or Cyropolis (KupeVxaTo, Ku'pa, 
 Kvpov TTtJ^is), a city of Sogdiana, on the Jaxartes, 
 the furthest of the colonies founded by Cyrus, and 
 the extreme city of the Persian empire : destro3'ed, 
 after many revolts, by Alexander, Its position is 
 doubtful, but it was probably not far from Alex- 
 andreschata (Kokand), 
 
 Cyrillos (KupiAXoj). — 1. Bishop of Jerusalem. 
 A. D. 351 — 386, was a firm opponent of the Arians, 
 by whose influence he was banished 3 times from 
 Jerusalem. His works are not numerous. The 
 most important are lectures to catechumens, &c. 
 and a letter to the emperor Constantius, giving an 
 account of the luminous cross which appeared at 
 Jerusalem, 331. The best editions are by Milles, 
 Oxford, 1703, fol., and by Touttee, Paris, 1720, fol. 
 —2. Bishop of Alexandria, a. d. 412 — 444, of which 
 city he was a native. He was fond of power, and of 
 a restless and turbulent spirit. He persecuted the 
 JewSj whom he expelled from Alexandria ; and 
 after a long protracted struggle he procured the 
 deposition of Nestorius, bishop of Constantinople. 
 He was the author of a large number ot works, 
 many of which are extant ; but in a literary view 
 they are almost worthless. The best edition is by 
 Aubert, Paris, 1G38, 6 vols. fol. 
 
 Cyrrhestice {Kv^^go-tikt]), the name given 
 under the Seleucidae to a province of Syria, lying 
 between Commagene on the N. and the plain of 
 Antioch on the S,, between Mt. Amanus on the W. 
 and the Euphrates on the E. After the time of 
 Constintine, it was united with Commagene into 
 one province, under the name of Euphratesia, 
 
 Cyrriius or Cyrus {Kv^^os, Kvpos: Komsf), 
 a city of Syria, founded under the Seleucidae, and 
 called after the city of the same name in Mace- 
 donia; chiefly remarkable as the residence and 
 see of Theodoret, who describes its poverty, which 
 he did much to relieve, Justinian rebuilt the 
 walls, and erected an aqueduct. 
 Cyrrlms, a town in Macedonia, near Pella. 
 Cyrus (Kupos). 1. The Elder, the founder 
 of the Persian empire. The history of his life 
 was overlaid in ancient times with fables and ro- 
 mances, and is related differently by Herodotus, 
 Ctesias, and Xenophon. The account of Herodotus 
 best preserves the genuine Persian legend, and is 
 to be preferred to those of Ctesias and Xenophon. 
 It is as follows : — Cynis was the son of Cambyses, 
 a noble Persian, and of Mandane, daughter of the 
 Median king Astyages. In consequence of a 
 dream, which seemed to portend that his grandson 
 should be master of Asia, Astyages sent for his 
 daughter, when she was pregnant ; and upon 
 
 CYRUS. 
 
 203 
 
 her giving birth to a son, he committed it to 
 Harpagus, his confidential attendant, with orders 
 to kill it. Harpagus gave it to a herdsman of As- 
 tyages, who was to expose it. But the wife of 
 the herdsman having brought forth a still-bom 
 child, they substituted the latter for the child of 
 Mandane, who was reared as the son of the herds- 
 man. When he was 10 years old, his tnie pa- 
 rentage was discovered by the following incident. 
 In the sports of his village, the boys chose him for 
 their king. One of the boys, the son of a noble 
 Median named Artembares, disobeyed his com- 
 mands, and Cyrus caused him to be severely 
 scourged. Artembares complained to Astyages, 
 who sent for Cyrus, in whose person and courage 
 he discovered his daughter's son. The herdsman 
 and Harpagus, being summoned before the king, 
 told him the truth. Astyages forgave the herds- 
 man, but revenged himself on Harpagus by serving 
 up to him at a banquet the flesh of his own son. 
 As to his grandson, by the advice of the Magians, 
 who assured him that his dreams were fulfilled by 
 the boy's having been a king in sport, he sent hira 
 back to his parents in Persia. When Cyrus grew 
 up, he conspired with Harpagus to dethrone his 
 grandfather. He induced the Persians to revolt 
 from the Median supremacy, and at their head 
 marched against Astyages. The latter had given 
 the command of his forces to Harpagus, who de- 
 serted to C3T^s. Astyages thereupon placed him- 
 self at the head of his troops, but was defeated by 
 Cyrus and taken prisoner, b. c. 559. The Medes 
 accepted Cyrus for their king, and thus the supre- 
 macy which they had held passed to the Persians. 
 It was probably at this time that Cyrus received 
 that name, which is a Persian word (Kohr), sig- 
 nifying the Sun. — Cyrus now proceeded to con- 
 quer the other parts of Asia. In 546 he overthrew 
 the Lydian monarchy, and took Croesus prisoner. 
 [Croesus.] The Greek cities in Asia Minor were 
 subdued by his general Harpagus. He next turned 
 his arms against the Assyrian empire, of which 
 Babylon was then the capital. After defeating 
 the Babylonians in battle, he laid siege to the 
 city, and after a long time he took it by diverting 
 the course of the Euphrates, which flowed through, 
 the midst of it, so that his soldiers entered Babylon 
 by the bed of the river. This was in 538. Sub- 
 sequently he crossed the Araxes, with the intention 
 of subduing the Massagetae, a Scythian people, 
 but he was defeated and slain in battle. Tomyris, 
 the queen of the Massagetae, cut off his head, and 
 threw it into a bag filled with human blood, that 
 he might satiate himself (she said) with blood. 
 He was killed in 529. He was succeeded by his 
 son Cambyses. — Xenophon represents Cyrus as 
 brought up at his grandfather's court, as serving in 
 the Median army under his uncle Cyaxares II,,' 
 the son and successor of Astyages, of whom Hero- 
 dotus and Ctesias know nothing ; as making war 
 upon Babylon simply as the general of Cyaxares ; 
 as marrying the daughter of Cyaxares ; and at 
 length dying quietly in his bed, after a sage and 
 Socratic discourse to his children and friends. 
 Xenophon's account is preserved in the Cyropaedla, 
 in which he draws a picture of what a wise and 
 just prince ought to be. The work must not be 
 regarded as a genuine history. — In the East 
 Cynis was long regarded as the greatest hero of 
 antiquity, and hence the fables by which his his- 
 tory is obscured. His sepulchre at Pasargadae was 
 
204 
 
 CYRUS. 
 
 visited by Alexander the Great. The tomb has 
 perished, but his name is found on monuments at 
 Murghab, N. of Persepolis. ^ 2. The Younger, 
 the 2nd of the 4 sons of Darius Nothus, king of 
 Persia, and of Parysatis, was appointed by his 
 father commander of the maritime parts of Asia 
 Minor, and satrap of Lydia, Phrygia, and Cappa- 
 docia, B. c. 407. He assisted Lysander and the 
 Lacedaemonians with large sums of money in their 
 war against the Athenians. Cyrus was of a daring 
 and ambitious temper. On the death of his father 
 and the accession of his elder brother Artaxerxes 
 Mnemon, 404, Cyrus formed a plot against the 
 life of Artaxerxes. His design was betrayed by 
 Tissaphemes to the king, who condemned him to 
 death ; but, on the intercession of Parysatis, he 
 spared his life and sent him back to His satrapy. 
 Cyrus now gave himself up to the design of de- 
 throning his brother. He collected a powerful 
 native army, but he placed his chief reliance on a 
 force of Greek mercenaries. He set out from Sardis 
 in the spring of 401, and, having crossed the Eu- 
 phrates at Thapsacus, marched down the river to 
 the plain of Cunaxa, 500 stadia from Babylon. 
 Here he found Artaxerxes prepared to meet him. 
 Artaxerxes had from 400,000 to a million of men ; 
 Cyrus had about 100,000 Asiatics and 13,000 
 Greeks. The battle was at first altogether in 
 favour of Cyrus. His Greek troops on the right 
 routed the Asiatics who were opposed to them ; 
 and he himself pressed forward in the centre against 
 bis brother, and had even wounded him, when he 
 was killed by one of the king's body-guard. Ar- 
 taxerxes caused his head and right hand to be 
 struck off, and sought to have it believed that 
 Cyrus had fallen by his hand. The character of 
 Cyrus is drawn by Xenophon in the brightest 
 colours. It is enough to say that his ambition was 
 gilded by all those brilliant qualities which win 
 men's hearts. — 3. An architect at Rome, who 
 died on the same day as Clodius, 52. 
 
 Cyrus {Kupos : Kour), one of the two great 
 rivers of Armenia, rises in the Caucasus, flows 
 through Iberia, and after forming the boundary 
 between Albania and Armenia, unites with the 
 Araxes, and falls into the W. side of the Caspian. 
 — There were small rivers of the same name in 
 Media and Persis. 
 
 Cyta or Cytaea (Kilra, Kuraia : Kvtoios, Ku- 
 Ttttfus), a town in Colchis on the river Phasia, 
 where Medea was said to have been born. 
 
 Cytliera (Kv67}pa : KvdripLos : Cerigo\ a moun- 
 tainous island off the S. E. point of Laconia, with 
 a town of the same name in the interior, the har- 
 bour of which was called Scandea {:S,KavZ^ia). It 
 was colonized at an early time by the Phoenicians, 
 who introduced the worship of Aphrodite into the 
 island, for which it was celebrated. This goddess 
 was hence called Cytheraea, Cytbereis ; and, ac- 
 cording to some traditions, it was in the neigh- 
 bourhood of this island that she first rose from the 
 foam of the sea. TheArgives subsequently took pos- 
 session of Cythera, but were driven out of it by the 
 Lacedaemonians, who added it to their dominions. 
 
 Cytlieris, a celebrated courtezan, the mistress of 
 Antony, and subsequently of the poet Gallus, who 
 mentioned her in his poems under the name of 
 Lycoris. 
 
 Cytherus (KyflTipos: Ku07?pjos), one of the 12 
 dncient towns of Attica and subsequently a demus, 
 belonging to the tribe Pandionis. 
 
 DACIA. 
 
 Cythnus {KvQvos : KvBvio^ ; Tkermia)^ an is- 
 land in the Aegaean sea, one of the Cyclades, with 
 a town of the same name, celebrated for its cheese, 
 and also for its warm springs, whence its modem 
 name. 
 
 Cytinium {Kvrlviov: KvTtvtaTTjs), one of the 4 
 cities in Doris, on Parnassus. 
 
 C5N;6rU3 or -um (Kurtupoj or -ov : Kidros), a 
 town on the coast of Paphlagonia, between Amas- 
 tris and the promontory Carambis, was a commer- 
 cial settlement of the people of Sinope. It stood 
 upon or near the mountain of the same name, 
 which is mentioned by the Romans as abounding 
 in box-trees. 
 
 Cyzicus (KuftHos), son of Aeneus and Aenete, 
 the daughter of Eusorus, or son of Eusorus, or 
 son of Apollo by Stilbe. He was king of the Do- 
 liones at Cyzicus on the Propontis. For his con- 
 nection with the Argonauts see p. 75, b, 
 
 Cyzicus (Ku^iKoy; Kv^ik7\v6s: Bal Kiz orCfiizico, 
 Ru.), one of the most ancient and powerful of the 
 Greek cities in Asia Minor, stood upon an island of 
 the same name in the Propontis (&a of Marmara). 
 This island, the earlier name of which was Arcton- 
 nesus {"ApKrcju j/^cros), lay close to the shore of 
 Mysia, to which it was united by two bridges, and 
 afterwards (under Alexander the Great) by a mole, 
 which has accumulated to a considerable isthmus. 
 The city of Cyzicus stood on the S. side of the 
 island, at the N. end of the isthmus, on each side 
 of which it had a port. Tradition ascribed the 
 foundation of the city to the DoUones, a tribe of 
 Thessalian Pelasgians, who had been driven from 
 their homes by the Aeolians. It was said to have 
 been afterwards colonized by the Milesians. It was 
 one of the finest cities of the ancient world, for the 
 beauty of its situation and the magnificence of its 
 buildings: it possessed an extensive commerce, and 
 was celebrated for the excellence of its laws and 
 government. Its staters were among the most 
 esteemed gold coins current in Greece. It took no 
 conspicuous place in history till about 22 years after 
 the peace of Antalcidas, when it made itself inde- 
 pendent of Persia. It preserved its freedom under 
 Alexander and his successors, and was in alliance 
 with the kings of Pergamus, and afterwards with 
 the Romans. Its celebrated resistance against 
 MJthridates, when he besieged it by sea and land 
 (b. c. 75), was of great service to the Romans, and 
 obtained for it the rank of a " libera civitas," which 
 it lost again under Tiberius. Under Constantine 
 it became the chief city of the new province of 
 Hellespontus. It was greatly injured by an earth- 
 quake in A. D, 443, and finally ruined by its con- 
 quest by the Arabians in 675, 
 
 D. 
 
 Daae. [Dahae.] 
 
 Dachiuabades {Aaxiya.€dS7js), a general name 
 for the S. part of the Indian peninsula, derived 
 from the Sanscrit dakshina, the S. wind, and con- 
 nected with the modern name Deccan. 
 
 Sacia (Dacus), as a Roman province, was 
 bounded on the S. by the Danube, which sepa- 
 rated it from Moesia, on the N. by the Carpathian 
 mountains, on the W. by the river Tysia (Theiss), 
 and on the E. hy the river Hierasus {Pruih)^ thus 
 comprehending the modem Transylvania^ Walla- 
 chia, Moldavia, and part of Hungari/. The Daca 
 
DACTYH. 
 
 were of the same race and spoke the same language 
 as the Getae, and are therefore usually said to be 
 of Thracian origin. They were a brave and war- 
 like people. In the reign of Augustus they crossed 
 the Danube and plundered the allies of Rome, but 
 "were defeated and driven back into their own 
 country by the generals of Augustus. In the 
 reign of Domitian they became bo formidable under 
 their king Decebalus, that the Romans were 
 obliged to purchase a peace of them by the pay- 
 ment of tribute. Trajan delivered the empire from 
 this disgrace ; he crossed the Danube, and after a 
 war of S years (a. d. 101 — 106), conquered the 
 country, made it a Roman province, and colonized 
 it with inhabitants from all parts of the empire. 
 At a later period Bacia was invaded by the Goths ; 
 and as Aurelian considered it more prudent to make 
 the Danube the boundary of the empire, he re- 
 signed Dacia to the barbarians, removed the Roman 
 inhabitants to Moesia, and gave the name of Dacia 
 (Aureliani) to that part of the province along the 
 I3anube where they were settled. 
 
 Dactyl! (AccKTuAot), fabulous beings to whom 
 the discovery of iron and the art of working it by 
 means of fire was ascribed. Their name Dactyls, 
 that is, Fingers, is accounted for in various ways ; 
 by their number being 5 or 1 0, or by the fact of 
 their serving Rhea just as the fingers serve the 
 hand, or by the story of their having lived at the 
 foot {4u SoktiJaois) of mount Ida. Most autho- 
 rities describe mount Ida in Phrygia as the origi- 
 nal seat of the Dactyls, whence they are usually 
 called Idaean Dactyls. In Phrygia they were 
 connected with the worship of Rhea. They are 
 sometimes confounded or identified with the Cu- 
 retes, Corybantes, Cabiri, and Telchines. This 
 confusion with the Cabiri also accounts for Samo- 
 thrace being in some accounts described as their 
 residence. Other accounts transfer them to mount 
 Ida in Crete, of which island they are said to have 
 been the original inhabitants. Their number ap- 
 pears to have been originally 3 : Celmis (the smelter), 
 DamnamcTieus (the hammer), and Acjnon (the 
 anvil). Their number was afterwards increased to 
 5, 10 (5 male and 5 female), 52 and 100. 
 
 Dadkstana (^ AaBatrTdva : Torbaleli or Kesta- 
 heg ?), a fortress on the borders of Bithynia and 
 Galatia, where the emperor Jovian died suddenly, 
 A. D. 364. 
 
 Daedala (ra Ao£5oA.o), a city in Asia Minor, 
 upon the Gulf of Glaucus, on the borders of Caria 
 and Lycia. The same name was given to a moun- 
 tain overhanging the town. 
 
 Daedalus (Aai'SoAos). 1. A mythical personage, 
 under whose name the Greek writers personified 
 the earliest development of the arts of sculpture and 
 architecture, especially among the Athenians and 
 Cretans, The ancient writers generally represent 
 Daedalus as an Athenian, of the royal race of the 
 Erechthldae. Others called him a Cretan, on 
 account of the long time he lived in Crete. He is 
 said to have been the son of Metion, the son of 
 Eupalamus, the son of Erechtheus. Others make 
 him the son of Eupalamus, or of Palamaon. His 
 mother is called Alcippe, or Iphinoe, or Phrasimede. 
 He devoted himself to sculpture, and made great 
 improvements in the art. He instructed his sister's 
 aon, Calos, Talus, or Perdix, who soon came to 
 surpass him in skill and ingenuity, and Daedalus 
 killed him, through envy. [Perdix.] Being 
 condemned to death by the Areopagus for this 
 
 DALMATIA. 
 
 205 
 
 murder, he went to Crete, where tlie fame of his 
 skill obtained for him the friendsliip of Minos. 
 He made the well-known wooden cow for Pasi- 
 phae; and when Pasiphae gave birth to the 
 Minotaur, Daedalus constructed the labyrinth, at 
 Cnossus, in which the monster was kept. For his 
 part in this affair, Daedalus was imprisoned by 
 Minos ; but Pasiphae released him, and, as Minos 
 had seized all the ships on the coast of Crete, Dae- 
 dalus procured wings for himself and his son Icarus, 
 and fastened them on with wax. Daedalus himself 
 flew safe over the Aegean, but, as Icarus flew too 
 near the sun, the wax by which his wings were 
 fastened on was melted, and he dropped down and 
 was drowned in that part of the Aegean which was 
 called after him the Icarian sea. Daedalus fled to 
 Sicily, where he was protected by Cocalus, the king 
 of the Sicani. When Minos heard where Daedalus 
 had taken refuge, he sailed with a great fleet to 
 Sicily, where he was treacherously murdered by 
 Cocalus or his daughters. According to some ac- 
 counts Daedalus first alighted in his flight from 
 Crete at Cumae in Italy, where he erected a temple 
 to Apollo, in which he dedicated the wings with 
 which he had fled from Crete. Several other works 
 of art were attributed to Daedalus, in Greece, Italy, 
 Libya, and the islands of the Mediterranean. They 
 belong to the period when art began to be deve- 
 loped. The name of Daedala was given by the 
 Greeks to the ancient wooden statues, ornamented 
 with gilding and bright colours and real drapery, 
 which were the earliest known forms of the images 
 of the gods, after the mere blocks of wood or stone, 
 which were at first used for symbols of them.— 2. 
 Of Sicyon, a statuary in bronze, son and disciple 
 of Patrocles, flourished b. c. 400. 
 
 Daliae (Adai), a great Scythian people, who led 
 a nomad life over a great extent of country on the 
 E. of the Caspian, in Hyicania (which still bears the 
 name of Dagliestan), on the banks of the Margup, 
 the Oxus, and even the Jaxartes. Some of them 
 served as cavalry and horse-archers in the armies 
 of Darius Codomannus, Alexander, and Antiochus 
 the Great, and they also made good foot- soldiers. 
 
 Daimaclius (Aaijaaxos), of Plataeae, was sent 
 by Seleucus as ambassador to Sandrocottus, king 
 of India, about B.C. 312, and wrote a work on 
 India, which is lost. 
 
 Dalmatia or Delmatia (AaA^ar/o : AaAjuaTrjy, 
 more anciently AaX/xaTevs, Dahttaia), a part of the 
 country along the E. coast of the Adriatic sea in- 
 cluded xmder the general name of Illyricum, was 
 separated from Liburnia on the N. by the Titius 
 (Kerica), and from Greek Illyria on the S. by the 
 Drilo {Drino\ and extended inland to the Bebian 
 mountains and the Drinus, thus nearly correspond- 
 ing to the modern Dalmatia. The capital was 
 Dalminium or Delminium, from which the coun- 
 try derived its name. The next most important 
 town was Salona, the residence of Diocletian. 
 The Dalmatians were a brave and warlike people, 
 and gave much trouble to the Romans. In b. c. 
 119 their country was overrun by L. Metellus 
 who assumed in consequence the surname Dalma- 
 ticus, but they continued independent of the Ro- 
 mans. In 39 they were defeated by Asinius Pollio, 
 of whose Dalmaticus triumphus Horace speaks 
 {Curm.. ii. 1, 16) ; but it was not till the year 23 
 that they were finally subdued by Statilius Tau- 
 rus. They took part in the great Pannonian re- 
 volt under their leader Bate, but after a 3 years' 
 
206 
 
 DALMATIUS. 
 
 war were again reduced to subjection by Tiberius, 
 A. D. 9. 
 
 Dalmatius. [Delmatius.] 
 
 Dalminium. [Dalmatia.j 
 
 DamagetUS (Aa/j.dy7}Tos], king of lalysus in 
 Rbodes, married, in obedience to the Delphic 
 oracle, the daughter of Aristomenes of Messene, 
 and from this marriage sprang the family of the 
 Diagoridae, who were celebrated for their victories 
 at Olympia. [Aristomenes.] 
 
 Damalis or Sous {Ad/j.a\is, t) Bovs)^ a small 
 place in Bithynia, on the shore of" the Thracian Bos- 
 porus, N. of Chalcedon ; celebrated by tradition as 
 the landing-place of lo, the memory of whose pas- 
 sage was preserved by a bronze cow set up here 
 by the Chalcedonians. 
 
 Damajatus. [Demaratus.] 
 
 Damascius (Aa/iao-Kios), the Syrian, of Da- 
 mascus, whence he derived his name, the last of 
 the renowned teachers of the Neo-Platonic philo- 
 sophy at Athens, was born about a. d. 480. He 
 first studied at Alexandria and afterwards at 
 Athens, under Marinus and Zenodotus, whom he 
 succeeded. When Justinian closed the heathen 
 schools of philosophy at Athens in 529, Damascius 
 emigrated to King Chosroea of Persia. He after- 
 wards returned to the W., since Chosroes had sti- 
 pulated in a treaty that the heathen adherents of 
 the Platonic Philosophy should be tolerated by the 
 Byzantine emperor. The only work of Damascius 
 "which has been printed, is entitled '" Doubts and 
 Solutions of the first Principles," edited by Kopp, 
 Francof. 1828, 8vo. 
 
 Damascus (?) Aajxaa-KSs : Aafj.a<TK7}v6s : Da- 
 meshk, Damascus, Esh-Sham), one of the most 
 ancient cities of the world, mentioned as existing 
 in the time of Abraham (Gen. xiv. 15), stood in 
 the district afterwards called Coele-Syria, upon 
 both banks of the river Chrysorrhoas or Bardines 
 (Burada), the waters of which, drawn off by 
 canals and aqiieducts, fertilised the plain around 
 the city. This plain is open on the S. and E., and 
 sheltered on the W. and N. by an offshoot of the 
 Antilibanus ; its fruits were celebrat'-'d in ancient, 
 as iu modem times ; and altogether the situation 
 of the city is one of the finest on the globe. In 
 the earliest times, except during the short period 
 for which David subjected it to the Hebrew mon- 
 archy, Damascus was the seat of an independent 
 kingdom, called the kingdom of Syria, which was 
 subdued by the Assyrians, and passed successive!}'' 
 under the dominion of the Babylonians, the Per- 
 sians, the Greek kings of Syria, and the Romans, 
 the last of whom obtained possession of it after 
 the conquest of Tigranes, and assigned it to the 
 province of Syria. It flourished greatly under the 
 emperors, and is called by Julian {Epist. 24) " the 
 Eye of all the East." Diocletian established in it 
 a great factory for arms ; and hence the origin of 
 the fame of Damascus blades. Its position on one 
 of the high roads from Lower to Upper Asia gave 
 it a considerable trade. The surrounding district 
 was called AaixaaKjjui). 
 
 Damasippus, L. Junius Brutus. [Brutus, 
 No. 10.] 
 
 Damasippus, Licinius. 1. A Roman senator, 
 fought on the side of the Pompeians in Africa, and 
 perished B.C. 47.-2. A contemporary of Cicero, 
 who mentions him as a lover of statues, and speaks 
 of purchasing a garden from Damasippus. He is 
 probably the same person as the Damasippus ridi- 
 
 DANAE. 
 
 culed by Horace. (Sat. ii. 3. 16, 64.) It appears 
 from Horace that Damasippus had become bank- 
 rupt, in consequence of which he intended to put an 
 end to himself ; but he was prevented by the 
 Stoic Stertinius, and then turned Stoic himself, or 
 at least affected to be one by his long beard. — 
 The Damasippus mentioned by Juvenal {Sat. viii. 
 147,151, 167) is a fictitious nauie, undt-r which 
 the satirist ridiculed some noble lover of horses. 
 
 Damastes ( AauatTTTjs), of Sigeura, a Greek his- 
 torian, and a contemporary of Herodotus and Hel- 
 lanzcus of Lesbos : his works are lost. 
 
 Damia. [Auxesia.] 
 
 Damnonii. 1. Or Dumnouii or Dumnunii, a 
 powerful people in the S.W. of Britain, inhabiting 
 Cui-nwall^ Devonshire., and the "W". part of Somer- 
 seisJiirc, from whom was called the promontory 
 Danmonium, also Ocnnum (C Lizard) in Corn- 
 wall. — 2. Or Damuii, a people in N. Britain, 
 inhabiting parts of Perth, Argyle, Stirling, and 
 DiihiiiaHon-shires . 
 
 Damo (Aa^w), a daughter of Pythagoras and 
 Theano, to whom Pythagoras entrusted his writings, 
 and forbad her to give them to any one. This 
 command she strictly observed, although she was 
 in extreme poverty, and received many re(Juests 
 to sell them. 
 
 Damocles (Aa^oK\^s), a Syracusan, one of the 
 companions and flatterers of the elder Dionysius. 
 Damocles having extolled the great felicity of 
 Dionysius on account of his wealth and power, the 
 tyrant invited him to try what his happiness really 
 was, and placed hira at a magnificent banquet, in the 
 midst of which Damocles saw a naked sword ftiis- 
 pended over his head by a single horse-hair — a 
 sight which quickly dispelled all his visions of 
 happiness. The story is alluded to by Horace. 
 [Carm. iii. 1. 17.) 
 
 Damon (Adixcuv). 1. Of Athens, a celebrated 
 musician and sophist. He was a pupil of Lamprus 
 and Agathocles, and the teacher of Pericles, with 
 whom he lived on the most intimate terms. He is 
 also said to have taught Socrates, but this state- 
 ment is more doubtful. In his old age he was ba- 
 nished from Athens, probably on account of the 
 part he had taken in politics.— 2. A Pythagorean, 
 and friend of Phiatias (not Pythias). When the 
 latter was condemned to die for a plot against 
 Dionysius I. of Syracuse, he asked leave of the 
 tyrant to depart for the purpose of arrangicg his 
 domestic affairs, promising to find a friend who 
 would be pledge for his appearance at the time ap- 
 pointed for his punishment. To the surprise of 
 Dionysius, Damon unhesitatingly offered himself 
 to be put to death instead of his friend, should he 
 fail to return. Phintias arrived just in time to 
 redeem Damon, and Dionysius was so struck with 
 this instance of firm friendship on both sides, that 
 he pardoned the criminal, and entreated to be ad- 
 mitted as a third into their bond of brotherhood. 
 
 Damoxenus (Aa/xcJfei/os), an Athenian comic 
 poet of the new comedy, and perhaps partly of the 
 middle. 
 
 Dana (Aava), a great city of Cappadocia (Xen. 
 Anab. i. 2. § 20), probably the same as the later 
 Tyana. 
 
 Danae (Aai'dri), daughter of Acrislus and mother 
 of Perseus. [Acrisius.] An Italian legend re- 
 lated that Danae came to Italy, built the town of 
 Ardea, and married Pilumnus, by whom she became 
 the mother of Daunus, the ancestor of Turnus. 
 
DANAI. 
 
 Danai. [Danaus.] 
 
 Danaides (Aafaifiey), the 50 daughters of Da- 
 naus. [Danaus.] 
 
 Danala (to Aara\a), a city in the territory of 
 the Trocini, in the N. E. of Galatia, notable in the 
 history of the Mithridatic War as the place where 
 Lucullus resigned the command to Pompey. 
 
 Dauapris. [Borysthenes.] 
 
 Danastris. [Tyras.] 
 
 Danaus (Aam(is),son of Bolus and twin-brother 
 of Aegyptus. Belus had assigned Libya to Da- 
 naus, but the latter, fearing his brother and his 
 brother's sons, fled with his 50 daughters to Argos. 
 Here he was elected king by the Argives in place 
 of Gelaiior, the reigning monarch. The story of 
 the murder of the 50 sons of Aegyptus by the 50 
 daughters of Danaus (the Danaides) is given under 
 Aegyptus. There was one exception to the mur- 
 derous deed. The life of- Lynceus was spared by 
 his wife Hypermnestra ; and according to the 
 common tradition he afterwards avenged the death 
 of his brothers by killing his father-in-law, DanaUs. 
 According to the poets the Danaides were punished 
 in Hades by being compelled everlastingly to 
 pour water into a sieve {inane lymplioe doliumfundo 
 perei^ntis imo, Hot. Carm. iii. 11. 26). — From 
 DanaUs the Argives were called Danai, which 
 name, like that of the Argives, was often applied 
 by the poets to the collective Greeks. 
 
 Danubius {Danube, in Germ. Donau), also 
 Sannviua on coins and inscriptions, called Ister 
 i^larpos) by the Greeks, one of the chief rivers of 
 Europe, rises in the Black Forest, and after flowing 
 1770 miles falls into the Black sea. It is men- 
 tioned by Hesiod, but the Greeks knew very little 
 about it. According to Herodotus it rises at the 
 city Pyrene among the Celts and flows through 
 the whole of Europe. The Romans first obtained 
 some accurate information concerning the river at 
 the commencement of the empire. Tiberius in his 
 campaign against the Vindelicians, visited the 
 soiirces of the Danube, which, according to Ta- 
 citus, rises in M, Abnoba. The Danube formed 
 the N. boundary of the empire, with the exception 
 of the time that Dacia was a Roman provmce. 
 In the Roman period the upper part of the river 
 from its source as far as Vienna was called Danu- 
 bius, while the lower part to its entrance in the 
 Blade Sea was named Ister. 
 
 Daorsi or Daorizi, a tribe in Dalmatia. 
 
 Dapkaae Peltisiae {Adtpvai al TliXova-iai : Saf- 
 nas), a border fortress of Lower Egypt against 
 Arabia and Syria, stood on the right hand of the 
 Nile, [6 Roman miles S. W. of Pelusium. Many 
 Jews settled here after the destruction of Jerusa- 
 lem by the Babylonians. 
 
 Daphue (Aci^rT?). 1. Daughter of the river- 
 god Ladon in Arcadia, by Ge (the earth), or of 
 the river-god Peneus in Thessaly, She was ex- 
 tremely beautiful, and was loved by Apollo and 
 Leucippus, son of Oenomans, but she rejected both 
 their suits. In order to win her, Leucippus dis- 
 guised himself as a maiden, but Apollo's jealousy 
 caused his discovery and he was killed by the com- 
 panions of Daphne. Apollo now pursued Daphne, 
 and as she was on the point of being overtaken by 
 him, she prayed for aid, and was metamorphorsed 
 into a laurel-tree (Batpv-rj), which became in con- 
 sequence the favourite tree of Apollo. — 2. Daughter 
 of Tiresias, better known under the name of 
 Manto. 
 
 DARDANUS. 
 
 207 
 
 Daphne (Adipvr]). 1, {Beit-el-Moie^ ovBabi/la ?), 
 a beautiful spot, 5 miles S. of Antioch in Syria, to 
 which it formed a sort of park or pleasure garden. 
 Here was a grove of laurels and cypresses, 80 sta- 
 dia in circuit, watered by fresh springs and con- 
 secrated by Seleucus Nicator to Apollo,, to whom 
 also a magnificent temple was built hy Antiochus 
 Epiphanes, and adorned with a splendid statue of 
 the god by Bryaxis. To this temple were attached 
 periodical games and the privilege of asyliun. 
 Daphne was a royal residence of the Seleucidae 
 and of the later Roman emperors, and a favourite 
 resort of the people of Antioch, who, however, car- 
 ried the pleasures they enjo3'ed here so far beyond 
 the bounds of moderation, that the phrase Daph- 
 nici mores passed into a proverb. It was from 
 this place that Antioch received its distinguishing 
 name, 'A. eVl Adtpvrjs. — 3. A place in Upper 
 Galilee on the lake Semechonitis. 
 
 Daphnis (Aacpvis), a Sicilian hero, to whom 
 the invention of bucolic poetry is ascribed. He was 
 the son of Hermes by a nymph. His mother 
 placed him when an infant in a charming valley in 
 a laurel grove, from which he received his name 
 of Daphnis. He was brought up by nj'mphs ; was 
 taught by Pan to play on the flute ; he became a 
 shepherd, and tended his flocks on Mt. Aetna 
 winter and summer. A Naiad fell in love with 
 him, and made him swear that he would never 
 love any other maiden, threatening him with 
 blindness if he broke his oath. For a time the 
 handsome shepherd resisted the numerous tempta- 
 tions to which he was exposed, but at last he forgot 
 himself, having been made intoxicated by a princess. 
 The Naiad accordingly punished him with blind- 
 ness, or, as others relate, changed him into a stone. 
 Previous to this time he had composed bucolic 
 poetr}', and with it delighted Artemis during the 
 chase. After having become blind, he invoked his 
 father to help him. The god accordingly raised 
 him up to heaven, and caused a well to gush forth 
 on the spot where this happened. The well bore 
 the name of Daphnis, and at it the Sicilians offered 
 an annual sacrifice. 
 
 Daphnus (Aaipuovs -ovvtos : Aa^coutnos), a 
 town of the Locri Opuntii on the coast, in earlier 
 times belonging to Phocis, 
 
 Daradax (Aapa5a|: Abu-Ghcdgal?\ a river of 
 Upper Syria, flowing into the Euphrates, 30 para- 
 sangs from the R. Chalos, and 15 from Thapsacus. 
 
 Dardani (AapSavoi), a people in Upper Moesia, 
 who also occupied part of lUyricum, and extended 
 as far as the frontiers of Macedonia. 
 
 Dardania (AapSapia), a district of the Troad, 
 lying along the Hellespont, S. W- of Abydos, and 
 adjacent on the land side to the territories of Ilium 
 and Scepsis. Its people (AdpSavoi) appear in the 
 Trojan War, under Aeneas, in close alliance with 
 the Trojans, with whose name theirs is often inter- 
 changed, especially by the Roman poets. [Dar- 
 danus.] 
 
 Dardanus (Adpdavos), son of Zeus and Electra. 
 His native place in thj various traditions is Ar- 
 cadia, Crete, Troas, or Italy. Dardanus is the 
 mythical ancestor of the Trojans, and through 
 them of the Romans. The Greek traditions 
 usually made him a king in Arcadia. He first 
 emigrated to Samothrace, and afterwards passed 
 over to Asia, where lie received a tract of land 
 from king Teucer, on which he built the tnwn of 
 Dardania. He married Eatea, daughter of Teucer, 
 
208 
 
 DARDANXTS. 
 
 or Arisbe of Crete, by whom he became the father 
 of Erichthonius. His grandson was Troa, who re- 
 moved to Troy the Palladium, which had belonged 
 to his grandfather. According to the Italian tra- 
 ditions, Dardanus was the son of Corythu3, an 
 Etruscan prince of Corythus (Cortona), or of Zeus 
 by the wife of Corythus ; and, as in the Greek 
 tradition, he afterwards emigrated to Phrygia, 
 
 Dardanus (tj AdpBauos: AapSacewr), also, -um 
 and -iiim, a Greek city in the Troad on the Hel- 
 lespont, near the Prom. Dardanis or Dardanium 
 and the mouth of the river Rhodius, 12 Roman 
 miles from Ilium, and 9 (or 70 stadia) from Abydus. 
 It was built by Aeolian colonists, at some distance 
 from the site of the ancient city Dardania {AapSa- 
 vi'ij), which is mentioned by Homer (//. ii. 216) 
 as founded by Dardanus before the building of 
 Ilium. The Romans, after the war with Antiochus 
 the Great, made Dardanus and Ilium free cities, as 
 an act of filial piety. The peace between Sulla and 
 JVIithridates was made here, b. c. 84. From Dar- 
 danus arose the name of the Castles of the Darda- 
 nelles, after which the Hellespont is now called. 
 
 Dares (Aapijs), a priest of Hephaestus at Troy, 
 mentioned in the Iliad (v. 9), to whom was ascribed 
 in antiquity an Iliad, which was believed to be 
 more ancient than the Homeric poems. This work, 
 which was undoubtedly the composition of a sophist, 
 is lost ; but there is extant a Latin work in prose 
 in 44 chapters, on the destruction of Troy, bearing 
 the title Daretis Phrygii de Eoscidio Trojae His- 
 ioria, and purporting to be a translation of the work 
 of Dares by Cornelius Nepos. But the Latin 
 work is evidently of much later origin ; it is the 
 production of a person of little education and of 
 bad taste ; and it is supposed by some to have 
 been written even as late as the 12th century. It 
 is usually printed with Dictys Cretensis: the best 
 edition is by Dederich, Bonn, 1837i 8vo. 
 
 Sanus (Aapuos). I. King of Persia, b. c. 521 
 — 485, was the son of Hystaspes, satrap of the 
 province of Persis, and of the royal family of the 
 Achaemenidae. He was one of the 7 Persian 
 chiefs who destroyed the usurper Smehdis. The 
 7 chiefs agreed that the one of them whose horse 
 neighed first at an appointed time and place, 
 should become king ; and as the horse of Darius 
 neighed first, he was declared king. He married 
 Atossa and Artystone, the 2 daughters of Cyrus, 
 and Parmys, the daughter of Cyrus's son Smerdis, 
 and Phaedime, the daughter of Otanes, one of the 
 7 chiefs. Pie then began to set in order the affairs 
 of his vast empire, which he divided into 20 sa- 
 trapies, assigning to each its amount of tribute. 
 Persia proper was exempted from all taxes, except 
 those which it had formerly been used to pay. It 
 was in the reign of Darius that the consolidation of 
 the empire was effected, for Cyrus and Cambyses 
 had been engaged in continual wars. — A few years 
 after his accession the Babylonians revolted, but 
 after a siege of 20 months, Babylon was taken by 
 a stratagem of Zopyrus, about 516*. The re- 
 duction of Babylon was followed by the invasion 
 of Scythia (about 508). Darius crossed the Da- 
 nube, and marched far into the interior of modern 
 Russia ; but after losing a large number of men by 
 famine, and being unable to meet with the enemy, he 
 was obliged to retreat. On his return to Asin, he 
 sent part of his forces, under Megabazus, to subdue 
 Thrace and Macedonia, which thus became subject 
 to the Persian empire. The most important event 
 
 — DaTIS 
 
 in the reign of Darius was the commencement of 
 the great war between the Persians and the Greeks, 
 The history of this war belongs to the biographies 
 of other men. In 501 the Ionian Greeks revolted ; 
 they were assisted by the Athenians, who burnt 
 Sardis, and thus provoked the hostility of Darius. 
 [Aristagoras ; Histiaeus.] In 492 Mardo- 
 nius was sent with a large army to invade Greece, 
 but he lost a great part of his fleet off Mt. Athos, 
 and the Thracians destroyed a vast number of his 
 land forces. [Mardonius.] He was, in conse- 
 quence, recalled, and Datis and Artaphemes ap- 
 pointed to the command of the invading army. 
 They took Eretria in Euboea, and landed in Attica, 
 but were defeated at Marathon by the Athenians 
 under the command of Miltiades. [Miltiades.] 
 Darius now resolved to call out the whole force of 
 his empire for the purpose of subduing Greece ; 
 but, after 3 years of preparation, his attention was 
 called off by the rebellion of Egypt, He died in 
 485, leaving the execution of his plans to his son 
 Xerxes.^II. King of Persia, 424 — 405, named 
 Ochus COxos) before his accession, and then sur- 
 named Nothus (Ncifloy), or the Bastardy from his 
 being one of the bastard sons of Artaxerxes I. 
 Darius obtained the crown by putting to deat^j his 
 brother Sogdianus, who had murdered Xerxes II. 
 He married Parysatis, daughter of Xerxes I., by 
 whom he had 2 sons, Artaxerxes II., who suc- 
 ceeded him, and Cyrus the younger. Darius was 
 governed by eunuchs, and the weakness of his go- 
 vernment was shown by repeated insurrections of 
 his satraps. In 414 the Persians were expelled 
 from Eg3'pt by Amyrtaeus, who reigned there 6 
 years, and at whose death (408) Darius was obliged 
 to recognise hiason Pausiris as his successor.^ III. 
 Last king of Persia, 336 — 331, named Codoman- 
 nus before his accession, was the son of Arsames 
 and Sisygambis, and a descendant of Darius II. 
 He was raised to the throne by Bagoas, after the 
 murder of Arses. The history of his conquest 
 by Alexander the Great, and of his death, is given 
 in the life of Alexander. 
 
 Dascon (Ada-Kwv : Aaa-Kcovtos), a fortress near 
 Syracuse, situated on a bay of the same name, 
 
 Dascylium (AdtTKuAior or-elov: Aao-KvKiTTjs : 
 Diaskili), a town of Bithynia, on the Propontis, 
 near a lake called Dascylitis. 
 
 Dasea {Aaaia.^ also Aatre'oi : Aatredr-qs), a small 
 town in Arcadia near Megalopolis. 
 
 Dassaretii or Dassarltae, Dassaretae (Aao-o-a- 
 pT}Tioi^ Aao-o-apTrai), a people in Greek Illyria on 
 the borders of Macedonia: their chief town was 
 Lycbnidus (Aux^'tSos) on a hill, on the N. side 
 of the lake Lyclmitis, which was so called after 
 the town. 
 
 Datames (Aara^Tis), a distinguished Persian 
 general, a Carian by birth, son of Camissares by a 
 Scythian mother. He succeeded his father as 
 satrap of Cilicia, under Artaxerxes II. (Mnemon), 
 but, in consequence of the machinations of his 
 enemies at the Persian court, he threw off his 
 allegiance to the king, and made common cause 
 with the other satraps who had revolted from 
 Persia. He defeated the generals who were sent 
 against him, but was assassinated by Mithridates, 
 son of Ariobarzanes, about b. c. 3U2. Cornelius 
 Nepos, who has written his life, calls him the 
 bravest and most able of all barbarian generals, 
 except Hamilcar and Hannibal. 
 
 Datis (Aarts), a Mede, commanded, along with 
 
DATUM. 
 
 Artaphernes, the Persian army of Darius, which 
 waa defeated at Marathon, b. c, 490. 
 
 Datum, or Datus {Adrov, Aaros : AaT7]v6s\ a 
 Thracian town on the Strynionic gulf, subject to 
 Macedonia, with gold mines in Mt. Pangaeus in the 
 neighbourhood, whence came the proverb a " Datum 
 of good things." 
 
 Daulis or Daulia ( AavKis -i^os, Aavxia : Aav- 
 Aieus, AauAioy), an ancient town in Phocis on the 
 rojid from Chaeronea and Orchomenus to Delphi, 
 situated on a lofty hill: celebrated in mythology 
 as the residence of the Thracian king Tereus, and 
 aa the scene of the tragic story of Philomela and 
 PitocNE. Hence Daulias (Aavhids) is tlie sur- 
 name both of Procue and Philomela. 
 
 Daimia. [Apulia.] 
 
 Daunus {Aavvos). \. Son of L5'caon, and bro- 
 ther of lapyx and Peucetius. The '6 brothers 
 crossed over from Illyria, and settled in Apulia, 
 wliich was divided into 3 parts, and named after 
 them. The poets sometimes gave the name of 
 Daunia to the whole of Apulia: Horace {Oarm. 
 i. '2'2. 14) uses the adjective Daunias (sc. terra). — 
 2. Son of Pilumnus and Danae, wife of Venilia, 
 and ancestor of Turnua. 
 
 Decebalus (Ae/ce^aAos), a celebrated king of 
 the Dacians during the reigns of Domitian and 
 Trajan. For 4 years (a. d. UG — 90) he carried on 
 war .against the Romans with such success, that 
 Domitian was at length glad to conclude peace with 
 liim by the payment of an annual tribute. Trajan 
 refused to continue this disgmceful payment, and 
 renewed the war. He defeated the Dacians, and 
 compelled Decebalus to sue for peace, which was 
 granted (101—103). But in 104 the war broke 
 out again ; Decebalus was again defeated, and put 
 an end to his own life ; and Dacia became a llo- 
 man province, 106. 
 
 Decelea or -ia (Ae/ceAeto: AeK€\evs: Blala- 
 Custro), a demus of Attica, belonging to the tribe 
 Hippothoontis, lay N.W. of Athens, on the borders 
 of Boeotia, near the sources of the Cephissus. In 
 the 19th year of the Peloponnesian War (b. c. 
 413), the Peloponnesians under Agis seized and for- 
 tified Decelea, and thereby annoyed the Atlienians 
 in many waj's during the remainder of the war. 
 
 Decentius Magnus, brother or cousin of Mag- 
 nentius, by whom he was created Caesar, a. d. 351. 
 After the death of Magnentius, he put an end 
 to his own life, 353. 
 
 Decetia {Desize)^ a city of the Aedui, in Gallia 
 Lugdunensis, on an island in the Liger {Loire). 
 
 Deciates, a Ligurian people on the coast and 
 about the sources of the Druentia {Durance). 
 Their chief city, Deciatum (AeH:t7]T0)'),lay between 
 Nicnea and Antipolis. 
 
 Decidius Saxa. [Saxa.] 
 
 P. Decius Mus, plebeians. 1. Consul B.C. 340 
 with T. Manlius Torquatus in the great Latin war. 
 Kach of the consuls had a vision in the nifjht be- 
 fore fighting witlt the Latins, announcing that the 
 general of one side and the army of the other were 
 di.^voted to death. The consuls thereupon agreed 
 that the one whose wing first began to waver 
 sliould devote himself and the army of the enemy 
 to destruction. Decius commanded the left wing, 
 which began to give way, whereupon be devoted 
 himself and the army of the enemy to destruction, 
 according to the fonnula prescribed by the pontifex 
 niaxinms, then rushed into the thickest of the 
 enemy, and was slain, leaving the victory to the 
 
 DEIOTARUS. 
 
 20S' 
 
 Romans.— 2. Son of the preceding, 4 times consul, 
 312, 308, 297, and 295. In his 4th consulship 
 he commanded the left wing at the battle of Scn- 
 tinuui, where he was opposed to the Gauls, and 
 when his troops began to give way, he imitated 
 the example of his father, devoted himself and the 
 enemy to destruction, and fell as a sacrifice for his 
 nation. — 3, Son of No. 2, consul 279, in the war 
 against Pyrrhus. According to some he sacrificed 
 himself in battle like his father and grandfather, 
 but this is not true, for he survived the war with 
 Pyrrhus. 
 
 Decius, Roman emperor, A. d. 249 — 251, whose 
 full name was C. Messius Quintus Trajakus 
 Decius, was born at Bubalia in Pannonia. He 
 was sent by tlie emperor Philippus in 249 to re- 
 store subordination in the army of Moesia, but the 
 troops compelled him to accept the purple under 
 threats of death. Decius still assured Philippus of 
 his fidelit}"^; but tlie latter not trusting these pro- 
 fessions, hastened to meet his rival in the field, 
 was defeated near Verona, and slain. The short 
 reign of Decius was chiefly occupied in waning 
 against the Goths. He fell in battle against the 
 Goths together with his son in 251. In his reign 
 the Christians were persecuted with great severity. 
 
 Deciimates Agri. [Agri Decumates.] 
 
 Deianira {A7}idveipa), daughter of Althaea by 
 either Oeneus, or Dionysus, or Dexamcnus, and. 
 sister of Meleager. Achelous and Hercules both 
 loved De'ianira, and fought for the possession of 
 her. Hercules was victorious, and she became his 
 wife. She was the unwilling cause of her hus- 
 band''s death by presenting him with the poisoned 
 robe, which the centaur Nessus gave her. In despair 
 she put an end to her own life. For details see 
 Hekcules. 
 
 Deidamia {A7]idd/i€ia). 1. Daughter of Lyco- 
 medes in the island of Seyms. When Aciiilles 
 was concealed there in maiden's attire, she became 
 by him the mother of Pyrrhus or Neoptolemus. — 
 2. Wife of Pirithous, commonly called Hippoda- 
 MiA. ^ 3. Sister of Pyrrhus, married Demetrius 
 Poliorcetes. 
 
 Deioces (ATji'tJKTjs), first king of Media, after the 
 Medes had thrown off the supremacy of the Assy- 
 rians, was the son of Phraortes, and reigned B. c. 
 709— 65t). He built the city of Ecbatana, which 
 he made the royal residence. His administration 
 of justice was severe, and he kept a body of spies 
 and informers throughout the whole country. He 
 was succeeded by his son, Phraortes. 
 
 Leion (Arficvv)^ son of Aeolus and Enarete, kin"- 
 in Phocis, husband of Diomede, and father of 
 Asteropia, Aenetus, Actor, Phylacus, and Ce- 
 phalus. 
 
 Deione {A-qiwvn), mother of Miletus, who is 
 hence called Deiouides. (Ov. Met.ix. 442.) 
 
 Deiotarus (A-qiorapos). 1, Tetrarch of Galatia, 
 adhered firmly to the Romans in their wars in 
 Asia against Mitliridates, and was rewarded bv the 
 senate with the title of king, and the addition of 
 Armenia Minor to his dominions. In the civil 
 war he sided with Pompey, and was present at 
 the battle of Pharsalia, B.C. 4ii. In 47 he applied 
 to Domltius Calvinus, Caesar's legate in Asia, for 
 aid against Pharnaces, who had taken possession of 
 Armenia Minor. When Caesar, in the same year, 
 came into Asia from Egypt, Deiotarus received 
 him with submission, and endeavoured to excuse 
 the aid he had given to Pompey. Caesar deprived 
 
210 DEIPIIOnK 
 
 liim of part of his dominions, but alloAvcd him to 
 retain his rogal title. Two years afterwards (45) 
 his grandson Castor accused him of having formed a 
 design against Caesar's life, when he received Caesar 
 in Galatia. He was defended by Cicero before 
 Caesar, in the house of the latter at Rome, in the 
 speech {pro Urge Deioiaro) still extant. The 
 result of the trial is not known. After Caesar's 
 death he obtained from Antony the restitution of 
 his dominions by paying Fulvia a large sum of 
 money. In 42. he joined th'! party of Brutus and 
 Cassius, and died shortly afturwards at a great 
 age. — 2. Son and successor of the above. In the 
 war between Antony and Octavian ho took part 
 with the former, but went over from him to the 
 enemy in the battle of Actinra, 31. 
 
 Deipliobe (AT^i'cpd^Tj), the Sibyl at Cumae, 
 daughter of Glaucus. [Sibylla.] 
 
 Deiphobus (ATjitfioSoyJ, a son of Priam and He- 
 cuba, and next to Hector, the bravest among the 
 Trojans. He always supported Paris in his refusal 
 to deliver up Helen to tlie Trojans ; and he married 
 her after the death of Paris. Accordingly, on the 
 fall of Troy, the vengeance of the Greeks was 
 chiefly directed against him. His house was one 
 of the first committed to the flames, and he was 
 slain and fearfnll}^ mangled by Menelaus. In. this 
 dreadful condition he was found in the lower world 
 by Aeneas, ivho erected a monument to him on 
 cape Pi.lioeteum. 
 
 Deiph-Ontes (Ayii'p6frris)^ Bon of Antiraachus, 
 and husband of Hyrnetho, the daughter of Teme- 
 nus the Heraclid, bt'came king of Argos, after 
 TL'menns had been murdered by his own sons. 
 Pausaulas (ii, 19) gives a different account, 
 
 Delium {A-fjAiou: Dhilcs^i)^ a town on the coast 
 of Boeotia. in the territory of Tanagra, near the 
 Attic frontier, named after a temple of Apollo si- 
 milar to that at Delos. The Athenians used it as 
 a fortress in the early part of the Peloponnesian 
 War. and in B.C. 424 they were defeated here by 
 the Boeotians. 
 
 Dslxus and Delia (At/Xioj, ATjXia), surnames 
 of Apollo and Artemis respcctivelyj from the island 
 of Delos. 
 
 Dellius, Q., a Roman equcs, who frequently 
 changed sides in the civil wars. In B, c. 44 he 
 joined Dolabella in Asia, afterwards went over to 
 Cassius, and then united himself to M. Antony. 
 He deserted to Octavian shortly before tlie battle 
 of Actium, 31. He appears to have become a 
 personal friend of Octavian and Maecenas, and is 
 therefore addressed by Horace in one of his Odes (ii. 
 3). He wrote a Iiistory of Antony's war against 
 the Parthians, in which he had himself fought. 
 
 Delmatius or Dalmatius. 1. Son of Constan- 
 tius ChioiTjs and his second wife Tlieodora. From 
 his half-brother, Constantine the Great, he received 
 the title of censor : lie died before a. d. .S):i5. — 2. 
 Son of the preceding, was created Caesar by Constan- 
 tino the Great, 33.5 ; and, upon the division of the 
 empire, received Tlirace, Macedonia, and Achaia, as 
 hi- portion. He was put to death in 337 on the 
 deatli of Constantine. 
 
 Delos or Delus (17 A77X0S : A-fjXios: Ddo^ Deli^ 
 Dil'i^ or Sdiin^ Ru,), the smallest of the islands 
 called Cyclades, in the Aegean Sea, lay in the 
 strait between Rhenoa and Mvconus. It was also 
 called, in earlier times, Astoria, Ortj-gin, and Chla- 
 mydia. According to a legend, founded perhaps 
 on some tradition of its late volcanic origin, it was 
 
 DELOS. 
 
 called out of the deep by the trident of Poseidon, 
 but vvas a floating island until Zeus fastened it hy 
 adamantine chains to the bottom of the sea, tJiat 
 it might be a secure resting place to Leto, for the 
 birtii of Apollo and Artemis. Apollo afterwards 
 obtained possession of Delos, b}' giving Calauria to 
 Poseidon in exchange for it ; and it became the 
 most holy seat of the worship of Apollo, Such is 
 the mythical story : we learn from history that 
 Delos was peopled by the lonians, for whom it was 
 the chief centre of political and religious union in 
 the time of Homer : it was also the seat of an 
 Amphictyony, comprising the surrounding islands. 
 In the time of Pisistratus, Delos became subject to 
 the Athenians ; it was made the common treasuiy 
 of the Greek confederacy for carr3'ing on the war 
 with Persia ; but the transference of the treasury 
 to Athens, and the altered character of the league, 
 reduced the island to a condition of absolute po- 
 litical dependence upon Athens. It still possessed, 
 however, a very extensive commerce, which was in- 
 creased by the downfal of Corinth, when Di^lus 
 became the chief emporium for the trade in slaves ; 
 and it was one of the principal seats of art in Greece, 
 especially for works in bronze, of which metal one 
 of the most esteemed mixtures was called the 
 Delian. An especial sanctity was attached to 
 Uelos from its connection with the worsliip of 
 Apollo ; and the peculiar character assigned to the 
 island by the traditions of its origin was cimfirmed 
 \ij the remarkable fact that, though of volcanic 
 origin, and in the midst of islands very subject to 
 earthquakes, Delos enjoyed an almost entire ex- 
 emption from such visitations, so that its being- 
 shaken by an earthquake was esteemed a marked 
 prodigy. The city of Delos stood on the AV. side 
 of the island, at the foot of Mt. Cynthus (whence 
 the god's surname of Cynthius), near a little river 
 called Inopus, It contained a temjde of Lcto, and 
 the great temple of Apollo. The latter was built 
 near the harbour, and possessed an oracle. Though 
 enriched with offerings from all Greece, and do- 
 fended by no fortifications, it was so protected from 
 plunder by the sanctity of the place, that even the 
 Persians, when sailing against Greece, not oiily 
 passed it by uninjiu-ed, but sent rich presents to 
 the god. With this temple were connected games, 
 called Delia, which were celebrated every 4 
 years, and were said to have been founded by 
 Theseus. A like origin is ascribed to the sacred 
 embassy (i&ewpta) which the Athenians sent to Delos 
 every year, {pkl. of Atit. art. Tlteon.) The temple 
 and oracle were visited by pilgrims from every 
 quarter, even from the regions of Sc^'thia. The 
 greatest importance was attached to the pre- 
 servation of the sanctity of the island. It was 
 twice purified by the Athenians ; once under Pisis- 
 tratus, when all tombs within sight of the temple 
 were taken away ; and again in B. c, 42G, when 
 all human and animal remains were removed en- 
 tirely from the island, which was henceforth for- 
 bidden to be polluted by births or deaths, or by the 
 presence of dogs : all persons about to die or bring 
 forth children were to be removed to tlie adjacent 
 island of Rhenea. Delos continued in a flcmrish- 
 ing condition, and under the rule of the Athenians, 
 who were confirmed in the possession of it by the 
 Romans, until the Mithridatic War, when Meno- 
 phanes, one of the generals of Mithridates, inflicted 
 upon it a devastation, from which it never again 
 recovered. 
 
DELPHI. 
 
 DelpM (ol AdXfpoi : A€\(p6s : KasiH), a Bmjill 
 town in Phocis, but one of the most celebrated in 
 Greece, on account of its oracle of Apollo. It was 
 16 stadia in circumference, was situated on a steep 
 declivity on the S. slope of Mt. Parnassus, and its 
 site resembled the cavea of a great theatre. It 
 was shut in on the N. by a barrier of rocky moun- 
 fciins, which were cleft in the centre into 2 great 
 cliflfs with peaked summits, between which issued 
 the waters of the Castiilian spring. It was origi- 
 nally called Pytlio {Uv6a>\ by which name it is 
 alone mentioned in Homer. The origin of the 
 name of Delphi is uncertain. The ancients derived 
 it from an eponymous hero, Delphus, a descendant 
 of Deucalion ; but it has been conjectured, with 
 great probability, that Delphi is connected with 
 adclphos, "brother,'' and that it was indebted for 
 its name to the twin peaks mentioned above. 
 Delphi was colonised at an early period by Doric 
 settlers from the neighbouring town of Lycorea, on 
 the heights of Parnassus. The government was 
 an oligarchy, and was in the hands of a few dis- 
 tinguished families of Doric origin. Frmn them 
 were taken the chief magistrates, the priests, and 
 a senate consisting of a very few members. Delphi 
 was regarded as the central point of the whole 
 earth, and was hence called the " navel of the 
 earth." It was said that 2 eagles sent forth by 
 Jupiter, one from the E. and the other from the W., 
 met at Delphi at the same time. — Delphi was the 
 principal seat of the worship of Apollo. Besides 
 llie great temple of Apollo, it contained numerous 
 sanctuaries, statues, and other works of art. The 
 Pythian games were also celebrated here, and it 
 was one of the 2 places of meeting of the Amphic- 
 tj'onic council. — The temple of Apollo was si- 
 tuated at the N.W. extremity of the town. The 
 first stone temple was built by Trophonius and 
 Agamedes ; and when this was bm-nt down B.C. 
 .548, it was rebuilt by the Amphictyons with still 
 greater splendour. The expense was defrayed by 
 voluntary subscriptions, to whicli even Araasis, 
 king of Egypt, contributed. The architect was 
 Spintharus of Corinth ; the Alcmaeonidae con- 
 ti-acted to build it, and liberally substituted Parian 
 marble for tlie front of the building, instead of the 
 common stone which they had agreed to employ. 
 The temple contained immense treasures ; for not 
 only were rich offerings presented to it by kings 
 and private persons, who had received favourable 
 replies from the oracle, but many of the Greek 
 states had in the temple separate thesauri, in which 
 tliey deposited, for the sake of security, many of 
 their valuable treasures. The wealth of the temple 
 attracted Xerxes, who sent part of his army into 
 Phocis to obtain possession of its treasures, but the 
 Persians were driven back by the gnd himself, ac- 
 cording to the account of the Delphians. The 
 Phocians plundered the temple to support them in 
 the war against Thebes and the other Greek states 
 (357 — y,4G) ; and it was robbed at a later time by 
 Brennus and by Sulla. — In the centre of the 
 temple there was a sinall opening (xatrfxa) in the 
 ground, from which, (torn time to time, an intoxi- 
 cating vapour arose, which was believed to come 
 from the well of Cassotis. No traces of this chasm 
 or of the niephitic exhalations are now any where 
 observable. Over this chasm there stood a tripod, 
 on which the priestess, called Pythia, took her 
 scat whenever tlie oracle was to be consulted. 
 The words which she uttered after exhaling the 
 
 DEMARATQS. 
 
 211 
 
 vapoiir, were believed to contain the revelations of 
 Apollo. They were carefully written down by the 
 priests, and afterwards communicated in hexameter 
 verse to the persons who had come to consult the 
 oracle. If the Pythia spoke in prose, her words 
 were immediately turned into verse by a poet em- 
 ployed for the purpose. The oracle is said to have 
 been discovered bj'^ its having thrown into con- 
 vulsions some goats which had strayed to the mouth 
 of the cave. — For details respecting the oracle 
 and its influence in Greece, see IHci. of Ant. art. 
 Oraciiluiu. 
 
 Delphines. [Delphinius.] 
 
 Delphiniimi (AeAi^iVior). 1. A temple of Apollo 
 Delphinius at Athens, said to have been built by" 
 Aegeus, in which the Ephetae sat for trying cases 
 of intentional, but justifiable homicide. — 2. The 
 harbour of Oropus in Attica, on the borders of 
 Boeotia, called 6 hphs At/A7)i'. — 3. A town on the 
 E. coast of the island Chios. 
 
 Delphinius {Ae\<p(vios), a surname of Apollo, 
 derived eitiier from his slaying the dragon Del- 
 phinea (usually called Python), or because in the 
 form of a dolphin (SeA^ty) or riding on a dolphin, 
 he showed the Cretan colonists the way to Delphi. 
 
 Delphus (Ae\t{}6s). 1. Son of Poseidon and 
 Melantho, to wliom tiie foundation of Delphi was 
 ascribed. — 2. Son of Apollo and Celaeno, who is 
 also said to have founded Delphi. 
 
 Delta. [Aeuvptus.] 
 
 Demades (Aij/xciStjs, a contraction of A7]/xed^i]s), 
 an Athenian orator, was of very low origin, but 
 rose by his talents to a prominent position at 
 Athens. He belonged to tlie Macedonian party, 
 and was a bitter enemy of Demosthenes. He was 
 taken prisoner at the battle of Chaeronea, b. c. SliiJ, 
 but was dismissed by Philip with distinguished 
 marks of honour. After Philip's death he was the 
 subservient supporter of Alexander, but notwith- 
 standing frecjuently received bribes from the oppo- 
 site party. He was put to death by Antlpater in 
 318, because the latter had discovered a letter of 
 Demades, urging the enemies of Antlpater to attack 
 him. Demades was a man without principle, and 
 lived in a most profligate and dissolute manner. 
 But he was a brilliant orator. He always spoke 
 extempore, and with such irresistible force that he 
 was a perfect match for Demosthenes himself. 
 There is extant a large fragment of an oration 
 bearing the name of Demades (TrepI SwSe/faerfas), 
 in which he defends his conduct during the period 
 of Alexander's reign. It is printed in the col- 
 lections of the Attic orators, but its genuineness 
 is doubtful. Cicero and Quintilian both state that 
 Demades left no omtions behind him. 
 
 Demaratus (ATjfxdpaTos^ Dur. AafMaparos). 1. 
 King of Sparta, reigned from about B.C. 510 to 
 491. He was at variance with his unscmpulous 
 colleague Cleomenes, who at lengtli accused him 
 before the Ephors of being an illegitimate son of 
 Ariston, and obtained his deposition by bribing 
 the Delphic oracle, b. c. 491. Demaratus thereupon 
 repaired to the Persian coast, where he was kindlv 
 received by Darius. He accompanied Xerxes in 
 his invasion of Greece, and reconnnended the king 
 not to rely too confidently upon his cnmtless hosts. 
 His family continued long in Asia.— 2 A merchant- 
 noble of Corinth, and one of the Baccliiadae. When 
 the power of his clan had Ijeeu overthrown b\- 
 Cypselus, about B. c. Go7, he fled from Corinth, and 
 settled at Tarquinii in Etruria, where he married 
 
212 
 
 DEMETAE. 
 
 an Etruscan wife, by whom he had 2 sons, Aruns 
 and Lucumo, afterwards L. Tarquinius Prisciis. 
 
 Demetae, a people of Britain, In the S.W. of 
 Wales : their chief towns were Maridunum [Ca?-- 
 jiiarthen) and Luentiiium. 
 
 Demeter (Atj^t^tt^p), one of the great divinities 
 of the Greeks, was the goddess of the earth, and 
 her name probably signified I\loilier-Eurth {yr\ 
 f.iy}T7}f)), She was the protectress of agriculture and 
 of all the fruits of the earth. She was the daughter 
 of Cronus and Rhea, and sister of Zeus, by whom 
 she became the mother of Persephone (Prnserpina). 
 Zl'Us, without the knowledge of Demeter, had 
 promised Persephone to Aidoneus (Pluto) ; and 
 wiiile the unsuspecting maiden was gathering 
 flowers in the Nysian plain in Asia, the earth sud- 
 denly opened and she was carried off by Aidoneus. 
 Her mother, who heard only the echo of her voice, 
 immediately set out in search of her daughter. 
 For 9 days she wandered about witliout obtaining 
 any tidings of her, but on the tenth she met He- 
 cate, who told her that she had heard the cries of 
 Persephone, but did not know who had carried 
 her off. Both then hastened to Helios (the Sun), 
 wlio revealed to them that it was Aidoneus who 
 had carried off Persephone with the consent of 
 Zl'us. Thereupon Demeter in her anger avoided 
 Olympus, and dwelt upon earth among men, con- 
 ferring blessings wherever she was kindly received, 
 and severely punishing those who repulsed her. 
 In this manner sJie came to Celeus at Eleusis. 
 [Celeus.] As the goddess still continued angry, 
 and did not allow the earth to produce any fruits, 
 Zeus first sent Iris and then all the gods to persuade 
 Demeter to return to Olympus. But she was deaf 
 to all their entreaties, and refused to return to 
 Olympus, and to restore fertility to the earth, till 
 she had seen her daughter again. Zeus accord- 
 ingly sent Hennes into Erebus to fetch back Per- 
 sephone. Aidoneus consented, but gave Persephone 
 part of a pomegranate to eat. Hermes then took 
 her to Eleusis to her mother, who received her 
 with unbounded joy. At Eleusis both were joined 
 by Hecate, who henceforth became the attendant 
 of Persephone. Demeter now returned to Olympus 
 with her daugliter, but as the latter had eaten in 
 the lower world, she was obliged to spend one 
 third of the year with Ai'doneus, but was allowed 
 to continue with her mother the remainder of the 
 year. The earth now brought forth fmit again. 
 Before Demeter left Eleusis, she instructed Trip- 
 tokmus. Diodes, Eumolpus, and Celeus in the 
 mode of her worship and in the mysteries. This 
 is the ancient legend as preserved in the Homeric 
 hj-mn, but it is variously modified in later traditions. 
 In the Latin poets the scene of the rape is near 
 Enna in Sicily; and Ascalaphus, who had alone 
 seen Persephone eat any thing in the lower world, 
 revealed the fact and was in consequence turned 
 into an owl by Demeter. [Arcalaphus.] In 
 the Iliad and Odyssey there is no mention of this 
 legend, ;ind there appears no connexion between 
 Demeter and Persephone. The meaning of the 
 legend is obvious. Persephone, who is carried off 
 to the lower world, is the seed-corn, which remains 
 concealed in the ground part of the year; Persephone, 
 who returns to her mother, is the corn which rises 
 from the ground and nourishes men and animals. 
 Later philosophical writers, and perhaps the mys- 
 teries also, referred tlie disappearance and return 
 of Persephone to the burial of the body of man 
 
 DEMETRIUS. 
 
 and the immortality of his soul. — The other legends 
 about Demeter are of less importance. To escape 
 the pursuit of Poseidon she changed herself into a 
 mare, but the god effected his purpose, and slie 
 became the mother of the celebrated horse Arion 
 [Arion, No. 2.] According to some traditions 
 she also bore to Poseidon a daughter Despoena {i. c. 
 Persephone), — She fell in love with lasion and 
 lay with him in a thrice-ploughed field in Crete : 
 their offspring was Plutus {Wealth). [Iasjon.] 
 — She punished with fearful hunger Erysichthon, 
 who had cut do^vn her sacred grove. [Eiiv- 
 sicHTHON.] — The chief seats of the worship of 
 Demeter and Persephone were Attica, Arcadia and 
 Sicily. In Attica she was worshipped with great 
 splendour. The Athenians pretended that agri- 
 culture was first practised in their country, and 
 that Triptolemus of Eleusis, the favourite of De- 
 meter, was the first who invented the plough and 
 sowed com. [Triptolemus.] Every year at 
 Athens the festival of the Eleusinia was celebrated 
 in honour of these goddesses. The festival of the 
 Thesmophoria was also celebrated in her honour as 
 well at Athens as in other parts of Greece : it was 
 mtended to commemorate the introduction of the 
 laws and the regulations of civilised life, which 
 were ascribed to Demeter, since agriculture is the 
 basis of civilisation. {Diet, of A ni. arts. Eleusinia^ 
 TIiesDKrphoria.) — In works of art Demeter was re- 
 presented sometimes in a sitting attitude, sometimes 
 walking, and sometimes riding in a chariot drawn 
 by horses or dragons, but always in full attire. 
 Around her head she wore a garland of corn-ears 
 or a simple riband, and in her hand she held a 
 sceptre, corn-ears or a poppy, sometimes also a torch 
 and the mystic basket. — The Romans received 
 from Sicily the worship of Demeter, to whom they 
 gave the name of Ceres. The first temple of Ceres 
 at Rome was vowed by the dictator A. Postumius 
 Albinus, in b. c. 496, for the purpose of averting 
 a famine with which Rome was threatened during 
 a war with the Latins. The Romans instituted a 
 festival with games in honour of her {Did. of Ant. 
 s. V. Cerealia). She was looked upon by the Romans 
 much in the same liglit as Tellus. Pigs were sa- 
 crificed to both divinities, in the seasons of sowing 
 and in harvest time, and also at the burial of the 
 dead. Her worship acquired considerable political 
 importance at Rome. The property of traitors 
 against the republic was often made over to her 
 temple. The decrees of the senate were deposited 
 in her temple for the inspection of the tribunes of 
 the people. If we further consider that the .aediles 
 had the special superintendence of this temple, it is 
 very probable that Ceres, whose worship was, like 
 the plebeians themselves, introduced at Rome from 
 without, had some peculiar relation to the plebeian 
 order. 
 
 Demetrias (ArjfLTjrpLds : A7j|U7]T/)i€iis). 1. A 
 town in Magnesia in Thessaly, on the innennost 
 recess of the Pagasaean bay, founded by Demetrius 
 Poliorcetes, and peopled by the inhabitants of 
 lolcus and the surrounding towns : it soon became 
 one of the most important 'towns in the N. of 
 Greece, and is frequently mentioned in the wars 
 between the Macedonians and Romans. — 2. A 
 town in Assyria, not far from Arbela. — 3. An 
 Athenian tribe, added to the 10 old tribes. B.C. 
 307, and named in honourof Demetrius Poliorcetes. 
 
 Demetrius {A-n/j-jirpto-y). 1. A Greek of tlte 
 island of Pharos in the Adriatic. He was a ge- 
 
DEMETRIUS. 
 
 nerjil of Teuta, the lUyrian queen, and treacherously 
 siirrendtTed Corcyra to tlie Romans, who rewarded 
 him with a great part of the dominions of Teuta, 
 220. Subsequently he ventured on many acts of 
 piratical hostilit}"- against the Romans, thinking that 
 they were too much occupied with the Gallic war 
 and the impending danger of Hannibal's invasion to 
 take notice of him. The Romans, however, imme- 
 diately sent the consul L. Aemilius Paulus over 
 to Illyria (219), who took Pharos itself, and ob- 
 liged Demetrius to fly for refuge to Philip, king 
 of Macedonia. At the court of this prince he spent 
 the remainder of bis life. — 2. Younger son of 
 Philip v., king of Macedonia, was sent as a hostage 
 to Rome after the battle of Cynoscephalae (198). 
 Five years afterwards he was restored to his father, 
 who subsequently sent hirn as his ambassador to 
 Rome. But having incurred the jealousy of his 
 father and his brother, Perseus, by the favourable 
 reception he had met with from the Romans, he 
 was secretly put to death by his father's order. 
 
 I. Kinys of Macedonia. 1, Sumamed Poliorcetes 
 (noAtopKT/TTJy), or the Besieger, son of Antigonus, 
 king of Asia, and Stratonice. At an early age he 
 gave proofs of distinguished bravery. He accom- 
 panied his father in his campaigns against Eumenes 
 (b. c. 317, 316), and a few years afterwards was left 
 by his father in the command of Syria, which he had 
 to defend against Ptolem3^ In 312 he was de- 
 feated by Ptolemy near Gaza, but soon after retrieved 
 his disaster in part by defeating one of the generals 
 of Ptolemy. In 311 a general peace was concluded 
 among the successors of Alexander, but it was only 
 of short duration. In 307 Demetrius was despatched 
 by his father with a powerful fleet and army to wrest 
 Greece from Caasander and Ptolemy. He met with 
 great success. At Athens he was received with 
 enthusiasm by the people as their liberator. De- 
 metrius the Phalerean, who had governed the city 
 for Cassander, was expelled, and the fort at Muny- 
 chia taken, Demetrius took up his abode for the 
 ■winter at Athens, where divine honours were paid 
 him under the title of " the Preserver" (^ 'S.cariip). 
 Pie was recalled from Athens by his father to take 
 the command of the war in Cyprus against Pto- 
 lemy. Here also he was successful, and in a great 
 naval battle he annihilated the fleet of Ptolemy 
 (306). Next year (305) he laid siege to Rhodes, 
 because the Rhodians had refused to support liim 
 against Ptolemy. It was in consequence of the 
 gigantic macliines which Demetrius constructed to 
 assail the walls of Rhodes, that he received the 
 surname of Poliorcetes. But all his exertions were 
 unavailing, and after the siege had lasted above a 
 3-ear, he at length concluded a treaty wjth the 
 Rhodians (304). — Demetrius then crossed over to 
 Greece, which had meanwhile been almost con- 
 quered by Casaander. He soon compelled Cas- 
 sander to evacuate all Greece B. of Thermopylae, 
 and for the next 2 years continued to prosecute 
 the war with success. But in 302 he was obliged 
 to return to Asia in order to support his father 
 Antigonus. In 301 their combined forces were 
 totallv defeated by those of Lysimachus and Se- 
 Icucus in the battfe of Ipsus, and Antigonus him- 
 self slain. Demetrius, to whose impetuosity the 
 loss of the battle would seem to be in great mea- 
 sure owing, fled to Ephesus, and from thence 
 set sail for Athens ; but the Athenians declined 
 to receive him into their city. The jealousies of 
 his enemies soon changed the face of his affairs ; 
 
 DEMETRIUS. 
 
 21.*: 
 
 and Ptolemy having entered into a closer union 
 with Lysimachus, Seleucus married Stratonice, 
 daughter of Demetrius. By this alliance Deme- 
 trius obtained possession of Cilicia, and he had 
 never lost Cj'prus, Tyre, and Sidon. In 297 he 
 determined to make an effort to recover his do- 
 minions in Greece. He appeared with a fleet on 
 the coast of Attica, but was at first unsuccessful. 
 The death of Cassander, however, in the course of 
 the same year gave a new turn to affairs. Deme- 
 trius made himself master of Aegina, Salamis, and 
 finally of Athens, after a long blockade (29o). In 
 29J: he marched into Peloponnesus against the 
 Spartans, and was on the point of taking their city 
 when he was suddenly called away by the state of 
 affairs in Macedonia. Here the dissensions be- 
 tween Antipater and Alexander, the 2 sons of Cas- 
 sander, had led Alexander to call in foreign aid to 
 his support ; and he sent embassies at once to 
 Demetrius and to Pyrrhus. Pyrrhus was the 
 nearest at hand, and had already defeated Anti- 
 pater and established Alexander on the throne, 
 when Demetrius arrived with his army. He \\i\& 
 received with apparent friendliness, but mutual 
 jealousies quickly arose, Demetrius caused tlie 
 young king to be assassinated at a banquet, and 
 was thereupon acknowledged as king by the Ma- 
 cedonian army. Demetrius kept possession of 
 Macedonia for 7 years (294 — 287). His reign 
 was a series of wars. In 292 he marched against 
 the Thebans, who had risen against him, and took 
 their city. In 2.91 he took advantage of the cap- 
 tivity of Lysimachus among the Getae to invade 
 Thrace ; but he was recalled by the news of a 
 fresh insurrection in Boeotia. He repulsed Pyr- 
 rhus, who had attempted by invading Thessaly to 
 effect a diversion in favour of the Boeotians, and 
 again took Thebes after a long siege (290). In 
 289 he carried on war against Pyrrhus and the 
 Aetolians, but he concluded peace with Pyrrhus 
 that he might march into Asia with the view of 
 recovering his father's dominions. His adversaries 
 however forestalled him. In 287 Ptolemy sent a 
 powerful fleet against Greece, while Pyrrhus (not- 
 withstanding his recent treatj'-) on the one side 
 and Lysimachus on the other simultaneously in- 
 vaded Macedonia, Demetrius was deserted by 
 his own troops, who proclaimed Pyrrhus king of 
 Macedonia. He then crossed over to Asia, and 
 after meeting with alternate success and misfortune, 
 was at length obliged to surrender himself prisoner 
 to Seleucus (286). That king kept him in con- 
 finement, but did not treat him with harshness. 
 Demetrius died in the 3rd year of his imprison- 
 ment and the 56th of his age (283). He was 
 one of the most remarkable characters of his 
 age : in restless activity of mind, fertility of re- 
 source, and daring promptitude in the execution of 
 his schemes, he has perhaps never been surpassed. 
 His besetting sin was his unbounded licentious- 
 ness. Besides Lamia and his other mistresses, he 
 was regularly married to 4 wives, Phila, Eurydice, 
 Deidamia, and Ptolemais, by whom he left 4 sons. 
 The eldest of these, Antigonus Gonatis, eventually 
 succeeded him on the throne of Macedonia. — 
 2. Son of Antigonus Gonatas, succeeded his father, 
 and reigned b. c. 239—229. He carried on war 
 against the Aetolians, and was opposed to the 
 Achaean League, He was succeeded by Antigo- 
 nus Doson, 
 
 IL Kings of.St/ria. 1. Eoter (relgucd B.C. 162 
 
214 DEMETRIUS. 
 
 — 150), was the son of Seleucus IV. Philopntorand 
 gTandson of Aritiochus the Great. While yet a 
 child, he had been sent to Rome by his father as a 
 hostage, and remained there during the whole of the 
 reign of Antiochus IV. Epiphanes. After the death 
 of Antiochua, being now 23 years old, he demanded 
 of the senate to be set at liberty ; but as his re- 
 quest was refused by the senate, he fled secretly 
 from Rome, by the advice of the historian Pol}-- 
 bius, and went to Syria. The Syrians declared in 
 his favour ; and the young king Antiochus V. 
 Eupator, with his tutor Lysias, was seized by 
 his own fjuards and put to death. By valuable 
 presents Demetrius obtained from the Romans his 
 recognition as king. But having alienated his own 
 subjects by his luxury and intemperance, they 
 sided with an impostor of the name of Balas, who 
 took the title of Alexander. By him Demetrius 
 was defeated in battle and slain. He left 2 sons, 
 Demetrius Nicator and Antiochus Sidetes, both of 
 whom subsequently ascended the throne. — 2. Ni- 
 cator (b. c. 146 — 142, and again 128 — 125), 
 son of Demetrius Soter. He had been sent by 
 his father for safety to Cnidus, when Alexander 
 Balas invaded Syria ; and after the death of his 
 father he continued in exile for some years. With 
 the assistance of Ptolemy Phi-lometor he defeated 
 Balas, and recovered his kingdom ; but, having like 
 his father rendered himself odious to his subjects by 
 his vices and cruelties, he was driven out of Syria 
 by Tryphon, who set up Antiochus, the infant son 
 of Alexander Balas, as a pretender against him. 
 Demetrius retired to Babylon, and from thence 
 marched against the Parthians, by whom, he was 
 defeated and taken prisoner, 130. He remained 
 as a captive in Parthia 10 years, but was kindly 
 treated by the Parthian king Mithridates (Arsaces 
 VL)i who gave him his daughter Rhodogune in 
 marriage. Meanwhile, his brother, Antiochus VIl. 
 Sidetes, having overthrown the usurper Tryphon, 
 engaged in war with Parthia, in consequence of 
 which Phraates, the successor of Mithridates, 
 brought forward Demetrius, and sent him into 
 Syria to operate a diversion against his brother. 
 In the same year Antiochus fL-U in battle, and 
 Demetrius again obtained possession of the Syrian 
 throne, 128. Having engaged in an expedition 
 against Egypt, Ptolemy Physcon set up against 
 him the pretender Alexander Zebina, by whom 
 he was defeated and compelled to fly. His wife 
 Cleopatra, who could not forgive him his marriage 
 with Rhodogune in Parthia, refused to aflbrd him 
 refuge at Ptolcmais, and he fled to Tyre, where he 
 was assassinated, 12o. — 3. Eucaerus, son of An- 
 tiochus VIII. Grypus, and grandson of Deme- 
 trius II. During the civil wars that followed the 
 death of Antiochus Grypus (96), Demetrius and his 
 brother Philip for a time held the whole of Syria. 
 But war broke out between them ; Demetrius was 
 taken prisoner and sent to Parthia, where he re- 
 mained in captivity till his death, 
 
 III. Literary. 1. Of Adi'amyttium, sumamed 
 Ixion, a Greek grammarian of the time of Augustus, 
 lived partly at Pergamus and partly at Alexandria, 
 and wrote commentaries on Homer and Plesiod and 
 other works. — 2. Magnes, that is, of Magnesia, a 
 Greek grammarian, and a contemporary of Cicero 
 and Atticus. He ^vrote a work On concord (irepl 
 dfioyoias), and another on poets and other authors 
 who bore the same name (Uepl b/j-wvufxtcu -Koniruiu 
 Koi ffvY)-pa(pi(^p).-~^. Plialereus, so called from 
 
 DEMOCEDES. 
 his birthplace, the Attic demos of Plialerus, where 
 he was bom about B.C. 345. liis parents were 
 poor, but by his talents and perseverance he roao 
 to the highest honours at Athens, and became dis- 
 tinguished both as an orator, a statesman, a philo- 
 sopher, and a poet. He was educated, together 
 with the poet Menander, in the school of Then- 
 phrastus. He began his public career about 325, 
 and acquired great reputation by his eloquence. In 
 317 the government of Athens was entrusted to 
 him by Cassander, and he discharged the duties of 
 his office for 10 years with such general satis- 
 faction, that the Athenians conferred upon him the 
 most extraordinary distinctions, and erected no less 
 than 360 statues to his honour. But during the 
 latter period of his administration he seems to have 
 become intoxicated with his good fortune, and he 
 abandoned himself to dissipation. When Deme- 
 trius Poliorcetes approached Athens, in ;;07, De- 
 metrius Phalereus was obliged to take to flight, 
 and his enemies induced the Athenians to pass 
 sentence of death upon him. He went to Ptolemy 
 Lagi at Alexandria, with whom he lived for many 
 years on the best terms ; and it was probably owing 
 to the influence of Demetrius that the great Alexan- 
 drine library was formed. His successor, Ptolemy 
 Philadelphus, was hostile towards Demetrius, be- 
 cause he had advised his father to appoint another of 
 his sons as his successor. He bunished Demetrius to 
 Upper Egypt, where he is said to have died from 
 the bite of a snake. — Demetrius Phalereus was the 
 last among the Attic orators worthy of the name ; 
 but even his orations bore evident marks of the 
 decline of oratory, and were characterised rather 
 by grace and elegance than by force and sublimity. 
 His numerous writings, the greater part of which 
 were probably composed in Egypt, embraced sub- 
 jects of the most varied kinds ; but none of them 
 h;is come down to us, for the work on elocution 
 (Trepl cp/iT/i/eias), extant under his name, is pro- 
 bably the work of an Alexandrine sophist of the 
 name of Demetrius. — 4. Of Scepsis, a Greek 
 grammarian of the time of Aristarchus, wrote a 
 learned commentary on the Catalogi.ie in the 2nd 
 book of the Iliad.— 5. Of Sunium, a Cynic philo- 
 sopher, lived from the reign of Caligula to that of 
 Domitian, and was banished from Rome in conse- 
 quence of the freedom with which he rebuked the 
 powerful. 
 
 Bemocedes (At^^iok^Btjs), a celebrated physician 
 of Crotona. He practised medicine successively 
 at Aegina, Athens, and Samoa. He was taken 
 prisoner along with Polycrates, in B. c. 522, and 
 was sent to Susa to the court of Darius. Here he 
 acquired great reputation by curing the king's foot, 
 and the breast of the queen Atossa. Notwithstand.- 
 ing his honours at the Persian court, he was always 
 desirous of returning to his native countrj'. In 
 order to effect this, he pretended to enter into the 
 views and interests of the Persians, and procured 
 by means of Atossa that he should be sent with 
 some nobles to explore the coast of Greece, and 
 ascertain in what pans it might be most successfully 
 attacked. When they arrived at Tarcntum, the 
 king, Aristophilides, out of kindness to Democedes, 
 seized the Persians as spies, which afforded the 
 physician an opportunity of escaping to Crotona. 
 Here he settled, and maiTied the daughter of the 
 famous wrestler, Milo ; the Persians having fol- 
 lowed him to Crotona, and in vain demanded that 
 he should be restori'd. 
 
DEMOCHARES. 
 
 Democh,ares (A7}/xox'ipv^)i Jin Athenian, son 
 oF tlie sister of Demosthenes. He weis probably 
 trained by his uncle in oratory, and inherited his 
 patriotic sentiments. After the restoration of the 
 Athenian democracy in b.c. 307 by Demetrius Polior- 
 cetes, Demochares was at the head of the patriotic 
 party and toolc an active part in public affairs for 
 the next 20 or 30 years. He left behind him 
 several orations, and an extensive history of his 
 own times. 
 
 Democles (Atjjuo/cAtjs), an Attic orator, and an 
 opponent of Demochares. 
 
 Democrates (ATiyUo/fpari]?), a Pythagorean phi- 
 losopher, of whose life nothing is known, the author 
 of an extant collection of moral maxims, called the 
 golden sentences (yvivfiai XP^^°^)- They are 
 printed with Demophilus. 
 
 Democritus {A-nfiSKpiTos), a celebrated Greek 
 philosopher, was born at Abdera in Thrace, about 
 u. c. 4f)0. His father, Hegesiatratua, — or, as 
 others called him, Damasippus or Athenocritus, — 
 was possessed of eo large a property, that he was 
 able to entertain Xerxes on his march through 
 Abdera. Democritus spent the inheritance, which 
 his father left him, on travels into distant countries, 
 which he undertook to satisfy his extraordinary 
 thirst for knowledge. He travelled over a great 
 part of Asia, and spent some time in Egypt. The 
 many anecdotes preserved about Democritus show 
 that he was a man of a most sterling and ho- 
 nourable character. His diligence was incredible : 
 lie lived exclusively for his studies, and his disin- 
 terestedness, modesty, and simplicity, are attested 
 by many features which are related of him. Not- 
 withstanding the great property he had inherited 
 from his father, he died in poverty, but highly 
 esteemed by his fellow-citizens. He died in 361 
 at a very advanced age. There is a tradition that 
 he deprived himself of his sight, that he might be 
 less disturbed in his pursuits ; but this tradition 
 is one of the inventions of a later age, which was 
 fond of piquant anecdotes. It is more probable 
 that he may have lost his sight by too severe ap- 
 plication to stud3\ This loss, however, did not 
 disturb the cheerful disposition of his mind, which 
 prompted him to look, in all circumstances, at the 
 cheeri'ul side of things, which later writers took to 
 mean, that he always laughL-d at the follies of men. 
 His knowledge was most extensive. It embraced not 
 only the natural sciences, mathematics, mechanics, 
 grammar, nmsic, and philosophy, but various other 
 useful arts. His works were composed in the 
 Ionic dialect, though not without some admixture 
 of the local peculiarities of Abdera. They are 
 nevertheless much praised by Cicero on account of 
 the liveliness of their style, and are in this respect 
 ctimpared even with the works of Plato. The frag- 
 ments of them are collected by Mullach, Democnti 
 Abderiiae Opcrum Fragmenta, Berlin, 1843. Leu- 
 cippus appears to have had most influence upon 
 the philosophical opinions of Democritus, and these 
 2 philosophers were the founders of the theory of 
 atoms. In order to explain the creation of all 
 existing things, Democritus maintained that there 
 were in infinite space an infinite number of atoms 
 or elementary particles, homogeneous in quality, but 
 heterogeneous in form. He further taught that 
 these atoms combine with one another, and that 
 all things arise from the infinite variety of the 
 form, order, and position of the atoms in forming 
 combinations. The cause of these combinations he 
 
 DEMOSTHENES. 
 
 2:5 
 
 called chance (tux"^), in opposition to the vovs of 
 Anaxagoras ; but he did not use the word chance 
 in its vulgar acceptation, but to signify tlie neces- 
 sary succession of cause and effect. In his ethical 
 philosophy Democritus considered the acquisition 
 of peace of mind (eufli/jtita) as the end and ultimate 
 object of our actions. 
 
 Demodocus (ATjjutiSoKos), the celebrated bard 
 at the court of Alcinolis who sang of the loves of 
 Ares and Aphrodite, while Ulysses sat at the ban- 
 quet of Alcinoiis. He is also mentioned as the 
 bard who advised Agamemnon to guard Cly- 
 taemnestra, and to expose Aegisthus in a desert 
 island. Later writers, who looked upon this my- 
 thical minstrel as an historical person, related that 
 he composed a poem on the destruction of Troy, 
 and on the marriage of Hephaestus and Aphrodite. 
 
 Demonax {ATi^diva^)^ of Cyprus, a Cynic phi- 
 losopher in the time of Hadrian. We owe our 
 knowledge of his character to Lucian, who has 
 painted it in the most glowing colours, representing 
 him as almost perfectly wise and good. Demonax 
 appears to have been free from the austerity and 
 moroseness of the sect, though he valued their in- 
 difference to external things. He was nearly 100 
 yenrs old at the time of his death. 
 
 Demonesi Insiilae (Atj/lkJi/tjctoi), a group of 
 islands in the Propontis {Sea of il/armoj-a), be- 
 longing to Bithynia : of these the most important 
 were Pityodes and Chalcitis, also called Demonesus. 
 
 Demophilus (Ai]ti6<piXos). 1, Son of Ephorus, 
 continued his father's history by adding to it the 
 history of the Sacred War. — 2. An Athenian 
 comic poet of the new comedy, from whose 'Ova'y6s 
 Plautus took his Asinaria.—Z. A Pj'thngorean 
 philosopher, of whose life nothing is known, wrote 
 a work entitled $i.ou 3epa7reia, part of which is 
 extant, in the form of a selection, entitled 7fci'^(/ca 
 6iJ.oiidij.ara. Best edition by Orelli, in his Opusc, 
 Grace. Vet. Sentent. Lips. liJl9. 
 
 Demophon or Demophoon (Arj/iocpan/ or At;- 
 lj.o(p6(au). 1. Son of Celeus and Metanira, whom 
 Demeter wished to make immortal. For details 
 see Celeus. — 2. Son of Theseus and Phaedra, 
 accompanied the Greeks against Troy, and there 
 procured the liberation of his grandmother Aetlira, 
 who lived with Helen as a slave. On his return 
 from Troy, he gained the love of Phyllis, daughter 
 of the Thracian king SIthon, and promised to 
 marry her. Before the nuptials were celebrated, 
 he went to Attica to settle his affairs, and as he 
 tan'ied longer than Phyllis had expected, she 
 thought that she was forgotten, and put an end to 
 her life ; but she was metamorphosed into a tree. 
 Demophon became king of Athens. He marched 
 out against Diomedes, who on his return from Troy 
 had landed on the coast of Attica, and was ravaf^- 
 ing it. He took the Palladium from Diomedes, but 
 had the misfortime to kill an Athenian in the 
 struggle. For tins murder he was summoned before 
 the court eVl UaWadioj — the first time that a 
 man was tried by that court. 
 
 Bemoatlienes {A-n/j-oaO^v-qs). 1. Son of Alci- 
 sthones, a celebrated Athenian general in the Pelo- 
 ponnesianWar. Inn.c. 420 he was sent with a fleet 
 to ravage the coast of Peloponnesus : he afterwards 
 landed at Naupactus, and made a descent into 
 Aetolia ; he was at first unsuccessful, and was 
 obliged to retreat ; but he subsequently gained a 
 brilliant victory over the Ambraciots. In 425, 
 though not in office, he sailed with the Athenian 
 
 r4 
 
ai6 
 
 DEMUoTilENEy. 
 
 fleet, and was allowed by the Athenian commanders 
 to remain with 5 ships at Pylos, which he fortified 
 in order to assail tlie Lacedaemonians in their 
 own territories. He defended Pylos against all 
 the attempts of the Lacedaemonians, till he was 
 relieved by an Athenian fleet of 40 ships. The 
 Spartans, who in their siege of the place had oc- 
 cupied the neighbouring island of Sphacteria, were 
 now cut off and blockaded. Later in the same 
 year he rendered important assistance to Cleon, in 
 making prisoners of the Spartans in the island of 
 Sphacteria, though the whole gloiy of the success 
 was given to Cleon. In 413 ho was sent with a 
 large fleet to Sicily, to assist Nicias. Fortime was 
 unfavourable to the Athenians. Demosthenes now 
 counselled an immediate departure, but Nicias de- 
 layed returning till it was too late. The Athenian 
 fleet was destroyed, and when Demosthenes and 
 Nicias attempted to retreat by land, they were 
 obliged to surrender to the enemy with all their 
 forces. Both commanders were put to death by 
 the Sj'racusans, — 2. The greatest of Athenian 
 orators, was the son of Demosthenes, and was bom 
 in the Attic demos of Paeania, about b. c. SHo. At 
 7 years of age he lost his father, who left him and 
 his younger sister to the care of 3 guardians, Apho- 
 bus and Demophon, 2 relations, and Therippides, 
 an old friend. These guardians squandered the 
 greater part of the property of Demostiienes, and 
 neglected his education to a great extent. He 
 nevertheless received instruction from the orator 
 Isaeus ; but it is exceedingly doubtful whether he 
 was taught by Plato and Isoci-ates, as some of the 
 ancients stated. At the age of 18 Demosthenes 
 called upon his guardians to render him an account 
 of their administration of his property ; but by in- 
 trigues they contrived to defer the business for 2 
 years. At length, in 364, Demosthenes accused 
 Aphobus before the archon,and obtained a verdict in 
 his favour. Aphobus was condemned to pay a fine of 
 10 talents. Emboldened by this success, Demo- 
 sthenes ventured to come forward as a speaker in the 
 public assembly. His first effort was unsuccessful, 
 and he is said to have been received with ridicule ; 
 but he was encouraged to persevere by the actor Sa- 
 tyms, who gave him instruction in action and de- 
 clamation. In becoming an orator, Demosthenes 
 had to straggle against the greatest physical dis- 
 advantages. His voice was weak and his utterance 
 defective ; he could not pronounce the p, and con- 
 stantly stimmered, whence he derived the nick- 
 name of ^dra-Xos. It was only owing to the most 
 unwearied exertions that he succeeded in over- 
 coming the obstacles which nature had placed in 
 his way. Thus it is said that he spoke, with 
 pebbles in his mouth, to cure himself of stammer- 
 ing ; that he repeated verses of the poets as he 
 ran up hill, to strengthen his voice ; that he de- 
 claimed on the sea-shore to accustom himself to the 
 noise and confusion of the popular assembly ; that 
 he lived for months in a cave under ground, en- 
 gaged in constantly writing out the history of Thu- 
 cydides, to form a standard for his own style. These 
 tiles are not worthy of much credit ; but they 
 nevertheless attest the common tradition of anti- 
 quity respecting the great efforts made by Demo- 
 sthenes to attain to excellence as an orator. — It 
 w^as about 355 that Demosthenes began to obtain 
 reputation as a speaker in the public assembly. It 
 was in tliis year that he delivered the oration 
 against Leptines, and from this time we have a 
 
 DEMOSTHENES. 
 
 series of his speeches on public affairs. His elo- 
 quence soon gained him the favour of the people. 
 The influence which he acquired he employed for the 
 good of his country, and not for his own aggrandise- 
 ment. He clearly saw that Philip had resolved to 
 subjugate Greece, and he therefore devoted all his 
 powers to resist the aggressions of the Macedonian 
 monarch. For 14 years he continued the struggle 
 against Philip, and neither threats nor bribes could 
 turn him from his purpose. It is true he failed ; 
 but the failure must not be considered his fault. 
 The history of his struggle is best given in the life 
 of Philip. [Philippus.] It is sufficient to relate 
 here that it was brought to a close by the battle o( 
 Chaeronea (33<J), by which the independence of 
 Greece was crushed. Demosthenes was present at 
 the battle, and fled like thousands of others. His 
 enemies reproached him with his flight, and up- 
 braided him as the cause of the misfortunes of his 
 country; but the Athenians judged better of his 
 conduct, requested him to deliver the funeral 
 oration upon those who had fallen at Chaeroufa, 
 and celebi-ated the funeral feast in his house. At 
 this time many accusations were brought against 
 him. Of these one of the most formidable was tlie 
 accusation of Ctesiphon by Aeschines, but whicii 
 was in reality directed against Demosthenes him- 
 self. Aeschines accnsed Ctesiphon for proposing 
 that Demosthenes should be rewarded for his 
 services with a golden crown in the theatre. 
 Aeschines maintained that the proposal w;is not 
 only made in an illegal form, but that the conduct 
 of Demosthenes did not give him any claim to such 
 a distinction. The trial was delayed fur reasons 
 unknown to us till 330, when Demosthenes de- 
 livered his oration on the crown (Trtpi (TT^tpdvov). 
 Aeschines was defeated and withdrew from Athenp. 
 [Aeschines.] — Meantime important events had 
 taken place in Greece. The death of Philip in 33G 
 roused the hopes of the patriots, and Demosthenes, 
 although he had lost his daughter only 7 days 
 before, was the first to proclaim the joyful tidings 
 of the king's death, and to call upon the Greeks 
 to unite their strength against Macedonia. But 
 Alexander's energy, and the frightful vengeance 
 which he took upon Thebes, compelled Athens to 
 submit and sue for peace. Alexander demanded 
 the surrender of Demosthenes and the other leaders 
 of the popular party, and with difficulty allowed 
 them to remain at Athens. During the life of 
 Alexander, Athens made no open attempt to throw 
 off the Macedonian supremacy. In 325 Harpalus 
 fled from Babylon with the treasure entrusted to 
 his care by Alexander, and came to Athens, the 
 protection of which he purchased by distributing 
 his gold among the most influential demagogues. 
 The reception of such an open rebel was viewed as 
 an act of hostility towards Macedonia itself ; and 
 accordingly Antipater called upon the Atiienians 
 to deliver up the rebel and to try those who had 
 accepted his bribes. Demosthenes was one of those 
 who were suspected of having received money from 
 Harpalus. His guilt is doubtful ; but he wns 
 condemned, and thrown into prison, from which 
 however he escaped, apparently with the conni- 
 vance of the Athenian magistrates. He now re- 
 sided partly at Troezene and partly in Aegina, 
 looking daily across the sea towards liis beloved 
 native land. But his exile did not last long. On 
 the death of Alexander (323) the Greek states 
 rose in arms ngaiust Macedonia. Demosthenes \Aa3 
 
DENSELETAE. 
 
 recalled from exile ; a trireme wna sent to Aegina 
 to fetch him, and his progress to the city was a 
 plorious triumph. But in the following year (322) 
 the confederate Greeks were defeated by Antipater 
 at the battle of Cranon, and were obliged to sue for 
 peace. Antipater demanded the surrender of De- 
 mosthenes, who thereupon fled to the island of 
 Calauria, and took refuge in the temple of Poseidon. 
 Here he was pursued by the emispaiies of Antipate]' ; 
 he thereupon took poison, wliich he had for some 
 time carried about his person, and died in the temple, 
 322. — There existed 65 orations of Demosthenes 
 in antiquity ; but of these only 61 have come down 
 to us, including the letter of Philip, which is 
 strangely enough counted as an oration. Several 
 of the orations, however, are spurious, or at least of 
 very doubtful authenticity. Besides these orations, 
 there are 5G Exordia to public orations, and 6 
 letters which bear the name of Demosthenes, but 
 are probably spurious. — The orations may be 
 divided into the following classes: (L) 17 Poli- 
 tical orations (AtJyot (rUjU§ouAsi/ri(col), of which 
 the 12 Philippic orations are the most important. 
 They bear the following titles : — 1. The 1st Phi- 
 lippic, delivered 352. 2—4. The 3 Olynthiac 
 orations, delivered 349. 5. On the Peace, 346. 
 6. The 2nd Philippic, 344. 7. On Halonesus, 
 343, not genuine, probably written by Hegesippus. 
 8. On the affairs of the Chersonesus, 342. 9, The 
 3rd Philippic, 342. 10. The 4th Philippic, not ge- 
 nuine, 341. 11. On the letter of Philip, 340, also 
 spurious. 12. The letter of Philip. — (11.) 42 
 Judicial Orations {\6yoi ZiKaviKoi)^ of which the 
 most important are : Against Midias, ^vritten 355, 
 but never delivered; Against Leptinea, 355 ; On 
 the dishonest conduct of Aeschines during his em- 
 bassy to Philip (riep] ttJs napmrpecrgetas), 342 ; 
 On the Crown, 330. — (III.) 2 Sliow Speeches 
 {K6yoi iirLB€iKTLKoi\ namely the 'ETrixai^io? and 
 'EpcuTi/c(is, both of which are spurious. The ora- 
 tions of Demosthenes are contained in the collections 
 of tlie Attic orators by Reiske, Lips. 1770 — 1775 ; 
 Bekker, Oxon. 1023; Dobson, Lond. 1828; 
 Baiter and Sauppe, Turic. 1845. 
 
 Deaseletae or Dentheletae, a Thracian people 
 on the Haemus, between the Strj-mon and Nessus. 
 
 Dentatus, M'. Curius, a favourite hero of the 
 Roman republic, was celebrated in later times as 
 a noble specimen of old Roman fnigality and virtue. 
 He was of Sabine origin, and the first of his family 
 who held any of the high offices of state (conse- 
 qieiitly a homo nuvus). He was consul B.C. 200 
 with P. Cornelius Rufinus. The 2 consuls de- 
 feated the Samnites, and brought the Saninite wars 
 to a close. In the same year Dentatus also de- 
 feated the Sabines, who appear to have supported 
 the Samnites. In 283 he fought as praetor against 
 the Senonea. In 275 he was consul a second time, 
 and defeated Pyrrhus near Beneventum and in the 
 Arusinian plain so completely, that the king was 
 obliged to quit Italy. The booty which he gained 
 was immense, but he would keep nothing for him- 
 self. In 274 he was consul a third time, and 
 conquered the Lucanians, Samnites, and Bruttians, 
 who still continxted in anns after the defeat of 
 Pvrrhus. Dentatus now retired to his small farm 
 in the country of the Sabines, and cultivated the 
 land with his own hands. Once the Samnites 
 sent an embassy to him with costly presents ; they 
 found him sitting at the hearth and roasting tur- 
 nips. He rejected their presents, telling them that 
 
 DEUCALION. 217 
 
 he preferred ruling over those who possessed gold, 
 to possessing it himself. He was censor in 272, 
 and in that year executed public works of great 
 importance. He commenced the aquaeduct which 
 carried the water from the river Anio into the 
 city (Aniensis Vetus) ; and by a canal he caiTied 
 off the water of the lake Velinua mto the river 
 Nar, in consequence of which the inhabitants of 
 Reate gained a large quantity of excellent land. 
 
 Deo (A?;aJ), another name for Demeter: hence 
 her daughter Persephone is called by the patro- 
 nymic Deois and Deoine. 
 
 Derbe (A4p€ij : Aep6r}rT)s^ Aep€a7os)^ a town 
 in Lycaonia, on the frontiers of Isauria. It is 
 first mentioned as the residence of the tyrant An- 
 tipater of Derbe, a friend of Cicero, whom Amyntas 
 put to death. 
 
 Derbiccae or Derbices, a Scythian people in 
 Margiana, dwelling on the Oxua, near its entrance 
 into the Caspian sea. They worshipped the earth 
 as a goddess, neither sacrificed nor ate any female 
 animals, and killed and ate all their old men above 
 70 years of age. 
 
 Dercetis, Derceto (AepKerty, Aep/certc), also 
 called Aiargatis^ a Syrian goddess. She offended 
 Aphrodite (Venus), who in consequence inspired 
 her with love for a youth, to whom she bore a 
 daughter Semiramis ; but ashamed of her frailty, 
 she killed the youth, exposed her child in a desert, 
 and threw herself into a lake near Ascalun. Her 
 child was fed by doves, and she herself was 
 changed into a fish. The Syrians thereupon wor- 
 shipped her as a goddess. The upper part of her 
 statue represented a beautiful woman, while the 
 lower part terminated in the tail of a fish. Shw 
 appears to be the same as Dagon mentioned in the 
 Old Testament as a deity of the Philistines. 
 
 Dercyllidas (AepjcuAAiSay), a Spartan, suc- 
 ceeded Thinibron, b. c. 399, in the command of 
 the army which was employed in the protecticm of 
 the Asiatic Greeks against Persia. He carried on 
 the war with success. Tissaphernes and Pharna- 
 bazus were at length glad to sue for peace. In 
 'd^Q he was superseded by Agesilaus. 
 
 Dertona {Tortona), an important town in Li- 
 guria, and a Roman colony with the surname Julia, 
 on the road from Genua to Placentia. 
 
 Dertosa [Tortosa)^ a town of the Ilercanues on 
 the Iberus in Hispania Tarraconensis, and a Ro- 
 man colony. 
 
 Despoena (AeVTroii/a), the mistress, a surname 
 of several divinities, as Aphrodite, Demeter. and 
 more especially Persephone, who was worshipped 
 under this name in Arcadia. 
 
 Deucalion (Aeu/faAiwi/). 1. Son of Prometheus 
 and Clymene, king of Phthia, in Thessaly. When 
 Zeus, after the treatment he had received from 
 Lycaon, had resolved to destroy the degenemte 
 race of men, Deucalion and his wife Pyrrlia were, 
 on account of their piety, the only mortals saved. 
 On the advice of his father, Deucalion built a ship, 
 in which he and his wife floated in safety dnrin"- 
 the 9 days' flood, which destroyed all the other 
 inhabitants of Hellas. At last the ship rested on 
 mount Parnassus in Phocis, or, according to other 
 traditions, on mount Othrj's in Thessaly, on mount 
 Athos, or even on Aetna in Sicily. When the 
 waters had subsided, Deucalion ofl'ered up a sacri- 
 fice to Zeus Phyxius (*tj|£os), and he and his wife 
 then consulted the sanctuary of Themis how the race 
 of man might be restored. The goddess bade them 
 
218 DEVA. 
 
 cover their heads and throw the bones of their mother 
 buhind them. After some doubts and scruples re- 
 specting the meaning of this command, they agreed 
 in interpreting the bones of their mother to mean 
 the stones of the earth. They accordingly threw 
 stones behind tliem, and from those thrown by 
 Deucalion there sprang up men, from those thrown 
 by Pyrrha women. Deucalion then descended from 
 Parnassus, and built his first abode at Opus or at 
 Cynus. Deucalion became by Pyrrha the father 
 of Hellen, Amphictyon, Protogenia, and others.— 
 2. Son of Minos and Pasiphae, and father of Idome- 
 neus, was an Argonaut and one of the Calydonian 
 hunters. 
 
 Deva. 1. (Chester), the principal town of the 
 Cornavii in Britain, on the Seteia {Dee)^ and the 
 h end-quarters of the Legio XX. Victrix. — 2. 
 {Dee\ an estuary in Scotland, on which stood 
 the town Devaiia, near the modern Aberdeen. 
 
 Dszamenus (Ae^a/^ecoj), a Centaur who lived 
 in Bura in Achaia. According to others, he was 
 king of Olenus, and father of Deiamra, who is 
 usually represented as daughter of Oeneus. 
 
 Desippus (Ae'liTTTros), 1. Called also Dioanppus, 
 a physician of Cos, one of the pupils of Plippo- 
 crates, lived about B. c. 380, and attended the 
 children of Hecatomnus, prince of Caria. — 2. P. 
 Herennitis, a Greek rhetorician and historian, was 
 a native of Attica, and held the highest offices at 
 Athens. He distinguished himself in fighting 
 against the Gntbs, when they invaded Greece in 
 A. D. 262. He was the author of 3 historical 
 works: — 1. A history of Macedonia from the 
 time of Alexander. '2. A chronological history 
 from the mythical ages down to the accession of 
 Claudius Gothicus, a. d. 268. 3. An account of 
 the war of the Goths or Scythians, in which Dexip- 
 pus himself had fought. The fragments of Dexip- 
 pus, wliich are considerable, are published by 
 Ilekker and Niebuhr in the first volume of the 
 Scriptores flisinriae ByzaJitinae, Bonn, 1829, 8vo. 
 -—3. A disciple of the philosopher lamblichns, 
 lived about a. d, 350, and wrote a commentary on 
 the Categories of Aristotle, of which a Latin trans- 
 lation appeared at Paris, 1549, 8vo., and at Venice, 
 1546, fo. after the work of Porphyry In Frae- 
 dicam. 
 
 Dia (Ai'a), daughter of Deioneus and wife of 
 Jxion. By Ixion, or according to others, by Zeus, 
 she became the mother of Pirithous. 
 
 Dia (Aia). 1. The ancient name of Naxos. — 
 2. An island near Aniorgos. — 3. A small island 
 otf Crete, opposite the harbour of Cnossus. — 4. 
 An island in the Arabian gulf, on the W. coast of 
 Arabia. 
 
 Diablin tes. [ Aulercl] 
 
 Diacria (■^ Aiafcpia), a mountainous district in 
 the N. Fi. of Atticn, including the plain of Mara- 
 thon. [Attica.] The inhabitants of this district 
 (Aia»cpie?y, Ai6.Kpioi\ formed one of the 3 parties 
 into which the inhabitants of Attica were divided 
 in the time of Solon : they were the most derao- 
 craticEil of the ?» parties. 
 
 Diadumenianus or Diadumenus, son of the 
 emperor Macrinus, received the title of Caesar, 
 when his father was elevated to the purple, a. d. 
 217, and was put to death in the following year 
 about tiie snme time with Macrinus. 
 
 Diaeus (Ai'aios), of Mcgalopnlia, general of the 
 Achaean league B.C. 140 and 147, took an active 
 part in the war against thu llunlall^. Uii tlic dca:li 
 
 DICAEARCHUS. 
 
 of Critolalis in 146, he succeeded to the command 
 of the Achaeans, but was defeated by Mummius 
 near Corinth, whereupon he put an end to his own 
 life, after slaying his wife to prevent her falling 
 into the enemy's power. 
 
 Diagoras {Aia'y6pas). 1. Son of Damagetus, 
 of lalysus in Rhodes, was very celebrated for his 
 own victories and those of his sons and grandsons, 
 in the Grecian games. His fame was celebrated 
 by Pindar in the 7th Olympic ode. He was victor 
 in boxing twice in the Olympian games, four times 
 in the Isthmian, twice in the Neraean, and once 
 at least in the Pythian. He had therefore the 
 high honour of being a TrepioSoi'iKTjy, that is, one 
 who had gained crowns at all the 4 great festi- 
 vals. When an old man, he accompanied his sons, 
 Acusilalis and Damagetus, to Olympia. The young 
 men, having both been victorious, carried tlieir 
 father through the assembly, while the spectators 
 showered garlands upon him, and congratulated 
 him as having reached the summit of human hap- 
 piness. He gained his Olympic victor3% B.C. 464, 
 — 2. Surnamed the Atheist ("ASeos), a Greek 
 philosopher and poet, was the son of Teleclides, 
 and was bom in the island of Melos, one of the 
 Cyclades. He was a disciple of Denincritus of 
 Abdera, and in his youth he acquired considerable 
 reputation as a lyric pnet. He was at Athens as 
 early as B. c. 424, for Aristophanes in the Cloiids 
 (8,"'i0), which were performed in that j'ear, ailndes 
 to him as a' well-known character. In consequence 
 of his attacks upon the popular religion, and espe- 
 cially upon the Eleusinian mysteries, he was for- 
 mally accused of impiety u. c. 411, and fearing the 
 results of a trial, fled from Athens. lie was cnu- 
 domned to death in his absence, and a reward set 
 upon his head. He first went to Pallcne, and af- 
 terwards to Corinth, where he died. One of the 
 works of Diagoms was entitled ^pvyioi Ao'yoi, in 
 which he probably attacked the Phr3'giaii divinities. 
 
 Diana, an ancient Italian divinity, whom the 
 Romans identified with the Greek Artemis. Her 
 worship is said to have been introduced at Rome 
 by Servius Tullius, who dedicated a temple to lier 
 on the Aventine ; and she appears to have been 
 originally worshipped only by the plebeians. At 
 Rome Diana was the goddess of light, and her 
 name contains the same root as the word dies. As 
 Dianus (Jainis), or the god of light, represented 
 the sun, so Diana, the goddess of light, represented 
 the moon. The attributes of the Greek Artemis 
 were afterwards ascribed to the Roman Diana. See 
 Aktkhiis. 
 
 Dianium. 1. (Gia?nUi), a small island in the 
 Tyrrhenian sea, opposite the gulf of Cosa. — '2. 
 (Dcnia), called Hemeroscoplon {'H/j.€poaicoTre7ov) 
 by Strabo, a town in Ilispania Tarraconensis on a 
 promontory of the same name (C. Marthi) founded 
 by the Massilians. Here stood a celebrated temple 
 of Diana, from which the town derived its name ; 
 and here Sertorius krpt most of his military stores. 
 
 Dicaea (Aucaia), a town in Thrace, on the lake 
 Bistonis. 
 
 Dicacarchia. [Puteoli.] 
 
 Dicaearchus (Aifcampxos), a celebrated Peripa- 
 tetic phihisopher, gpoiirapher, and historian, was 
 born at I\Ie3?.ana in Sicily, but passed the greater 
 part of his life in Greece Proper, and especially hi 
 Peloponnesus. He was a disciple of Aristotle and 
 a friend of Theophra-itus. He wrote a vast number 
 of works, of wliich only fragments are extant. His 
 
DICE. 
 
 most important work was entitled Bios tt/s 'EWd- 
 dos : it contained an account of the geography, his- 
 tory, and ninml and religious condition of Greece. 
 See Fuhr, DicaearcJd Messcnii quae supersunt com- 
 •posita et illuslraia, Darmstadt, 18-il. 
 
 Bice (AfK->j), the personification of justice, a 
 daughter of Zeus and Themis, and the sister of 
 Eunomia and fiirene. She was considered as one 
 of the Horae, and is frequently called the attendant 
 or councillor (TrdpeSpos or ^vv^hpos) of Zeus. In 
 the tragedians, she appears as a divinity who se- 
 verely punishes all wrong, watches over the main- 
 tenance of justice, and pierces the hearts of the 
 inijust with the sword made for her by Aesa. In 
 this capacity she is closely connected with the Erin- 
 nyes, though her business is not only to punish 
 injustice, but also to reward virtue, 
 
 Dictaeus. [Dicte.] 
 
 Dictamnum (AiVra/iroi'), a town on the N. 
 coast of Crete with a sanctuary of Dictynna, from 
 whom the town itself was also called Dictynna. 
 
 Licte (AiKTTj), a mounbiin in the E. of Crete, 
 where Zeus is said to have been brought up. 
 Hence he bore the surname Dictaeus. The Roman 
 poets frequently employ the adjective Dictaeus as 
 synnnynious with Cretan. 
 
 Dictynna {i^kinrvwa.)^ a surname both of Brito- 
 martis and Diana, which two divinities were sub- 
 sequently identified. The name is connected with 
 Z'iKTvov^ a hunting-net, and was borne by Brito- 
 martis and Diana as goddesses of the chase. One 
 tradition related that Britomartis was so called, 
 because when she had thrown herself into the sea 
 to escape the piu-suit of Minos, she was saved in 
 the nets of fishermen. 
 
 Dictys Cretensis, the reputed author of an ex- 
 tant work in Latin on the Trojan war, divided into 
 G books, and entitled £jD/ieweris Belli Trojtmi^ -pvo- 
 fessing to be a journal of the leading events of the 
 war. In the preface to the work we are told that 
 it wns composed by Dictys of Cnossus, who ac- 
 companied Idomeneus to the Trojan war, and was 
 inscribed in Phoenician characters on tablets of 
 lime wood or paper made from the bark. The work 
 was buried in the same grave with the author, and 
 remained undisturbed till the sepulchre was burst 
 open by an earthquake in the reign of Nero, and 
 the work was discovered in a tin case. It was 
 carried to Rome by Eupraxis, whose slaves had 
 discovered it, and it was translated into Greek by 
 order of Nero. It is from this Greek version that 
 the extant Latin work professes to have been trans- 
 lated by a Q. Septimius Romanus. Although its 
 alle;;ted origin and discovery are quite unworthy of 
 credit, it appears nevertheless to be a translation 
 froiri a Greek work, which we know to have been 
 extant under the name of Dictys, since it is fre- 
 quently quoted by the Byzantine writers. The 
 work was probably written in Greek by Eupraxis 
 in the reign of Nero, but at what time the Latin 
 ti-anslation was executed is quite uncertain. The 
 work contains a history of the Trojan war, from 
 the birth of Paris down to the death of Ulysses. 
 Tlie compiler not unfrequently diiiers widely from 
 Homer, adding many particulars, and recording 
 many events of which we find no trace elsewhere. 
 All miraculous events and supernatural agency are 
 entirely excluded. The compilations ascribed to 
 Dictys and Dares [Dares], are of considerable 
 importance in the history of modern literature, 
 since they are the chief fountains from which the 
 
 DIDYMUS, 
 
 219 
 
 legends of Greece first flowed into the romances of 
 the middle ages, and then mingled with the po- 
 pular tales and ballads of England, France, and 
 Germany. — The best edition of Dictys is by Dede- 
 rich, Bonn, 1830. 
 
 Didius. 1. T., praetor in Macedonia, B.C. 100, 
 where he defeated the Scordiscans, consul i)'6, and 
 subsequently proconsul in Spain, where he de- 
 feated the Celtiberians. He fell in the Marsic 
 war, JJ9. — 2. C, a legate of Caesar, fell in battle 
 in Spain fighting against the sons of Pompey, 
 46.— .3. M. Didius Salving Jnliaunjs, bought 
 the Roman empire of the praetorian guards, when 
 they put up tlic empire for sale after the death 
 of Pertinax, a. d. \9'd. Flavins Sulpicianus, 
 praefect of the city, and Didius bid against each 
 other, but it was finally knocked down to Didius, 
 upon his promising a donative to each soldier 
 of 25,000 sesterces. Didius, however, held the 
 empire for only 2 months, from March 28th to 
 June ] st, and was murdered by the soldiers when 
 Severus was marching against the city. 
 
 Dido (AiSci), also called Elissa, the reputed 
 founder of Carthage. She was daughter of the 
 Tyrian king Belus or Agenor or Mutgo, and sister 
 of Pygmalion, wlio succeeded to the crown after 
 the death of his father. Dido was married to her 
 uncle, Acerbas or Sichaeus, a priest of Hercules, 
 and a man of immense wealth. Pie was murdered 
 by Pygmalion, who coveted his treasures ; but Dido 
 secretly sailed from Tyre with the treasures, ac- 
 companied bj-- some noble Tyrians, who were dis- 
 satisfied with Pygmalion's rule. She first went to 
 C}'^nis, where she carried off 00 maidens to pro- 
 vide the emigrants with wives, and then crossed 
 over to Africa. Here she purchased as much land 
 as might be covered with the hide of a bull ; but 
 she ordered the hide to be cut up into the thinnest 
 possible stripes, and with them she surrounded a 
 spot, on which she built a citadel called Byrsa 
 (from ^upcra, i. e. the hide of a bull). Around 
 this fort the city of Carthage arose, and soon be- 
 came a powerful and flourisbing place. The neigh- 
 bouring king Hiarbas, jealous of the prosperity 
 of the new city, demanded the hand of Dido in 
 marriage, threatening Carthage with war in case of 
 refusal. Dido had vowed eternal fidelity to her late 
 husband ; but seeing that the Carthaginians ex- 
 pected her to comply with the demands of Hiarbas, 
 she pretended to yield to their wishes, and under 
 pretence of soothing thj3 manes of Acerbas by expia- 
 tory sacrifices, she erected a funeral pile, on which 
 she stabbed herself in presence of her people. 
 After her death she was worshipped by the Car- 
 thaginians as a divinity. — Virgil has inserted in 
 his Acneid the legend of Dido with various modi- 
 fications. According to the common chronology, 
 there was an interval of more than 300 years be- 
 tween the capture of Troy (e. c. 1184) and the 
 foundation of Carthage (b. c. 853); but Virgil 
 nevertheless makes Dido a contempornry of Aeneas, 
 with whom she falls in love on his arrival in Africa. 
 When Aeneas hastened to seek the new homo 
 which the gods had promised him, Dido in despair 
 destroyed herself on a funeral pile. 
 
 Didyma. [Bhanchidae.] 
 
 Didyme. [Aeoliae Insulae.] 
 
 Didymus (AtSn^os), a celebrated Alexandrine 
 grammarian, a contemporary of Julius Caesar and 
 Augustus, was a follower of the school of Aristar- 
 chus, and received the surname x^^'^^^'^^P^^j on 
 
220 
 
 DIESPITEa 
 
 account of liia indefatigable and unwearied applica- 
 tion to stud3\ He is said to have written 4000 
 ■works, the most important of which were com- 
 mentaries on Homer. The greater part of the 
 extant Scholia minora on Homer was at one time 
 considered the work of Didymus, but is really taken 
 from the commentaries of Didymus and of other 
 grammarians. 
 
 Diespiter. [Jupiter.] 
 
 Digentia {Licenza)^ a small stream in Latium, 
 beautifully cool and clear, which flows into the 
 Anio near the modern Vicovaro. It flowed through 
 the Sabine farm of Horace. Near its source, which 
 was also called Digentia (fons etitnn Hvo dare 
 noviPTi idoneus^ Hor. Ep. i. 16. 12), stood the house 
 of Horace (vicinus tectojifjis aquae fons, Hor. Sat. 
 ii. 6. 2). 
 
 Dimallum, a town in Greek Illyria. 
 
 Dlnarchus (AeiVap^os-), the last and least im- 
 portant of the 10 Attic orators, was born at Co- 
 rinth about B. c. 361. He was brought up at 
 Athens, and studied under Xheophrastus. A^ he 
 "was a foreigner, he could not come forward himself 
 as an orator, and was therefore obliged to content 
 himself with writing oi-ations for others. He be- 
 longed to the friends of Phocion and the Macedo- 
 nian party. When. Demetrius Poliorcetes ad- 
 vanced against Athens in 307, Dinarchus fled to 
 Chalcis in Euboea, and was not allowed to return 
 to Athens till 2.92, where he died at an advanced 
 age. Only .3 of his speeches have come down to 
 us : they all refer to the question about Harpa- 
 Lus. They are printed in the collections of the 
 Attic orators. 
 
 Dindymene. [Dindymus,] 
 
 Dindymus or Dindyma, -orum {AivZv^os : to. 
 Aivhvixa.). 1. A mountain in Phrygia on the 
 frontiers of Galatia, near the town Pessinus, sacred 
 to Cybele, the mother of the gods, who is hence 
 called Dindymene. ^ 2. A mountain in Mysia 
 near Cyzicus, also sacred to Cybele, 
 
 Diaocrates (Aeit-ofcpfiTTjs), a distinguished Ma- 
 cedonian architect, in the time of Alexander the 
 Groat. He was the architect of the new temple 
 of Artemis at Ephesus, which was built after the 
 destruction of the former temple by Herostratus. 
 He wjis employed by Alexander, whom he accom- 
 panied into Egypt, in the building of Alexandria. 
 He formed a design for catting mount Athos into 
 a statue of Alexander ; but the king forbad the 
 execution of the project. The right hand of the 
 figure was to have held a city, and in the left there 
 ^vould have been a basin, in which the water of 
 all the mountain streams was to pour, and thence 
 into the sea. He commenced the erection of a 
 temple to Arsinoe, the wife of Ptolemy 11., of 
 which the roof was to be arched with loadstones, 
 so that her statue made of iron might appear to 
 float in the air, but he died hefore completing the 
 work. 
 
 Dinomaclms [£:i.uv6(xa.xos)^ a philosopher, who 
 agreed with Calliphon in considering the chief 
 good to consist in the union of virtue with bodily 
 pleasure. 
 
 Dinomenes (Aeti'o^ei/Tjs), a statuary', whose 
 statues of lo and Callisto stood in the Acropolis at 
 Athens in the time of Pausanias : he flourished 
 u. c. 400. 
 
 Dinou (AeiVoj;', Aivwu)^ father of the historian 
 Clitarchus, wrote himself a history of Persia. 
 
 Dio. [DioN.J 
 
 DIOCLETIANUS, 
 
 DiocaGSarea (AiocrKaiadpeia : Sefuricli), more 
 anciently Sepphoris ( 5e7r^tiJ/Jis), in Galilee, was 
 a small place until Herodes Antipas made it the 
 capital of Galilee, under the name of Dlocaesarea. 
 It was destroyed in the 4th century by Gallus, on 
 account of an insurrection which had broken out 
 there. 
 
 Bioclea or Boclea (AtiKAea), a place in Dal- 
 matian near Salona, the birth-place of Diocletian. 
 
 Diodes {AlokXtis). 1. A brave Athenian, who 
 lived in exile at Megara. Once in a battle he pro- 
 tected with his shield a youth whom he loved, but 
 he lost his own life in consequence. The Mega- 
 rians rewarded him with the honours of a hero, 
 and instituted the festival of the Dioclea, which 
 they celebrated in the spring of every year. — 
 S. A Syracusan, the leader of the popular party in 
 opposition to Hermocrates. In B.C. 412 he was 
 appointed with several others to draw up a new 
 code of laws. This code, which was almost ex- 
 clusively the work of Diodes, became very cele- 
 brated, and was adopted by many other Sicilian 
 cities.— 3. Of Cari'stus in Euboea, a celebrated 
 Greek physician, lived in the 4th century B. c. 
 He wrote several medical works, of which only- 
 some fragments remain. 
 
 Dioclet anopolis. [Celetrum.] 
 
 Diocletianus, Valerius, Roman emperor, a. d. 
 284 — 305, was bom near Salona in Dalmatia, in 
 245, of most obscure parentage. From his motlier, 
 Doclea, or Dioclea, who received her name from 
 the village where she dwelt, he inherited the ap- 
 pellation of Dodes or Diodes, which, after his 
 assumption of the purple, was expanded into Dio- 
 cletianus, and attached as a cognomen to the high 
 patrician name of Valerius. Having entered the 
 anny, he served with high reputation under Pro- 
 bus and Aurelian, followed Cams to the Persian 
 war, and, after the fate of Numerianus became 
 known at Chalcedon, was proclaimed emperor by 
 the troops, 2JJ4. He slew with his own hands 
 Arrius Aper, who was arraigned of the murder of 
 Numerianus, in order, according to some autho- 
 rities, that he might fulfil a prophecy delivered to 
 him in early youth by a Gaulish Druidess, that he 
 should mount a throne as soon as he had slain the 
 wild-boar (Aper), Next year (285) Diocletian 
 carried on war against Carinus, on whose death he 
 became undisputed master of the empire. But as 
 the attacks of the barbarians became daily more 
 fonnidaliie, he resolved to associate with himself a 
 colleague in the empire, and accordingly selected 
 for that purpose Maximianus, who was invested 
 with the title of Augustus in 286. Maximian had 
 the care of the Western empire, and Diocletian 
 that of the Eastern. But as the dangers which 
 threatened the Roman dominions from the attacks 
 of the Persians in the E., and the Germans and 
 other barbarians in the W., became still more im- 
 minent, Diocletian made a still further division of 
 the empire. In 292, Constantius Chlorus and 
 Galcrius were proclaimed Caesars, and the govern- 
 ment of the Roman world was divided between 
 the 2 Augusti and the 2 Caesars. Diocletian had 
 the government of the E. with Niconiedia as his 
 residence ; Maximian, Italy, and Africa, with 
 Milan, as his residence ; Constantius, Britain, Gaul, 
 and Spain, with Treves, as his residence ; Gale- 
 riua, Illyricum, and the whole line of the Danube, 
 with Sirmium, as his residence. The wars in the 
 reign of Diocletian are related in the lives of his 
 
DIODORUS. 
 
 colleagues, since Diocletiiin rarely commanded the 
 armies in person. It is sufficient to state here 
 that Britain, which had maintained its independ- 
 ence for some years under Carausius and Al- 
 LECTUS, was restored to the empire ('206) ; that 
 the Persians were defeated and obliged to sue for 
 peace (29fj) ; and that the Marcomanni and other 
 barbarians in the N. were also driven back from 
 the Roman dominions. But after an anxious reign 
 of 21 years Diocletian longed for repose. Accord- 
 ingly on 1st of May, 305, he abdicated at Nico- 
 media, and compelled his reluctant colleague Maxi- 
 mian to do the same at Milan. Diocletian retired 
 to his native Dalmatia, and passed the remaining 8 
 years of his life near Salona in philosophic retire- 
 ment, devoted to ruml pleasures and the cultivation 
 of his garden. He died 313. One of the most 
 memorable events in the reign of Diocletian was his 
 fierce persecuiion of the Christians (303), to which 
 he was instigated by his colleague Galerius. 
 
 Liodorus (AiASwpos). 1. Suniamed Croinis, of 
 lasiis in Caria, lived at Alexandria in the reign 
 of Ptolemy Soter, wlio is said to have given hira 
 the surname of Cronus on account of his inability 
 to solve at once some dialectic problem proposed 
 by Stilpo, when the 2 philosophers were dining 
 witii the king. Diodorus is said to have taken 
 that disgrace so much to heart, that after his return 
 from the repast, and writing a treatise on the pro- 
 blem, he died in despair. According to another 
 account he derived his surname from his teacher 
 Apdllonius Cronus. He belonged to the Megaric 
 scliool of philosophy, of which he was the head. 
 He was celebrated for his great dialectic skill, for 
 which he is called d SioAefcTifctiy, or SiaAeKTiKcd- 
 Taros. — 2. Siculus, of Agyrium in Sicily, was a 
 contemporary of Julius Caesar and Augustus. In 
 order to collect materials for his history, he tra- 
 velled over a great part of Europe and Asia, and 
 lived a long time at Rome. He spent altogether 
 30 years upon his work. It was entitled Bc^Aio- 
 driK-q iffTopiKi]^ Tlie Historical Library^ and was an 
 universal history, embracing the period from the 
 eariiest mythical ages down to the beginning of 
 Caesar's Gallic wars. It was divided into 3 great 
 sections and into 40 books. The 1st section, which 
 consisted of the first 6 books, contained the history 
 of the mythical times previous to the Trojan war. 
 The 2nd section, which consisted of 11 books, con- 
 tained the history from the Trojan war down to the 
 death of Alexander the Great. The 3rd section, 
 ■which contained the remaining 23 books, treated of 
 the history from the death of Alexander down to 
 the beginning of Caesar's Gallic wars. Of this work 
 only the following portions are extant entire : the 
 first 5 books, which contain the early histoiy of 
 the Eastern nations, the Egyptians, Aethiopians, 
 and Greeks ; and from book 11 to bouk 20, con- 
 taining the history from the 2nd Persian war, 
 B. c. 480, down to 302. Of the remaining portion 
 there are extant a number of fragments and the 
 Excerpta, which are preserved partly in Photius, 
 and partly in the Eclogae made at the command of 
 Constantine Porphyrogenitus. The work of Dio- 
 dorus is constructed upon the plan of annals, and 
 the events of each year are placed one after the 
 other without any internal connection. In com- 
 piling his work Diodoms exercised no judgment or 
 criticism. He simply collected what lie found in 
 his different authorities, and thus jumbled together 
 history-, mythus, and fiction: he frequently mis- 
 
 DIOGENES. 221 
 
 understood authorities, and not seldom contradicts 
 in one passnge wliat he has stated in another. 
 But nevertheless the compilation is of great im- 
 portance to us, on account of the great mass cf 
 materials which are there collected from a num- 
 ber of writers whose works have perished. The 
 best editions are by Wesseling, Amsterd. 174(), 
 2 vols. foL, reprinted at Bipont, 1703, &c,, 11 vols. 
 8vo. ; and by Dindorf, Lips. 1823, b' vols. 8vo. — 
 3. Of Sinope, an Athenian comic poet of tlic 
 middle comedy, flourished 353.-4. Of Tyre, a 
 peripatetic pliilosopher, a disciple and follower of 
 Critolaiis, whom he succeeded as the head of the 
 Peripatetic school at Athens. He flourished b. c. 
 110.^ „ 
 
 Diodotus (Ai(i5oTos), a Stoic philosopher and a 
 teacher of Cicero, in whose bouse lie lived for many 
 years at Rome. In his later years, Diodotus be- 
 came blind: he died in Cicero's house, B.C. 59, 
 and left to his friend a property of about 100,000 
 sesterces. 
 
 Biogenes (Ato7eV77s). 1. Of Apollonia in Cretp, 
 an eminent natural philosopher, lived in the 5th 
 century e. c, and was a pupil of Anaximenes. He 
 wrote a work in the Ionic dialect, entitled ITepi 
 4>ucrea)S', On Nature, in which he appears to have 
 treated of physical science in the largest sense of 
 the words. — 2. Tiie Babylonian, a Stoic philo- 
 sopher, was a native of Seleucia in Babylonia, was 
 educated at Athena under Chrysippus, and suc- 
 ceeded Zeno of Tarsus as the head of the Stoic 
 school at Athens. He was one of the 3 ambas- 
 sadors sent by the Athenians to Rome in b. c, 155. 
 [Carneades : Critolaus.] He died at the age 
 of i>o. — 3. The Cynic philosopher, was born at 
 Sinope in Pontus, about b. c. 412. His father was 
 a banker named Icesias or Icetas, who was con- 
 victed of some swindling transaction, in conse- 
 quence of which Diogenes quitU^d Sinone and went 
 to Athens. His youth is said to have b'jen spent 
 in dissolute extravagance ; but at Athens his at- 
 tention was arrested by the character of Antis- 
 thenes, who at first drove him away. Dioyienes, 
 however, could not be prevented from attending him 
 even by blows, but told him that he would find no 
 stick hai'd enough to keep him away. Antisthenes 
 at last relented, and his pupil soon plunged into 
 the most frantic excesses of austerity and morose- 
 ness. In summer he used to roll in hot sand, and 
 in winter to embrace statues covered with snow ; 
 he wore coarse clothing, lived on the plainest food, 
 slept in porticoes or in the street, and finally, ac- 
 cording to the common storj', took up his residence 
 in a tub belonging to the Metroum, or temple of 
 the Mother of the Gods. The truth of this latter 
 tale has, however, been reasonably disputed. In 
 spite of his strange eccentricities, Diogenes appears 
 to have been much respected at Athens, and to 
 have been privileged to rebuke anything of which 
 he disapproved. He seems to have ridiculed and 
 despised all intellectual pursuits which did not 
 directly and obviously tend to some immediate 
 practical good. He abused literary men for read- 
 ing about the evils of Ulysses, and neglecting their 
 own ; nmsicians for stringing the lyre harmoniously 
 while they left their minds discordant ; men of 
 science for troubling themselves about the moon 
 and stars, while they neglected what lay imme- 
 diately before them ; orators for learning to say 
 what was right, but not to practise it. — On a 
 voyage to Aegina he was taken prisoner by pirates. 
 
2-22 DI0GENIANU3. 
 
 and carried to Crete to be sold a3 a slave. Here 
 when he "was asked what business he understood, 
 he answered, " How to command men." He was 
 purchased by Xeniades of Corinth, over wlioni lie 
 acquired such influence, that he soon received from 
 him liis freedom, was entrusted with the care of 
 liis cliildren, and passed his old an;e in his house. 
 During his residence at Corintli his celebrated in- 
 terview with Alexander the Great is said to have 
 taken place. The conversation between them begun 
 by the klne^'s saying, " I am Alexander the Great;" 
 to wliich the philosopher replied, "And I am Dio- 
 genes the Cynic." Alexander then asked whether 
 he could oblige him in any way, and received no 
 answer except, " Yes, you can stand out of the 
 sunshine." We are further told that Alexander 
 admired Diogenes so much that he said, " If I were 
 not Alexander, I should wish to be Diogenes." 
 Diogenes died at Corinth at the age of nearly 90, 
 L. c. 323. — 4. Laertius, of Laerte in Cilicia, of 
 whose life we liave no particulars, probably lived 
 in the 2ud century after Christ. He wrote the 
 Lives of tlie Philosophers in 10 books : the work 
 is entitled ■rrept ^['wc, SoyfiaTuv^ «al j.^oclydey^drcou 
 Txv iv <pi\oao(f)la eudoict/xriadi/Tcov. According to 
 Bome allusions wliich occur in it, he wrote it for a 
 lady of rank, who occupied herself with piiilosophy, 
 and who, according to some, was Arria, the friend 
 of Galen. In this work Diogenes divides the phi- 
 losophy of the Greeks into the Ionic — which com- 
 mences with Anaximander and ends with Clito- 
 niaclms, Chrj-sippus, and Theophnistus — and the 
 Italian, which was founded by Pythagoras, and 
 ends with Epicurus. He reckons the Socratic 
 school, with its various ramifications, as a part of 
 the Ionic philosophy, of which he treats in the first 
 7 books. The Elcatics, with Hcniclitus and the 
 Sceptics, are included in the Italian philosophy, 
 which occupies the 8th and 9th books. Kpicurus 
 and his philosophy are treated of in the 10th book 
 with particular minutcnesa, which has led some 
 writers to the belief that Diogenes himself was an 
 Epicurean. The work is of great value to us, as 
 Diogenes made use of a great numher of writers on 
 the history of philo.-ophy, whose works are now 
 lost ; bat it is put together without plan, criticism, 
 or connection, and the author had evidently no 
 conception of the real value and dignity of philo- 
 sophy. The best editions are by Meibom, Amsterd. 
 1692, 2 vols. 4to., and Hlibner, Lips. 2 vols. 8vo. 
 1328 — 1831. — 5. Oenomaus, a tragic poet, who 
 began to exhibit at Athens B. c. 404. 
 
 Diogenianus (AioyeveiaySs), of Heraclea on the 
 Pontus, a distinguished grammarian in the reign 
 of Hadrian, wrote a Greek Lexicon, from which 
 the Lexicon of Hesychius seems to have been 
 almost entirely taken. A portion of it is still 
 extant, containing a collection of proverbs first 
 printed bj' Schottiis, with the proverbs of Zenobius 
 and Sitidas, Antv. 1G12, 4to., and subsequently in 
 other editions of the Puroemioijraphi Graeci. 
 
 Diomea (to Ai6fj.sta : Aioixeiei/s, Aiojueus), a 
 deums in Attica belonging to the tribe Acgeis, 
 v/ith a temple of Hercules ; the Diomean gate in 
 Athena led to this denms. [See p. 103, a.] 
 
 Diomedeae Insulae, S small islands in the 
 Adriatic sea, N. of the promontory Garganum in 
 Apulia, named after Diomedes- [Diomedes.] The 
 largest of these, called Dionmdea Insula or Trimerus 
 (TremiH), was the place where Julia, the grand- 
 daughter of Augustus, died. 
 
 DION. 
 
 Diomedes (ALOfx-nBiis). 1. Son of Tydeus and 
 Deipyle, whence he is constantly called Tydidea 
 (Tuoei'STjs), succeeded Adrastus as king of Argns. — 
 Iloiiieric Slory. Tydeus fell in the expedition 
 against Thebes, while his son Diomedes was yet a 
 boy ; but Diomedes was afterwards one of the 
 Epigoni who took Thebes. He went to Troy with 
 80 ships, and was, next to Achilles, the bravest 
 hero in the Greek army. He enjoyed the especial 
 protection of Athena ; he fought against the 
 most distinguished of the Trojans, such as Hector 
 and Aeneas, and even with the gods who espoused 
 the cause of the Trojans. He thus wounded both 
 Aphrodite and Ares. — Laier Stories. Diomedes 
 and Ulysses cai-ried off the palladium from the 
 city of Troy, since it was believed tliat Troy 
 could not be taken so long as the palladium was 
 within its walls. Diomedes carried the palladium 
 with him to Argos ; but according to others it 
 was taken from him by Demophon in Atticn, 
 where he lauded one night on his return from 
 Troy, without knowing where he was. [Demo- 
 phon.] Another tradition stated, that Diomedes 
 restored the palladium to Aeneas. On his arrival 
 in Argos Diomedes found his wife Aegialea living in 
 adultery with Hippolytus, or, according to others, 
 with Cometes or Cyllabarus. This misfortune 
 befell him through the anger of Aphrodite, whom 
 he had wouuded before Tro}'. He tliercfore quitted 
 Argos, cither of his own accord, or he was expelled 
 by the adulterers, and went to Aetolia. He sub- 
 sequently attempted to return to Argos, but on his 
 way home a storm threw him on the coast of 
 Daunia in Italy, where he was kindly received by 
 Daunus, the king of the country. Diomedes as- 
 sisted Daunus in his war against the Messapians, 
 married Euippe, the daughter of Daunus, and set- 
 tled in Daunia, where he died at an advanced age. 
 Pie was buried in one of the islands off cape Gar- 
 ganum, v/]iich were called after him the Diomedean 
 islands. His companions were inconsolable at his 
 loss, and were metamorphosed into birds (^Aves 
 Diomedean)^ which, mindful of their origin, used 
 to fly joyfully towards the Greek ships, but to 
 avoid those of the Romans. According to others 
 Diomedes returned to Argos, or disappeared in one 
 of the Diomedean islands, or in the country of the 
 Heneti. A number of towns in the E. part of Italy, 
 such as Beneventum, Argos Hippion (afterwards 
 Argj'ripa or Arpi), Venusia, Canuaium, Venafrum, 
 Brundusium, &c. were believed to have been 
 founded by Diomedes. A pbiin of Apulia, near 
 Salapia and Canusium, was called Diomcdti Cainpi 
 after him. He was worshipped as a divine being, 
 especially in Italy, where statues of him existed 
 at Argyripa, Metapontum, Thurii, and other places. 
 — 2. Son of Ares and Cyrene, king of the Bis- 
 tones in Thrace, killed b}' Hercules on account of 
 his marcs, which he fed with human flesh. 
 
 Biomedes, a Latin grammarian, probably lived 
 in the 4th or 5th century after Christ, and is the 
 author of an extant work, De Oratione et Partilms 
 Oralionis et Vario Gencre Meirorum lihri Ilf.^ 
 printed in the Graminaticae Lathiue Auctores An- 
 iifjui of Putschins, 4to. Hanov. IfiOo. 
 
 Diomedon {Atofj.4b(uu)^ an Athenian commander 
 during the Peloponnesian war. He was one of the 
 commanders at the battle of Arginusae (b. c. 40()), 
 and was put to death with 5 of liis colleagues on 
 his return to Athens. 
 
 Dion {Alwv)^ a Syracusan, son of Hipparinus, 
 
DION. 
 
 nnd a relation of Dionystus. Ilis sister Aristoma.cIiG 
 ■was the second wife of the elder Dionysius ; and 
 Dion himself was married to Arete, the daughter 
 of I)ion3'sius by Aristoraache. Dion was treated 
 by Dionysius with the greatest distinction, and 
 was employed by him in man}' services of trust 
 and confidence. Of this close connection and favour 
 with the tyrant he seems to have availed himself 
 to amass great wealth. He made no opposition to 
 the succession of the younger Dionysius to his 
 fathor^'a power, but he became an object of suspicion 
 to the youthful tyrant, to whom he also made 
 himself personally disagreeable by the austerity of 
 his manners. Dion appears to have been naturally 
 a man of a proud and stem character, and having 
 become an ardent disciple of Plato when that phi- 
 losopher visited Syracuse in the reign of the elder 
 Dionysius, he carried to excess the austerity of a 
 philosopher, and viewed with undisguised contempt 
 the debaucheries and dissolute pleasures of his 
 nephew. From these he endeavoured to withdraw 
 him by persuading him to invite Plato a second 
 time to Syracuse ; but the philosopher, though 
 received at first with the utmost distinction, failed 
 in obtaining a permanent hold on the mind of 
 Dionj-^sius; and the intrigues of the opposite party, 
 headed by Philistus, were successful in procuring 
 the banishment of Dion. Dion retired to Athens, 
 where he lived in habitual intercourse with Plato 
 and his disciples ; but Plato having failed in pro- 
 curing his recall (for which purpose he had a third 
 time visited Symcuse), and Dionysius having con- 
 fiscated his property, and compelled his wife to marry 
 another person, he determined on attempting the 
 expulsion of tlie tjTant by force. He sailed from 
 Zacynthus with only a small force and obtained 
 possession of Syracuse without opposition during 
 the absence of Dion3'sius in Italy. Dionysius re- 
 turned shortly afterwards, but found himself obliged 
 to quit Syracuse and sail away to Italy, leaving 
 Dion undisputed master of the city, b. c. 356. His 
 despotic conduct however soon caused great dis- 
 content, and the people complained with justice 
 that they had only exchanged one tyrant for 
 another. Pie caused his chief opponent, Heraclides, 
 to be put to death, and confiscated the property of 
 his adversaries. Callippus, an Athenian, who had 
 accompanied him from Greece, formed a conspiracy 
 against him, and caused him to be assassinated in 
 his own house, 353. 
 
 Dion. Cassius, the historian, was the son of a 
 Roman senator, Cassius Apronianus, and was born 
 A. D. 155, at Nicaea in Bithynia. He also bore 
 the surname Cocceianus, which he derived from 
 the orator Dion Chrysostomus Cocceianus, his ma- 
 temal grandfather. He was educated with great 
 care ; he accompanied his father to Cilicin, of which 
 he had the administration ; and after his father''a 
 death, he went to Rome, about ISO. He was 
 etraigiitway made a senator, and frequently pleaded 
 in the courts of justice. He was aedile and quaestor 
 under Commodus, and praetor imder Septimius 
 Severus, 194. He accompanied Caracalla on his 
 journey to the East; he was appointed by Macrinus 
 to tlie government of Pcrgamus and Smyrna, 2iy ; 
 was consul about 220; proconsul of Africa 224, 
 under Alexander Severiia, by whom he was sent 
 as legate to Dalmatia in 226, and to Pannonia in 
 227. In the latter province he restored strict 
 discipline among the troops ; which excited the 
 discontent of the praetorians at Rome, who de- 
 
 DION. 
 
 223 
 
 manded his life of Alexander Scvcms Put the 
 emperor protected him and raised bim to his second 
 consulship 229. Dion, however, retired to Cam- 
 pania, and shortly afterwards obtiiined permission 
 of the emperor to return to his native town Nicaea, 
 where he passed the remainder of his life and 
 died. — Dion wrote several historical works, but the 
 most important was a History of Rome {'VaifiaiKij 
 la-Topia)^ in 80 books, from the landing of Aeneas 
 in Italy to a. d. 229, the year in which Dion 
 returned to Nicaea. Unfortunately, only a com- 
 paratively small portion of this work has come 
 down to us entire. Of the first 34 books we possess 
 only fragments ; but since Zonaras in his Annals 
 chiefly followed Dion Cassius, we may regard the 
 Annals of Zonaras as to some extent an epitome of 
 Dion Cassius. Of the 35th book we possess a 
 considerable fragment, and from the 36th book to 
 the 54th the work is extant complete, and embraces 
 the history from the wars of LucuHlis and Cn. 
 Pompey against Mithridates, down to the death of 
 Agrippa, B. c. 10. Of the remaining books we have 
 only the epitomes made by Xiphilinus and others. 
 Dion Cassius treated the history of the republic 
 with brevity, but gave a more minute account of 
 these events, of which lie had been himself an eye- 
 witness. He consulted original authorities, and 
 displayed great judgment and discrimination in 
 the use of them. He had acquired a thorough 
 knowledge of his subject, and his notions of the 
 ancient Roman institutions were far more correct 
 than those of some of his predecessors, such as. 
 Dionysius of Halicarnassus. The best editions are 
 by Reimarus, Hamb. 1 750 — 52, 2 vols, fol., and by 
 Sturz, Lips. 1824, 9 vols. 8vo. 
 
 Dion Chrysostomiis, that is, the golden-mouthed, 
 a suniame given to him on account of his elor|uence. 
 He also bore the surname Cocceianus, which he 
 derived from the emperor Cocceius Nerva, with 
 whom he was very intimate. He was bom at 
 Pmsa in Bithynia, about the middle of the first 
 centur}'- of our era. He received a careful educa- 
 tion, increased his knowledge by travelling in 
 different countries, and came to Rome in the reign 
 of Vespasian, but having incurred the suspicions of 
 Domitian, was obliged to leave the city. On the 
 advice of the Delphic oracle, he put on a beggar's 
 dress, and in this condition visited Thrace, Mysia, 
 Scythia, and the country of the Getae. After the 
 murder of Domitian, a. n. 96, Dion used his in- 
 fluence with the army stationed on the frontier in 
 favour of his friend Nerva, and seems to have 
 returned to Rome immediately after his accession. 
 Trajan also entertained the highest esteem for 
 Dion, and showed him the most marked favour. 
 Dion died at Rome about a. d. 117. — Dion Clirv- 
 sostom is the most eminent of the Greek rhetoricians 
 and sophists in the time of the Roma-n empire. 
 There are extant 80 of his orations ; but they are 
 more like essays on political, moral, and philoso- 
 phical subjects than real orations, of which they 
 have only the form. We find among them Xdyoi 
 irepl ^affiAeias or \6yoi fiaa-tXiKol, 4 orations ad- 
 dressed to Trnjan on the virtues of a sovereign • 
 Aioyewns ^ Trepi TvpavviBos, on the troubles to 
 which men expose themselves by deserting tiie 
 path of nature, and oji the difliculties which a so- 
 vereign has to encounter ; essays on slavery and 
 freedom ; on the means of attaining eminence as an 
 orator ; political discoui-ses addressed to various 
 towns ; on subjects of etliics and practical philo- 
 
224 
 
 DIONAEA. 
 
 sophy ; and lastly, orations on mythical subjects 
 and show-speeches. All these orations are ■written 
 in pure Attic Greek, and, although tainted with 
 the rhetoriciil embellishments of the age, are dis- 
 tinguished by their refined and elegant style. The 
 best editions are by Reiske, Lips. 1784, 2 vols, 
 and by Kmperius, Bruns. 1044. 
 Bionaea. [Dione.] 
 
 Dione (Alcuut)), daughter of Oceanus and Tethys, 
 or of Uranus and Ge, or of Aether and Ge. She 
 was beloved by Zeus, by whom she became the 
 mother nf Aphrodite (Venus). She received her 
 diiu2:hter in Olympus, when she was wounded by 
 Dioinedes. — Aphrodite is hence called Dionaea, 
 and this epithet is frequently applied to any thing 
 sacred to Aphrodite. Hence we find Dionacum 
 arilriim. (Hor. Carm. ii. 1. 39), and Dlonacus Caesar 
 ( Virg. Ed. ix. 47), because Caesar claimed descent 
 from Venus, Aphrodite is sometimes also called 
 Dinne. 
 
 Dionysius {Aiovvino^') I. fUstorkal. —1, The 
 Elder, tyrant of Syracuse, son of Hermocrates, bom 
 B. c. 430. He was bom in a private but not low 
 station, and began life as a clerk in a public office. 
 He was one of the partizans of Hermocrates, the 
 leader of the aristocratical party, and was severely 
 wounded in the attempt which Hermocrates made 
 to effect hy force his restoration from exile. He 
 subsequently served in the great war against the 
 Carthaginians, who had invaded Sicily mider Han- 
 nibal, the son of Gisco, and successively reduced 
 and destroyed Sc'linus, Himera, and Agrigentum. 
 These disasters, and especially the failure of the 
 Syracusan general, Daplinaeus, to relieve Agrigen- 
 tum, had created a general spirit of discontent and 
 alarm, of which Dionysius skilfully availed himself. 
 He succeeded in procuring a decree for deposing 
 the existing generals, and appointing others in their 
 stead, among whom was Dionysius himself, B.C. 406. 
 His efforts were from this time directed towards 
 supplanting his new colleagues and obtaining the sole 
 direction of affairs. These efforts were crowned with 
 success. In the following year (405), the other ge- 
 nerals were deposed, and Dionysius, though only 25 
 years of age, was appointed sole general, with full 
 powers. From this period we may date the com- 
 mencement of his reign, or tyrann}', which continued 
 without interruption for SiJ years. His first step was 
 to procure the appointment of a body-guard, which he 
 speedily increased to the number of 1000 men : at 
 the same time he induced the Syracusans to double 
 the pay of all the troops, and took every means to 
 ingratiate himself with the mercenaries. By his 
 marriage with the daughter of Hermocrates he 
 secured to himself the support of all the remaining 
 partizans of that leader. He converted the island 
 of Ortygia into a strong fortress, in which he took 
 up his own residence. After concluding a peace 
 with Carthage, and putting down a formidable 
 insurrection in Syracuse, he began to direct his 
 arras against the other cities of Sicily. Naxos, 
 Catana, and Leontini, successively fell into his 
 power, either by force or treachery. For several 
 years after this he made preparations for renewing 
 the war with Carthage. In 397 he declared war 
 against Carthage. At first he met with great suc- 
 cess, but in 395 his fleet was totally defeated, and 
 he was obliged to shut himself up within the wails 
 of Syracuse, where he was besieged by the Car- 
 thaginians both by sea and land. A pestilence 
 shortly after broke out in the Carthaginian camp, 
 
 DIONYSIUS. 
 
 and greatly reduced the enemy; whereupon Dio- 
 nysius suddenly attacked the enemy both by 
 sea and land, defeated the army, and burnt 
 great part of their fleet. The Carthaginians were 
 now obliged to withdraw. In 393 they renewed 
 the war with no better success, and in 392 they 
 concluded a peace with Dionysius. This treaty 
 left Dionysius at leisure to continue the ambitious 
 projects in which he had previously engaged against 
 the Greek cities in Italy. He formed an alliance 
 with the Lucanians, and crossed over into Italy. 
 He subdued Caulonia, Hipponium, and Rhegium, 
 387. He was in close alliance with the Locrians; 
 and his powerful fleets gave him the command both 
 of the Tyrrhenian and Adriatic seas. He was now 
 at the summit of his greatness, and during the 20 
 years that elapsed from this period to his death, 
 he possessed an amount of power and influence far 
 exceeding those enjnyed by any other Greek before 
 the time of Alexander. During this time he was 
 twice engaged again in war with Carthage, namely 
 in 383, when a treaty was concluded, by which 
 the river Halycus was fixed as the boundary of the 
 two powers ; and again in 368, in the middle of 
 which war Dionysius died at Syracuse, 367. His 
 last illness is said to have been brought on by 
 excessive feasting ; but according to some accounts, 
 his death was hastened by his medical attendants, 
 in order to secure the succession for his son. After 
 the death of his first wife, Dionysius had married 
 almost exactly at the same time — some said even 
 on the same day — Doris, a Locrian of distinguished 
 birth, and Aristomache, a Syracusan, the daughter 
 of his supporter Hippariniis, and the sister of Dion. 
 By Doris he had 3 children, of which the eldest 
 was his successor, Dionysius. The character of 
 Dionysius has been drawn in the blackest colours 
 by many ancient writers ; he appears indeed to 
 have become a sort of type of a tyrant, in its worst 
 sense. In his latter years he became extremely 
 suspicious, and apprehensive of treachery even from 
 his nearest friends, and is said to have adopted the 
 most excessive precautions to guard against it. 
 Many of these stories have however an air of great 
 exaggeration. (Cic. Tusc. v. 20.) He built the 
 terrible prison, called Lautumiae, which was cut 
 out of the solid rock in the part of Syracuse, named 
 Epipolae. (See Diet, of Ant. art. Lautumiae.) 
 Dionysius was fond of literature and the arts. He 
 adorned S^'racuse with splendid temples and other 
 public edifices, so as to render it unquestionably 
 the greatest of all Greek cities. He was himself a 
 poet, and repeatedly contended for the prize of 
 tragedy at Athens. Here he several times obtained 
 the second and third prizes; and, finally, just before 
 his death, bore away the first prize at the Lennea, 
 with a play called '" The Ransom of Hector." He 
 sought the society of men distinguished in literature 
 and philosophy, entertaining the poet Philoxenus 
 at his table, and inviting Plato to Sj'racuse. He 
 however soon after sent the latter away from Sicily 
 in disgrace ; and though the story of his having 
 caused him to be sold as a slave, as well as that of 
 his having sent Philoxenus to the stone quarries 
 for ridiculing his bad verses, are probably gross 
 exaggerations, they may well have been so far 
 founded in fact, that his intercourse with these 
 persons was interrupted by some sudden burst of 
 capricious violence. — 2. Th'j Younger, son of the 
 preceding, succeeded his father as tyrant of Syra- 
 cuse, B.C. 3G7. He was at this time under 30 years 
 
DI0NY3IUS. 
 of age; ho had been bi'oui,^ht up at his fatlier's 
 -court in idleness and luxury, and studiously pre- 
 cluded from taking any part in public affairs, The 
 ascendancy whicii Dion, and througli his means 
 Plato, obtained for a time over his mind was under- 
 mined by flatterers and the companions of his 
 pleasures. Yet his court was at this time a great 
 place of resort for philosophers and men of letters : 
 besides Plato, whom he induced by the most urgent 
 entreaties to pay him a second visit, Aristippus of 
 Cyrcne, Eudoxus of Cnidus, Speusippus, and 
 others, are stated to have spent some time witli 
 him at Syracuse ; and lie cultivated a friendly in- 
 terconrse with Archytas and the Pj'thagoreans of 
 Magna Graecia. Dion, who had been banished by 
 Diouysius, returned to Sicily in 357, at the head 
 of a small force, with the avowed object of de- 
 throning Dionysius. The latter was absent from 
 SyiTicusc at the time that Dion landed in Sicily; 
 but he instantly returned to Syracuse, where the 
 -citadel still held out for him. But finding it im- 
 possible to retain his power, he sailed away to 
 Italy with his most valuable property, and thus 
 3o8t the sovereignty afier a reign of 12 years, 356. 
 He now repaired to Locri, the native city of his 
 mother, Doris, where he was received in the most 
 friendly manner; but he made himself tyrant of the 
 city, and is said to have treated the inhabitants 
 witli the utmost cruelty. After remaining at Locri 
 10 years, he availed himself of tiie internal dissen- 
 sions at Sj'racuse to recover possession of his power 
 in that cit}', 346. The Locrians took advantage of 
 his absence to revolt against him, and wreaked 
 their vengeance in the most cruel manner on his 
 wife and daughters. He continued to reign in 
 Syracuse for the next 3 years, till Timoleon came 
 to Sicily, to deliver the Greek cities of the island 
 from the tyrants. As he was unable to resist Ti- 
 moleon, he surrendered the cit;idcl into the hands of 
 the latter, on condition of being allowed to depart 
 in safety to Corinth, 343. Here he spent the re- 
 mainder of his life in a private condition, and is 
 ■«aid to have frequented low company, and sunk 
 irradually into a very degraded and abject state. 
 According to some writers, he was reduced to sup- 
 port himself by keeping a school; others say, that 
 he became one of the attendants on the rites of 
 Cybele, a set of mendicant priests of the lowest 
 ■class. ^ 3. Tyrant of Heraclea on the Euxine, son 
 of Clearchus, succeeded his brother Timotheus 
 in the tyranny about B.C. 330. He is said to have 
 been the mildest and justest of all the tyrants that 
 had ever lived. He married Amastris, niece of 
 Darius. In 306 he assumed the title of king, and 
 died shortly afterwards at the age of 55. He is 
 said to have been choked by his itwu fat. 
 
 II. Liierarj/. 1. Surnamed Areopagita, because 
 'he was one of the council of the Areopagus, was 
 converted by St. Paul's preaching at Athens. There 
 ■are extant several works under his name, which 
 however could scarcely have been written before 
 the 5th century of our era. — 2. Cato. [Cato.]^ 
 5. Surnamed Clialcus (6 XaAicovs)^ an Attic poet 
 and orator, who derived his surname from his having 
 advised the Athenians to coin brass money for the 
 purpose of facilitating traffic. Of his oratory we 
 Icnow nothing ; but his poems, chiefly elegies, are 
 often referred to and quoted. He was one of the 
 leaders of the colony to Tluirii in Italy, u. c. 444. 
 — 4. Of Halicarnassiis, a celebrated rlietorician, 
 came to Rome about n. c. 21), fur the piirposc of 
 
 DIONYSIUS. 
 
 225 
 
 making himself acquainted with the Latin language 
 and literature. He lived at Rome on terms of 
 friendsliip with many distinguished men, such as 
 Q. Aelius Tubero, and the rhetorician Caccilius ; 
 and he remained in the city for '22 years, till his 
 death, b. c. 7. His principal work, which he 
 composed at Rome at the later period of his life, 
 was a history of Rome in 22 books, entitled 'Pw- 
 Ij-a'tKi} ' Kpxa.io\oyia. It contained the history of 
 Rome from the mythical times down to B. c. 264, 
 in which year the history of Polybius begins with 
 the Punic wars. The first 9 books alone are 
 complete ; of the 10th and llth we have the 
 greater part ; and of the remaining 9 we possess 
 nothing but fragments and extracts. Dionysius 
 treated the early history of Rome with great mi- 
 nuteness. The 11 books extant do not carry the 
 history beyond B.C. 441, so that the llth book 
 breaks off very soon after the decemviral legislation. 
 This peculiar minuteness in the early history, how- 
 ever, was in a great measure the consequence of 
 the object he had proposed to himself, and which, 
 as he himself states, was to remove the erroneous 
 notions which the Greeks entertained with regard 
 to Rome's greatness. Dionysius had no clear 
 notions about the early constitution of Rome, and 
 was led astray by the nature of the institutions 
 which he saw in his own day ; and thus makes 
 innumerable mistakes in treating of the history of 
 the constitution. He introduces numerous speeches 
 in his work, which, though written with artistic 
 skill, nevertheless show that Dionysius was a rhe- 
 torician, not an historian, and still less a statesman. 
 — Dionysius also wrote various rhetorical and cri- 
 tical works, which abound with the most exquisite 
 remarks and criticisms on the works of the classical 
 writers of Greece. They show that he was a 
 greater critic than historian. The following are 
 the extant works of this class : 1. Tix^'H l>VTopiK7j, 
 addressed to one Echecrates, part of which is 
 certainly spurious, 2. Iltpl cvvQiffews bvo^Lartav^ 
 treats of oititorical power, and on the combination 
 of words according to the different styles of oratorv. 
 3. Tail' apx«''»'*' Kpiais, contains characteristics of 
 poets, from Homer down to Euripides, of some 
 historians, such as Herodotus, Thucydides, Phi- 
 listus, Xenophon, and Theopompus, and lastly, of 
 some philosophers and orators. 4. Hepl tuv ap~ 
 Xai'wc ^rjTopuf vTro/J.v7]fxaTicr/j.ol, contains criticisms 
 on the most eminent Greek orators, of which we now 
 possess only the first 3 sections, on Lysias, Isocrates, 
 and Isaeus. The other 3 sections treated of De- 
 mosthenes, Hyperides, and Aeschines ; but thev 
 are lost, with the exception of the Ist part of the 
 4th section, which treated of the oratorical power 
 of Demosthenes. 5. 'Ettio-toAtj irphs 'Af^/iaiov^ a 
 letter to his friend Animaeus, in which he shows 
 that most of the orations of Demosthenes had been 
 delivered before Aristotle wrote his Rhetoric, and 
 consequently that Demosthenes had derived no in- 
 struction from Aristotle. 6. 'K-ma-roK)) wphs rya7oi/ 
 Uo/xTr7)'ioy, was written by Dionysius with a view 
 of justifying the imfavourable opinion which he 
 had expressed upon Plato, and which Pompey had 
 censured. 7. Hep! rotJ QouicvBiSou xctpaKT^pos ical 
 rufvXoiiruiVTQu (rvyypa<peo]s iS/oi/^otw;/, was written 
 by Dionysius at the request of his friend Tubero, 
 for the purpose of explaining more minutely what 
 he had written on Thucydides. As Dionysius iu 
 this work looks at the groat historian from his rhe. 
 torical point of view, his judgment is often unjust 
 
'2-20 DIONYSOPOr.TS. 
 
 ;i'.;u :nc(iri'Ci.'t, 0. Ilepi rtov rod O'nirc-j'^-i'^o.i l^iia>- 
 iiaTwv^ addressed to Ammaeus. 9. Ativapx"-', ;l 
 very valunble treatise on the life and oratimis nf 
 Dinarchus. The best editions of the complete 
 "works of Dionysius are by Sylbiirrr, Frankf. 1586, 
 2 vols. fol. reprinted at Leipzig, 16i*l ; by Hudson, 
 Oxoii. 1704, "2 vols, fol, ; and by Reisk?, Lips. 
 1774. — 5, Of Heraclea, son of Theophantus, 
 was a pupil of Zeno, and adopted the tenets of the 
 Stoics. But in consequence of a most painful com- 
 plaint, he abandoned the Stoic philosophy, and 
 jouied the Eleatics, whose doctrine, that 7)dovT] 
 and the absence of pain was the highest good, had 
 'more charms for him than the austere ethics of the 
 Stoa. This renunciation of his former creed drew 
 upon him the nickname of fx^raO^ixevos^ i. e. the 
 renegade. He died in his 80th year of voluntary 
 Btarvation. He wrote several works, all of which 
 are lost. Cicero censures him for having mixed up 
 verses with his prose, and for his want of elegance 
 and refinement. ^6. Of Magnesia, a distinguished 
 rhetorician, taught in Asia between B. c. 79 and 
 77, when Cicero visited the E. ^7. Of Miletus, 
 one of the earliest Greek historians, and a contem- 
 porary of Hecataeus, wrote a history of Persia. -^ 
 8. Of Mjrtilene, sumamed Scytobrctchion^ taught at 
 Alexandria in the 1st century b. c. He wrote a prose 
 work on the Argonauts, which was consulted by 
 Diodorus Siculus. — 9. Surnamed Periegetes, from 
 his being the author of a 7repi7)77jcrisT^s 7^7, which 
 is still extant; probably lived about a. d. 300. The 
 work contains a description of the whole earth, in 
 bexaraeter verse, and is written in a terse and elegant 
 style. Itenjoj-ed great popularity in ancient times. 
 Two translations or paraphrases of it were made by 
 Romans, oneby Kufus Festus Avienus f Avjenus], 
 and the other by the grammarian Priscian. [Pris- 
 CIANUS.] The best edition of the original is by 
 Bernhardy, Lips. 1828. — 10. Of Sinope, an 
 Athenian comic poet of the middle comedy. — 11. 
 Sumamed Tbrax, from his father being a Thracian, 
 was himself a native either of Alexandria or By- 
 zantium. He is also called a Rhodian, because at 
 d!nc time he resided at Rhodes, and gave instmc- 
 tions there. He also taught at Rome, about b. c. 
 80, He was a very celebrated grammarian ; but 
 the only one of his works come down to us i.s a 
 small treatise, entitled Texvf] ypa/ifiariK'^^ which 
 became the basis of all subseiiuent grammars, and 
 was a standard book in grammar schools for many 
 centuries. 
 
 m. Artists. — 1. Of Argos, a statuary', flou- 
 rished B. c. 476- — 2. Of Colophon, a painter, con- 
 temporary with Polygnotus of Thasos, whose works 
 he imitated in every other respect except in grandeur. 
 Aristotle {Poet. 2} says that Polygnotus painted 
 the likenesses of men better than the originals, 
 Pauson made them worse, and Dionysius just like 
 them (d^oiuus). It seems from this that the pic- 
 tures of Dionysius were deficient in the ideal. 
 
 Dionysopolis (Aiopucov irdhis)^ a town in Phrj-- 
 gia, belonging to the conventus juridicus of Apa- 
 raea, founded by Attalua and Euraenes, 
 
 Dionygus {Ai6i'vijos or ALc^wtros), the youthful, 
 beautiful, but eifeminate god of wine. He is also 
 called both by Greeks and Romans Bacchus (Baw- 
 Xos), that is, the noisy or riotous god, which was 
 originally a mere epithet or surname of Dionysus, 
 and does not occur till after the time of Herodotus, 
 According to the common tradition, Dionysus was 
 the son of 2eu3 and Semelcj the daughter of' 
 
 DIONYSUS. 
 
 C'niliMiis of Tlicbcs ; tliougri other traditions give 
 liini a dilferent parentage and a different birth-place. 
 It was generally believed that when Semele was 
 pregnant, she was persuaded by Hera, who ap- 
 peared tn her in disguise, to request the father of 
 the gods to appear to her in the same glory and ma- 
 jesty in which he was accustomed to approach his 
 own wife Ilera. Zeus imwillingly complied, and 
 appeared to her in thunder and lightning. Semeh? 
 was terrified and overpowered by the sight, and 
 being seized by the flames, she gave premature birth 
 to a child. Zeus saved the child from the flames, 
 sewed him up in his thigh, and thus preserved 
 him till he came to raatui-ity. Various epithets 
 w^hich are given to the god refer to that oc- 
 currence, such as TTVpL-yGvijS^ /J.7]p0pPa(p7}S, IXTjpO- 
 
 Tpa({>r}?j and ignigena. After the birth of Diony- 
 sus, Zeus entrusted him to Hermes, or, according- 
 to others, to Persephone or Rhea, who took the 
 child to Ino and Athamas at Orchomenos, and per- 
 suaded them to bring him up as a girl. Hera was. 
 now urged on by her jealousy to throw Ino and 
 Athamas into a state of madness. Zeus, in order 
 to save his child, changed him into a ram, and 
 carried him to the nymphs of Mt. Nysa, who 
 brought him up in a cave, and were afterwards re- 
 warded by Zeus, hy being placed as Hyades 
 among the stars. Mt. Nysa, from which the god 
 was believed to have derived his name, was placed 
 in Thi-ace ; but mountains of the same name are 
 found in different parts of the ancient world where 
 he was worshipped, and where he was believed to 
 have introduced the cultivation of the vine. Various 
 other nyrnphs are also said to have reared him. 
 When he had gi*own up, Hera drove him mad, in 
 which state he wandered about through various 
 parts of the earth. He first went to Egypt, 
 where he was hospitably received by king Proteus. 
 He thence proceeded through Syria, where he 
 flayed Damascus alive, for opposing the introduction 
 of the vine. He then traversed all Asia, teaching 
 the inhabitants of the different countries of Asia 
 the cultivation of the vine, and introducing among 
 them the elements of civilization. -The most fa- 
 mous part of his wanderings in Asia is his expedi- 
 tion to India, which is said to have lasted several 
 years. On his return to Europe, he passed through 
 Thrace, but was ill received by Lycurgus, king of 
 the Edonep, and leaped into the sea to seek refuge 
 with Thetis, whom he afterwards rewarded for her 
 kind reception with a golden um, a present of He- 
 phaestus. All the host of Bacchantic women and 
 Satyrs, who had accompanied him, were taken pri- 
 soners by Lycurgus, but the women were soon set 
 free again. The country of the Edones thereupon 
 ceased to bear fruit, and Lycurgus became mad 
 and killed his own son, whom he mistook for a 
 vine. After this his madness ceased, but the 
 country still remained barren, and Dionysus de- 
 clared that it would remain so till Lycurgus died. 
 The Edones, in despair, took their king and put 
 him in chains, and Dionysus had him torn to 
 pieces by horses. He then returned to Thebes, 
 where he compelled the women to quit their houses, 
 and to celebrate Bacchic festivals on Mt. Cithaeron, 
 or Parnassus. Pentheus, who then ruled at 
 Thebes, endeavoured to check the riotous proceed- 
 ings, and went out to the momitains to seek the 
 Bacchic women ; but his own mother. Agave, in 
 her Bacchic fury, mistook him for an animal, and 
 tore him to pieces. Dionysus Jiext went to Argos, 
 
DIONYSUS, 
 where the people first refused to acknowledge him, 
 tut after punishing the women with frenzy, he was 
 recognised as a god and temples were erected to liim. 
 His last feat was performed on a voy;ige from 
 Icaria to Naxos. He hired a ship which belonged 
 to Tyrrhenian pirates ; but tlie men, instead of 
 landing at Naxos, steered towards Asia to sell 
 him there as a slave. Thereupon the gnd changed 
 the mast and oars into serpents, and himself 
 into a lion ; ivy grew around- the vessel, and 
 the stiund of flutes was heard on every side ; 
 the sailors were seized with madness, leaped into 
 the sea, and were metamorphosed into dolphins. 
 After he had thus gradually established his divine 
 nature throughout the world, he took his mother 
 out of flades, called her Thyune, and rose with 
 her into Olympus. — Various mythological beings 
 are described as the offspring of Dionysus ; but 
 among the women, both mortal and immortal, who 
 ■won his love, none is more famous in ancient story 
 than Ariadne. [Ariadne.] The extraordinary 
 mixture of traditions respecting the history of 
 Dionysus seems evidently to have arisen from the 
 traditions of different times and countries, referring 
 to analogous divinities, and transferred to the Greek 
 Dionysus. The worship of Dionysus was no part 
 of the original religion of Greece, and his mystic 
 worship is comparatively of late origin. In Homer 
 he does not appear as one of the great divinities, 
 and the story of bis birth by Zeus and the Bacchic 
 orgies are not alluded to in any way : Dionysus is 
 there simply described as the god who teaches man 
 the preparation of wine, whence he is called the 
 "drunken god" (/laivofMeuos), and the sober king 
 Lycurgus will not, for this reason, tolerate him 
 in his kingdom. (Horn. 11. vi. 132, Od. xviii. 
 406, comp. XL 325.) As the cultivation of the 
 vine spread in Greece, the worship of Dionysus 
 likewise spread further ; the mystic worship was 
 developed by the Orphici, though it prohablj"' ori- 
 ginated in the transfer of Phrj'-gian and Lydian 
 raodesof worship to that of Dionysus. After the time 
 of Alexander's expedition to India, the celebration 
 of the Bacchic festivals assumed more and more their 
 wild and dissolute character.-^ As far as the nature 
 and origin of the god Dionysus is concerned, he 
 appears in all traditions as the representative of the 
 productive, overflowing, and intoxicating power of 
 nature, which carries man away from his usual 
 quiet and sober mode of living. Wine is the most 
 natural and appropriate symbol of that power, and 
 it is therefore called "the fruit of Dionysus." 
 Dionysus is, therefore, the god of wine, the in- 
 ventor and teacher of its cultivation, the giver of 
 joy, and the disperser of grief and sorrow. As the 
 god of wine, he is also both an inspired and an 
 inspiring god, that is, a god who has the power of 
 revealing the future to man by oracles. Thus, it 
 is said, that he had as great a share in the 
 Delphic oracle as Apollo, and he himself had an 
 oracle in Thrace. Now, as prophetic power is 
 always combined with the healing art, Dionysus 
 is, like Apollo, called larp6s, or uyiar-qs^ and is 
 hence invoked as a ^ehs coir-fip against raging dis- 
 eases. The notion of his being the cultivator and 
 protector of the vine was easily extended to that 
 of his being the protector of trees in general, which 
 is alluded to in various epithets and siinuimes 
 given him by the poets of antiquity, and he thus 
 comes into close connection with Demeter. This 
 character is still further developed in the notion of 
 
 DIOPHANTUS. 227 
 
 his being the promoter of civilization, a law-giver, 
 and a lover of peace. As the Greek drama had 
 grown out of the dithyrauibic choruses at the fes- 
 tivals of Dionysus, lie was also regarded as the god 
 of tnigic art, and as the protector of theatres. The 
 orgiastic worship of Dionysus seems to have been 
 first established in Thrace, and to have thence 
 spread southward to Mts. Helicon and Parnassus, 
 to Thebes, Naxos, and throughout Greece, Sicily, 
 and Italy, though some writers derived it from 
 Egypt. Respecting his festivals and the mode of 
 their celobiation, and especially the introduction 
 and suppression of his worship at Rome, see Did. 
 of Ant. art. Diovysia. — In the earliest times the 
 Graces or Charites were the companions of Diony- 
 sus. This circumstance points out the great change 
 which took place in the course of time in the mode 
 of his worship, for afterwards we find him accom- 
 panied in his expeditions and travels byBacchantic 
 women, called Lenae, Macnades, Tliyiades, Mimal- 
 lones, Clodones, Bassarae or Bassarides, all of 
 whom are represented in works of ai't as raging 
 v/ith madness or enthusiasm, in vehement motions, 
 their heads thrown backwards, with dishevelled 
 hair, and carrying in their hands thyrsus-staffs 
 (entwined with ivy, and headed with pine-cones), 
 cymbals, swords, or serpents. Sileni, Pans, satyrs, 
 centaurs, and other beuigs of a like kind, are also 
 the constant companions of the god. — The temples 
 and statues of Dionysus were very numerous in the 
 ancient world. The animal most commonly sacri- 
 ficed to him was the ram. Among the things sacred 
 to him, we may notice the vine, ivy, laurel, and 
 asphodel ; the dolphin, serpent, tiger, lynx, panther, 
 and ass ; but he hated the sight of an owl. In 
 later works of art he appears in 4 different forms : 
 1. As an infant handed over by Hermes to his 
 nurses, or fondled and played with by satyrs and 
 Bacchae. 2. As a manly god with a beard, com- 
 monly called the Indian Bacchus. He there ap- 
 pears in the character of a wise and dignified 
 Oriental monarch ; his beard is long and soft, and 
 his Lydian robes (jScttrc-apa) are long and richly 
 folded. 3. The youthful or so-called Theban Bac- 
 chus was carried to ideal beauty by Praxiteles. The 
 form of his body is manly and with strong outlines, 
 but still approaches to the female form by its soft- 
 ness and roundness. The expression of the coun- 
 tenance is languid, and shows a kind of dreamy 
 longing ; the head, with a diadem, or a wreath of 
 vine or ivy, leans somewhat on one side ; his atti- 
 tude is easy, like that of a man who is absorbed in 
 sweet thonyhts, or slightly intoxicated. He is 
 often seen leaning on his companions, or riding on 
 a panther, ass, tiger, or lion. The finest statue of 
 this kind is in the villa Ludovisi. 4. Bacchus with 
 horns, either those of a ram or of a bull. This re- 
 presentation occurs chiefly on coins, but never in 
 statues. 
 
 Diophanes (Aiot/jai/Tjs). 1. Of Mytilene, a dis- 
 tinguished Grei.'k rhetorician, came to Rome, where 
 he instructed Tib, Gracchus, and became his inti- 
 mate friend. After the murder of Gracchus, Dio- 
 phanes was also put to death. -^S. Of Nicaea in 
 Bithynia, in the 1st century b. c, abridged the 
 agricultural work of Cassias Dionysius for the use 
 of king Deiotarus. 
 
 Diophantus (A(({(^ai'Tos). 1. An Attic orator 
 and contemporary of Demosthenes, with whom he 
 opposed the Macedonian party. — 2. Of Alexan- 
 dria, the only Greek writer on Algebra. His period 
 
228 
 
 DIOPITHES. 
 
 is unknown ; but he probably ouglit not to be placed 
 before the end of the 5th centuiy of our era. He 
 wrote A n'thmcdca^ in 13 books, of which only 6 
 are extant, and I book, De MuUanguHs Numeris, 
 on polyffonal numbers. These books contain a 
 system of reasoning on numbers by the aid of ge- 
 neral symbols, and with some use of symbols of 
 operation ; so that, tliough the demonstrations are 
 very much conducted in words at length, and 
 arranged so as to remind us of Euclid, there is no 
 question that the work is algebraical : not a trea- 
 tise on algebra^ but an algebraical treatise on the 
 relations of integer nmiibers, and on the solution 
 of equations of more than one variable in integers. 
 Editions by Bacbet de Meziriac, Paris, 1621,"fol., 
 and hy Fermat, Toulouse, 1670, fol. 
 
 Diopitlaes (A£O7re(07is). 1. A half-fanatic, half- 
 impostor, who made at Athens an apparently 
 thriving trade of oracles : he was much satirised 
 by the comic poets. — 2. An Athenian general, 
 father of the poet Menander, was sent out to the 
 Thracian Chersonesus about b. c. 344, at the head 
 of a body of Athenian settlers or K\7)povxoi. In 
 the Chersonese he became involved in disputes 
 with the Cardians, who were supported by Philip. 
 The latter sent a letter of remonstrance to Athens, 
 and Diopithes was arraigned by the Macedoniiin 
 party, but was defended bj' Demosthenes in the 
 oration, still extant, on the Chersonese, B.C. 341, 
 in consequence of which he was pei-iuittcd to retain 
 his command. 
 
 Dioscoridis Insula (Aioa-icopiBov i>rjaos : Soco- 
 tra\ an island off the S. coast of Arabia, near the 
 promontory Syagrus, The island itself was marsiiy 
 and unproductive, but it was a great connnercial 
 emporium ; and the N. part of the island was in- 
 habited by Arabian, Egyptian, and Greek mer- 
 chants. 
 
 Dioscorides (Aioo-KopiSTjs), 1. A disciple of 
 Isocrates, and a Greek grammarian, wrote upon 
 Homer. •— 2. The author of 39 epigrams in the 
 Greek Antholog}-, seems to have lived in Egypt 
 about the time of Ptolemy Euergetes. — 3. Peda- 
 cius or Pedaniua, of Anazarba in Cilicia, a Greek 
 physician, probably lived in the 2nd century of 
 the Christian era. He has left behind him a 
 Treatise on Materia Medica (Ilepl "TXtjs 'larpi- 
 ktJs), in 5 hooks, a work of great labour and re- 
 search, and which for many ages was received as a 
 standard production. It consists of a description 
 of all the articles then used in medicine, with an 
 account of their supposed virtues. The other works 
 extant under the name of Dioscorides are probably 
 spurious. The best edition is by Sprengel, Lips. 
 1829, 1830, 2 vols. 8vo. — 4. Surnamed Pliacas 
 on account of the moles or freckles on his face, 
 probably lived in the 1st century B.C. 
 
 Dioscuri (Aioaicovpoi)^ that is, sons of Zeus, the 
 ■well-known heroes. Castor {KdaToip) and PoJluxor 
 Polydeuces (TloXv5evK7]s). The two brothers were 
 sometimes called Castores by the Komans. — Ac- 
 cording to Homer they were the sons of Leda and 
 Tyndareus, king of Lacedaemon, and consequently 
 brothers of Helen. Hence they are often called by 
 the Y'^tTOTxym'ic 'Tj/ndaridue. Castor was famous 
 for his skill in taming and managing horses, and 
 Pollux for his skill in boxing. Both had disap- 
 peared from the earth before the Greeks went 
 against Troy. Although they were buried, says 
 Homer, yet they came to life every other day, and 
 they enjoyed honours like those of the gods. — 
 
 DIOSCURI. 
 
 According to other traditions both were the sons 
 of Zens and Leda, and were born at tlie same time 
 with tbeir sister Helen out of an egg. [Lepa.] 
 According tn others again, Pollux and Plelen only 
 were cliildi'en of Zeus, and Castor was the son of 
 Tyndareus. Hence, Pollux v/as immortal, while 
 Castor was subject to old age and death like every 
 other mortal. The}' were born, according to dif- 
 ferent traditions, at diiierent places, such as Aniy- 
 clae, mount Taygetus, the island of Pephnos or 
 Thalamae. — The fabulous life of the Dioscuri is 
 marked by 3 great events. 1. Their eayedit ion 
 apaiiiat At/tens. Theseus had carried off their sister 
 Helen from Sparta, and kept her in confinement at 
 Aphidnae. under the superintendence of his mother 
 Aethra. While Theseus was absent from Attica, 
 the Dioscuri marched into Attica, and ravagi'd the 
 country round the city. Academus revealed to 
 them that Helen was kept at Aphidnae ; the 
 Dioscuri took the place by assault, carried away 
 their sister Helen, and made Aethra their prisoner. 
 2. Tlieir part in the RctpcdUion of the Ai'yonauis, as 
 they had before taken part in the Calydonian hunt. 
 During the voyage of the Argonauts, it once hap- 
 pened that when the heroes were detained by a 
 vehement storm, and Orpheus prayed to the Samo- 
 thracian gods, the storm suddenly subsided, and 
 stars appeared on the heads of the Dioscuri. On 
 their arrival in the country of the Bebrj'ces, Pollux 
 fought against Amyous, the gigantic son of Posei- 
 don, and conquered him. During the Argonautic 
 expedition they founded the town of Dioscurias. 
 ?>. Their bailie with the so7is of Aphareus. Once the 
 Dioscuri, in conjunction with Idas and Lynceus, 
 the sons of Aphareus, had carried away a herd of 
 oxen from Arcadia. Idas appropriated the herd 
 to himself, and drove it to his home in Messene. 
 The Dioscuri then invaded Messene, drove away 
 the cattle of which they had been deprived, and 
 much more in addition. Hence arose a war be- 
 tween the Dioscuri and the sons of Aphareus, 
 which was carried on in Messene or Laconiiu 
 Castor, the mortal, fell by the hands of Idas, but 
 Pollux slew Lynceus, and Zeus killed Idas by a 
 Hash of lightning. Pollux then returned to his 
 brother, whom he found breathing his last, and he 
 prayed to Zeus to be permitted to die with him. 
 Zeus gave him the option, either to live as his 
 immortal son in Olympus, or to share his brother's 
 fate, and to live alternately one day under tho 
 earth, and the other in the heavenly abodes of the 
 gods. According to a different form of the stoiy, 
 Zeus rewarded the attachment of the two brothers 
 by placing them among the stars as Gemini. ■ — • 
 These heroic youths received divine honours at 
 Sparta. Their worship spread from Peloponnesus 
 over Greece, Sicily, and Italy. Their principal 
 characteristic was that of i&eol ffwTTjpes, that is, 
 mighty helpers of man, whence they were some- 
 times called fifOKCs or ^vaKns. They were wor- 
 shipped more especially as the protectors of travel- 
 lers by sea, for Poseidon had rewarded their 
 brotherly love by giving them power over winds 
 and waves, that they might assist the ship- 
 wrecked. (Fraires Helenae, lueida sidera, Hor. 
 Carm. i. 3.) Whenever they appeared they were 
 seen riding on magnificent white steeds. They 
 were regarded as presidents of the public games. 
 They were further believed to have invented the 
 war-dance and warlike music, and poets and bards 
 were favoured by them. Owing to their warlike 
 
DI0SCURIA3. 
 character, it was customary at Sparta fttr the 2 
 kings, wliciiuver tliey went to war, to lie accom- 
 panied by symbolic representations of the Dioscuri 
 (^SoKava). Respecting their festivals, see Did. of 
 Ant., arts. Anaceiu, IHoscuria. Their usual repre- 
 sentation in works of art is that of 2 youthful 
 horsemen with egg-shaped helmets, crowned with 
 stars, and with spears in their hands. — At Rome, 
 the worsliip of tlie Dioscuri was introduced at an 
 early time. They were believed to have assisted 
 tlie Romans against the Latins in the battle of 
 Lake Regillus ; and the dictator, A. Postumius 
 Albinus, during the battle vowed a temple to them. 
 It was erected in the Forum, on the spot where 
 they had been seen after the battle, opposite the 
 temple of Vesta. It was consecrated on the 15th 
 of July, the anniversary of the battle of Regillus. 
 The equites regarded tiie Dioscuri as their patrons. 
 From the year B. c. 305, the equites went every 
 year, on tlie 15th of July, in a magnificent pro- 
 cession on horseback, from the temple of Mars 
 through the main streets of the city, across the 
 Forum, and by the ancient temple of the Dioscuri. 
 
 DioGCurias {Aioa-Kovptds : AtotrKovpuvs : Is/cu- 
 ria or Jsf/aur)^ an important town in Colchis on 
 the river Anthemua, N. W. of the Phasis, founded 
 by the Milesians, was a great emporium for all the 
 surrounding people: under the Romans it was called 
 Sebastopolis. 
 
 Dios-Hieron (Atiy 'lepuu : Atoo-iepiTT/s-), a 
 small town on the coast of Ionia, between Lebcdus 
 and Colophon. 
 
 Biospolis (Alo'o■^ro^^y : AiocTTroAtTTj^). 1, D. 
 Magna, the later name of Thebes in Egypt. 
 [Thebae.]— 2. D. Parva, called by Pliny Jovis 
 Oppiduni, the capitiil of the Nomos Diospolitcs in 
 Ujiper Eg3'-pt — 3. A town in Lower Egypt in the 
 Delta near Mendes, in the midst of marshes.— 
 4. {Ludd^Lydd)., the name given by the Greek and 
 Roman writers to the Lydda of the Scriptures.— 
 6. A town in Pontus, originally called Cabira. 
 
 Diovis, an ancient Italian (Unibrian) name of 
 Jupiter. 
 
 Diphilus (At^(Aos), one of the principal Athe- 
 nian comic poets of the new comedy and a con- 
 temporary of Menander and Philemon, was a native 
 of Sinope. He is said to have exhibited 100 plays. 
 Though, in point of time, Dipliilns belonged to the 
 new comedy, his poetry seems to have had moie 
 of the character of the middle. This is shown, 
 among other indications, by the frequency with 
 which he chose mythological subjects for his plays, 
 and hy his bringing on the stage the poets Archi- 
 lochus, Hipponax, and Sappho. The Roman comic 
 poets borrowed largely from Dipiiilus. The Casina 
 of Plautus is a translation of his KA7]pou/.Leuoi. 
 His ^vfairoduTiaicovTi^ was translated by Plautus 
 in the lost play of the Cummorienies. and v/as 
 partly followed by Terence in his Adcl])ld. The 
 Rudeiis of Plautus is also a translation of a play of 
 Diphilus, but the title of the Greek play is not 
 known. 
 
 Dipoeniis and Scyllis (AtTroiyoy t<a\ ^icv\~ 
 Air), very ancient Greek statuaries, who are always 
 mentioned together, flourished about b. c. 560. 
 They were natives of Crete, wlience they went to 
 Sicynn, which was for a long time the ciiief scat 
 of Grecian art. Their disciples were Tectaeus 
 and Angelion, Learchus of Rhegium, Doryclidas 
 and his brother Medon, Dontas, and Theocles, 
 who were all 4 Lacedaemonians. Dipoenus and 
 
 DODONA. 
 
 229 
 
 Scyllis are sometimes called sons of Daedalus, by 
 wliicli we are only to understand that they be- 
 longed to the Daed;ilian style of art. [DAEDALfs,] 
 
 Dirae, a name of the Furiae. [Eumenides.] 
 
 Dirce (Aip/c7j), daughter of Helios and wife of 
 Lycus. Her sti^iy is related under Amphion. 
 
 Dirphys (At ^uj', a mountain in Euboea. 
 
 Dis, conlriitt'd irom Dives, a name sometimes 
 given to Pluto, Jind hence also to the lower world. 
 
 Bium {Aiov: Ateuj, Aiafm'jy). 1. An impor- 
 tant town in Macedonia on the Thermaic gulf, so 
 called alter a temple of Zeus. Here were placed 
 the equestrian stutues by Lysippus of tlie Macedu- 
 nians wlio had fallen at the battle of the Gmnlcus. 
 — 2. A town in Chalcidice in Macedonin, on tlie 
 Strymnnic gulf. — 3. A town in Euboea, not far 
 from the promontory Cenaeum. 
 
 Divico, the leader of the Helvetians in the war 
 against L. Cassius in B. c. 107, was at the licad of 
 the embassy sent to .Julius Caesar, nearly 50 years 
 later, B. c. 58, when he was preparing to attack 
 the Helvetians. 
 
 Divitiacus, an Aeduan noble and brother of 
 Duninorix, was a warm adlierent of the Romans 
 and of Caesar, who. in consideration of his en- 
 treaties, pardoned the treason of Dumnorix in 
 B, c. oU. Li the same j-ear he took the most pro- 
 minent part among the Gallic chiefs in requesting 
 Caesar's aid against Ariovistus ; lie Jiad some time 
 before gone even to Rome to ask the senate for 
 their interference, but without success. During 
 this visit he was the guest of Cicero. 
 
 Divodurum (Mdz), subsequently Medioraatrici, 
 and stiil later Metis or Mettis, the capital of the 
 Mediomatrici in Gallia Beigica. 
 
 Divona. [Cadukci.] 
 
 Diyllus (A^fAAos), an Athenian, who wrote a 
 historj' of Greece and Sicily in 26 or 27 books, 
 from the seizure of the Delphic temple by Philo- 
 melus. The exact period at which he fiourlshed 
 cannot be ascertained, but he belongs to the age of 
 the Ptolemies. 
 
 Doberus (AofiTypos), a town in Paeonia in Ma- 
 cedonia, E. of the river Echedorus. 
 
 Bocinua or Bocimeum (Ao/fi^/a, Aoa-iVeioi/ : 
 Ao/ci/xeus, AoKt/iTjuos)^ a town in Phrygia, not far 
 from Sjamada : in its neighbourhood were cele- 
 brated marble quarries. 
 
 Dodona (AcoSwnj), the most ancient oracle in 
 Greece, was situated in Epirus, and probably at 
 the S. K. extremity of the lake of Joannina near 
 Ivastritza. It was founded b}- the Pelasgians, and 
 was dedicated to Zous. The responses of the ora- 
 cle were given from lofty oaks or beech trees, pro- 
 bably from a grove consisting of these trees. The 
 will of the god was declared by the wind rustling 
 througli the trees ; and in order to render the 
 sounds more distinct,brnzcn vessels were suspended 
 on the branches of the trees, which being set in 
 motion by the wind came in contact W'ith one an- 
 other. These sounds were in eaily limes interpreted 
 by men, but afterwards, Avhen the v,'orsliip of Dione 
 became connected with that of Zeus, by 2 or 3 
 aged women, who were called TreAei'aoes or Tri\aiai, 
 because pigeons were said to have brought the 
 conmiand to found the oracle. There were, how- 
 ever, also priests, called Selli or Helli, who had the 
 management of tlie temple. The oracle of Dodona 
 had less influence in historicai times than in tho 
 heroic age. It was chiefly consulted by the neigh- 
 bouring tribes, the Aetolians, Acarminians, and 
 
 Q 3 
 
230 
 
 DOLABELLA. 
 
 Epirots, and by those who ■would not go to Delplii 
 on account of its partiality for the Dorians. In 
 
 B. c. 219, the temple was destroj'ed by the Aeto- 
 lians, and the sacred oaks cut down. But the town 
 continued to exist, and we hear of a bishop of Do- 
 dona in the council of Ephcsus. 
 
 Dolabella, Cornelius. 1. P., consxd b. c. 283, 
 conquered the Senones. — 2. Cn., curule aedile 105, 
 in which year he and his colleague, Sex. Julius 
 Caesar, had the Hecyra of Terence performed at 
 the festival of the Megalesia. In 159 he was con- 
 sul. -^3. Cn., a partizan of Sulla, by whom he 
 was made consul, 81. He afterwards received 
 Macedonia for his province. In 77 he was ac- 
 cused by the young Julius Caesai" of having been 
 guilty of extortion in his province, but he was 
 acquitted.^4. Cn., praetor nrbanus fll, when the 
 cause of P. Qulntius was tried : Cicero charges 
 him with having acted on that occasion unjustl}-. 
 The year after he had Cilicia for his province ; 
 
 C. Malleolus was his quaestor, and the notorious 
 Verres his legate. Dolabelia not only tolerated the 
 extortions and robberies committed by them, but 
 sliared in their booty. On his return to Rome, 
 Dolabelia was accused by M. Aemilius Scai^rus of 
 extortion in his province, and on that occasion 
 Verres deserted his accomplice and furnished the 
 accuser with all the necessary information. Dola- 
 belia was condemned, and went into exile, — 
 5. P., the son-in-law of Cicero, whose daughter 
 Tnllia he married after divorcing his wife Fabia, 
 51. He was one of the most profligate men of his 
 age, and his conduct caused Cicero great uneasi- 
 ness. On the breaking out of the civil war he 
 joined Caesar and fought on his side at the battle 
 of Pharsalia (40), in Africa (46), and in Spain 
 (45). Caesar raised him to the consulship in 44, 
 notwithstanding the opposition of Antony. After 
 the murder of Caesar, he forthwith joined the 
 assassins of his benefactor ; but when Antony gave 
 him the province of Syria, with the command 
 against the Parthians, all his republican enthu- 
 siasm disappeared at once. On his way to his 
 province he plundered the cities of Greece and 
 Asia Minor, and at Smyrna he murdered Trebonius, 
 who had been appointed by the senate proconsul 
 of Asia. When his proceedings became known at 
 Rome, he was declared a public enemy ; and Cas- 
 sius, who had received Syria from the senate, 
 marched against him. Dolabelia threw himself 
 into Laodicea, which was besieged by Cassius, 
 who at length succeeded in taking it. Dolabelia, 
 in order not to fall into the hands of his enemies, 
 ordered one of his soldiers to kill him, 43. 
 
 Doliche (AoXixn). 1- The ancient name of the 
 island Icarus. — 2. A town in Thessaly on the W. 
 slope of Olympus. — 3. A town in Commagene, 
 between Zeugma and Germanicia, also called Doli- 
 chene, celebrated for the worship of Jupiter. — 4. 
 Or Dulichium. [Echinades.] 
 
 Dolichiste (AoKixia-rTj i Kakava\ an island off 
 the coast of Lycia, opposite the promontory Chi- 
 maera. 
 
 Doliones (AoXioves), a Pelasgic people in My- 
 sia, who dwelt between the rivers Aesepus and 
 Rhyndacns, and in the neighbourhood of Cyzicas, 
 which was called after them Dolionis. 
 
 Dolon (AffAoJi/), a Trojan, sent by night to spy 
 the Grecian camp, was taken prisoner by Ulysses 
 and Diomedes, compelled to give intelligence re- 
 specting the Trojans, and then slain by Diomedes. 
 
 DOMITIANUS. 
 
 The lOth book of the Iliad was therefore called 
 AoAwi/eia or Ai)?.wuocf)oi'ia. 
 
 Dolcnci (AuXoyicoi), a Thracian people in the 
 Thracian Chersonesus. 
 
 Dolopes (AiJAoTres), a powerful people in Thes- 
 saly, dwelt on the Enipeus, and fought before Troy. 
 (Horn. 11. ix. 484.) At a later time they dwelt at 
 the foot of Mt. Pindus ; and their country', called 
 Bolopia (AoAoTT^a), was reckoned part of EpJrus. 
 
 Domitia. 1. Sister of Cn. Domitius Ahenobar- 
 bus [Ahenobarbus, No. 10], and consequently 
 an aunt of the emperor Nero, She was the wife 
 of Crispus Passienus, and was murdered in lier old 
 age by Nero, who wished to get possession of her 
 property. — 3. Lepida, sister of the preceding, 
 wife of M. Valerius Mcssala Barbatus, and mother 
 of Messalina, was put to death by Claudius at the 
 instigation of Agrippina. — 3. Longina, daughter 
 of Domitius Corbulo, was first married to L. Lamia 
 Aeniilianus, and afterwards to the emperor Domi- 
 tian. In consequence of her adulterous intercourse 
 with Paris, an actor, Domitian repudiated her, but 
 was afterwards reconciled to her. She was privy 
 to Domitian 's murder. 
 
 Domitia Gens, plebeian, was divided into the 
 2 illustrious families of Ahenobarbus and Cal- 
 vin us, 
 
 Domitiamis, or with his full name T. Flavius 
 Domitianus Augustus, Roman emperor a. d. 81 
 — 96, was the younger son of Vespasian, and was 
 bora at Rome, a. D. ol. When Vespasian was 
 proclaimed emperor by the legions in the E. (69), 
 Domitian, who was then at Rome, narrowly escaped 
 being murdered by Vitellius, and concealed himself) 
 until the victory of his father's party was decided. 
 After the fall of Vitellius, Domitian was proclaimed 
 Caesar, and obtained the government of the city 
 till the return of his father. In this short time 
 he gave full proofs of his sanguinary'" and licentious 
 temper. Vespasian entrusted Domitian with no 
 public affairs, and during the 10 years of his reign 
 (69 — 79), Domitian lived as a private person on 
 an estate near the Alban Mount, surrounded by a 
 number of courtezans, and devoting a great part of 
 his time to the composition of poetry and the reci- 
 tation of his productions. During the reign of his 
 brother Titus (79-81), he was also not allowed to . 
 take any part in public affairs. On the death of Titus 
 (on, which was in all probability the work of Do- 
 mitian, he was proclaimed emperor by the soldiers. 
 During the first few years of his reign he kept a 
 strict superintendence over the governors of pro- 
 vinces, enacted several useful laws, endeavoux'cd to 
 correct the licentious conduct of the higher classes ; 
 and though he indulged himself in strange passions, 
 his government was much better than had been 
 expected. But his conduct was soon changed for 
 the worse. His wars were mostly unfortunate ; 
 and his want of success both wounded liis vanity 
 and excited his fears, and thus led him to delight 
 in the misfortunes and suflFerings of others. In 83 
 he undertook an expedition against the Chatti, 
 which was attended with no result, though on his 
 return to Rome in the following year, he celebrated a 
 triumph, and assumed the name of Germanicus. In 
 
 85 Agricola, whose success and merits excited his 
 jealousy, was recalled to Rome. [Agricola.] From 
 
 86 to 90 he had to carry on war with Decehalus and 
 the Dacians, who defeated the Roman armies, and 
 at length compelled Domitian to purchase peace on 
 very humiliating terms. [Decebalus.] It was 
 
DOMITIUS. 
 
 after the Dacian war especially, that he gave full 
 sway to his cruelty and tyranny. No man of dis- 
 tinction was safe, unless he would degrade him- 
 sulf to flatter the tyrant. The silent fear v/hich 
 prevailed in Rome and Italy during the latter 
 years of Domitian's reign are briefly but energeti- 
 cally described by Tacitus in the introduction to 
 his Life of Agricola, and his vices and tyrannj' are 
 exposed in the strongest colours by the withering 
 satire of Juvenal. All the philosophers who lived 
 at Rome were expelled. Christian writers attri- 
 bute to him a persecution of the Christians like- 
 wise, but there is some doubt upon the matter; 
 and the belief seems to have arisen from the strict- 
 ness with whicli he exacted the tribute from the 
 Jews, and which may have caused much suffering 
 to the Christians also. Many conspiracies had 
 been formed against his life, but had been dis- 
 covered. At length 3 officers of his court, Par-, 
 thenius, Sigerius, and Entellus, whom Domitian 
 intended to put to death, assisted by Domitia, tlie 
 emperor's wife, had him murdered by Stephanus, 
 .1 freedman, on the IBtli of September, 96. 
 Domitius Afer. [Aper.] 
 Domitius Corbiilo. [Corbulo.] 
 Domitius Marsus. [Marsus.] 
 Domitius TJlpianua. [Ulpianiis.] 
 Domna, Julia, of Emesa, was bom of humble 
 parents, and married the emperor Septimius Seve- 
 rus, when he was in a private station. She was 
 beautiful and profligate, but at the same time 
 ^yifted with strong powers of mind, and fond of 
 literature and of the society of literary men. She 
 had great influence over her husband, and after 
 his death was entrusted by her son Caracalla with 
 the administration of the most important affairs of 
 state. After the nmrder of Caracalla, she was at 
 first kindly treated by Macrinus ; but having in- 
 curred the suspicions of Macrinus, and being com- 
 manded to quit Antioch, she put an end to her 
 own life by voluntary' starvation, a. d. 217. 
 
 Donatus. 1. A celebrated grammarian, who 
 taught at Rome in the middle of the 4th century, 
 and was the preceptor of Saint Jerome. His most 
 famous work is a system of Latin Grammar, which 
 has formed the groundwork of most elementiuy 
 treatises upon the same subject, from his own time 
 to the present day. It has been usually published 
 in the fonn of 2 separate tracts: 1. Ars s. Editio 
 Prima, de Uteris, syllahis^pedibus^et tonis ; 2. Edilio 
 Secunda, de ocio partibus orationis; to which are 
 commonly annexed De barbarismo, De soloedsmo, 
 De ceteris viiiis ; De metaplasmo ; De schematibus ; 
 De tropis ; but in the recent edition of Lindemann 
 (in Corpus Gramm. Latin. Lips. 1831) these are 
 all combined under one general title, Dovaii Ars 
 Grammatica trilus Hbris compreJiensa. "VVe also 
 possess introductions {miarrationcs) and scholia, by 
 Donatus, to 5 out of the 6 plays of Terence, those to 
 the Heautontlmorumenos having been iost. They are 
 attached to all complete editions of Terence. — 2. 
 Tiberius Claudius, the author of a life of Virgil 
 in 23 chapters, prefixed to many editions of Virgil. 
 Nothing is known with regard to this Donatus ; 
 but it has been conjectured that some grammarian, 
 who flourished about th.e commencement of the 
 5th century, may have drawn up a biography 
 which formed the groundwork of the piece we now 
 
 DORTS. 
 
 231 
 
 Donusa or Doniisia {Aovovfria. ; Aovqvctio^ : 
 Stenosa), one of the smaller Sporades in the Aegean 
 
 sea, S. of Naxos, subject to the Rhodians in early 
 times. It produced green marble, whence Virgil 
 (Acn.ui. 125) calls the island t'ln't/is. Under the Ro- 
 man emperors it was used as a place of banishment. 
 
 Dora, Dorus, Dorum (ra Awpa, Acopos : Aw- 
 piTijy), called Dor in the 0. T,, the most southerly 
 town of Phoenicia on tlie coast, on a kind of pe- 
 ninsula at the foot of Mt. CarraeL It was an 
 ancient town, formerly tiie residence of a Canaan- 
 itish king, and afterwards belonged to the tiibe 
 of Man;isseh. Under the Seleucidae it was a 
 strong fortress, and was included in Coele-Syria. 
 It subsequently fell into decay, but was restored 
 and again made a fortified place by the Roman 
 general Gabinius. 
 
 Doneus (Awpieifs). 1. Eldest son of Anaxan- 
 drides, king of Sparta, by his first wife, was how- 
 ever bom after the son of the second marriage, 
 Cleomenes, and therefore excluded from the imme- 
 diate succession. [Anaxandrides.] On the 
 accession of Cleomenes to tlie throne, Dorieus left 
 Sparta to establish for himself a kingdom else- 
 where. He led his colony first to' Libya ; but 
 driven away thence, he passed over to Eryx in 
 Sicily, where he fell in a battle with the Eges- 
 taeaus and Carthaginian^, about B. c. 508. — 
 3. Son of Diagoras of Rhodes [Diagoras], was 
 celebrated for his victories in all the great Grecian 
 games. He settled in Thurii, and from this place, 
 after the defeat of the Athenians at Syracuse, he led 
 30 galleys to the aid of the Spartan cause in Greece, 
 B. C. 412. He continued to take an active part in 
 the war till 407, when he was captured by the 
 Athenians ; but the people, in admiration of his 
 athletic size and noble beauty, dismissed him with- 
 out so much as exacting a ransom. He is said at 
 a later time to have been put to death by the 
 Spartans. 
 
 Doris (Awpts), 1. Daughter of Oceanus and 
 Thetis, wife of her brother Nercus, and mother of 
 the Nereides. The Latin poets sometimes use the 
 name of this divinity for the sea itself. (VIt"-. 
 Edo(/. X. 5.) — 2. One of the Nereides, daughter 
 of the preceding. 
 
 Doris (Aatpis). 1. A small and mountainous 
 country in Greece, formerly called Dryopis {Apvo- 
 TTLs), was bounded by Thessaly on the N., by 
 Aetolia on the W., by Locris on the S., and by 
 Phocis on the E. It contained 4 towns. Bourn, 
 Citinium, Erineus, and Pindus, which formed the 
 Dorian tetrapolis. These towns never attained 
 any consequence, and in the time of the Romans 
 were in ruins ; but the country is of importance aa 
 the home of t^he Dorians (AwpieTs: Dores), one of 
 the great Hellenic races, who claimed descent from 
 the mythical Dorus. [DoRus.] The Dorians, how- 
 ever, had not always dwelt in this land. Herodotus 
 relates (i. 56), that they first inhabited Phthiotis 
 in the time of Deucalion ; that next, under Dorus, 
 they inhabited Histiaeotis at the foot of Ossa and 
 Olympus ; that, expelled from thence by the Ca'd- 
 means, they settled on Mt. Pindus ; and that they 
 subsequently took up their abode in Dryopis, after- 
 wards called Doris. Their 5th and last migration 
 was to Peloponnesus, which they conquered, ac- 
 cording to tradition, 80 years after the Trojan war. 
 ft was related that Aegimius, the king of the 
 Dorians, had been driven from his dominions by 
 the Lapithae, but was reinstated by Hercules ; that 
 the children of Hercules hence took refuge in this 
 land when they had been expelled from Pelopon- 
 
 tt4 
 
232 DOmSCUS. 
 
 nesus ; and that it was to restore tlicni to tlieir 
 rij,'hts that the Dorians invaded Peloponnesus. Ac- 
 cordinglj-, the eoncniest of Peloponnesus by the 
 Dorians is usually called the Return of the Hera- 
 ciidae. See HKitACLiiiAE. — The Dorians were 
 divided into 3 tribes : the /lt//leis ('TAAers"), Pam- 
 pJn//i {TldfKpvXoi), and Dijmuvfs (Aufidves). Tiie 
 iirst derived their name from Hylhis, son of Her- 
 cules, the two last from Pamphylns and Dynias, 
 sons of Aeginiius. The Dorians were tiie ruling 
 class throughout Peloponnesus ; the old inhabitants 
 ■were reduced to slaver\', or became subjects of the 
 Dorians under the name of rcrineci {UeoLoticoi). 
 {Diet, of Antif]. art. Perioeci.) — 2. A district in 
 Asia Minor consistui^ of the Dorian settlements 
 on the coast of Cnria and the neighbouring islands. 
 6 of these towns formed a league, called tije Do- 
 rian hexapolis, consisting of Lindua, Jalysus, and 
 Camlrus in the island of Rhodes, the island Cns, 
 and Cuidus and Halicarnassus on tlie mainland. 
 There were also other Dorian scttlenu^nts in the 
 neighbourhood, but they were never admitted to 
 the league. The members of the hexapolis were 
 accustomed to celebrate a festival with games on 
 the Triopian promontory near Cnidus, in honour of 
 the Triopian Apollo ; the prizes in those games 
 were brazen tripods, which the victors had to de- 
 dicate in the temple of Apollo ; and Hrilicarnassiis 
 ■was struck out of the league, because one of her 
 citizens carried the tripod to his own house instead 
 of leaving it in the temple. The hexapolls thus 
 liecame a peiitapolls. 
 
 Loriscus (AoptV/cr)?), a- town in Tliraco at the 
 mouth of the Hcbrus, in the midst of an extansive 
 plain of the same name, where *erxes reviewed 
 his vast forces. 
 
 Dcrso, C. Fabius. greatly distinguished liimself 
 when the Capitol was besieged by tiie Gauls, b. c. 
 390, The Fabian gens was accustomed to cele- 
 brate a sacrifice at a fixed time on the Quirinal 
 hill, and accordingly, at the appointed time, C. 
 Dorso, who was then a young man, descended 
 from the Capitol, carrying the sacred things in his 
 hands, passed in safety through the enemy's posts, 
 and, after performing the sacrihce, returned in 
 safety to the Capitol. 
 
 Dorus (Acopos), the mythical ancestor of the 
 Dorians, is described either as a son of Heller, 
 the nymph Orse'is, and a brother of Xuthus and 
 Aeolus, or as a son of Apollo and Phthia, and a 
 brother of Laodocus and Polypnijtes. 
 
 Dorylaenm (AopuXatoy : AopuAceus : Etl'i- 
 Shchr)^ a town in Phrygia Epictctus, on the river 
 Thymbris, with warm baths which are used at the 
 present day ; important under the Romans as the 
 place from which the roads diverged to Pcssinus, 
 iconium, and Apamea, 
 
 Eosiadas (Awo-taSas), of Rhodes, the author of 
 2 poems in the Greek Anthology, the verses of 
 ■which are so arranged that each poem presents the 
 profile of an altiir. 
 
 Bositheus (Aojaideas), surnamed Magister, a 
 Greek grammarian, taught at Rome about a. d. 
 207- He has left behind him a work entitled 
 'Epu7}vevixaTa, of which the Ist and '2nd books 
 contain a Greek grammar written in Latin, and 
 Greek-Latin and Latin-Greek glossaries. The 
 third book, which is the most important, contains 
 translations from Latin authors into Greek, and 
 vice versa, and lias been published separately by 
 Bocking, Bonn, 11)32. 
 
 DREPANUM. 
 
 JDossennus Fabius, or Dorsennus, an ancient 
 Latin comic drani;itist, censured b}' Horace (7^^). ii_ 
 L 173) on account of the exaggerated buffoonery 
 of liis characters. It appears ihat the name Dos- 
 sennus (like that of Mucchus) was appropriat'-d to- 
 one of tiie standard characters in the Ateilanfr 
 f;irces. Hence some have supposed that Dosscnnus 
 in Horace is not the name of a real person. 
 
 Dotium (AwTinf : AwTietiy), a town and plain 
 in Thessaly S. of Mt. Ossa, on the lake Eobeis. 
 
 Drabescus (ApdSriaKos, also ApdSiaKos)^ a town 
 in the district EJunis in Macedonia, on the Strymon. 
 
 Dracanon (ApaKavop), a town and promontory 
 in the island Icaria. 
 
 Dracon.(ApaK£Uf), the author of the first written 
 code of laws at Athens, which were called Srecr/xoi, 
 as distinguished from the vS/xot of Solon. In this 
 code he affixed the penalty of death to almost all 
 crimes — to petty thefts, fur instance, as well as to 
 sacrilege and murder — which gave occasion to the 
 remark that his laws were written not in ink, but 
 in blood. Vi'c are told that he himself defended 
 this extreme harshness by saying that small offences 
 deserved death, and that he knew no severer pu- 
 nishment for great ones. His legislation is placed 
 in J5.C. G2]. After the legislation of Solon (594), 
 most of the laws of Dracon fell into disuse ; but 
 some of them were still in force at the end of the 
 Peloponnesian war, as for instance the law which 
 pemiittcd the injured husband to slay the adulterer,. 
 if taken in tiie act. We are told that Dracon died 
 at Aegina, being smotiiered by the number of hats 
 and chiaks showered upon him as a popular mark 
 of honour in the theatre. 
 
 Drangiana (Apayytauri : Scifjestdn)^ a part of 
 Ariana, was bounded by Gedrosia, Camiania, Ara- 
 chosia, and Aria. It sometimes formed a separate 
 satrapy, but was more usually united to the sa- 
 trapies cither of Araciiosia or of Gedrosia, or of 
 Aria. The chief product of the country was tin : 
 the chief river was the Erymanthus or Erymandnis 
 {ITdmcnd or Ilindmend). In the N. of the country- 
 dwelt the Brang^ae (Apdyyai), a warliice people, 
 ii'om whom the province derived its name : their 
 capital was Prophthasia. The Zaraugae, Saiangae, 
 or Darandac, who arc also mentioned as inhabitants 
 of the country, arc probably only other forms of 
 the name Drangae. The Arinspae inhabited the 
 S. part of the province. [Aeiaspae.] 
 
 Draudacum {Dardasso\ a fortress of the Pe- 
 nestae in Greek lUyria. 
 
 Dravus (Z);'rtfc),atributar}' of the Danube, rises 
 in the Noric Alps near Aguntum, flows through 
 Noricum and Pannonia; and, after receiving the 
 JIurius (j1/«/ir), falls into the Danube E. of Mursa 
 {Esscck). 
 
 Drecanum (ApeVai/oy), a promontorj' on the 
 W. side of the island Cos. 
 
 Drepaniua, Latinus Pacatus, a friend of Au- 
 sonius, and a correspondent of Symmachus, deli- 
 vered a panegyric on the emperor Thcodosius, 
 A. D. 391, after the victorj'-of the latter oyer Jlaxi- 
 mus. This panegyric, which is extant, is the 11th 
 in the collection of the Pauecjyrici Veteres. 
 
 Drepanum (Apeiravof: A/jeTraceus), that is, a 
 sickle. 1. Also Drepana (ra Apiirava), more 
 rarely Drepane {Trapani)^ a seaport town in the 
 N. W. corner of Sicily, so called because the land 
 on which it was built was in the form of a sickle.. 
 It was founded by the Carthaginian Hamilcar, at. 
 the commencement of the Ist Punic War, and was- 
 
DREPSA. 
 
 ene of the cliief naval stations of the Cartha;;inians. 
 Under tlie Romans it was an important commercial 
 town. It was here that Ancliises died, accordinp; 
 to Virgil. — 2. A promontory in Achaia. [Rhium.] 
 ^ 3. The ancient nnme of Corcyka.-— 4. Also 
 Drepane, a town in Bithj'nia, on the Sinus Asta- 
 cenus, the birth-pliice of Helena, mother of Con- 
 stantine the Great, in whose linnnur it was called 
 Helenopolis, and made an important place. In 
 its neighbourhood were warm medicinal baths, 
 "which Constantino the Great frequently used in 
 the latter part of his life. 
 
 Drepsa (Apei|/a, also "AS^ail/a, Adpaxpa^ A^cti^a- 
 Ka : Anderah or Inderal)^ a town in the N.E. of 
 Bactriana, on the frontiers of Sogdiana. 
 
 Brilae (ApiAaOi ^ brave people in Pontus, on 
 the frontiers of Colchis, near Trapezus. 
 
 Drilo, a river in Iliyricuiu, ilows into the 
 Adriatic near Lissus. 
 
 Dromichaetes (Apo/iiX"'"'''?^)? ^ 'k\j\Q of the 
 Getae, who took Lysimachus prisoner. [Lypima- 
 
 CHUS,] 
 
 Dromos Achilleus. [Achilleus Dromos.] 
 
 Druentia {Durance)^ a large and rapid river in 
 Gallia Narbonensis, rises in the Alps, and flows 
 into the Rhone near Avenio {Avignon). 
 
 Druna {Drome), a small river in Gallia Nar- 
 bonensis, rises in the Alps, and flows into the 
 Rhone S. of Valencia {Valence). 
 
 Drusilla. 1. Livia, mother of the emperor Ti- 
 berius and wife of Augustus. [Livja.]^2. 
 Daughter of Gormanicus and Agrippina, married 
 3 St to L. Cassius Longinus, and afterwards to 
 M, Aemilius Lepidus ; but she lived in incestuous 
 intercourse with her brother Caligula, whose pas- 
 sion for her exceeded all bounds, Ou her death, 
 in A. D. H3, he commanded that she should be 
 "worshipped, bv the name Panthea, with the same 
 honours as Venus. — 3. Daughter of Herodes 
 Agrippa I., king of the Jews, married 1st Azizus, 
 king of Emesa, whom she divorced, and '2ndiy 
 Felix, the procurator of Judaea. She wiis present 
 ■with her huslmnd when St. Paul preached before 
 Felix in a. d. GO. 
 
 DrusTis, the name of a distinguished family of 
 the liivia gens. It is said that one of the Livii 
 acquired the cognomen Drusus for himself and his 
 descendants by having slain in close combat one 
 Draiisus, a Gallic chieftain ; but this statement 
 deserves little credit.. — !. M. Living Drusus, 
 tribune of the plebs with C. Gracchus, 13. c. 122. 
 He was a staunch adherent of the aristocracy, 
 and after putting his veto upon the laws pro- 
 posed b}"" Gracchus, he brought forward almost 
 the very same mensures, in order to gain popu- 
 larity for the senate, and to impress tlie people 
 "with the belief that the optimates were their best 
 friends. The success of this system earned for 
 bim the designation /i^/rowas scnatus. Drusus was 
 consul 112, obtained Macedonia as his province, 
 and conquered the Scordisci. — 2. BI.Livius Dru- 
 sus, son of No. 1, an eloquent orator, and a man of 
 great energy and ability. He was tribune of the 
 plebs, 91, in the consulship of L. Marcius Philip- 
 pus and Sex. Julius Caesar. Although, like his 
 father, he belonged to the aristocratical party, he 
 meditated the most extensive and organic changes 
 ;ji the Roman state. To conciliate the people he 
 renewed several of the measures of the Grnochi. 
 He proposed and carried laws for the disirilm- 
 tion of com or for its sale at a low price, and for 
 
 DRUSUS. "2^3 
 
 the assignation of public land. He also gained the 
 support of the Latiui and the Socii by promising 
 to secure for them the Roman citizenship. Thus 
 strengthened, he proposed to transfer the judicia^ 
 from the equites to the senate ; but as a compen- 
 sation to the former order, he further proposed that 
 the senate, now reduced below the regular number 
 of 300, should be reinforced by the introduction of 
 an equal number of new members selected from the 
 equites. This measure proved unsatisfactory to 
 both parties. The Roman populace also were op- 
 posed to the Roman franchise being given to the- 
 Latins and ihe Socii, The senate, perceiving the- 
 dissatisfaction of all parties, voted that all the laws 
 of Drusus, being carried against the auspices, were 
 null and void from the beginning. Drusus now 
 began to organise a formidable conspiracy against 
 the goveniment ; but one evening as he was enter- 
 ing the hall of his own house, he was stabbed and 
 died a few hours afterwards. The assassin was 
 never discovered, and no attempts were made to 
 discover him. Caepio and Philippus were both 
 suspected of having suborned the crime ; but Cicero 
 attributes it to Q. Varius. The death of Drusus 
 destroyed the hopes of the Socii, and was thus im- 
 mediately followed by the Social \Var.-^3. Xi'vius 
 Drusus Claudianus, father of Livia, who was the 
 mother of the emperor Tiberius. He was one of 
 the gens Claudia, and was adopted by a Livius 
 Drusus. It was through this adoption that the- 
 Drusi became connected with the imperial family.. 
 The father of Livia, after the death of Caesar,, 
 espoused the cause of Brutus and Cassius, and, 
 after the battle of Philippi (42), being proscribed 
 l)y the conquerors, he killed himself in his tent. — 
 4. Kero Claudius Drusus, commonly called by 
 the moderns Driisus Senior, to distinguish him 
 from No. 5, was the son of Tib. Claudius Nero and 
 Livia, and younger brother of the emperor Tibe- 
 rius. He was boi"n in the house of Augustus 3 
 months afttr the marriage of Livia and Augustus, 
 3J!. Drusus, as he grew up, was more liked bv 
 the people than was his brother. His manners 
 were affable, and his conduct without reproach. 
 He married Antonia, the daughter of the triumvir, 
 and his fidelity to his wife was a theme of admira- 
 tion in a profligate age. He was greatly trusted' 
 by Augustus, who employed him in important 
 oifices. He carried on the war against the Ger- 
 mans, and penetrated far into the interior of the 
 country. In 12 he drove the Sicambri and their 
 allies out of Gaul, crossed the Rhine, then followed 
 the course of the river down to the ocean, and 
 subdued the Frisians. It was apparently durinn- 
 this campaign that Drusus dug a canal ( Fossa Dru~ 
 siana) from the Rhine near Arnhcim to the Yssel 
 near Doesberg ; and he made use of this canal to 
 sail from the Rhine into the ocean. In his 2nd 
 compaign (11), Drusus subdued the Usipetes, in- 
 vaded the country of the Sicambri, and passed oir 
 thi-ough the territory of the Cherusci as far as the 
 Visurgis (ireser). On his return he was attacked 
 by the united forces of the Germans, and defeated 
 them with great slaughter. — In his 3rd campaign- 
 (10), he conquered the Chatti and other German 
 tribes, and then returned to Rome, where he was 
 made consul for the following year. — In his 4tb 
 campaign (9), which he carried on as consul, he 
 advanced as far as the Albis (Elbe), sweeping 
 every thing before him. It is said that he had 
 resolved to cross the Elbe, but was deterred by the 
 
apparition of a woman of dimensions greater than 
 human, v/ho said to him in the Latin tonrrue, 
 "Whither goest thou, insatiahle Drusus? The 
 Fates forbid thee to advance. Away ! The end of 
 thy deeds and ihy life is nigh," On the return of 
 the army to the Rhine, Drusua died in consequence 
 of a fracture of his lep;, which happened through a 
 fall from his horse. Upon receiving tidings of the 
 dangerous illness of Drusus, Tiberius immediately 
 crossed the Alps, and after travelling with extra- 
 ordinary speed arrived in time to cluse the eyes of 
 his broiher. Tiberius brought the body to Italy: 
 it was burnt in the field of Mars, and the ashes 
 deposited in the tomb of Augustus. — 5. Drusus 
 Caesar, commonly called by modern writers Dru- 
 sus Junior, was the son of the emperor Tiberius 
 by his 1 St wife, Vipsania. He married Livia, the 
 sister of Germanicus. After the death of Augustus, 
 A. D. 14, he was sent into Pannonia to quell the 
 mutiny of the legions. In 15 he was consul, and 
 in 16 he was sent into Illyricum : he succeeded in 
 fomenting dissension among the Germanic tribes, 
 a,nd destroyed the power of Maroboduus. In 21 
 he was consul a 2nd time ; and in 22 he received 
 the irihunicia potestas^ by which he was pointed 
 out as the intended successor to the empire. But 
 Sejanua, the favourite of Tiberius, aspired to the 
 empire. He s^'duced Livia, the wife of Drusus, 
 and persuaded her to become the murderer of her 
 husband. A poison was administered to Drusus, 
 which terminated his life by a lingering disease, 
 that was supposed at the time to be the conse- 
 quence of intemperance, a. d. 23.-6. Drasus, 
 2nd son of Germanicus and Agrippina. After the 
 death of Drusus, the son of Tiberius [No. 5], 
 Drusus and his elder brother Nero became the 
 heirs to the imperial throne. Sejanus therefore 
 resolved to get rid of them both. He first engaged 
 Drusus in the plots against his elder brother, which 
 ended in the banishment and death of that prince. 
 [Nero.] The turn of Drusus came next. He was 
 accused in 30, and condemned to death as an 
 enemy of the state. Tiberius kept him imprisoned 
 for 3 years, and then starved him to death, 33. 
 
 Dryades. [Nymph ae.] 
 
 Dryas (Apuas), father of the Thracian king L}'- 
 curgus, Avho is hence called Dryantides. 
 
 Drymaea or Drymus (Apv/xaia^ Apu/j.6s : Apv- 
 ju:eu5' : Baba ?), a town in Phocis, a little S. of the 
 Cephissus, was destroyed by Xerxes. 
 
 Drymus (Apvf.L6i). 1. See Drymaea. — 2. A 
 strong place in Attica, on the frontiers of Boeotia. 
 
 Drymussa (Apu/xovacra : ApufxauffaaTos), an 
 island in the Hermaean gulf, off the coast of Ionia, 
 opposite Clazomenae ; given by the Romans to 
 Clazoraenae, 
 
 Dryope (Apv6irri), daughter of kingnr}'nps, and 
 the playmate of the Hamadryades on Mt. Oeta. 
 She was beloved by Apollo, who, to gain possession 
 of her, metamorphosed himself into a tortoise. 
 Dryope took the creature into her lap, whereupon 
 the god changed himself into a serpent. The 
 nymphs fled away in affright, and thus Apollo re- 
 mained alone with Diyope. Soon after she mairied 
 Andi-aemon, but became, by Apollo, the mother of 
 Amfhissus, who built the town of Oeta, and a 
 temple to Apollo. Dryope was afterwards carried 
 off by the Hamadryades, and became a nymph, 
 
 Dryopes (Apvoires), a Pelasgic people, descended 
 from a mythical ancestor Dryops, dwelt first in 
 Thessaly, from the Spercheus to Parnassus, and 
 
 DUlLlUa. 
 
 afterwards in Doris, which was called from them 
 Dryopis (Apuo-nis). Driven out of Doris by the 
 Dorians, they migrated to other countries, and 
 settled in Peloponnesus, Euboea, and Asia Minor. 
 
 Dryops (Apvo^), son of the river-god Spercheus 
 and th? Danaid Polydora, or of Lycaon and Dia, 
 the daughter of Lycaon, the mj'thical ancestor of 
 the Dryopes. 
 
 Dryos Cephalae (Apvhs KetpaAal)^ a narrow 
 pass of Mt, Cithaeron, between Athens and Plataeae. 
 
 Dubis {Douhs)^ a river in Gaul, rises in M. 
 Jurassus (Jura)^ flows past Vesontio (TJe.mn^an), 
 and falls into the Arar -(Saoiie) near Cabillonura 
 {Chalo7is). 
 
 Dubris Portus (Dover), a seaport town of the 
 Cantii, in Britain : here was a fortress eri.-cted by 
 the Romans against the Saxon pirates. 
 
 Ducas, Mickael, a Byzantine historian, held 
 a high office under Constantine XIII., the last 
 emperor of Constantinople. After the capture of 
 Constantinople, a. d. 1453, he fled to Lesbos. His 
 history extends from the death of John VI. Pa- 
 laeologus, 1355, to the capture of Lesbos by the 
 Turks, 1462. The work is written in barbarous 
 Greek, but gives a clear and impartial account of 
 events. The best edition is by Bekker, Bonn, 1834. 
 
 Ducetius (Aoi/KETios), a chief of the Sicelians, 
 or Sicels, the native tribes in the interior of Sicily, 
 carried on a formidable war in the middle of the 
 5th century B. c. against the Greeks in the island. 
 Having been at last defeated in a great battle by 
 the Syracusans, he repaired to Syracuse as a sup- 
 pliant, and placed himself at their mercy. The 
 Syracusans spared his life, but sent him into an 
 honourable exile at Corinth. Ho returned soon 
 afterwards to Sicily, and founded the city of Ca- 
 lacte. He died about B. c. 440. 
 
 Duilius. L M., tribune of the plebs b, c. 471. 
 He was one of the chief leaders of the plebeians, 
 and it was on his advice tliat the plebeians migrated 
 from the Aventine to the Mons Sacer, just before 
 the overthrow of the decemvirs. He was then 
 elected tribune of the plebs a 2nd time, 449.^2. 
 K., one of the decemvirs, 450, on whose overthrow 
 he went into voluntary exile. —3. C, consul 260, 
 with Cn, Cornelius Scipio Asina, in the 1st Punic 
 War. In this year the Romans built their first fleet, 
 using for their model a Carthaginian vessel which 
 had been thrown on the coast of Italy. The com- 
 mand of this fleet was given to Scipio, who was 
 defeated by the Carthaginians off Lipara. There- 
 upon Duilins was entrusted with the command, and 
 as he perceived the disadvantages under which the 
 clumsy ships of the Romans were labouring, he 
 devised the well-known grappling irons, by means 
 of which the enemy's ships might be drawn towards 
 his, and the sea-fight thus changed into a land- 
 fight. By this means lie gained a brilliant victory 
 over the Carthaginian fleet near Mylae, and then 
 prosecuted the war in Sicily with success, relieving 
 Egesta, and taking Macella by assault. On his 
 return to Rome, Duilius celebrated a splendid 
 triumph, for it was the first naval victory that the 
 Romans had ever gained, and the memory of it 
 was perpetuated Ijy a column which was erected in 
 tlie forum, and adorned with the beaks of the con- 
 quered ships {Columna Rostrata). It is generally 
 believed that the original inscription which adorned 
 the basis of the column is still extant. It was dug 
 out of the ground in the 16th century, in a muti- 
 lated condition, and it has since often been printed 
 
DULGIBINI. 
 
 with attempts at restoration. There are, however, 
 in that inscription some orthographical peculiarities, 
 ■which suggest, that the present inscription is a 
 iater restoration of the original one. Duilius was 
 further rewarded for this victory, by heinfr per- 
 mitted, whenever he retumed home from a ban- 
 quet at night, to be accompanied by a torch and a 
 flute-player. 
 
 Dillgibini, a people in Germany, dwelt S. E. of 
 the Angrivarii, on the W. bank of the Weser. 
 
 Duliclliuill. [ECHINADES.] 
 
 Dumnorix, a chieftain of the Aedui, conspired 
 against the Romans, B. c. 58, but was then par- 
 doned by Caesar in consequence of the entreaties 
 of his brotlier, Divitiacus. When Caesar was 
 going to Britain in 54, he suspected Dumnorix too 
 much to leave liim behind in Gaul, and he insisted 
 therefore on his accompanying him. Dumnorix, 
 upon this, fled from the Roman camp with the 
 Aediian cavalry, but was overtaken and slain. 
 
 DuniunL [Durotriges.] 
 
 Dura (ra Auvpa ; AovpT}u6s). 1. A tOWTi in 
 Mesopotamia, on the Euphrates, not far from Cir- 
 cesium, founded by the Macedonians, and hence 
 sumamed Nicanoris ; also called EurOpus (Eupw- 
 TTiis) by the Greeks. In the time of Julian it waa 
 deserted. — 2. (Dor), a town in Assyria, on the 
 Tigris. 
 
 Duranius {Dordogne), a river in Aquitania, 
 which falls into the Garumna. 
 
 LUria {Dora Baited), a river which rises in the 
 S. of the Alps, flows through the country of the Sa- 
 lassi, bringing gold dust with it, and falls into the 
 Po. 
 
 Diiris (Aoypiy), of Samos, the historian, was a 
 descendant of Alcibiades, and lived in the reign of 
 Ptolemy Philadelphus. He obtained the tj'ranny 
 of his native island, though it is unknown by what 
 means. He wrote a considerable number of 
 works, of which the most important was a history 
 of Greece, from b. c. 370 to 281. He does not 
 appear to have enjoyed any very great reputation 
 as an historian among the ancients. His fragments 
 have been collected by HuUeman, Duridis Samii 
 quae supcrsunt^ Traject, ad Rhen. 1841. 
 
 Durius (Aouptos-, AtUpius: Dttero, Vouro), one 
 of the chief rivers of Spain, rises among the Pe- 
 lendones, at the foot of M. Iduheda near Numantia, 
 and flows into the Atlantic ; it was auriferous, and 
 is navigable a long way from its mouth. 
 
 Durobrivae {Rochcsier), a town of the Cantii 
 in Britain. 
 
 Durocasis (Drcucc), a town of the Camutes in 
 Gallia Lugdunen>iis. 
 
 Durocatelauni, [Catalauni.] 
 
 Durocortomm {Wieims), the capital of the 
 Remi in Gallia Belgica, and subsequently called 
 Remi, was a populous and powerful town. 
 
 Duronia, a town in Samniura in Italy, W. of 
 the Caudine passes. 
 
 Durotriges, a people in Britain, in Dorsetshire 
 and the W. of'Somersetshire : their chief town was 
 Duniura {Dorchisler). 
 
 Durovemum or Darvemtim {Cantcrhury), a 
 town of the Cantii in Britain, afterwards called 
 Cantuaria. 
 
 Dyardanes or Oedanes [BraUmapulra), a river 
 in India, falls into the Ganges on the E. side. 
 
 Bymas (Aujutt^X son of Aegimius, from whom 
 the Dymanes, one of the 3 tribes of the Dorians, 
 were believed to have derived their name. 
 
 EBURONES. 235 
 
 Byrne or Dymae (A1//.L77, Avfiai : Au^aTos-, Dy- 
 maeus : nr. Karavosiasi, Ru.), a town in tlie W. 
 of Achaia, near the coast ; one of the 12 Achaean 
 towns ; it founded, along with Patrae, the 2iid 
 Achaean league ; and was at a later time colonised 
 by the Romans. 
 
 Dyraa (Aupar), a small river in Phthiotis in 
 Thessaly» falls into the Sinus Maliacus. 
 
 Dyrrhachium {Av^pAx^ov : Av^pdxios, Av^'pa- 
 XV^^^t Dyrrachinus : Vurazzo), formerly called 
 Epidammis ('ETn'Sa^i'os: 'EiriSdiJLuios), a town 
 in Greek Illyria, on a peninsula in the Adriatic 
 sea. It was founded by the Corcyraeans, and re- 
 ceived the name Epidamnus ; but since tlie Romans 
 regarded this name a bad omen, as reminding them 
 of damnum, they changed it into Dyi'rhachium, 
 when they became masters of the country. Under 
 the Romans it became an important place ; it was 
 the usual place of landing for persons who crossed 
 over from Brundisium. Commerce and trade were 
 carried on here with great activity, whence it is 
 called Tabenia Adriue by Catullus (xxxvi.l5.) ; and 
 here commenced the great Egnatia Via, leading to 
 the E. In the civil war it was the head-quarters 
 of Pompcy, who kept all his military stores here. 
 In A. D. 'd-io it was destroyed by an earthquake. 
 
 Dysorum {rh Aua-copov)^ a mountain in Mace- 
 donia with gold mines, between Chalcidice and 
 Oddmantice. 
 
 Dyspoutium, (AuairoyTioi' : Avo-jtSi/tios)^ an 
 ancient town of Piaatis in Elis, N. of the Alpheus, 
 was destroyed by the Eleans ; whereupon its inha- 
 bitants removed to Epidamnus and Apollonia. 
 
 E. 
 
 Ebora. 1. Or Ebura Cerealis, a small town in 
 Hispania Baetica, perhaps in the neighbourhood or 
 the modern Sla Cruz. ^ 2. Sumamed Idberalitas 
 Julia {Evora)^ a Roman municipium in Lusitania. 
 ^ 3, Or Ebura (5. Litcar de Bai-rameda')^ a town 
 in Hispania Baetica, near the mouth of the Baetis. 
 — 4. A fortress of the Edetani in Hispania Tarra- 
 conensis. 
 
 Eboracum or Eburacum {York)^ a town of the 
 Brigantes in Britain, was made a Roman station 
 by Agricola, and soon became the chief Roman 
 settlement in the whole island. It was both a 
 municipium and a colony. It was the head-quarters 
 of the sixth legion, and the residence of the Roman 
 emperors wlien they visited Britain. Here the 
 emperors Septimius Severus and Constantius Chlo- 
 rus died. Part of the ancient Roman walls still 
 exist at York ; and many Roman remains have 
 been found in the modern city. 
 
 Eborolacum {Evreule on the river Sioule), a 
 town in Aquitania. 
 
 Ebrodunum {Ejnhrun), a town in Gallia Nar- 
 bonensis, in the Cottian Alps. 
 
 Ebudae or Hebudae (Hebrides), Islands ir the 
 Western Ocean off Britain. They were 5 in 
 number, according to Ptolemy, 2 called Ebudae, 
 Maleus, Epidium, and Ricina. 
 
 Eburoma^s or Hebromagua (nr. Bram or 
 Villerazom), a town in Gallia Narbonensis. 
 
 Eburones, a German people, who crossed the 
 Rhine and settled in Gallia Belgica, between the 
 Rhine and the Mosa (Maas) in a marshy and 
 woody district. They were dependants {dientes) 
 of the Treviri, and were in Caesar's time under the 
 
23G EBUROVICES. 
 
 rule of Ambiorix and Ciitivokiis. Tlicir insurrec- 
 tion against the Romans, b. c. .t4, was severely 
 punished by Caesar, and from this time they dis- 
 appear from liistory. 
 
 Eburovices. [Aulehcl] 
 
 Ebiisus or Ebusus (Iviza)^ the largest of the 
 Pityusae insulae. otF the E, coast of Spain, reckoned 
 by some writers among tlie Baleares. It was cele- 
 brated for its excellent figs. Its capital, also called 
 Ebusus, was a civitas fnederata, possessed an ex- 
 cellent harbour, was well built, and carried on a 
 considerable trade. 
 
 Ecbatana (to 'E/cfiaraca, Ion. and Poet. *Pi.y€a.~ 
 rai/a: riamadcm), a great city, most pleasantly 
 situated, near the foot of Mt. Orontcs. in the N. of 
 Great Media, was the capital of the Median king- 
 dom, and afterwards the sammor residence of the 
 Persian and Parthian kings. Its foundation was 
 more ancient than any historical record : Herodotus 
 ascribes it to Deioces, and Diodoriis to Serairamis. 
 It had a circait of 240 stadia, and was surrounded 
 by 7 walls, each overtopping the one before it, and 
 crowned with battlements of different colours : 
 these walls nn longer existed in the time of Poly- 
 bius. The citiidel, of great strength, was used as 
 the royal treasury. Below it stood a magnlticent 
 palace, the tiles of which were silver, and the ca- 
 pitals, entablatures, and wainscotnigs. of silver and 
 gold ; treasures wliich tlie Scleucldae coined into 
 money, to the amount of 4000 talents. The circuit 
 of this palace was 7 stadia. 
 
 Ecetra (Ecetranus), an ancient town of the 
 Volsci, and, according to Dionysius, the capital of 
 this people, was destroyed by the Romans at an 
 early period. 
 
 Echedorus ('ExeSwpos, in Herod. 'Exe'Sajpoy), 
 a small river in Macedonia, rises in Crestonia, flows 
 through Mygdonia, and falls into the Thermaic 
 gulf. 
 
 Ecbelidae ('Exf^'Sai : "Ex^^^^vsX an Attic de- 
 mus E. of Munychia, called after a hero Echelus. 
 
 Echemus {''Ex^/J-os), son of Acropns and grand- 
 son of Cepheus, succeeded Lycnrgus as king of 
 Arcadia. In his reign the Dorians invaded Pelo- 
 ponnesus, and Echemus slew, in single combat, 
 Hyllus, the son of Hercules. In consequence of 
 this battle, which was fought at the Isthmus, the 
 Heraclidae were obliged to promise not to repeat 
 their attempt upon Peloponnesus for 50 years. 
 
 Echestratlis (*Exe'trT/;aTos),king of Spaita, son 
 of Agis I., and Cither of Labotas or Leobotes. 
 
 Echetla ('ExerAa), a town in Sicily, W. of Sy- 
 racuse in the mountains. 
 
 Echetus ("Exeros), a cniel king of Epirus. His 
 daughter, Metope or Amphissa, who had yielded 
 to her lover Acchmodicus, was blinded by her 
 iather, and Aechmodicus was cruelly mutilated. 
 
 Echidna (*'Ex'5i/a), daughter of Tartarus and 
 Ge, or of Chrysaor and Callirrhoc, nr of Peiras and 
 Styx. The upper part of lier body was that of 
 a beautiful maiden with black e3'es, while the 
 lower part was that of a serpent, of a vast sii'.e. 
 She was a horrible, and blood-thirsty monster. 
 She became by Typlion the mother of the 
 Chimaera, of the many-headed dog Orthus, of 
 the hundri'd-headcd dragon who guarded the 
 apples of the Hesperides, of the Colchian dragon, 
 of the Sphinx, of Cerberus (hence called Echid- 
 jitus canis)^ of Scylla, of Gorgon, of the Lernaean 
 Hydra {Echidna Lci-naca)^ of tiie eagle which 
 consumed the liver of Proraetbeus, and of the Ne- 
 
 EDESSA. 
 
 mean lion. She was killed in her sleep by Argus 
 Panoptes. According to Hesiod slic lived with 
 Typhon in a cave in the country of tlie Arinil, but 
 another tradition transported lier to Scythia, where 
 she became by Hercules the mother of Agathyrsua, 
 Gclnnus, and Scytitcs. (Herod, iv. 8 — 10.) 
 
 Ecliinades ('Ex'^'aSes or 'ExTcai: CnrzoJari\ 
 a group of small islands at the mouth of the Ache- 
 lous, belonging to Acarnanin, said to have been 
 fonned by the alluvial deposits of the Achelous. 
 The legend related that they were originally 
 Nymphs, who dwelt on the mainland at the mouth 
 of the Achelous, and that on one occasion having- 
 forg(jtten to present any offerings to the god Ache- 
 lous, when they sacrificed to the other gods, the 
 river-god, in wrath, tore them away from the main- 
 land with the ground on v/hich they Averc sacrific- 
 ing, carried them out to sea, and formed them into 
 islands. — The Echinades appear to have derived 
 their name from their resembhmce to the Echinus 
 or sea-urchin. — The largest of these islands was 
 named Dulichium {Aovkixi-ov). It is mentioned 
 by Homer, and from it jMeges, son of Phyleus, 
 went to the Trojan War. At the present day it 
 is united to ttie mainhmd. 
 
 Echion CEx'W). 1, One of the 5 surviving- 
 Sparti who had grown up from the drngon's teeth, 
 which Cadmus liad sown. He married Agave, by 
 whom lie became the father of Pentheus : he as- 
 sisted Cadmus in the building of Thebes. ^2. Son 
 of Hermes and Antianira, twin-brother of Eiytus 
 or Enrytus, with whom he took part in the Caly- 
 donian hunt, and in the expedition of -the Argonauts. 
 — 3. A celebrated Grecian painter, flourished li. c. 
 35"2. One of his most noted pictures was Semi- 
 ramis passing from the state of a handmaid to that 
 of a queen ; in this picture the modesty of the n^w 
 bride was admirably depicted. The picture in the 
 Vatican, known as " the Aldabrandini Marriage.''" 
 is supposed by some to be a copy from the 
 *• Bride " of Echion. 
 
 Echo ('Hxw), t'tn Orcade who, according to the 
 legend related by Ovid, used to keep Juno eniiaged 
 by incessantly talking to her, while Jupiter waa 
 sporting witli the nymphs. Juno, however, found 
 out the trick that was played upon her, and pu- 
 nished Echo b}"- changing htr into an echo, that is, 
 a being witli no control over its tongue, which is 
 neither able to speak before anybody else has 
 spoken, nor to be silent when somebody else has 
 spoken. Echo in this state fell desperately in love 
 with Narcissus ; but as lier love was not returned, 
 she pined away in grief, so that in the end there 
 remained of her nothing but her voice. (Ov. Met, 
 iii. ;^56— 401.) 
 
 Ecphantides ('E/ct/jai/riSTis). one of the earliest 
 poets of the old Attic comedy, flourished about b. c. 
 460, a little before Cratinus. The meaning of the 
 surname of Kajrvias^ which was given to him by 
 his rivals, see.iis to imply a mixture of suVitiUy and 
 obscurity. He ridiculed the rudeness of the old 
 Megaric comedj', and was himself ridiculed on the 
 same ground by Cratinus and Aristophanes. 
 
 Edessa or Antiochia Callirrhoe ("ESen-fra. 'hv- 
 Ttrfx^iaT) ^ttI KaKKippdj}^ or 'A. fxi^oStipSapos : O.T. 
 Ur : Ur/ah), a very ancient city in the N. of Me- 
 sopotamia, the capital of Osroene, and the seat of 
 an independent kingdom from B.C. Iu7 to a. D. 
 2)0. [Abgarus.] It stood on the river Scirtua 
 or Bardosanes, wliich often iiuuidatedand damaged 
 the city. It was here that Cai-acalla was murdered. 
 
EDETANI. 
 
 Havinn; suffered by an earthquake in- tlie reign of 
 Justin I., the city was rebuilt and named Justiiio- 
 polls. — The Edessa of Strabo is evidently a dif- 
 ferent place, namely the city usually called Bam- 
 byce or Ilierapolis. 
 
 Edetani or Sedetani, a people in Hisponia 
 Tarraconensis, E. of the Celtiberi. Their chief 
 towns were Valencia, Saguntum, Caesar- 
 AUGUSTA, nnd Edeta, also called Liria {Lyria). 
 
 Edoni or Sdones ('HSwvoi, 'HScDcey), a Thracian 
 people, between the Nestus and the Strynion. 
 They were celebrated for their orgiastic worship of 
 Bacchus ; whence Edonis in the Latin poets sig- 
 nifies a female Bacchante, and Horace says {Cann. 
 ii. 7. 20), Non ego saniun baccliuhor Edonis. — The 
 poets frequently use Edoni as synonymous witli 
 Thracians. 
 
 Eetion ('Het^wi/), king of the Placian Thebe in 
 Cilicia, and father of Andromache, the wife of 
 Hector. He and 7 of his sons were slain by 
 Achilles, when the latter took Thebes. 
 
 Egelasta, a town of the Celtiberi' in Hispania 
 Tarraconensis. 
 
 Egeria. [Aegeria.] 
 
 Egesta. [Seuesta.] 
 
 Egnatia {'I'orre W Anazzo), a town in Apulia, 
 on the coast, called Gnatia by Horace (Sat. i. 5. 
 97), who speaks of it as Lymphis (i. e. Nympliis) 
 iraiis exstructa^ probably on account of its bad 
 or deficient supply of water. It was celebrated 
 for its miraculous stone or altar, which of itself 
 set on fire frankincense and wood ; a prodigy 
 ■which afforded amusement to Horace and his 
 friends, who looked upon it as a mere trick. — 
 Egnatiaowed its chief importance to being situated 
 on the great high road from Rome to Brundisium. 
 This road reached the sea at Egnatia, and from 
 this town to Brundisium it bore the name of the 
 "Via Egnatia. The continuation of this road on 
 the other side of the Adriatic from Dyrrhachiura to 
 Byzantium also bore the name of the Via Egnatia. 
 It was the great military road between Italy and 
 the E. Commencing at Dyrrhachium, it passed by 
 Lychnidus, Heraclea, Lyncestis, Edessa, Thessa- 
 lonica, Amphipolis, Philippi, and traversing the 
 whole of Thrace, finally reached Byzantium. 
 
 Egnatii, a family of Samnite origin, some of 
 ■whom settled at Teanum. 1. Gellius Egnatius, 
 ieader of the Saranites in the 3rd Samnite war, fell 
 in battle against tbeRomans, B.C. 295.^3. Marius 
 Egnatius, one of the leaders of the Italian allies 
 in the Social War, was killed in battle, 89.^-3. M. 
 Egnatius Rufus, aedile 20 and praetor 19, was 
 executed in the following year, in consequence of 
 his having formed a conspiracy against the life of 
 Augu3tus.^4. P. Egnatius Celer. [Barea.] 
 
 Eion (^'H'CiiiV. 'HVoveus : Contessa ov Rendina), 
 a to\vn in Thrace, at the mouth of the Strymon, 
 25 stadia from Amphipolis, of which it was the 
 harbour, Brasidas, after obtaining possession of 
 Amphipolis, attempted to seize Eion also, but was 
 prevented by the arrival of Thucydides with an 
 Athenian fleet, b. c. 424. 
 
 Eiones ('Hi'dfey), a town in Argolis with a 
 harbour, subject to Mycenae in the time of Homer, 
 but not mentioned in later times. 
 
 Elaea ('EAcua: Kazlu\ an ancient city on the 
 coast of Aeolis in Asia Minor, said to have been 
 founded by Mnestheus, stood 12 stadia S. of the 
 mouth of the Caicus, and 120 stadia (or 16 Roman 
 miles) from PergamuSj to which city, in the time of 
 
 ELAVER. 
 
 237 
 
 the Pergamene kingdom, it served for a harbour 
 {iTTiveLop). It was destroyed by an earthquiike in 
 B. c. 90. The gulf on which it stuod, which forms 
 a part of the great Gulf of Adraniyttium, was named 
 after it Sinus ELa'iticus ['E\a.'iru<hs icdKirus, G. of 
 Chande/i). 
 
 Elaeiis ('EXaioC?, -oivros : ^Ekaiovcrios). 1. Or 
 Eleus ('EAeoiJs : Cntia\ a town on the S.E. point 
 of tiie Thracian Chersonese, with a harbour and 
 an heroum of Protesilaus.^ 2. {Meaoloiif/ht), a 
 town in Aetoli.n, S. of Pleuron. — 3. A town in 
 Argolis. ^4. A demus in Attica, belonging to 
 the tribe Hippothoontis. 
 
 Elagabalus, Roman emperor, a. d. 218 — 222, 
 son of Julia Soemias and Varius Marcellus, was 
 born at Emesa about 205, and was originally called 
 Varius Avitus Bassianus. While almost a 
 child he became, along witli his first cousin Alex- 
 ander Severiis, priest of Elagabalus, the Syro- 
 Phoenician Sun-god, to whose worship a temple 
 was dedicated in his native city. It was from this 
 circumstance that he obtained the name Elagabalus, 
 by which he is usually known. He owed his 
 elevation to the purple to the intrigues of his 
 grandmother Julia Maesa, who circulated the report 
 that Elagabalus was the offspring of a secret com- 
 merce between Soemias and Caracalla, and induced 
 the troops in Syria to. salute him as their sovereign, 
 by the title of M. Aurelius Antoninus, the 
 Ib'th of May, 218. Macrinus forthwith mnrched 
 against Elagabalus, but was defeated near Antioch, 
 June 8th, and was shortly afterwards put to death. 
 Elagabalus was now acknowledged as emperor by 
 the senate, and in the following year came to Rome. 
 The reign of this prince, who perished at the age 
 of 18, after having occupied the throne nearly 4 
 years, was characterised throughout by an accunm- 
 lation of the most fantastic folly and superstition, 
 together with inipunty so bestial that the particulars 
 almost transcend the limits of credibility. In 2"J1 
 he adopted his first cousin Alexander Severus, and 
 proclaimed hini Caesar. Having become jealous 
 of Alexander, he attempted to put him to death, 
 but was himself slain along with his mother Soemias 
 by the soldiers, with whom Alexander was a great 
 favourite. 
 
 Elana. [Aelana.] 
 
 Elara (*EAojOa), daughter of Orchomenus or 
 Minyas, bore to Zeus the giant Tityus. Zeus, from 
 fear of Hera, concealed her under the earth. 
 
 Elatea ('EKdreia : 'EAareus). 1. (Nr. ElepJitha 
 Ru.), a town in Phocis, and the most important 
 place in the country next to Delphi, was situated 
 near the Cephissus in a fertile valley, which was 
 an important pass from Thessaly to Boeotia. Elatea 
 was thus frequently exposed to hostile attacks. It 
 is said to have been founded by Elatus, son of 
 Areas. ^2. A town in Pelasgiotis in Thessaly, 
 near Gonni. — 3. Or Elatrea, a town in Epirus, 
 near the sources of the Cocytus. 
 
 Elatus ("EAoTos). 1. Son of Areas and Leanira, 
 king of Arcadia, husband of Laodice, and father 
 of Stymphalus, Aepytus, Cyllen, and Pereus. He 
 resided on mount Cyllene, and went from thence 
 to Phocis, where he founded the town of Elatea.— 
 2. A prince of the Lapithae at Larissa in Thessaly, 
 husband of Hippea, and father of Caeneus and 
 Polyphemus. He is sometimes confounded with 
 the Arcadian Elatus. 
 
 Elaver {Allier)^ subsequently Elaris or Elauris, 
 a river in Aquitania, a tributary of the Liger, 
 
238 ELBO. 
 
 Elbo ('E\§w), an island on the coast of the 
 Delta of Epypt, in the midst of the marshes be- 
 tween the Phatnitic and the Tanitic mouths of the 
 Nile, was the retreat of the blind Pharoah Anysis 
 from the Aethiopian Sabacon, and afterwards of 
 Amyrtaeus from the Persians. 
 
 Elea. [Velia.] 
 
 Electra ('HAe'/cTpa), /. e. the brij2;ht or brilliant 
 one. 1. Daughter of Oceanus and Tethys, ivife of 
 Thaumas, and mother of Iris and the Harpies, 
 Aello and Ocypete. — 2. Daughter of Atlas and 
 Ple'ione, one of the 7 Pleiades, and by Zeus mother 
 of lasion and Dardanus. According to an Italian 
 tradition, she was the wife of the Italian king 
 Corythus, by whom she had a son lasion; whereas 
 by Zeus she was the mother of Dardanus. It was 
 through her means, according to another tradition, 
 that the Palladium came to Troy; and when she 
 saw the city of her son Dardanus perishing in 
 flames, she tore out her hair for grief, and was 
 placed among the stars as a comet. According to 
 others, Electra and her 6 sisters were placed among 
 the stars as the 7 Pleiades, and lost their brilliancy 
 on seeing the destruction of Ilium. ^3. Sister of 
 Cadmus, from whom the Electrian gate at Thebes 
 was said to have received its name.— 4. Daughter 
 of Agamemnon and Clj'taemnestra, also called 
 Laodice, sister of Iphigenia and Orestes. After 
 the murder of her father by her mother, she saved 
 the life of her young brother Orestes, by sending 
 him under the protection of a slave to king Stro- 
 phius at Phanote in Phocis, who had the boy 
 educated together with his own son Pylades. When 
 Orestes had grov/n up to manliood, Electra excited 
 him to avenge the death of Agamemnon, and as- 
 sisted him in slaying their mother, Clytaeranestra. 
 [Orestes.] After the death of the latter, Orestes 
 gave her in marriage to his friend Pylades. The 
 history and character of Electra form the subject 
 of the " Choephori " of Aeschylus, the " Electra " 
 of Euripides, and the " Electra " of Sophocles. 
 
 Electrides Insiilae. [Eridanus.] 
 
 Electryon ("HAiKrpuwv), son of Perseus and 
 Andromeda, king of Mycenae, husband of Anaxo, 
 and father of Alcmene, the wife of Amphitryon. 
 For details see Amphitryon. 
 
 Electryone {'UXeicrpvciu-q). 1. Daughter of 
 Helios and Rhodes. ^ 2. A patronymic from Elec- 
 tryon, given to his daughter, Alcmene. 
 
 Eleon ('EAewj/), a town in Boeotia, near Ta- 
 nagra. 
 
 Eleos ("EAeos), the personification of pity or 
 mercy, worshipped by the Athenians alone. 
 
 Elephantine or Elephantis ('EAe^a^TtVr?, 'E\6- 
 (pavTis : Jezirah'el-Zahh\ or Jezirah-(4- Assouan), 
 an island in the Nile, with a city of the same name, 
 opposite to Syene, and 7 stadia below the Little 
 Cataract, was the frontier station of Eg3'pt towards 
 Ethiopia, and was strongly garrisoned under the 
 Persians and the Romans. The island was ex- 
 tremely fertile, the vine and the fig-tree never 
 shedding their leaves : it had also great quarries. 
 Among tiie most remarkable objects in it were the 
 temple of Cnuphis and a Nilometer ; and it is still 
 celebrated for the ruins of its rock-hewn temples. 
 
 Elephantis, a Greek poetess under the early 
 Roman emperors, wrote certain amator}' works 
 (moU^s Elcphantidos lihalli), which are referred to 
 by Martial and Suetonius. 
 
 Elephenor ('EAe(pT)ya)p), son of Chalcodon and of 
 Imcnarcte or Melanippe, and prince of the Abantes/ 
 
 ELTS. 
 
 in Euboea, whom he led against Troy. He v/as 
 one of the suitors of Helen ; he was killed before 
 Troy by Agenor. 
 
 Eleusis ('E\ei/(n's, later 'EAeucriV ; ^EXeutriVioy : 
 Leosina or Lessina), a town and demus of Attica, 
 belonging to the tribe Hippothoontis, was situated 
 N.W. of Athens, on the coast near the frontiers of 
 Megara. It possessed a magnificent temple of De- 
 meter, and it gave its name to the great festival 
 and mysteries of the Eleusinia, which were cele- 
 brated in honour of Demeter and Persephone. 
 The Eleusinia were originally a festival peculiar 
 to Eleusis, which was an independent state ; but 
 after the Eleusinians had been conquered by the 
 Athenians in the reign of Erechtheus, according to 
 tradition, the Eleusinia became a festival common 
 to both cities, though the superintendence of the 
 festival remained with the descendants of Eumol- 
 pus, the king of Eleusis. For an account of the 
 festival see Diet, of Aniiq. art. Eleusinia. 
 
 Eleutherae ('EAeu^epai : 'EXevOepevs}, a town 
 in Attica on the frontiers of Boeotia, originally be- 
 longed to the Boeotian confederac}"", and afterwards 
 voluntarily united itself to Attica. 
 
 Eleutherius ('EAeu^epio?), a surname of Zeus, 
 as the Deliverer. (Did. of Ant art. Eleulheria.) 
 
 Eleuthema {'EKevO^pua : 'EKevBepvaTos), a 
 town in the interior of Crete. 
 
 Eleutherus CEKevdepos : Na7ir~el-Kehii\ i. e. 
 Great River\ a river forming the boundary between 
 Syria and Phoenice, rose in Mt. Bargylus, the N. 
 prolongation of Lebanon, and fell into the sea be- 
 tween Antaradus and Tripolia. 
 
 Elicius, a surname of Jupiter at Rome, where 
 king Numa dedicated to Jupiter Elicius an altar 
 on the Aventine. The origin of the name is re- 
 ferred to the Etruscans, who by certain prayers 
 and sacrifices called forth {eliciehant or evocaUmt) 
 lightning, or invited Jupiter to send lightning. The 
 object of calling down lightning was according ta 
 Livy'a explanation to elicit prodigies (ad prodi<jia 
 elicienda^ Liv. i. 20.). 
 
 Elimberrum. [Auscl] 
 
 Eliniea, -ia, or Elimiotis ('EAf^ueia, 'EAt/ito,. 
 'EAifiiaJTis), a district of Macedonia, on the frontiers- 
 of Epirus and Thessaly, originally belonged to 
 lilyria, and was bounded by the Carabunian moun- 
 tains on the S. and the Tymphaean mountams oii 
 the W. Its inhabitants, the Elimaei ('EAei/iii£- 
 Tai), were Epirots. 
 
 Elis ('HA(s, Dor.'^AAis, 'HAeta: ^HAeroy, Dor. 
 "AAios, whence Alii in Plautus), a country on the 
 W. coast of Peloponnesus, bounded by Achala on 
 the N., Arcadia on the E., Messenia on the S„ 
 and the Ionian sea on the W. The country was 
 fertile, watered by the Alpheus and its tributaries,, 
 and is said to have been the only country in Greece 
 which produced flax. The Peneus is the only 
 other river in Elis of any importance. Elis was 
 divided into 3 parts : — l. Elis Proper or Hollow 
 Elis (t) Ko'iK-i) "^HAis), the N. part, watered hj 
 the Peneus, of which the capital was also called 
 Elis. — 2. Piaatis (t) IIio-aTis), the middle portion, 
 of which the capital was Pisa. — 3. Triphylia 
 (tJ TpKpvXia)^ the S. portion, of which PvLos was 
 the capital, lay between the Alpheus and the 
 Neda. — In the heroic times we find the kingdom 
 of Nestor and the Pelldae in the S. of Elis ; while 
 the N. of the country was inhabited by the Epeans. 
 ('ETreioH, with whom some Aetolian tribes were 
 mingled. On the conquest of Peloponnesus by 
 
ELTSO. 
 the Hcmclidae, the Aetolian chief Oxylus received 
 Elis as his sliare of the conquest ; and it was the 
 union of his Aetolian and Dorian followers with 
 the Epeans, which fonned the subsequent popula- 
 tion of the country, under the general name of 
 Eleans. Elis owed its importance in Greece to 
 the worship of Zens at Olympia near Pisa, in 
 honour of whom a splendid festival was held every 
 4 years. [Olympia.] In consequence of this 
 festival being common to the whole of Greece, the 
 country of Elis was declared sacred, and its inha- 
 bitants possessed priestly privileges. Being ex- 
 empt from war and the dangers of invasion, the 
 Eleans became prosperous and wealthy ; their 
 towns were unwalled and their country was richly 
 cultivated. The prosperity of their country was 
 ruined by the Peloponnesian War ; the Athenians 
 were the first to disregard the sanctity of the 
 country ; and from that time it frequently had to 
 take part in the other contests of the Greeks, — 
 The town of Elis was situated on the Peneus, and 
 was built at the time of the Persian War by the 
 inhabitants of 8 villages, who united together, and 
 thus formed one town. It originally had no walla, 
 being sacred like the rest of the country, but sub- 
 sequently it was fortified. The inhabitants of Elis 
 formed a close alliance with the Spartans, and by 
 their means destroyed the rival city of Pisa, and 
 became the ruling city in the countrj--, b. c. 572. 
 In the Peloponnesian War they quarrelled with 
 the Spartans, because the latter had espoused the 
 cause of Lepraeum, which had revolted from Elis. 
 The Eleans retaliated upon the Spartans by ex- 
 cluding them from the Olympic games. 
 
 Eliso, [Aliso.] 
 
 Elissa. [Dido.] 
 
 EUopia ('EAAoTTia). 1. A district in the N. 
 of Euboea, near the promontory Cenaeum, with a 
 town of the same name which disappeared at an 
 early period : the whole island of Euboea is some- 
 times called Ellopia. — 2. An ancient name of the 
 district about Dodona in Epirus. 
 
 Elone (^HA-wj/ij), a town of the Perrhaebi in 
 Thessaly, afterwards called Limone (Asifi^j/T}). 
 
 Elpenor {'EKirTjutap)^ one of the companions of 
 Ulysses, who were metamorphosed by Circe into 
 swine, and afterwards back into men. Intoxicated 
 with wine, Elpenor one day fell asleep on the roof 
 of Circe's residence, and in his attempt to rise he 
 fell down and broke his neck. When Ulysses 
 was in the lower world, he met the shade of El- 
 penor, who implored him to burn his body. After 
 bis return to the upper world, Ulysses complied 
 with this request of his friend. 
 
 Elpinice ("EKiriyUT})^ daughter of Miltiades, 
 and sister of Cimoii, married Callias. [Callus.] 
 
 Elusates, a people iu Aquitania in the interior 
 of the country. Their chief town was Elusa. (Nr. 
 JEuse or Eaiise.) It was the birthplace of Rufinus, 
 the minister of Arcadius. 
 
 Elymaei, Elymi. [Elymais.] 
 
 Elymais, a district of Susiana, extending from 
 the river Eulaeus on the W. to the Oroatis on the 
 E., derived its name from the Elymaei or Elymi 
 {'E\v/.iaioi, "EAy^oi), a warlike and predatory 
 people, who are also found in the mountains of 
 Great Media : in the Persian armies they served 
 as archera. These Elymaei were probably among 
 the most ancient inhabitants of the country N. of 
 the head of the Persian Gulf: in the 0. T. Susiana 
 is called Elain. 
 
 EMPEDOCLKS. 
 
 239 
 
 Elymi. [Elymus.] 
 
 Elymiotis. [Elimea.] 
 
 Elymus ("EAi'^os), a Trojan, natural son of 
 Anchises and brother of Eryx. Previous to the 
 emigration of Aeneas, Elymus and Aegestus had 
 fled from Troy to Sicily, and had settled on the 
 banks of the river Crimisus. When afterwards 
 Aeneas also arrived there, he built for them the 
 towns of Aegesta and Elyme. The Trojans who 
 settled in that part of Sicily called themselves 
 Elymi, after Elymus. 
 
 Elyrus ("EAupos), a town in the W. of Crete, 
 S. of Cydonia. 
 
 Elysium {'HKvcnou TreSioi/, later simply 'HAu- 
 cTiov), the Elysian fields. In Homer {Od. iv. 563) 
 Elysium forms no part of the realms of the dead ; 
 he places it on the W. of the earth, near Ocean, 
 and describes it as a happy land, where there is 
 neither snow, nor cold, nor rain, and alwaj's fanned 
 by the delightful breezes of Zephyrus. Hither fa- 
 voured heroes, like Menelaus, pass without dying, 
 and live happy under the rule of Rhadamanthys. 
 — The Elysium of Hesiod and Pindar are in the 
 Isles of the Blessed (/xaKapoju vTjaoi), which they 
 place in the Ocean. From these legends arose the 
 fabulous island of Atlantis. — The Elysium of 
 Virgil is part of the lower world, and the residence 
 of the shades of the Blessed. 
 
 Emathia CH^iadia : 'H^aflteus), a district of 
 Macedonia, between the Haliiicmon and the Axius, 
 formerly part of Paeonia, and the original seat of 
 the Macedonian monarchy. The poets frequently 
 give the name of Emathia to the whole of Mace- 
 donia, and sometimes even to the neighbouring 
 Thessaly. 
 
 Emathides, the 9 daughters of Pierus, king of 
 Emathia. 
 
 Emathion ('H/j.a6ia)v), son of Tithonus and 
 Eos, brother of Memnon, was slain by Hercules. 
 
 Embblima {'Efi.€6\iiia\ a city of the P;iropa- 
 misadae in N. India, near the fortress of Aornos, 
 16 days' march from the Indus. (Q. Curt.) 
 
 Emesa or Emissa ("E/xetra, "Euia-aa : 'E/ieat}- 
 vos : Hums or Hoins), a city of Syria, on the E. 
 bank of the Orontes, in the province of Aparaene, 
 but afterwards the capital of Phoenice Libanesia, 
 was in Strabo's time the residence of independent 
 Arabian princes ; but under Caracalla it was made 
 a colony with the Jus Italicum. It is a remarkable 
 place in the history of the Roman empire, being 
 the native city of Julia Domna, the wife of Sep- 
 timius Severus, of Elagabalus, who exchanged the 
 high priesthood of the celebrated temple of the Sun 
 in this city for the imperial pujple, and of the 
 emperor Alexander Severus ; and also the scene of 
 the decisive battle between Aurelian and-Zenobia, 
 
 A. D. 27;^. 
 
 Emmenidae ('E^i/iei/iSctt), a princely family at 
 Agrigentnra, which traced their origin to the my- 
 thical hero Polynices. Among its members we 
 know Emmenides (from whom the family derived 
 its name) the father of Aenesidamus, whose sons 
 Theron and Xcnocrates are celebrated by Pindar 
 as victors at the great games of Greece. 
 
 Emodi Montes, or -us, or -es, or -on (ra 'H^w- 
 6a opTj, TO 'H^wStj(/ tlpos, or 6 'H/iwSdy : Himalaya 
 M.), a range of mountains N. of India, forming the 
 prolongation E. wards of the Paropamisua. 
 
 Empedocles ('E/j.7r€5oKA7)r), of Agrigentum in 
 Sicily, flourished about b. c. 444. Although he 
 was descended from an ancient and wealthy family, 
 
■240 EMPORIAE. 
 
 he joined the revolution in which Thrasydneus, tlie 
 son and successor ol' Tlieron, was expelled. His 
 ■zeal in the establishment of political equality is 
 said to have been manifested by his mngnanimous 
 ■support of the poor, by his severity in persecuting 
 the overbearing conduct of the aristocrats, and in 
 his declining the sovereignty which was offered to 
 him. His brilliant oratory, liis penetrating know- 
 ledge of nature, and the reputation of his mar- 
 vellous powers, which he had acquired by curi]ig 
 diseases, by his successful exertions in removing 
 marshy districts and in averting epidemics and 
 obnoxious winds, spread a lustre around his name, 
 H« was called a magician (yoijs), and he appears 
 to have attnbuted to himself miraculous powers. 
 He travelled in Greece and Italy, and made 
 ■some stay at Athens. His death is said to have 
 been marvellous, like his life. One tradition 
 represented him as having been removed from the 
 earth, like a divine being ; and another related that 
 he threw himself into the flames of mount Aetna, 
 that by his sudden disappearance he might be be- 
 iieved to be a god ; but it was added that the vol- 
 cano threw up one of his sandals, and thus revealed 
 the manner of his death. The rhetorician Gorgias 
 ■was a disciple of Erapedocles. — The "ft'orks of 
 Enipedocles were all in verse. The two most im- 
 portant were a didactic poem on nature (Tlepl ^v- 
 <r€a)y), of which considerable fragments are extant, 
 and a poem, entitled Kadapfj-oi^ which seems to 
 have recommended good moral conduct as the 
 means of averting epidemics and other evils. Lu- 
 cretius, the greatest of all didactic poets, speaks of 
 Empedocles with enthusiasm, and evidently makes 
 him his model. Empedocles was acquainted with 
 the theories of the Eleatics and the Pythagoreans ; 
 hut he did not adopt the fundamental principles of 
 either school, although he agreed with the hitter 
 in his belief in the migration of souls, and in a 
 few other points. With the Eleatics he agreed in 
 thinking that it was impossible to conceive any 
 thing arising out of nothing. Aristotle with justice 
 'mentions him among the Ionic physiologists, and 
 places him in very close relation to the atomistic 
 philosophers and to Anaxagoras. Empedocles first 
 established the number of 4 elements, which he 
 called the roots of things. 
 
 Emporiae or Emporium CEfi-rropiai, 'E^tto- 
 p€LOV^ ^EiJ,TT6piov : 'E/j.TropirTjs : Ampurias)^ a town 
 of the Indigetes in Hisp.inia Tarraconensis near 
 ihe Pyrenees, was situated on the river Clodianus, 
 which formed the harbour of the town. It was 
 'founded by the Phocaeans from Massilia, and was 
 divided into 2 parts, at one time separated from 
 each other by a wall ; the part near the coast being 
 inhabited by the Greeks, and the part towards the 
 interior by the Indigetes. It was subsequently 
 colonised by Julius Caesar. Its harbour was much 
 frequented ; here Scipio Africanus first landed 
 ■\vhen he came to Spain in the 2nd Punic War. 
 
 Empiilum {AmpigHone9), a small town in La- 
 tium, near Tibur. 
 
 Emp-iisa ("E^Tropffa), a monstrous spectre, which 
 was believed to devour human beings. It could 
 assume dilferent forms, and was sent by Hecate to 
 frighten travellers. It was believed usually to 
 appear with one leg of brass and the other of an 
 ass, whence it was called ovoo-KeXis or dvoKcSKr]. 
 The Lamiae and Mormolyceia, who assumed the 
 form of handsome women for the purpose of attract- 
 ing young men, and then sucked their blood like 
 
 ENNA. 
 
 vampyrs and ate their flesh, were reckoned among 
 the Enipusae. 
 
 Enarephorus {'EvapT}(popus), son of Hippocoon, 
 a passionate suitor of Helen, when she was yet 
 quite young. Tyndareus, therefore, entrusted the 
 maiden to the care of Theseus. Enarephorus had 
 a heroum at Sparta. 
 
 Euceladus ('EyweAaSoy), son of Tartarus and Ge, 
 and one of the hundred-armed giants who made 
 war upon the gods. He was killed, according to 
 some, by a flash of lightning, by Zeus, who buried 
 him under mount Aetna ; according to others, 
 Athena killed him with her chariot, or threw upon 
 him the island of Sicily. 
 
 Encheles {'Eyxe\eis, also ^Eyx^^^o.^, '^7X^- 
 Xloi\ an Illyrian tribe. 
 
 Endoeus ("ErSoios), an Athenian statuary, is 
 called a disciple of Daedalus, whom he is said to 
 have accompanied on his flight from Crete. This 
 statement must be taken to express, not the time 
 at which he lived, but the style of art which he 
 practised. It is probable that he lived in the time 
 of Pisistratns and his sons, about b. c. 560. 
 
 Endymioa ('Ef5u/iiW), a youth distinguished 
 by his beauty, and renoiivned in ancient story for 
 his perpetual sleep. Some traditions about En- 
 dymion refer us to Elis, and others to Caria, and 
 others again are a combination of the two. Ac- 
 cording to one set of legends, he was a son of 
 Acthlius and Calyce, or of Zeus and Calyce, and 
 succeeded Aethlius in the kingdom of Elis. Others 
 related that he had come from Elis to mount 
 Latmus in Caria, whence he Js called the Latmiaii 
 {Lutmius). As he slept on Latmus, his surprising 
 beauty warmed the cold heiart of Selene (the moon), 
 who came down to him, kissed him, and lay by 
 his side. His eternal sleep on Latmus is assigned 
 to different causes ; but it was generally believed 
 that Selene had sent him to sleep, that she might 
 be able to kiss him without his knowledge. Bv 
 Selene he had 50 daughters. There is a beautiful 
 statue of a sleeping Endymion in the British 
 Museum. 
 
 Engyum ("£771^01' or ^Eyyviov ; 'E77L'r*'oy, En- 
 guinus : Gangi), a town in the interior of Sicily 
 near the sources of the Monalus, was originally a 
 town of the Siculi, but is said to have been colo- 
 nised by the Cretans under Minos : it possessed a 
 celebrated temple of the great mother of the gods. 
 Enipeus ('EviTreus). 1. A river in Thessaly, 
 rises in Mt. Othrys, receives the Apldanus near 
 Pharsalus, and -flows into the Peneus. Poseidon 
 assumed the form of the god of this river in order 
 to obtain possession of Tyro, -who was in love with 
 Enipeus. She became by Poseidon the mother of 
 Pelias and Neleus. Ovid relates {Mety\. IIG) 
 that Neptune (Poseidon) having assumed the foi-m 
 of Enipeus, became by Iphimedia the father of 
 Otus and Ephialtes. — 2. A small river in Pisatis 
 (Elis) flows into the Alpheua near its mouth.— 
 3. A small river in Macedonia, which rises in 
 Olympus. 
 
 Enna or Henna (^Ewa. : ^Evvolos : Castro Gio- 
 vanni)^ an ancient and fortified town of the Siculi 
 in Sicily, on the road from Catana to Agrigentum, 
 said to be the centre of the island [d(x<paXhs 2iKe- 
 Xias), It was surrounded by fertile plains, which 
 bore large crops of wheat ; it was one of the chief 
 seats of the worship of Demeter (Ceres), and pos- 
 sessed a celebrated temple of this goddess. Ac- 
 cording to later tradition it was in a flowery mea- 
 
dow in the neighbourhood of Enna tlint Plutn 
 carried otf Proserpine, nnd the cave was sIiou'h 
 through which the god passed as he carrii^d off liis 
 prize. Its importance gradually declined from tlic 
 time of the 2nd Punic war, when it was severely 
 punished by the Romans, because it had attempted 
 to revolt to the Carthaginians. 
 
 Ermius, Q., the Roman poet, was bom at Ru- 
 diae, in Calabria, b. c. 21^9. He was a Greek by 
 birth, but a subject of Rome, and served in the 
 Roman armies. In 20-4 Cato, who was then 
 quaestor, found Ennius in Sardinia, and brought 
 him in his train to Rome. In IBO Ennius accnm- 
 paiiied M. Fulvius Nobilior during the Aetolian 
 campaic;n, and shared his triumph. Through the 
 son of Nobilior, Ennius, when far advanced in life, 
 obtained the riglits of a Roman citizen. He (Twelt 
 in a humble house on the Avcntinc, and maintained 
 himself by acting as a preceptor to the youths of 
 the RonsriU nobles. He lived on terms of the 
 closest intimacy with the elder Scipio Africanus. 
 He died 169, at the age of 70. He was buried in 
 the sepulchre of the Scipios, and his bust was 
 allowed a place among the effigies of that noble 
 house. Ennius was regarded by the Romans as 
 the father of their poetry {alter Homei-us, Hor. Ep. 
 ii. 1. 50). Cicero calls him Summus po'cla nosier ; 
 and Virgil was not ashamed to borrow many of 
 his thoiiglits, and not a few of his expressions. 
 All the works of Ennius are lost with the 
 exception of a few fragments. His most im- 
 portant work was an epic poem, in dactylic hex- 
 ameters, entitled A?inalmiu Libri xviii., being- 
 a histor}' of Rome, commencing with the loves of 
 Mars and Rhea, and reaching down to his own 
 times. The beautiful history of the kings in Livy 
 may have been taken from Ennius. No great 
 space, however, was allotted to the earlier records, 
 for the contest with Hannibal, which was described 
 v/ith great minuteness, commenced with the 7th 
 hook, the first Punic war being passed over alto- 
 gether. He wrote numerous tragedies, which 
 appear to have been all translations or adaptations 
 from the Greek, the metres of the originals being 
 in most cases closely imitated. He wrote also a few 
 comedies, and several other works, such as Satirae, 
 composed in a great variety of metres, from which 
 circumstance they probably received their name ; 
 a didactic poem, entitled. Epichai-mus ; a panegyric 
 on Scipio ; Epigrams, &c. The best collection of 
 the fragments of Ennius is by Hieronymus Co- 
 lumna, Neapol. 4to. 1590, reprinted with consider- 
 able additions, by Hessclius, AmsteL 4to. 1707. 
 
 Enope ('E;/c{7r7j), a town in Messenia, mentioned 
 by Homer, supposed to be the same as Gerenia. 
 
 Entella {"EvreWa; Entellinus, Entellensis : 
 Enldla)^ an ancient town of the Sicani in the in- 
 terior of the island on the \V. side, said to have 
 been founded by Entellus, one of the companions 
 of the Trojan Aegestus. It was subsequently 
 seized and peopled by the Campanian mercenaries 
 of Dionysius. 
 
 Enyalius (^'E.vva.Mos)^ the Warlike, frequently 
 occurs in the Iliad (never in the Odyssey) as an 
 epithet of Ares. At a later time Enyalius and 
 Arcs were distinguished as 2 different gods of 
 war ; Enyalius was looked upon as a son of Ares 
 and Enyo, or of Cronos and Rhea. The name is 
 evidently derived from Enyo. 
 
 Enyo ('Eyt/M), the goddess of war, who delights 
 in bloodshed and the destruction of towns, and 
 
 EPAMIXONDAS. 241 
 
 accompanies Arcs in Ijatth's. Respecting the Ro- 
 man goddess of war, see Uello.va. 
 
 Eordaea ('Eopoa/a, also 'EopSi'a), a district and 
 town in the N. W. of Macedonia, inhabited by the 
 Eordi ('EopSof, also "EopoaToi). 
 
 Eos ('HoJy, Att. "Etj;), in Latin Aurora, the 
 goddess of the morning red, daughter of Hy- 
 perion and Tliia or Euryphassa ; or of Pallas, 
 according to Ovid. At the close of every night 
 she rose from the couch of her spouse Tithonus, 
 and on a chariot drawn by the sv/ift horses La«i- 
 pus and Phaeton she ascended up to heaven from 
 the river Oceanus, to announce the coming light 
 of tlie sun to the gods as well as to mortals. In 
 the Homeric poems Eos not only announces the 
 coming Sun, but accompanies him throughout the 
 day, and her career is not complete till the even- 
 ing ; hence she came to be regarded as the goddess 
 of the daylight, and was completely identified b}-- 
 the tragic writers with Hemera. She carried off 
 several youths distinguished for their beauty, such 
 as Orion, Cephalus, and Tithonus, whence she 
 is called by Ovid Tiihonia cojijiix. Slie bore 
 Meranon to Tithonus. [Memnon.] By Aatraeus 
 she became the mother of Zephyrus, Boreas, Notus, 
 Heosphorus, and other stars. 
 
 Epaminondas ('ETrafxeLPcofdas, 'Zirafj-ivccvSas), 
 the Theban general and statesman, son of Polj'm- 
 nis, was born and reared in poverty, though his 
 blood was noble. His close and enduring friend- 
 ship with Pelopidas is said to have originated in 
 the campaign in which they served together on the 
 Spartan side against Mantinea, where Pelopidas 
 having fallen in a battle, apparently dead, ?]pami- 
 nondas protected his body at tlie imminent risk of 
 his o'wn life, b. c. 385. After the Spartans had been 
 expelled from Thebes, 379, Epaminondas took an 
 active part in public affairs. In 371 he was one of 
 the Theban commanders at the battle of Leuctra, so 
 fatal to the Lacedaemonians, in which the success 
 of Thebes is said to have been owing mainly to 
 the tactics of Epaminondas. He it was who most 
 strongl}-- urged the giving battle, while lie em- 
 ployed all the means in his power to raise the 
 courage of his countrymen, not excluding even 
 omens and oracles, for which, when unfavourable, 
 he liad but recently expressed his contempt In 
 3(i9 he was one of the generals in the 1st invasion 
 of Peloponnesus by the Thebans ; and before leav- 
 ing Peloponnesus he restored the Messenians to 
 their country and established a new city, named 
 Messene. On their return home Epaminondas and 
 Pelopidas were impeached by their enemies, on a 
 capital charge of having retained tlieir command 
 he^'ond the legal tenu. The fact itself was ti'ue 
 enough ; but they were both honourably acquitted, 
 Epaminondas having expressed his willingness to-- 
 die if the Thebans would record that he had been^ 
 put to death because he had humbled Sparta and^ 
 taught his countrymen to face and to conquer her 
 armies. In 3()fi he again led a Theban army into 
 the Peloponnesus, but did not advance far, and, on 
 his return, was repulsed by Chabrias in an attack 
 which he made on Corinth. In the same year we 
 find him serving, but not as general, in the Theban 
 army which was sent into Thessaly to rescue Pelo- 
 pidas from Alexander of Pherae, and which was 
 saved from utter destruction only by the ability of 
 Epaminondas. In 367 he was sent at the head of 
 another force to release Pelopidas, and accomplished 
 his object without even striking a blow, and by 
 
•242 
 
 EPAPHKODITUS. 
 
 the mere prestige of his name. In 366' he invaded 
 the Peloponnesus for the 3rd time, and in 362 for 
 the 4th time. In the latter year he gained a brilliant 
 victory over the Lacedaemonians atMantinea; but 
 in the full uarcer of victory he received a mortal 
 wound. He was told that his death would follow 
 directly on the javelin being extracted from the 
 wonnd ; and he would not allow this to be done 
 till he had been assured that his shield was safe, 
 and that the victory was with his countrymen. It 
 was a disputed point by whose hand he fell : 
 among others, the honour was assigned to Gryllus, 
 the son of Xenophon. Epaniinondas was one of 
 the greatest men of Greece. He raised Thebes to 
 the supremacy of Greece, which she lost almost as 
 soon as he died. Both in public and in private 
 life he was distinguished by integrity and upright- 
 ness, and he carried into daily practice the lessons 
 of philosophy, of which he was an ardent student. 
 
 Epaphroditns ('ETra(/>po5iTos). 1. A freedman 
 and favourite of the emperor Nero. He assisted 
 Nero in killing himself, and he was afterwards put 
 to death by Domitian, The philosopher Epictetus 
 was his freedman. — 2. M. Mettius Epaphrodi- 
 tus, of Chaeronea, a Greek grammarian, the slave 
 and afterwards the freedman of Modestus, the prae- 
 fect of Egypt. He subsequently went to Rome, 
 where he resided in the reign, of Nero and down 
 to the time of Nerva. He was the author of several 
 grammatical works and commentaries. 
 
 Epaplius ("E-rratpos), son of Zeus and lo, born 
 on the river Nile, after the long wanderings of Ins 
 mother. He was concealed by the Curetes, at the 
 request of Hera, but was discovered by lo in 
 Syria, He subsequently became king of Egypt, 
 married Memphis, a daughter of Nilus, or, according 
 to others, Casslopea, and built the city of Memphis. 
 He had a daughter Libya, from whom Libya 
 (Africa) received its name. 
 
 Epei. [Elts.] 
 
 Epetltim CEireTiov : nr. Strobnecz, Ru.), a town 
 of the Lissii in Dalmatia with a good harbour. 
 
 Epeus ('ETreios). 1. Son of Endymion, king in 
 Elis, from whom the Epei are said to have derived 
 their name. ■—3. Son of Panopeus, went with 30 
 ships from the Cyclades to Troy. He built the 
 wooden horse with the assistance of Athena. 
 
 Ephesus i^E(pecros : 'Eipeffios : Ru. near Ayasa- 
 luk^ i. e. "hjios <d€6Xoyos, the title of St, John), 
 the chief of the 12 Ionian cities on the coast of 
 Asia Minor, was said to have been founded by 
 Carians and Leleges, and to have been taken pos- 
 session of by Androclus, the son of Codrus, at the 
 time of the great Ionian migration. It stood a 
 little S. of the river Cayster, near its mouth, where 
 a marshy plain, extending S. from the river, is 
 bounded by two hills. Prion or Lepre on the E., 
 and Coressus on the S. The city was built ori- 
 ginally on Mt. Coressua, but, in the time of Croesus, 
 the people transferred their habitations to the 
 valle)'-, whence Lysimachus, the general of Alex- 
 ander, compelled them again to remove to M Prion. 
 On the N. side of the city was a lake, communi- 
 cating with the Cayster, and forming the inner 
 harbour, now a marsh ; the outer harbour (irdvop- 
 fj.os) was formed by the mouth of the river. In 
 the plain, E. of the lake, and N.E, of the city, be- 
 yond its walls, stood the celebrated temple of Ar- 
 temis, which was built in the 6th century b. c, by 
 an architect named Chersiphron, and, after being 
 burnt down by Herostratus in the night on which 
 
 EPHOKUS. 
 Alexander the Great was bom (Oct. 13 — 14, B. C. 
 356). was restored by the joint efforts of all the 
 Ionian .states, and was regarded as one of the 
 wonders of the world : nothing now remains of the 
 temple, except some traces of its foundations. The 
 temple 'was also celebrated as an asylum, till Au- 
 gustus deprived it of that privilege. The other 
 buildings at Ephesus, of which there are any ruins, 
 are the agora, theatre, odeum, stadium, gymnasium, 
 and baths, temples of Zeus Olympius and of Julius 
 Caesar, and a large building near the inner harbour ; 
 the foundations of the walls may also be traced. — 
 With the rest of Ionia, Ephesus fell under the 
 power successively of Croesus, the Persians, the 
 Macedonians, and the Romans. It was always 
 very flourishing, and became even more so as the 
 other Ionian cities decayed. It was greatly fa- 
 voured by its Greek rulers, especiall}'" by Lysima- 
 chus, who, in honour of his second wife, gave it 
 her name, Arsinoe, which, however, it did not 
 long retain. Attains II. Philadelphus constructed 
 docks for it, and improved its harbours. Under 
 the Romans it was the capital of the province of Asia, 
 and by far the greatest city of Asia Minor. It 
 is conspicuous in the early history of the Christian 
 Church, both St. Paul and St, John having laboui-ed 
 in it, and addressed epistles to the church of 
 Ephesus ; and at one time its bishop possessed the 
 rank and power of a patriarch over the churches 
 in the province of Asia. Its position, and the ex- 
 cellence of its harbours, made it the chief emporium 
 for the trade of all Asia within the Taurus ; and 
 its do^ynfall was chiefly owing to the destruction of 
 its harbours by the deposits of the Cayster. — hi 
 the earliest times Ephesus was called by various 
 names, Alope, Ortygia, Merges, Smyrna Tracheia, 
 Saraornia, and Ptelea. 
 
 Ephialtes ('E^JxaATT/?). 1. One of the Aloidae. 
 [Aloeus.] — 2. A Malian, whoinE.c. 480, when 
 Leonidas was defending the pass of Thermopylae, 
 guided a body of Persians over the mountain path, 
 and thus enabled them to fall on the rear of the 
 Greeks.-— 3, An Athenian statesman, was a friend 
 and partisan of Pericles, whom he assisted in. 
 carrying his political measures. He is mentioned 
 in particular as chiefly instrumental in that abridg- 
 ment of the power of the Areopagus, which in- 
 flicted such a blow on the oligarchical party, and 
 against which the Eumenides of Aeschylus was 
 directed. His services to the democratic cause 
 excited the rancorous enmity of some of the oli- 
 garchs, and led to his assassination during the 
 night, probably in 456. 
 
 Ephippus ("Ei^iTrTros). 1. An Athenian poet of 
 the middle comed3^ — 2. Of 01ynthus,,a Greek 
 historian of Alexander the Great. 
 
 Ephonis ("Ei^opos), of Cymae in Aeolis, a cele- 
 brated Greek historian, was a contemporary of 
 Philip and Alexander, and flourished about b. c. 
 340. He studied rhetoric under Isocrates, of whose 
 pupils he and Theopompus were considered the 
 most distinguished. On the advice of Theopompus 
 he wrote A History ('luTopiai) in 30 books, which 
 began with the return of the Heraclidae, and came 
 down to the siege of Perinthus in 341. It treated 
 of the history of the barbarians as well as of the 
 Greeks, and was thus the first attempt at writing 
 a universal history that was ever made in Greece. 
 It embraced a period of 750 years, and each of the 
 30 books contained a compact portion of the his- 
 tory, which formed a complete whole by itself. 
 
EPHYRA. 
 Ephorus did not live to complete the work, and 
 it was finished by his son Demophilus. Diyllus 
 began his liistory at the point at which the work 
 of Ephorus left off. Ephorus also wi'ote a few 
 other works of less importance, of which the titles 
 only are preserved by the grammarians. Of the 
 history likewise we have nothing but fragments. 
 It was written in a clear and polished style, but 
 was at the same time deficient in power and energy. 
 Ephorus appears to have been faithful and impartial 
 in the narration of events ; but he did not always 
 follow the best authorities, and in the later part 
 of his work he frequently'- differed from Herodotus, 
 Thucydides, and Xenophon, on points on which 
 they are entitled to credit, Diodorus Siculus made 
 great use of the work of Ephorus. The fragments of 
 his work have been published by Marx, Carlsruhe, 
 1815, and in MuUer's Fragm, Historico?: Graec. 
 Paris, 1841. 
 
 Ephyra ('E^upa). 1. The ancient name of 
 Corinth [Corinthus.]^3. An ancient town of 
 the Pelasgi near the river Selleis in Elis, —3. A 
 town in Thessaly, afterwards called Cr-anon.— 4. 
 A town in Epirus, afterwards called Ciciivrus. 
 —» 5. A small town in the district of Agraea in 
 Aetolia. 
 
 Epicaste {'EirjcdrrTTj)^ commonly called Jocaste. 
 Epicepkesia {''ETriKT}<p7](ria : 'Ein/cT/^-ij trios), a 
 tlemus in Attica, belonging to the tribe Oeneis. 
 
 Epich,annus ('ETn'xap/ios), the chief comic poet 
 among the Dorians, was born in the island of Cos, 
 about B. c. 540. His father, Elothales, was a 
 physician, of the race of the Asclepiads. At the age 
 of 3 months, Epicharmus was carried to Megara, in 
 Sicily; thence he removed to Syracuse, when Megara 
 was destroyed by Gelon (484 or 483). Here he 
 spent the remainder of his life, which was prolongeiJ 
 throughout the reign of Hieron, at whose court 
 Epicharmus associated with the other great writers 
 of the time, and among them with Aeschylus. He 
 died at the age of 90 (450), or, according to Lucian, 
 97 (443). Epicharmus was a Pythagorean philo- 
 sopher, and spent the earlier part of his life in the 
 study of philosophy, both physical and metaphy- 
 sical. He is said to have followed for some time^ 
 his father's profession of medicine ; and it appears 
 that he did not commence writing comedies till his 
 removal to Syracuse. Comedy had for some time 
 existed at Megara in Sicily, which was a colony 
 from Megara on the Isthmus, the latter of which 
 towns disputed with the Athenians the invention of 
 comedy. But the comedy at the Sicilian Megara 
 before Epicharmus seems to have been little more 
 than a low buffoonery. It was he, together with 
 Phormis, who gave it a new form, and introduced 
 a regular plot. The number of his comedies is 
 differently stated at 52, or at 35. There are still 
 extant 35 titles. The majority of them are on my- 
 thological subjects, that is, travesties of the heroic 
 myths, and these plays no doubt very much re- 
 sembled the satyric dramas of the Athenians. But 
 besides mythology, Epicharmus wrote on other 
 subjects, political, moral, relating to manners and 
 customs, &c. The style of his plays appears to 
 have been a curious mixture of the broad buffoonery 
 which distinguished the old Megarian'comedy, and 
 of the sententious wisdom of the Pythagorean phi- 
 losopher. His language was remarkably elegant : 
 he was celebrated for his choice of epitliets : his 
 plays abounded, as the extant fragments prove, 
 with philosophical and moral maxims. He was 
 
 EPICURUS. 243 
 
 imitated by Crates, and also by Plautus, as we 
 learn from the line of Horace {Epist. ii. 1. 58), — 
 
 " Plautus ad exemplar Siculi properare Epicharmi." 
 
 Tlip parasite, who forms so conspicuous a character 
 in the plays of the new comedj'', is first found in 
 Epicharnms. 
 
 Epicnemidii Locri. [Locris.] 
 
 Epicrates ('ETriKpaTTjs). 1. An Athenian, took 
 part in the overthrow of the 30 Tyrants ; but after- 
 wards, when sent on an embassy to the Persian 
 king Artaxerxes, he was accused of corruption in 
 receiving money from Artaxerxes. Pie appears to 
 have been acquitted this time ; but he was tried 
 on a later occasion, on another charge of corruption, 
 and only escaped death by a voluntary exile. He 
 was ridiculed by the comic poets for his large beard, 
 and for this reason was called (raKeacpop6s. — 2. Of 
 Ambracia, an Athenian poet of the middle comedy, 
 
 Epictetus ('E7rt'rtT7jTos),of Hierapolisin Phrygia, 
 a celebrated Stoic philosopher, was a freedman of 
 Epaphroditus, who was himself a freedman of 
 Nero. [Epaphroditus. 1 He lived and taught 
 first at Rome, and, after the expulsion of the phi- 
 losophers by Domitian, at Nicopolis in Epirus. 
 Although he was favoured by Hadrian, he does 
 not appear to have returned to Rome ; for the dis- 
 courses which Arrian took down in writing were 
 delivered by Epictetus when an old man at Nico- 
 polis, Only a few circumstances of his life are re- 
 corded, such as his lameness, which is spoken of in 
 different ways, his poverty, and his few wants. 
 Epictetus did not leave any works behind him, and 
 the short manual (Enchiridion), which bears his 
 name, was compiled from his discourses by his 
 faithful pupil Arrian. Arrian also wrote the phi- 
 losophical lectures of his master in 8 books, from 
 which, though 4 are lost, we are enabled to gain a 
 complete idea of the way in which Epictetus con- 
 ceived and taught the Stoic philosophy. [Ar- 
 RiANUS.] Being deeply impressed with his voca- 
 tion as a teacher, he aimed in his discourses at 
 nothing else but winning the minds of his hearers 
 to that which was good, and no one was able to 
 resist the impression which they produced. 
 
 Epictetus Phrygia. [Phrygia.] 
 
 Epicurus ('ETTiKOf/Jos), a celebrated Greek phi- 
 losopher, and the founder of a philosophical school 
 called, after him, the Epicurean, He was a son of 
 Neocles and Charestrata, and was born b. c. 342, 
 in the island of Samos, where his father had settled 
 as one of the Athenian cleruchi ; but he belonged 
 to the Attic demos of Gargettus, and hence is some- 
 times called the Gargettian. (Cic. ad Fum. xv. 16.) 
 At the age of 18 Epicurus came to Athens, and 
 there probably studied under Xenocrates, who was 
 then at the head of the academy. After a short 
 stay at Athens he went to Colophon, and subse- 
 quently resided at Mytilene and Lampsacus, in 
 which places he was engaged for 5 years in teach- 
 ing philosophy. In 306, when he had attained 
 the age of 35, he again came to Athens, where he 
 purchased for 80 minae a garden — the famous 
 Ktjttoi "Z-KLKovpov — in which he established his 
 philosophical school. Here he spent the remainder 
 of his life, surrounded by numerous friends and 
 pupils. His mode of living was simple, temperate, 
 and cheerful ; and the aspersions of comic poets 
 and of later philosophers, who were opposed to 
 his philosophy and describe him as a person de- 
 voted to sensual pleasures, do not seem entitled to 
 
 B 9 
 
244 
 
 EPICUKUS. 
 
 the least credit. He took no part in puLlic affiiirs. 
 He died in "270, at the age of 7"2, after a lonj^ and 
 painfi'il illness, wliich he endured with truly philo- 
 sophical patience and courage. — Epicurus is said 
 to have written 300 voUnucs, Of these the most 
 important was one On Nature (Ilepl ^utrews), in iJ7 
 hooks. All his works are lost ; but some frag- 
 ments of the work on Nature were found among the 
 rolls at Hcrculaneuni, and were published by 
 OrcUi, Lips. 181S. In his philosophical system, 
 Epicurus prided himself in being independent of 
 all his predecessors ; but he was in reality in- 
 debted both to Dcniocritus and the Cyrenaics. Epi- 
 curus made ethics the most essential part of hia 
 philosophical system, since he regarded human 
 hnppiness as the ultimate end of all philosoph}'. 
 His ethical theory was based upon the dogma of 
 the Cyrenaics. that pleasure constitutes tlie highest 
 happiness, and must consequently be the end of all 
 hunuin exertions. Epicurus, however, developed 
 and ennobled tliis theor}'' in a manner wliich con- 
 stitutes the real merit of his philosophy, and which 
 gained for him so many friends and admirers both 
 in antiquity and in modern times. Pleasure with 
 hira was not a mere momentary and transitory sen- 
 sation, but lie conceived it as something lasting and 
 imperishable, consisting in pure and noble mental 
 enjoyments, that is, in arapa^ia and aTrovIa, or the 
 freedom from pain, and from all influences which 
 disturb the peace of our mind, and thereby our 
 happiness, which is the result of it. The summum 
 bojium^ according to him, consisted in this peace of 
 mind ; and this was bas-sd upon (pp6u-nms, which 
 he described as the beginning of everything good, 
 Jis the origin of all virtues, and which he himself 
 therefore occasionally treated as the highest good 
 itself. — In the physical part of his philosophy, he 
 followed the atomistic doctrines of Democritus and 
 Diagoras, liis views are well known from Lucre- 
 tius's poem De Renini Natura. We obtain our 
 knowledge and form our conceptions of things, ac- 
 cording to him, through eifowAa, i.e. images of 
 things which are reflected from them, and pass 
 through our senses into our minds. Such a theory 
 33 destructive of ail absolute tmth, and a nrere 
 momentary impression upon our senses or feelings 
 is substituted for it. The deficiencies of his system 
 are most striking in his views concerning the gods, 
 ■\vhich drew upon him the charge of atheism, liis 
 gods, like everj'' thing else, consisted of atoms, and 
 our notions of them are based upon the etSwAa 
 which are reflected from them and pa?s into our 
 minds. They were and always had been in the 
 enjoyment of perfect happiness, which had not been 
 disturbed by the laborious business of creating the 
 ■world ; and as the government of tiie world would 
 interfere with their happiness, he conceived them 
 as exercising no influence whatever upon the world 
 or man. The pupils of Epicurus were very nume- 
 rous, and were attached to their master in a manner 
 ■which has rarely been equalled either in ancient or 
 modern times. But notwithstanding the extraor- 
 dinary devotion of his pupils, there is no philosopher 
 in antiquity who lias been so violently attacked as 
 Epicurus. This has been owing partly to a super- 
 ficial knowledge of his philosophy, and partly to 
 the conduct of men who called themselves Epicu- 
 reans, and who, taking advantage of the facility 
 ■with which hia ethical theory was made the hand- 
 maid of a sensual life, gave themselves up to the 
 enjoyment of sensual pleasures. 
 
 EPIGONI. 
 
 Epicydes ('Etti/cuotjj), a Syracusan by orfgiir, 
 but horn and educated at Carthage. He served, 
 together with his elder brother Hippocrates, with 
 much distinction in the army of Hannibal, both in 
 Spain and Italy ; and when, after the battle of 
 Cannae (b. c. 216), Hieronymus of Syracuse sent 
 to make overtures to Hannibal, that general se- 
 lected the 2 brothers as his envoys to Syracuse. 
 They soon induced the young king to desert the 
 Roman iiUiance. Upon the murder of Hieronymua 
 shortly after, they were the leaders of the Cartha- 
 ginian party at Syracuse, and eventuallj- becanie 
 masters of the city, which they defended against 
 Marcellus. Epicydes fled to Agrigentum, whe:i 
 he saw that the fall of Syracuse was inevitable. 
 
 Epidamnus. [Dyrrhachium.] 
 
 Epidaurus ('ETriSaupos ; ^'E.TTi^avpios). 1, (7?;^/- 
 dauro), a town in ArgoHs on the Saronic culf, 
 formed with its territorj'Epidauria (*E7ri5aupm), n 
 district independent of Argos, and was not in- 
 cluded in Argolis till the time of the Komans. It 
 was originally inhabited by lonians and Carians, 
 whence it was called Epiccwus, but it was subduecJ 
 by the Dorians under Deiphontes, who thus be- 
 came the ruling race. Epidaurus was the chief 
 seat of the worship of Aesculapius, and was to this 
 circumstance indebted for its importance. The 
 temple of this god, which was one of the most mug- 
 niiicent in Greece, was situated about 5 miles 
 S, W". of Epidaurus. A few ruins of it are still 
 extant. The worship of Aesculapius was intro- 
 duced into Rome from Epidaurus. Sec Aescula- 
 pius.— 2. Surnamcd Limera {ij Aip.T]pd: Moncm- 
 hasia or Old Malvasia)., a town in Laconia, on the 
 E. coast, said to have been founded by Epidaurus- 
 in Argolis, possessed a good harbour. — 3, {Old 
 Rapusa). a town in Dalmatia. 
 
 Epidelium ('ETriS^jAioi'), a town in Laconia on 
 the E. coast. S. of Epidaurus Limera. with a 
 temple of Apollo and an image of the god, whiclt 
 once thrown into the sea at Dclos is said to havt; 
 come to land at this place. 
 
 Epig-enes {"E.7riyivq^). 1. An Athenian poet 
 of the middle comedy, flourished about B.C. 3ii0. 
 — 3. Of Sicyon, who has been confounded by 
 some with his namesake the comic poet, preceded 
 Tliespis, and is said to have been the most ancient 
 writer of tragedy. It is probable that Epigones 
 was the first to introduce into the old dithyrambic 
 and satjTical rpayc^Zia other subjects than the 
 original one of the fortunes of Dionysus, —3. Of 
 Byzantium, a Greek astronomer, mentioned by 
 Seneca, Pliny, and Censorinus. Pie professed to 
 have studied in Chaldea, but his date is uncertain. 
 
 Epigoni CEtt 170^01), that is, " the Descendants," 
 the name in ancient mythology of the sons of the 7 
 heroes who perished before Thebes, [ADnASTOS.J 
 Ten years after their death, the descendants of the 
 7 heroes marched against Thebes to avenge their 
 fathers. The names of the Epigoni are not the 
 same in all accounts ; but the common lists contain- 
 Alcmaeon, Aegialeus, Diomedes, Promachus, Sthe- 
 nelus, Thersander, and Euryalus. Alcmaeon un- 
 dertook the command, in accordance with an oracle, 
 and collected a considerable body of Argives- The 
 Thebans marched out against the enemy, under the- 
 command of Lnodamas, after whose death they 
 fled into the city. On the part of the Epigoni, 
 Aegialeus had fallen. The seer Tiresias, knowing 
 that the city was doomed to fall, persuaded the 
 inhabitants to quit it, and take their wives and 
 
EPIMENIDES. 
 c^iildren "with them. The Epigoni thereupon took 
 possession of Thebes, and razed it to the ground. 
 They sent a portion of the booty and JManto, the 
 daughter of Tiresias, to Delphi, and then returned 
 to Peloponnesus. The "war of the Epigoni was 
 made the subject of epic and tragic poouis. 
 
 Epiiuenidea {'EirifieviBTjs). 1. A celebrated 
 poet and prnpliet of Crete, whose history is to a 
 j,'reat extent mythical, lie was reckoned among 
 the Curetes, and is said to Lave been the son of a 
 nymph. He was a uative of Phaestns in Crete, 
 .and appears to have spent the greatest part of his 
 life at Cnossus, whence he is sometimes called a 
 Cnossian. There is a legend that when a boy, he 
 v/as sent out by iiis father in scarcli of a sheep, 
 and that seeldug slielter from the heat of the mid- 
 day sun, he went into a cave, and there fell into a 
 deep sleep, wliich lasted 57 years. On waking and 
 returning home, he found to his great amazement 
 that his younger brother had in the mean time 
 grown an old man. He is further said to have 
 attained the age of 154, 157, or even of 229 years. 
 — His visit to Athene, however, is an historical 
 i'iLct, and determines his date. The Athenians, 
 v/ho were visited hy a plague in consequence of 
 the crime of Cylon [CylonJ, consulted the Del- 
 phic oracle about the means of their delivery. The 
 god commanded them to get their city puriiied, 
 and the Athenians invited Epimcuidca to come 
 and undertake the purification. Epimenides ac- 
 cordingly came to Athens, about b. c, oDG^ and 
 performed the desired task by certain mysterious 
 rites and sacrifices, in consequence of which tlie 
 plague ceased. Epimenides was reckoned by some 
 among the 7 wise men of Greece ; but all that 
 tradition has handed down about him suggests a 
 very diitcrent character from that of the seven ; 
 he must rather be ranked in the class of priestly 
 linrds and snges who are generally comprised under 
 ■the name of the Orphici. Many worits, both in 
 prose and verse, were attributed to him by the an- 
 cient-?, and the Apostle Paul has preserved ( Titus, i. 
 12) a celebrated verse of his against the Cretans. 
 
 Epimetheus. [Prometheus and Pandora.] 
 
 Epiplianes, a surname of Antiochus IV. and 
 Antioulius XL, kings of Syria. 
 
 Epipliania or ea ('ETrti^cij'eio). 1. In Syria 
 (0. T. Hamath : Hamah)^ in the district of Cas-v 
 siotis, on the left bank of the Orontes, an early 
 colony of the Phoenicians ; may be presumed, from 
 its later name, to have been restored or improved 
 by Antiochus Epiplianes. ~ 2. In Asia Minor 
 {Crzin)^ on the S. E. border of Cilicia, close to 
 the Pylac Amanides, was formerly called OeiiJan- 
 diis, and probably owed its now name to Antiochus 
 Epiplianes. Pompey repeopled this city with some 
 of the pirates whom he had conquered. — There 
 were some other Asiatic cities of the name. 
 
 Epiplianius ('ETrti^aVios), one of the Greek fa- 
 thers, was born near Eleutheropolis in Palestine, 
 about A. u. 320, of Jewish parents. He went to 
 E'^vpt when young, and there appears to have 
 been tiiinted with Gnostic errors, but afterwards 
 fell into the hands of some monks, and by them 
 was made a strong advocate for the monastic life, 
 lie returned to Palestine, and lived there for some 
 time as a monk, having founded a monastery near 
 his native place. In a. d. 1367 he was chosen 
 bishop of Constantia, the metropolis of Cyprus, 
 formerly called Sahimis. His writings shew liim 
 tQ have been a man of great reading; for he was 
 
 EPOPEUS. 
 
 245 
 
 acquainted withllebrew, Syriac, Greek, Egyptian, 
 and Latin. But he was entirely without critical or 
 li)gical power ; of real piety, but also of a very 
 bigoted and dogmatical turn of mind. He distin- 
 guished himself by his opposition to heresy, and 
 especially to Qrigen's errors. He died 402. His 
 most important work is entitled Fanarium^ being 
 a discourse against heresies. The best edition of 
 his works is \iy Petavius, Paris, lfi22, and Lips. 
 1682, with a commentary by Valesius. 
 
 Epipolae. [Syhacu.sae.] 
 
 Epirus ("HTreipos : 'HTreipaiTTjs, fem. 'H7reipa)TiS: 
 Albiniia), that is, " the mainland," a country in the 
 N. W. of Greece, so called to distinguish it from 
 Corcyra and the other islands off the coast. Homer 
 gives the name of Epirus to the whole of the "W. 
 coast of Greece, thus including Acamania in it. 
 Epirus was bounded by lilyria and Macedonia on 
 the N., by Thessaly on the E., by Acamania and 
 the Ambracian gidf on the S., and by the Ionian 
 sea on the W. The principal mountains were the 
 Acroceraunii, forming the N. W. boundary, and 
 Pindus, forming the E. boundary ; besides which 
 tljcre were the mountains Tomarus in the E., and 
 Crania in the S. The chief rivers were the Celyd- 
 nus, Thyamis, Acheron, and Arachthus. — The in- 
 habitants of Epirus were numerous, but were not of 
 pure Hellenic blood. The original population ap- 
 pears to have been Pelasgic ; and the ancient 
 oracle of Dodona in the country was always re- 
 garded as of Pelasgic origin. These Pelasgiang 
 were subsequently mingled with Illyrians, who at 
 various times invaded Epirus and settled in the 
 country. Epirus contained 14 different tribes. Of 
 these the most important were the Chaones, Thes- 
 ?H0T1 and MoLOSSr, who gave their names to the 
 3 principal divisions of the country Cu.aonia, 
 Thesprotia, and Molopsis. The different tribes 
 were originally governed by their own princes. The 
 Molossian princes, who traced their descent from, 
 Pyrrhus (Neoptolemus), son of Achilles, subse- 
 quently acquired the sovereignty over the whole 
 country', and took the title of kings of Epirus. The 
 first who bore this title was Alexander, who in- 
 vaded Italy to assist the Tarentines against the 
 Lucanians and Bruttii. and perished at the battle 
 of Pandosia, D. c. 326. The most celebrated of 
 the later kings was Pyrrhus, who carried on war 
 with the Romans. About b. c. 200 the Epirots esta- 
 blished a republic ; and the Romans, after the con- 
 quest of Philip, 197, guaranteed its independence. 
 But in consequence of the support which the Epi- 
 rots aflorded to Antiochus and Perseus, Aemilius 
 Paulus received orders from the senate to punish, 
 them with the utmost severity. He destroyed 70 
 of their towns, and sold 150,000 of the inhabitants 
 for slaves. In the time of Augustus the country 
 had not yet recovered from the effects of this 
 devastation. 
 
 Epirus Nova. [Illvricum.] 
 
 Epona (from epus^ that is, equus)^ a Roman god- 
 dess, the protectress of horses. Images of her, 
 either statues or paintings, were frequently seen in 
 niches of stables. 
 
 Epopeua ('ETraj-n-eu'r). 1. Son of Poseidon and 
 Canace, came from Thessaly to Sicyon, of which 
 place he became king. He carried away from 
 Thebes the beautiful Antiope, daughter of Nycteus, 
 who therefore made war upon Epopeus. The two 
 kings died of the wounds which they received in 
 the war. —2. One of the Tyrrhenian pii-ates, who 
 
246 EPOKEDTA. 
 
 attempted to cany off Bacchus, Lut were chniiged 
 
 by the gnd into dolpliiiis. 
 
 Eporedia (/u/eu), a town in Galiia Cisalpina on 
 the Duria in the territory of the Salassi, colonised 
 by the Romans, B. c. 100, on the command of the 
 Sibylline books, to serve as a bulwarlc against the 
 neighbouring Alpine tribes. 
 
 Eporedorix, a chieftain of the Aedui, was one 
 of the commanders of the Aeduan cavalry, which 
 wa8 sent to Caesar's aid against Verclngctorix:, in 
 B. c. 52; but he himself revolted soon afterwards and 
 joined the enemy. 
 
 Epytus, a Trojan, father of Periphas, who was 
 a companion of lulus, and is called by the patro- 
 nymic Epytides. 
 
 Equester ("Ittttios), a surname of several divi- 
 nities, but especially of Poseidon (Neptune), who 
 had created the horse, and in whose honour horse- 
 races were held. 
 
 E(iuu3 Tuticu3 or Aequum TiiticTim, a small 
 town of the Hirpini in Samnium, 21 miles from 
 Beneventum. The Scholiast on Horace {Sal. i. 5. 
 1J7), supposes, but without sufficient reasons, that it 
 is the town, quod versu dicere non est. 
 
 Erae ("Epat : Siyhajik'i)^ a small but strong 
 seaport town on the coast of Ionia, N. of Teos. 
 
 Erana, a town in M. Amanus, the chief seat 
 of the Eleutherocilices in the time of Cicero. 
 
 Erannoboas C'E.pa.woSoas : Gtmduk), a river 
 of India, one of the chief tributaries of the Ganges, 
 into which it fell at Palimbothra. 
 
 Erasinides (^Epaaivldrjs), one of the Athenian 
 commanders at the battle ofArginusae. He was 
 among the 6 commanders who returned to Athens 
 after the victory, and were put to death, B.C. 406. 
 Erasinus {'Zpaa7uos). 1. (Kcphalari), tlie chief 
 river in ArgoHs, rises in the lakeStymplaalus, then 
 disappears under the earth, rises again out of the 
 mountain Chaon, and after receiving the river 
 Phrixus, flows through the Lemaean marsh into 
 the Argolic gulf.— 2. A small river near Brauron 
 in Attica. 
 
 Erasistratus {'Epaaia-rparos)^ a celebrated phy- 
 sician and anatomist, was bom at lulis in the island 
 of Ceos. He was a pupil of Chrysippus of Cnidos, 
 Metrodorua, and apparently Theophrastua. He 
 flourished from B. c. 300 to 260. He lived for 
 some time at the court of Seleucus Nicator, king bf 
 Syria, where he acquired great reputation by dis- 
 covering that the illness of Antlochus, the king's 
 eldest son, was owing to his love for his raother-in- 
 law, Stnitonice, the yoimg and beautiful daughter 
 of Demetrius Poliorcetes, whom Seleucus had lately 
 married. Erasisti-atus afterwards lived at Alex- 
 andrirt, which was at that time beginning to be a 
 celebrated medical school. He gave up practice in 
 his old age, that he might pursue his anatomical 
 studies without interruption. He prosecuted his 
 experiments in this branch of medical science with 
 great success, and with such ardour that he is said 
 to have dissected criminals alive. He had numerous 
 pupils and followers, and a'medical school bearing 
 his name continued to exist at Smyrna in Ionia 
 Jibout^the beginning of the Christian era. 
 
 Eratidae ('E/jaTt5ai), an illustrious family of 
 lalysus in Rhodes, to which Damagetus and his 
 son Diagoras belonged. 
 
 Erato ('EpttTw). 1. Wife of Areas, and mother 
 of Elatus and Aphidaa. [Arcas.J— 3. One of the 
 ZVTuses. [MusAE.] 
 
 Eratosthenes ('EpaToo-0ei/7/s), of Cyrene, was 
 
 ERESUS. 
 
 born B. c. 276. He first studied in his native citj 
 and then at Athens. He was taught by Ariston 
 of Chius, the philosopher ; Lysanias of Cyrene, the 
 grammarian ; and Callimachus, the poet. He left 
 Athens at the invitation of Ptolemy Evergetes, 
 who placed him over the library at Alexandria, 
 Here he continued till the reign of Ptolemy Epi- 
 phanes. He died at the age of HO, about u. c. 196^ 
 of voluntary starvation, having lost his sight, and 
 being tired of life. He was a man of very extensive 
 learning, and wrote on almost all the brandies of 
 knowledge then cultivated — astronomy, geometry, 
 geography, philosophy, history, and grammar. He 
 is supposed to have constructed the large armitlue 
 or fixed circular instruments which were long in 
 use at Alexandiia. His works have perished, with 
 the exception of some fragments. His most cele- 
 brated work was a systematic treatise on geographr, 
 entitled r€wypa(piKd, in 3 books. The first book, 
 which formed a sort of introduction, contained a 
 critical review of the labours of his predecessors 
 from the earliest to his own times, and investiga- 
 tions concerning the form and nature of the earth, 
 which, according to him, was an immovable globe. 
 The second book contained what is now called 
 mathematical geography. He was the first person 
 who attempted to measure the magnitude of the 
 earth, in which attempt he brought forward and 
 used tile method which is employed to the present 
 day. The third book contained political geo- 
 graphy, and gave descriptions of the various coun- 
 tries, derived from the works of earlier travellers 
 and geographers. In order to be able to determine 
 the accurate site of each place, he drew a line pa- 
 rallel with the equator, running from the pillars of 
 Hercules to the extreme east of Asia, and dividing 
 the whole of the inhabited earth into two halves. 
 Connected with this work was a new map of the 
 earth, in which towns, mountains, rivers, lakes, 
 and climates were marked according to his own 
 improved measurements. This important work of 
 Eratosthenes forms an epoch in the history of ancient 
 geogniphy. Strabo, as well as other writers, made 
 great use of it. Eratosthenes also wrote 2 poems on 
 astronomical subjects : one entitled 'Epfj.7}s or Kara- 
 (TTepto-fLoi^ which treated of the constellations;" and 
 another entitled "Hpiyovrj: but the poem Karao-Te- 
 pifffMoiy which is still extant under his name, is not 
 the work of Eratosthenes. He wrote several his- 
 torical works, the most important of which was a 
 chronological work entitled Xpovoypa<pia^ in which 
 he endeavoured to fix the dates of all the important 
 events in literary, as well as political history. The 
 most celebrated of his grammatical works was On 
 the Old Attic Comedy (IlepiTTjj 'Apx^i'o^Kaj^ijjSias). 
 The best collection of his fragments is by Bernhard}'^ 
 Eratostlieriica, Berol. 1822. 
 
 Erbessus CEpS-qcraSs), a town in Sicily, N.E. of 
 Agrigentum near the sources of the Acrngas, which 
 must not be confounded with the town Herbessus 
 near Syracuse. 
 
 Ercta {EipKT-fj or ElpKrai)^ a fortress in Sicily 
 on a hill with a harbour near Panormus. 
 
 Erebus ("Efyefios), son of Chaos, begot Aether 
 and Hemera (Day) by Nyx (Night), his sister. 
 The name signifies darkness, and is therefore ap- 
 plied also to the dark and gloomy space under the 
 earth, through which the shades pass into Hades. 
 Erechtlieum. [Ericiithonius.] 
 Erechthous. [Erichthonius,] 
 Eresus or Eressus {"Ep^a-oSf "Epea-aos : 'Ep4~ 
 
ERETRIA. 
 
 trios), a town on the W. coast of the island of 
 Lesbos, the birthplace of Theophvastus and Phanias, 
 and, according to some, of Sappho. 
 
 Eretria {'Eperpia : 'Eperpieus : Pulaeo-Castro)^a.n 
 ancient and important town in Euboca on the Eu- 
 ripus, with a celebrated harbour Porthiiios [Porto 
 Bufalo), was founded by the Athenians, but had a 
 mixed population, among whicli was a considc;rable 
 number of Dorians. Its commerce and navy raised 
 it in early times to importance ; it contended witli 
 Chalcis for the supremacy of Euboea; it ruled over 
 several of the neighbouring islands, and plnnted 
 colonies in Macedonia and Italy. It was destroyed 
 by the Persians, B. c. 490, and most of its inha- 
 hitants were carried away into slavery. Those 
 "ivho were left behind built, at a little distance from 
 the old city, the town of New Eretria, which, 
 however, never became a place of importance. -^2. 
 A town in Phthiotis in Thessaly near Pharsalus. 
 
 Erginus (^'Kpylvos)^ son of Clymenus, king of 
 Orchouienoa. After Clymenus had been killed at 
 Thebes, Erginus, who succeeded him, marched 
 against Thebes, and compelled them to pay him an 
 annual tribute of 100 oxen. The Thebans were 
 released from the payment of this tribute by Her- 
 cules, who killed Erginus. 
 
 Erichtlionius ( 'EpixOtJciys), or Erechtheus 
 CEpex^eus). In the ancient myths these two 
 names indicate the same person ; but later writers 
 mention 2 heroes, one of whom is usually called 
 Erich thonius or Erechtheus I. and the other Erech- 
 theus II. Homer knows only one Ereclitheus, as 
 an autochthon and king of Athens; and the first 
 "writer who distinguishes '2 personages is Plato. 
 —1. Erichthoaius or Erechtheus I., son of He- 
 phaestus and Atthis, the daughter of Cranaus. 
 Athena reared the child without the knowledge of 
 the other gods, and entrusted him to Agraulos, 
 Pandrosos, and Herse, concealed in a chest. They 
 ■were forbidden to open the chest, but they dis- 
 obeyed the command. Upon opening the chest 
 they saw the child in the form of a serpent, or 
 entwined by a serpent, whereupon they were seized 
 with madness, and threw themselves down the 
 rock of the acropolis, or, according to others, into 
 the" sea. When Erichthonius had grown up, he 
 expelled Amphictyon, and became king of Athens. 
 His wife Pasithea bore him a son Pandion. He is 
 said to have introduced the worship of Athena, to 
 have instituted the festival of the Panathenaea, 
 and to have built a temple of Athena on the acro- 
 polis. "When Athena and Poseidon disputed about 
 the possession of Attica, Erichthonius declared in 
 favour of Athena. He was further the first who 
 used a chariot with 4 liorses, for which reason he 
 was placed among the stars as aurigfi. He was 
 buried in the temple of Athena, and was wor- 
 shipped as a god after his death. His famous 
 temple, the Erechtheum, stood on the acropolis, 
 and contained 3 separate temples ; one of Athena 
 Polias or the protectress of the state, the Erecli- 
 ilteum proper or sanctuary of Erechtheus, and the 
 Pandrosium or sanctuary of Pandrosos.— 2. Erech- 
 theus II., grandson of the former, son of Pandion 
 by Zeuxippe, and brother of Bates, Procne, and 
 Philomela. After his father's death, he succeeded 
 him as king of Athens, and was regarded in later 
 times as one of the Attic eponymi. He was married 
 to Praxithea, by whom he became the father of 
 Cecrops, Pandoros, Metion, Orneus, Procris, Creusa, 
 Chthonia, and Orithyia. In the war between the 
 
 ERIPHYLE. 247 
 
 Eleusinians and Athenians, Eumolpus, the son of 
 Poseidon, was slain ; whereupon Poseidon demanded 
 the sacrifice of one of the daughters of Erechtheus. 
 When one was drawn by lot, her 3 sisters resolved 
 to die with her; and Erechtheus himself was killed 
 by Zeus with a flash of lightning at the request of 
 Poseidon. 
 
 Erichthonius, son of Dardanus and Batea, hus- 
 band of Astyoche or Callirrhoe, and father of Tros 
 or Assaracus. He was the wealthiest of all mortals; 
 3000 mares grazed in his fields, which were so 
 beautiful, that Boreas fell in love with them. He 
 is mentioned also among the kings of Crete. 
 
 Ericinium, a town in Thessaly near Gomphi. 
 
 Eridanus (*Hp('5a»'os), a river god, a son of 
 Oceanus and Tethys, and father of Zeuxippe. He 
 is called the king of rivers, and on his banks amber 
 was found. In Homer the name does not occur, 
 and the first writer who mentions it is Hesiod. 
 The position which the ancient poets assign to the 
 river Eridanus differed at different times. In later 
 times the Eridanus was supposed to be the same as 
 the Padus, because amber was found at its mouth. 
 Hence the Elccirides Insulae or "Amber Islands'" 
 are placed at the mouth of the Po, and here 
 Phaethon was supposed to have fallen when 
 struck by the lightning of Zeus. The Latin 
 poets frequently give the name of Eridanus to the 
 Po. [Padus.] 
 
 Erigon ('Epl7u;j/), a tributary of the Axius in 
 Macedonia the Agrianus of Herodotus. [Axius.] 
 
 Erigone i^Hpiydvri). 1. Daughter of Icarius, 
 beloved by Bacchus. For the legend respecting 
 her, see IcARias. ^2. Daughter of Aegisthus and 
 Clylaemnestra, and mother of Penthilus by Orestes. 
 Another legend relates that Orestes wanted to kill 
 her with her mother, but that Artemis removed 
 her to Attica, and there made her her priestess. 
 Others state that Erigone put an end to herself 
 when she heard that Orestes was acquitted b}"^ the 
 Areopagus. 
 
 Eriueus (^'E.piv^6s or 'Epiv^Sv: 'Epiveus,'"Epij/€d- 
 T7}s). 1, A small but ancient town in Doris, be- 
 longing to the Tetrapolls. [Doris.] ^2. A town 
 in Phthiotis in Thessaly. 
 
 Erinna ('Hpif^a), a Greek poetess, a contem- 
 porary and friend of Sappho (about B.C. 612), who 
 died at the age of 19, but loft behind her poems 
 which were thought worthy to rank with those of 
 Homer. Her poems were of the epic class : the 
 chief of them was entitled 'HAaKctTTj, ike Distaff: 
 it consisted of 300 lines, of which only 4 are ex- 
 tant. It was written in a dialect which was a 
 mixture of the Doric and Aeolic, and which was 
 spoken at Rhodes, where, or in the adjacent island 
 of Telos, Erinna was born. She is also called a 
 Lesbian and a Mytilenaean, on account of her re- 
 sidence in Lesbos with Sappho. There are several 
 epigrams upon Erinna, in which her praise is cele- 
 brated, and her untimely death is lamented. 3 epi- 
 grams in the Greek Anthology are ascribed to her, 
 of which the first has the genuine air of antiquity ; 
 but the other two, addressed to Baucis, seem to be 
 a later fabrication. — Eusebius mentions another 
 Erinna, a Greek poetess, contemporary with De- 
 mosthenes and Philip of Macedon, b. c. 3.5*2 ; but 
 this statement ought probably to be rejected. 
 
 Erinyes. [Eumenider.] 
 
 Eriphus ("Epupos), an Athenian poet of the 
 middle comedy. 
 
 Eriphyle ('Epi^ilA?/), daughter of Talaus and 
 
3-18 EIII3. 
 
 LysimacliG, and wife of Amphinraus, ■whom she 
 "hetrayed fur the sake of the necklace of Ilarnioiiia. 
 Por details sec Amphiailaus, Alcmaeon, Har- 
 
 MONIA. 
 
 Eris C'Epif), tlie ^rnddess of Discord, Homer 
 dcscrilies her as the friend and sister of Ares, and 
 RS ilelightinn; with hini in the tumult of war and 
 the havoc and anguish of the battle-field. Accord- 
 ing to Hesiod she was a daughtt-r of Niglit, and 
 the poet dcscvihes her as the mother of a variety 
 of allegorical beings, which are the causes or re- 
 presentatives of man's misfortunes. It was Eris 
 who threw the apple into the assembly of the gods, 
 tiie cause of so much suifering and war. [Paris.] 
 — Virgil introduces Discordia as a heing similar 
 to the Homeric Eris ; for Discordia r.ppears in 
 company with Jlars, IJellona, and the Furies, and 
 Virgil is evidently imitating Homer. 
 
 Eriza {ra "Epi^a : 'EoiCwi^''), a city of Caria, 
 on the bordtTs of Lycia and Pluygia, on the rivtr 
 Chails (or rather Cau3). The surrounding dis- 
 trict v/as called Asia EnxGna. 
 
 Eros ("Epos), in Latin, Amor or Cupido, the 
 god of Love. In order to understand tlie ancients 
 properly we must distinguish 3 gods of this name: 
 L The Eros of tlie ancient cosuiugonies ; 2. The 
 Eros of the philosophers and mysteries, wlio bears 
 great rescniblance to the first ; and 3. The Eros 
 whom we meet "with in the epigrammatic and 
 erotic poets. Hnnier does not mention Erng, and 
 Hesiod, tlie earlii'st author who speaks of him, 
 describes him as the cosmogonic Eros. First, says 
 Hesion, there was Cliaos, tlien came Ge, Tartanis, 
 and Eros, the fairest among the gods, who rules 
 over the minds and the council of gods and men. 
 By the philosophers and in the mysteries Eros was 
 regarded as one of the fundamental causes in the 
 formation of the world, inasmuch as he was the 
 uniting power of love, which brought order and 
 harmony among the conflicting elements of which 
 Chaos consisted. The Orphic poets described him 
 as a son of Cronus, or as the first of tlie gods who 
 sprang from the world's Q^p; ; and in Plato's Sym- 
 posium he is likewise cailed the oldest of the gods. 
 The Eros of later poets, who gave rise to that 
 notion of the god which is most familiar to us, is 
 one of the youngest of all the gods. The parentage 
 of this Eros is very differently described. He is 
 usually- represented as a son of Aphrodite (Venus), 
 but liis father is cither Ares (Mars), Zeus (Ju- 
 piter), or Hermes (Mercury). He w^as at first 
 represented as a liandsome youth ; but shortly after 
 the time of Alexander the Great the epigrammatists 
 and orotic poets I'epresejited liim as a wanton boy, 
 of whom a thousand tricks and cruel sports were 
 related, and from whom neither gods nor men were 
 safe. lu this stage Eros has nothing to do with 
 uniting the discordant elements of the universe, or 
 with the higher sympathy or love which binds 
 human kind together; but he is purely the god of 
 sensual love, who bears sway over the inhabitants 
 of Olympus as well as over men and all living 
 creatures. His arms consist of arrows, which he 
 carries in a golden quiver, and of torciies which no 
 one can touch with impunity. His arrows are of 
 dilferent power: some are golden, and kindle love 
 in the heart they wound ; others are blunt and 
 heavy with lead, and produce aversion to a lover. 
 Eros is further represented witli golden wings, and 
 as fluttering about like a bird. His eyes are some- 
 times covered, so that he acts blindly. He is the 
 
 ERYTIIIIAE. 
 
 usual companion of his mother Aphrodite, and 
 poets and artists represent liim moreover as accom- 
 panied by such allegorical beings as Pothos, Hime- 
 ros, Tyche, Peitho, the Charites or IMuses. — • 
 Anteros, which literallymeans re turn-love, is usually 
 represented as the god who punishes those who did 
 not return the love of others : thus he is the avenging 
 Eros, or a dats nlinr (Ov. Met. xiii. 750). But in 
 some accounts he is described as a god opposed to 
 Eros and struggling against him. — The number of 
 Erotes (Amores and Cnpidines) is playfully ex- 
 tended ad libitum by later poets, and these Erotes 
 are described either as sons of Aphrodite or of 
 nj'mphs. — Among the places distinguished for the 
 worship of Eros, Thespiae in Boeotia stands fore- 
 most; there a quinquennial festival, the Erotidia 
 or Erotia, was celebrated in his honour. In an- 
 cient works of art, Eros is represented either as a 
 full-grown youth of the most perfect beauty, or as 
 a wanton and sportive boy. — Ilespecting the con- 
 nection between Eros and Psyche, see Psyche. 
 
 !ErotiaiiU3 (^Epconavos), a Greek grammarian 
 or physician in the reigu of Nero, wrote a work 
 still extant, entitled Tw;' irap' 'liriroiipaTei Ae'lewi' 
 2i;;/a7W7i'j, Vocum-, quae apiid Hi/>pocraiem sunt^ 
 Cullextki^ wliich is dedicated to Andromachus, the 
 aixhiater of the emperor. The best edition is by 
 Fran'/, Lips. 1780. 
 
 Eriibrus {Ruber)., a small tributiry of the Mo- 
 selle, near Treves. 
 
 Erymantlius ('Epu^afSoj). 1. A lofty mountain 
 in Arcadia on the frontiers of Achaia and Elis, 
 celebrated in mythology as the haunt of the savage 
 Erymauthian boar destroyed by Hercules. [Her- 
 cules.] — The Arcadian nymph Calliato, who was 
 changed into a she-bear, is called Eri/mtmihi^i ursa, 
 and her son Areas }£ri)manthidis ursac cusios. 
 [Akctos.]— 2. A river in Arcadia, which rir.cs in 
 the above-mentioned mountain, and falls into the 
 Alpheus. 
 
 Erymanthtis or Etymandrus ('EpiVcti'Qo r, 'Er-j- 
 {xavhpos Arrian. : Helmimd)^ a considerable river 
 in the Persian province of Arachosia, rising in M. 
 Paropamisus, and flowing S.W. and W. into the 
 lake called Aria (Zarah). According to other 
 accounts, it lost itself in the sand, or flowed on 
 through Gedrngia into the Indian Ocean. 
 
 Erysichthon {'Epua-ix^Ci}i^).,th;\t is, " thcTearcr 
 up of the Earth." 1. Son of Triopas, cut down trees 
 in a grove sacred to Demetcr, for which he was 
 punished by the goddess with fearrul hunger.— 
 2. Son of Cecrops and Agraulos, died without issue 
 in his father's lifetime on his return from Delos, 
 from whence he brought to Athens the ancient 
 image of Ilithyia. 
 
 Erythini ('Epufltroi'), a city on the coast of 
 Paphlagonia, between Cromna and Amustris. A 
 range of cliffs near it was called by the same name. 
 
 Erythrae {"EpvOpai: ''Epv6pa7os'). 1. ( Nr. Pigudia 
 Ru.), an ancient to-.vn in 13oeotia, not far from 
 Plataeae and Hysia, and celebrated as the mother 
 city of Erythrae in Asia Minor. — 2. A town of 
 the Locri Ozulae, but belongiaig to the Aetollans, 
 E. of Naupactus. — 3. {Riin^ Ru.), one of the 
 1"2 Ionian cities of Asia Minor, stood at the bot- 
 tom of a large bay, on the W. side of the penin- 
 sula which lies opposite to Chios. Tradition 
 ascribed its foundation to a mixed colony of Cretans, 
 Lycians, Carians, and Pampbylians, under Ery- 
 thros the son of Rhadamanthus ; and the leader of 
 the lonians, who afterwards took possession of it, 
 
ERYTHRAEUM. 
 
 Tvns said to have been Cnopus, the son of Codms, 
 <T.ftor whom the city was also ciilled Cnopopolis 
 (Ki/ct'TToyTToAis-). The little river Alecs (or rather 
 Axus, as it appeara on coins) flowed past the city, 
 and tlie ncii,'libouring sea-port towns of Cyssus or 
 Casvstes, and Phoenicus, formed its harbours. 
 }uythrae contained a temple of Hercxdes and 
 Atliena Polias, remarkable for its antiquity ; and 
 on the coast near the city was a rock called Nigrum 
 Promontorimn {aicpa neKaiva), from which excel- 
 lent mill-stones were hewn. 
 
 Erythraeum Mare (77 'EpvOpa ^dXarrcra^ also 
 r.irely 'Epudpa7(js Trticros), -vvas the name applied 
 originally to tlie whole expanse of sea between 
 Arabia and Africa on the W., and India on the E., 
 including its two great gulfs (the Red Sea and 
 Persian Gulf). In this sense it is used by Hero- 
 dotus, who also distinguishes the Red Sea by the 
 name of 'Apd€ios k6\wos. [Ahabicus Sinus. J 
 Supposing the shores of Africa and Arabia to trend 
 more and more away from each other the further 
 S. you go, he appears to have called the head of 
 the sea between them & "ApdStos uS^iros, and the 
 rest of that sea, as far S. as it extended, and also 
 E.w:ii'ds to the shores of India, 7) 'EpvOprj i&aA.ao'O'a, 
 and also tJ Notit^ ^dKaacra ; though there are, again, 
 some indications of a distinction between these 2 
 terms, the latter being applied to the whole ex- 
 panse of ocean S. of the former ; in one passage, 
 hovvever, tliey are most expressly identified (ii. 
 153). Afterwards, when the true form of these 
 seas became to be better known, through the pro- 
 gress of maritime discovery under the Ptolemies, 
 their parts were distinguished by different names, 
 the miiin body of the sea being called Indicus Ocea- 
 nus, the Red Sea Arabicus Sinus, the Persian Chdf 
 Persicus Sinus, and the name Erythraeum Mare 
 being confnicd by some geographers to the gulf be- 
 tween the Straits of Bab-cl-Mandcb and the Indian 
 Ocea?t^ but far more generally used as identical 
 with Arabicus Sinus, or the corresponding genuine 
 Latin term, Mare Rubrum (Red Sea). Still, how- 
 ever, even long after the commencement of our era, 
 the name Erythraeum Mare was sometimes used in 
 its ancient sense, as in the TlepiirAovs rris 'EpvBpas 
 ^aAaiTcTT)?, ascribed to Arrian, but really the work 
 of a later period, which is a description of the 
 coast fi-o:n Myos Hormos on the Ked Sea to the 
 shores of India. The origin of the name is doubt- 
 ful, and was disputed by the ancients : it is gene- 
 rally supposed that the Greek 'EpvBpa ^idKatraa is 
 a significant name, identical in meaning with the 
 Latin and English names of the Red Sea ; but 
 why red no very satisfactory reason has been given ; 
 the Hebrew name signifies the sedfjy sea, 
 
 Eryx {"Epv^). 1. Also Erycu3 Mons {S. Gin- 
 liano)^ a steep and isolated mountain in the N.W. 
 of Sicily near Drepanum, On the summit of this 
 mountiiin stood an ancient and celebrated temple of 
 Aphrodite (Venus), said to have been built by 
 Eryx, king of the Elyrai, or, according to Virgil, 
 by Aeneas, but more probably by the Phoenicians, 
 ■who introduced the worship of Aphrodite into 
 Sicily. [Aphrodite.] From this temple the god- 
 dess bore the surname Erycina, under which name 
 her worship was introduced at Rome about the 
 beginning of the 2nd Punic war. At present tiiere 
 is standing on the summit of the mountain the 
 remains of a castle, originally built by the Saracens. 
 ^ 2, The town of this name was on the W. slope 
 of the mountain. It was destroyed by the Cartha- 
 
 ETRURIA. 
 
 249 
 
 ginians in the time of P^'rrhus ; was subsequently 
 rebuilt; but was again destroyed by the Cartha- 
 ginians in the 1st Punic war, and its inhabitants 
 removed to Drepanum. 
 
 Esdraela {'Ea^pa-qXd) and Ssdraelon or Esdre- 
 lon, or -om ('EcopTjAwr or -ctJ^), the Greek names 
 for the city and valley of Jezreel in Palestine. 
 
 Esquiliae. [Roma.] 
 
 Essui, a people in Gaul, W. of the Sequana, 
 probably the same as the people elsewhere called 
 Esubii and Sesuvii. 
 
 Estiones, a people in Rhaetia Secunda or Vin- 
 delicia, whose capital was Campodununi {Kemj}ieii) 
 on the Iller. 
 
 Eteocles ('ETeo/c\T)r.) 1. Sonof Audreus and 
 Evippe, or of Cephisus ; said to have buen the first 
 who offered sacrifices to the Charites at Orchome- 
 nos in Boeotia.— S. A sou of Oedipus and Jocaste, 
 After his father's flight from Thebes, he and his 
 brother Polynices undertook the government of 
 Thebes by turns. But, disputes having arisen be- 
 tween them, Polynices fled to Adrastus, who theii 
 brought about the expedition of the Seven against 
 Thebes. [Adrastus.] When man}' of the he- 
 roes had fallen, Eteocles and Polynices resolved 
 upon deciding the contest by single combat, and 
 both the brothers fell. 
 
 Eteoclus ('EreoKAoy), a son of Iphis, was, ac- 
 cording to some traditions, one of the 7 heroes who 
 went with Adrastus against Thebes. He had to 
 make the attack upon the Neitiau gate, where be 
 was opposed by Megareus. 
 
 Eteonus ('ETew^fiy), a town in Boeotia, be- 
 longing to the district Parasopia, mentioned by 
 Homer, subsequently called Scarphe. 
 
 Etesiae ('ErTjo-Zai, sc. afejuot), \\ieEtesia7i Wiyids^ 
 derived from tros *■■ year," signified any periodical 
 winds, but the word was used more particularly by 
 the Greeks to indicate the northerly winds, which 
 blew in the Aegean for 40 days from the rising of 
 the dog star. 
 
 Etis or Etia CHtj?, "Hrsia : "Hrios, 'HTeTos), 
 a town in the S. of Laconia near Boeae, said to 
 have been founded b}' Aeneas, and named after 
 his daughter Etins. Its inhabitants were trans- 
 planted at an early time to Boeae, and the place 
 disappeared. 
 
 Etovissa, a town of the Edetani in Ilispania 
 Tarraconensis. 
 
 Etruria orTuscia, called by the Greeks Tyrrhe- 
 nia or Tyrsenia (Tvp^-rjuia^ TupcrTjvia)^ a country 
 in centra? Italy. The inhabitants were called by 
 the Romans Etrusci or Tusci, by the Greeks 
 TyiTiieni or Tyrseni {Tvpl>i}vo'., Tvp<n]voi)^ and 
 by themselves Easena, Etruria was bounded on 
 the N. and N.W. by the Apennines and the river 
 Macra, which divided it from Liguria, on the W. 
 by the Tyrrhene sea or Mare lulerum, on the E. 
 and S. by the river Tiber, which separated it frdm 
 Umbria and Latinm, thus comprehending almost 
 the whole of modern Tuscany, the Duchy of Lucca, 
 and the Transtiberine portion of the Roman states. 
 It was intersected by numerous mountains, off- 
 shoots of the Apennines, consisting of long ranges 
 of hills in the N., but in the S. lying in detached 
 masses, and of smaller size. The land was cele- 
 brated in antiquity for its fertility, and yielded 
 rich harvests of corn, wine, oil, and flax. The upper 
 part of the country was the most healthy, namely, 
 the part at the foot of the Apennines, near the 
 sources of the Tiber and the Arnus, in the neigU- 
 
250 
 
 ETRURIA. 
 
 bourhood of Arretiuin, Oortonji, and Perusia. The 
 lower part of the country on the coast was marshy 
 and unhealthy, like the Maremma at the present 
 day. — The early history of the population of 
 EtrLiria has given rise to much discussion in modern 
 times. Tt is admitted (in all hands that the people 
 known to the Romans under the name of Etruscans 
 "were not the original inhabitants of the country, 
 but a mixed i-ace. The most ancient inhabitants 
 appear to have been Ligurians in the N. and Sicu- 
 lians in the S., both of whom were subsequently 
 expelled from the country by the Umbrians. So 
 fax most accounts agree'; but from this point there 
 is great difference of opinion. The ancients gene- 
 rally believed that a colony of Lydians, led by 
 T3'rsenus, son of the king of Lydia, settled in the 
 countr}', to which they gave the name of their 
 leader ; and it has been maintained by some mo- 
 dem writers that the Oriental character of many 
 of the Etruscan institutions is in favour of this 
 account of their origin. But most modern critics 
 adopt an entirely different opinion. They believe 
 that a Pelasgic race, called Tyrrheni, subdued the 
 Umbrians, and settled in the country, and that 
 these TyiThene-Pelasgians were in their turn con- 
 quered by a powerful Rhaetian race, called Rasena, 
 who descended from the Alps and the valley of the 
 Po. Hence it was from the union of the Tyrrhene- 
 Pelasgians and the Rasena that the Etmscan nation 
 "was formed. It is impossible, however, to come 
 to any definite conclusion respecting the real origin 
 of the Etruscans ; since we are entirely ignorant 
 of the language which they spoke; and the language 
 of a people is the only means by which we can 
 pronounce with certainty respecting their origin. 
 But whatever may have been the origin of the 
 Etruscans, we know that they were a very power- 
 ful nation when Rome was still in its infancy, and 
 that they had at an early period extended their do- 
 minion over the greater part of Italy, from the Alps 
 and the plains of Lombardy on the one hand, to 
 Vesuvius and the gulf of Sarento on the other. 
 These dominions may' be divided into 3 great 
 districts : Circumpadane Etruria in the N., Etruria 
 Proper in the centre, and Campanian Etruria in 
 the S. In eacb of these districts there were 12 
 principal cities or states, who formed a confederacy 
 for mutual protection. Through the attacks of the 
 Gauls in the N., and of the Sabines, Saranites, and 
 Greeks in the S., the Etruscans became confined 
 "within the limits of Etruria Proper, and continued 
 long to flourish in this Country, after they had dis- 
 appeared from the rest of Italy. Of the 12 cities, 
 ■which formed the conf'ederacy in Etruria Proper, 
 no list is given by the ancients. They were most 
 probably Cortona, Arretium, Clusium, Pe- 
 rusia, VOLATERRAE, VeTULONI.A, RuSELLAE, 
 
 VoLSiNii, Tarquinu, Valerii, Veii, Caere 
 more anciently called Agylla. Each state was in- 
 dependent of all the others. The government was 
 a close aristocracy, and was strictly confined to the 
 family of the Lucumon^s, who united in their own 
 persons the ecclesiastical as well as the civil func- 
 tions. The people were not only rigidly excluded 
 from all share in the government, but appear to 
 have been in a state of vassalage or serfdom. From 
 the noble and priestly families of the Lucuraones a 
 supreme magistrate was chosen, who appears to 
 have been sometimes elected for life, and to have 
 borne the title of king ; but his power was much 
 fettered by the noble families. At a later time the 
 
 ETRURIA. 
 kingly dignity was abolished, and the government 
 entrusted to a senate. A meeting of the confe- 
 deracy of the 12 states was held annually in the 
 spring, at the temple of Voltumna near Volsinii. — 
 The Etruscans were a highly civilised people, and 
 from them the Romans borrowed many of their 
 religious and political institutions. The 3 last 
 kings of Rome were undoubtedly Etruscans, and 
 the}' left in the city enduring tmces of Etruscan 
 power and greatness. The Etruscans paid the 
 greatest attention to religion ; and tlieir religious 
 system was closely interwoven with all public and 
 private affairs. The principal deities were di- 
 vided into 2 classes. The highest class were the 
 " Shrouded Gods," who did not reveal themselves to 
 man, and to whom all the other gods were subject. 
 The 2nd class consisted of the 12 great gods, 6 
 male and 6 female, called by the Romans Dii Con- 
 sentes. They formed the council of Tina or Tinia^ 
 the Roman Jupiter, and the 2 other most powerful 
 gods of the 12 were Cupra^ corresponding to Juno, 
 and Menrva or Menerva^ corresponding to the Ro- 
 man Minerva. Besides these 2 classes of gods, 
 there was a great number of other gods, penates 
 and lares, to whom worship was paid. The mode 
 in which the gods were worshipped was prescribed 
 in certain sacred books, said to have been written 
 by Tages. These books contained the '* Etrusca 
 Disciplina," and gave minute directions respect- 
 ing the whole of the ceremonial worship. They 
 were studied in the schools of the Lucumones, 
 to which the Romans also were accustomed to 
 send som.e of their noblest youths for instruction ; 
 since it was from the Etruscans that the Romans 
 borrowed most of their arts of divination. — 
 In architecture, statuary, and painting, the Etrus- 
 cans attained to great eminence. They were ac- 
 quainted with the use of the arch at an early 
 period, and they employed it in constructing the 
 great cloacae at Rome. Their bronze candelabra 
 were celebrated at Athens even in the time of 
 Pericles ; and the beauty of their bronze statues is 
 still attested by the She Wolf of the Capitol and 
 the Orator of the Florence Gallery. The beauti- 
 ful vases, which have been discovered in such 
 numbers in Etruscan tombs, cannot be cited as 
 proofs of the excellence of Etruscan workmanship, 
 since it is now admitted by the most competent 
 judges, that these vases were either made in Greece, 
 or by Greek artists settled in Italy. — Of the 
 private life of the Etruscans we have a lively 
 picture ffora the paintings discovered in their 
 tomhs ; but into this subject our limits forbid us 
 to enter. — The later history of Etruria is a struggle 
 against the rising power of Rome, to which it was 
 finally compelled to yield. After the capture of Veii 
 by the dictator Camillus, b. c. 396, the Romans ob- 
 tained possession of the E, part of Etruria ; and the 
 Ciminian forest, instead of the Tiber, now became 
 the boundary of the 2 people. The defeat of the 
 Etruscans by Q. Fabiua Maximus in 31U, was a 
 great blow to their power. They still endeavoured 
 to maintain their independence with the assistance 
 of the Saiunites and the Gauls ; but after their de- 
 cisive defeat by Cornelius Dolabella in 283, they 
 became the subjects of Rome. In fll they re- 
 ceived the Roman franchise. The numerous mili- 
 tary colonies established in Etruria by Sulla and 
 Augustus destroyed to a great extent the national 
 character of the people, and the coimtry thus be- 
 came in course of time completely Romanized. 
 
EUBOEA. 
 
 Euboea (EvSoia: EvSoi^isjEv^oevs^feju.'EvSois). 
 1. (Negroponl)^ the largest island of the Aepaean 
 sea, Ijnng along the coasts of Attica, Boeotia, and 
 the S. part of Thessaly, from which countries it is 
 separated by the Euboean sea, called the Euripus 
 in its narrowest part. Euboea is about 90 miles 
 in length : its extreme breadth is 30 miles, but in 
 the narrowest part it is only 4 miles across. 
 Throughout the length of the island runs a lofty 
 range of mountains, which rise in one part as high 
 as 72G6 feet above the sea. It contains neverthe- 
 less many fertile plains, and was celebrated in an- 
 tiquity for the excellence of its pasturage and corn- 
 fields. According to the ancients it was once 
 united to Boeotia, from which it was separated by 
 an earthquake. In Homer the inhabitants are 
 called Abantes, and are represented as taking part 
 in the expedition against Troy. In the N. of 
 Euboea dwelt the Histiael, from whom that part 
 of the island was called Histiaea ; below these were 
 the Ellopii, who gave the name of Ellopia to the 
 district, extending as far as Aegae and Cerinthus ; 
 and in the S. were the Dryopes. The centre of 
 the island was inhabited chiefly by lonians. It was 
 m this part of Euboea that the Athenians planted 
 the colonies of Chalcis and Eretria, which were 
 the 2 most important cities in the island. After 
 the Persian wars Euboea became subject to the 
 Athenians, who attached much importance to its 
 possession ; and consequently Pericles made great 
 exertions to subdue it, when it revolted in b. c. 
 445. Under the Romans Euboea formed part of 
 the province of Achaia. — Since Cumae in Italy 
 was a colony from Chalcis in Euboea, the adjective 
 Euhoiciis is used by the poets in reference to the 
 former city. Thus Virgil {Aen. vi. 2) speaks of 
 Euboids Cumarum on's. — 2. A town in the in- 
 terior of Sicily, founded by Chalcis in Euboea, but 
 destroyed at an early period. 
 
 Eubiilides (Eu^ouAiSTjs), of Miletus, a philo- 
 sopher of the Megaric school. He was a contem- 
 porary of Aristotle, against whom he wrote with 
 great bitterness; and he is stated to have given De- 
 mosthenes instruction in dialectics. He is said to 
 have invented the forms of several of the most 
 celebrated false and captious syllogisms. 
 
 Eubulus {EfjSouXos). 1. An Athenian, of the 
 demus Anaphlystus, a distinguished orator and 
 statesman, was one of the most formidable oppo- 
 nents of Demosthenes. It was with him that 
 Aeschines served as secretary in the earlier part of 
 his life. ^2. An Athenian, son of Euphranor, of 
 the Cettian demus, a distinguished poet of the 
 middle comed}', flourished b. c. 376. He wrote 
 104 plays, of which there are extant more than 50 
 titles. His plays were chiefly on mythological 
 subjects. Several of them contained parodies of 
 passages from the tragic poets, and especially from 
 Euripides. 
 
 Euclides (EuKAeiJTjy). 1. The celebrated ma- 
 thematician, who has almost given his own name 
 to the science of geometry, in every country in 
 which his writings are studied ; but we know 
 next to nothing of his private history. The place 
 of his birth is uncertain. He lived at Alexandria 
 in the time of the first Ptolemy, b. c. 323 — 283, 
 and was the founder of the Alexandrian mathe- 
 matical school. He was of the Platonic sect, and 
 well read in its doctrines. It was his answer to 
 Ptolemy, who asked if geometry could not be made 
 easier, that there was no royal road. Of the nu- 
 
 EUDOCIA. 
 
 251 
 
 merous works attributed to Euclid the following 
 are still extant: — 1. ^.roix^Ta, the Elements^ in iS 
 books, with a 14th and 15th added by Hypsicles, 
 2. AeSo^eVa, the Data, containing 100 proposi- 
 tions, with a preface by Marinus of Naples. 3. 
 ElaayooyT] 'Ap/j-oviK-ij^ a Treatise on Music ; and 4. 
 Kararofj.^ Kau6vos, the Division of the Scale: one 
 of these works, most likely the former, must be 
 rejected. 5. ^Oiiv6fx^va^ the Appearances (of the 
 heavens). 6. 'OTrrifca, on Optics ; and 7. Karoir- 
 rpiKii, on Catoptiics. The only complete edi- 
 tion of all the reputed works of Euclid is 
 that published at Oxford, 1703, folio, by David 
 Gregory, with the title Eu/cAeiSou to. crw^oneva. 
 The Elements and the Data were published In 
 Greek, Latin, and French, in 3 vols. 4to. Paris, 
 1014 — 16 — 18, by Peyrard. The most convenient 
 edition for scholars of the Greek text of the Ele- 
 ments is the one by August, Berol. 1826, 8vo.— 2. 
 Of Megara, was one of the chief of the disciples of 
 Socrates, but before becoming such, lie had studied 
 the doctrines, and especially the dialectics, of the 
 Eieatics. Socrates on one occasion reproved him 
 for his fondness for subtle and captious disputes. 
 On the death of Socrates (b. c. 399), Euclides took 
 refuge in Megara, and there established a scliool 
 which distinguished itself chiefly by the cultivation 
 of dialectics. The doctrines of the Eieatics formed 
 the basis of his philosophical system. With these 
 he blended the ethical and dialectical principles of 
 Socrates. He was the author of 6 dialogues, none 
 of which however have come down to us. He 
 has frequently been erroneously confounded with 
 the mathematician of the same name. The school 
 which he founded was called sometimes the Me- 
 garic, sometimes the Dialectic or Eristic. 
 
 Eucratides (EuKpariSTis), king of Bactria, from 
 about B. c. 181 to 161, was one of the most power- 
 ful of the Bactrian kings, and made great conquests 
 in the N. of India. 
 
 Euctemon, tlie astronomer. [Meton.] 
 
 Eudamidas (EvSafLlSas). I. Kiug of Sparta, 
 reigned from B. c. 330 to about 300. He was the 
 younger son of Archidamus III. and succeeded his 
 brother Agis III. —II. King of Sparta, was son 
 of Archidamus IV., whom he succeeded, and father 
 of Agis IV. 
 
 Eudemus (E£/5ij^oy). 1. Of Cyprus, a Peripa- 
 tetic philosopher, to whom Aristotle dedicated the 
 dialogue EuStj^oj ^ irepi ^vxvs, which is iost.^ 
 2. Of Rhodes, also a peripatetic philosopher, and 
 one of the most important of Aristotle's disciples. 
 He edited many of Aristotle's writings ; and one 
 of them even bears the name of Eudemus, namely, 
 the 'HOiKo, EuB-fj/xeia, which work was in all pro- 
 bability a recension of Aristotle's lectures edited bv 
 Eudemus. [See p. 85, b.] — 3. The physician of 
 Livilla, the wife of Drusus Caesar, who assisted 
 her and Sejanus in poisoning her husband, a. d. 23. 
 
 Eudocia {EuBoKia). 1. Originally called Athe- 
 nais, daughter of the sophist Leontius, was dis- 
 tinguished for her beauty and attainments. She 
 married the emperor Theodosius 11., a. d. 421 ■ 
 and on her marriage she embraced Christianity, 
 and received at her baptism the name of Eudocia. 
 She died at Jerusalem, a. d. 460. She wrote se- 
 veral works ; and to her is ascribed by some the 
 extant poem Homero-Ccniones, which is composed 
 of verses from Homer, and relates the history of 
 the fall and of the redemption of man by Jesua 
 Christ ; but its genuineness is very doubtful. — 2. 
 
252 EUDOSES. 
 
 Of Macrcmbolla, ^vlfe of the emperoi"s Consttintinc 
 XI.Ducasand Komnnus IV. Diogenes (a. d. 1059 
 — 1071), wrote a dictionary of liistory r.ud mytho- 
 logy, which she cn.lled 'Iwvia.^ Violarium^ or Bed 
 of Violets. It was printed for tlie first time by 
 Villoison, in '[us Anecduia Gracca^Xtmc?-.^ ]7l!1. 
 The sources from which the work was compiled are 
 nearly tlic same as those used by Suidas. 
 
 Eudoses, a people ia Germany near the Varini, 
 probably in tlie modern Mecldevbin'f). 
 
 Eudozus (E6'So^^os). 1. Of Cnidus, son of 
 Aescliines, a celebrated astronomer, geometer, phy- 
 eician, and legislator, lived about b. c. 3G0. He 
 ■vi'^as a pupil of Archytas and Piato, and also 
 ■went to Egypt, where he studied some time with 
 the priests, lie afterwards returned to Athens, 
 but it would appear that he must liave spent some 
 time in his native place, for Strabo says that the 
 observatory of Eudoxus at Cnidus was existing- in 
 his time. He died at the age of 53. lie is said 
 to have been the first who taught in Greece the 
 motions of the planets ; and he is also stated to 
 have made separate splieres for the stars, sun, moon, 
 and planets. lie wrote various works on astronomy 
 and geometry, which arc lost ; but the substance 
 of his ^a.Lv6(xf:va is preserved by Aiatus, who turned 
 into verse the prose work by Eudoxus witli that 
 title. — 2. An Athenian comic poet of the new 
 comed}-, was by birth a Sicilian and the son of 
 Agathocles — 3, Of Cyzicus, a geographer, who 
 went from his native place to Egypt, and was em- 
 .plo3-od by Ptolemy Evergetcs and his wife Cleo- 
 patra, in voyages to India ; but afterwards being 
 robbed of all his property by Ptolemy Lathyrus, 
 he sailed away down the Red Sea, and at last 
 arrived at Gades. He afterwards made attempts 
 to circumnavigate Africa in the opposite direction, 
 but without success. He lived about b. c. 130. 
 
 Eugamon {^uydiitov), one of the Cyclic poets, 
 was a native of Cyrene, and lived about u. c. 568. 
 His poem (T7jA.e7oi'ia) was a continuation of the 
 Odyssey, and formed the conclusion of the epic 
 cycle. It concluded with the death of Ulysses. 
 
 Eaganei, a people who formerly inhabited Ve- 
 netia on the Adriatir. sea, and were driven towards 
 tbe Alps and the Lacus Benacus by the Heneti 
 or Veneti. According to some traditions they 
 founded Pata.vium and Verona, in the neighbour- 
 hood of which were the Euganei Colles. They 
 possessed numerous flocks of sheep, the wool of 
 which was celebrated. (Juv. viii. 15.) 
 
 Euhemeras {Eui]iJ.€pos)^ probably a native of 
 Messene in Sicily, lived at the court of Cassandcr 
 in Macedonia, about e. c. 31 C. Cassander furnished 
 him with the means to undertake a voyage of 
 discovery. He is said to have sailed down the Red 
 Sea and round the southern coasts of Asia, until 
 he came to an island called Panchaea. After his 
 return he wrote a work entitled 'Upa. 'Auaypa(p{), 
 or a Sacred Ilislori/^ in 9 books. He gave this 
 title to his work, because he pretended to have 
 derived his information from ' Avaypa^pai^ ov inscrip- 
 tions in temples, which he had discovered in his 
 travels, especially in the island of Panchaea. Eu- 
 hemerus had been trained in the school of the 
 Cyrenaics, who were notorious for their scepticism 
 in matters connected with the popular religion; 
 and the object of his work was to exclude every 
 thing supernatural from tiie popular religion, and 
 to dress up the myths as so many plain histories. 
 In his work the several gods were represented as 
 
 EUMENES. 
 
 having origlnall}'' been men who had distinguished 
 themselves either as warriors, or benefactors of 
 mankind, and who after their death were wor- 
 shipped as gods by the grateful people. Zeus, for 
 example, was a king of Crete, who had been a 
 great ccmqneror ; and lie asserted that he had seen 
 in the temple of ZeuaTriphylius a column with an 
 inscription detailing all the exploits of the kings 
 Uranus, Cronus, and Zeus. The book was written 
 in an attractive style, and became very popular, 
 and many of the subsequent historians, such as 
 Diodoms, adopted his mode of dealing with myths. 
 The great popularity of the work is attested by 
 the circumstance that Ennius made a Latin trans- 
 lation of it. But the piuus believers, on the other 
 hand, called Euhemerus an atheist. The Chris- 
 tian wnters often refer to him to prove that the 
 pagan mythology was nothing but a heap of fables 
 invented by men. 
 
 Eulaeus (Eu\a7os : 0. T. Ulai : Karooji), a 
 river in Susiana, on the borders of Elymais, rising 
 in Great Media, flowing S. through Mesobatene, 
 passing E. of Susa, and, after uniting with the Pa- 
 sitigris, falling into the head of the Persian Gulf. 
 Some of the ancient geographers make the Eulaeus 
 fall into the Choaspes, and others identify tlie two 
 rivers. 
 
 Eumaena (Ei/^oios), the faithful swineherd of 
 Ulysses, was a son of Ctesius, king of the island of 
 Syrie ; he had been carried away from his father''s 
 house by a Phoenician slave, and Phoenician 
 sailors sold him to Laertes, the father of Ulysses. 
 
 Eumelus [E^/.L-nKos). 1. Son of Admetus and 
 Alcestis, went with 1 1 ships from Pherae to Troy. 
 He was distinguished for his excellent horses, 
 which had once been under the care of Apollo, and 
 with which Eumelus would have gained the prize 
 at the funenii games of Patroclus, if his chariot 
 had not been broken. His wife was Iphthima, 
 daughter of Icarius.^S. Of Corinth, one of the 
 Bacchiadae, an ancient Epic poet, belonged, ac- 
 cording to some, to the Epic cycle. His name is 
 significant, referring to his skill in poetri'. He 
 flourished about b. c. 760. His principal poem 
 seems to have been his CormtJiian History. 
 
 Eumenes [Zvfxivris). 1. Of Cardia, served 
 as private secretary to Philip and Alexander, 
 whom he accompanied throughout his expedition 
 in Asia, and who treated him with marked 
 confidence and distinction. After the death of 
 Alexander (b. c. 323) Eumenes obtained the go- 
 vernment of Cappadocia, Paphlagonia, and Pontus, 
 which provinces had never yet been conquered by 
 the Macedonians. Eumenes entered into a close 
 alliance v.'ith Perdiccas, who subdued these pro- 
 vinces for him. When Perdiccas marched into 
 Egyftt against Ptolemy, he committed to Eumenes 
 the conduct of the war against Antipater and Cra- 
 terus in Asia Minor. Eumenes met with great 
 success; he defeated Neoptolemiis,who had revolted 
 from Perdiccas; and subsequently he again defeated 
 the combined armies of Craterusand Neoptolemus: 
 Craterus himself fell, and Neoptolemus was slain 
 by Eumenes with his own hand, after a deadly 
 struggle in the presence of the 2 armies. Meantime 
 the death of Perdiccas in Egj'-pt changed the aspect 
 of affairs. Antigonus now employed the whole 
 force of the Macedonian army to crush Eumenes. 
 The struggle was carried on for some years (320 — 
 316). It was conducted by Eumenes with con- 
 summate skill; and notwithstanding the numerical 
 
EUMENIA. 
 
 inferiority of his forces, he maintained his ground 
 against his enemies, till he was surrendered by 
 the Argyraspids to Antigonus, by whom he was 
 put to death, 316. He was 45 years old at 
 the time of his death. Of his ability, both as a 
 general and a statesman, no doubt can be enter- 
 tained ; and it is probable that he would have 
 attained a far more important position among the 
 successors of Alexander, had it not been for the 
 accidental disadvantage of his birth. But as a 
 Greek of Cardia, and not a native Macedonian, he 
 Tivas constantly looked upon with dislike both by 
 his opponents and companions in arms. — 2. I. 
 King of PergjiMus, reigned b. c. 2C3 — 2-41 ; and 
 •was the successor of his uncle Philetaerus. He 
 obtiined a victory near Sardis over Antiochus 
 Soter, and thus established his dnminiou over the 
 provinces in the neighbourhood of his capital— 3, 
 II. King of Pekgamus, reigned e.g. 197 — 159; 
 and was the son and successor of Attains I. He 
 inherited from his predecessor the friendship and 
 alliance of the Romans, which he took the utmost 
 pains to cultivate. He supported the Romans in 
 their war against Antiochus ; and after the con- 
 quest of the latter (190) he received from the 
 senate Mysia, Lydia, both Phiygias, and Lycaonja, 
 as well as Lysimachia, and the Thracian Chersonese. 
 Jjy this means he was at once raised from a state 
 of comparative insignificance to be the sovereign of 
 a powerful monarchy. Subsequently he was in- 
 volved in war with Pharnaces, king of Pontus, and 
 Prusias, king of Bithynia, but both wars were 
 brought to a close by the intei-position of the 
 Romans. At a later period Eumenes wag regarded 
 with suspicion by the Roman senate, because he 
 was suspected of having corresponded secretly with 
 Perseus, kmg of Macedonia, during the war of the 
 latter with the Romans. Eumenes assiduously cul- 
 tivated all the arts of peace : Pergamus became 
 Tinder his rule a great and flourishing city, which 
 he adorned with splendid buildings, and in which 
 he founded that celebrated library which rose to be 
 a rival even to that of Alexandria. 
 
 Eumeiiia (Eujuecein or Eu}X€via : fsJickli), a 
 city of Great Phrygia, on the rivers Glancus and 
 Cludrus, N. of the Maeander, named by Attains 
 II. after his brother and predecessor Eumenes II. 
 There are indications which seem to connect the 
 time of its foundation with that of the destruction 
 of Corinth. 
 
 Eumenides (EupiemSes)^ also called Erinyes, 
 not Erinnyes {''Epivues^ 'Epivds), and by the 
 Romans Furiae or Dirae, the Avenging Deities, 
 were originally only a personification of curses pro- 
 nounced upon a criminal. The name Erinys is 
 the more ancient one ; its etymology is uncertain, 
 l)ut the Greeks derived it from ^piVw or ip^vvdw^ 
 I hunt up or persecute, or from the Arcadian 
 ipn/vQ), I am angry ; so that the Erinyes were 
 either the angry goddesses, or the goddesses who 
 hunt up or search after the criminal. The name 
 Eumenides, which signifies " the well-meaning," 
 or "soothed goddesses," is a mere euphemism, be- 
 cause people dreaded to call these fearful goddesses 
 "by their real name. It was said to have been first 
 given them after the acquittal of Orestes by the 
 Areopagus, when the anger of the Erinyes had be- 
 come soothed. It was by a similar euphemism 
 that at Athens the Erinyes were called a-^/xval i&eal, 
 or the venerable goddesses. — Homer sometimes 
 mentions an Erinys, but more frequently Erinyes 
 
 EUMOLPUS. 
 
 253 
 
 in the plural. He represents them as inhabitants 
 of Erebos, where they remain quiet until some 
 curse pronounced upon a criminal calls them into 
 activity. The crimes which they punish are dis- 
 obedience towards parents, violation of the respect 
 due to old age, perjur}', murder, violation of the lav/ 
 of hospitality, and improper conduct towards sup- 
 pliants. They took away from men all peace of 
 mind, and led them into misery and misfortune. 
 Hesiod says that they were the daughters of Ge, 
 and sprung from the drops of blood that fell upon 
 her from the body of Uranus. Aeschylus calls 
 them the daughters of Night ; and Sophocles of 
 Darkness and Ge. In the Greek tragedians neither 
 the names nor the number of the Erinyes are men- 
 tioned. Aeschylus describes them as divinities 
 more ancient than the Olympian gods, dwelling in 
 the deep darkness of Tartarus, dreaded by gods 
 and men ; with bodies all black, serpents twined 
 in their hair, and blood dripping from their eyes. 
 Euripides and other later ptiets describe them as 
 winged. With later writers their number is usually 
 limited to 3, and their names arc Tisiphone, Alecto, 
 and Megaera. They gradually assumed the cha- 
 racter of goddesses who punisiied men after death, 
 and they seldom appeared upon earth. The sacri- 
 fices offered to them consisted of black sheep and 
 nephalia, L e. a drink of honey mixed with water. 
 They were worshipped at Athens, where they had 
 a sanctuary and a grotto near the Areopagus : their 
 statues, however, had nothing formidable, and a 
 festival Eumenidea was there celebrated in their 
 honour. Another sanctuary, with a grove which 
 no one was allowed to enter, e.xisted at Colonus. 
 
 Eumenius, a Roman rhetorician of Augusto- 
 dunum (Aiduji) in Gaul, held a high office under 
 Constantius Chlorus. He is the author of 4 orations 
 in the " Panegyrici Veteres," namely: 1. Oratio 
 pro inslaurandis scholis, a lecture delivered on the 
 re-establishment by Constantius Chlorus of the 
 school at Autun, a. d. '296 or 297. 2. Pmirpyncus 
 Constaniio CaesaH diclus, delivered 296 or 297. 3, 
 Paiiegyricns Constantino Avgnsto dictus^ delivered 
 310. 4, Graiiarum actio Constantino Augusta Fia~ 
 viensium nomine, delivered 31 1. 
 
 Eumolpus (Ei5',uoA7ros), that is " the good 
 singer," a Thracian bard, usually represented as a 
 son of Poseidon and Chlone, the daughter of Boreas. 
 As soon as he was born, he was thrown into the 
 sea by his mother, who was anxious to conceal her 
 shame, but was preserved by his father Poseidon, 
 who had him educated in Ethiopia by his daughter 
 Benthesicyma. "When he had grown up, he married 
 a daughter of Benthesicyma; but as he made an 
 attempt upon the chastity of his wife's sister, he 
 was expelled together with his son Ismarus, They 
 went to the Thracian king Tegyrius, who <^ave his 
 daughter in marriage to Ismarus; but as Eumnlpua 
 dre\v upon himself the suspicion of Tegyrius, he 
 was again obliged to take to flight, and came to 
 Eleusis in Attica, where he formed a friendship 
 with the Eleusinians. After the death of his son 
 Ismarus, he returned to Thrace at the request of 
 Tegyrius. The Eleusinians, who were involved in 
 a war with Athens, called Eumolpus to their assist- 
 ance, Eumolpus came with a numerous band of 
 Thracians, but he was slain by Erechthcus. Eu- 
 molpus was regarded as the founder of the Eleusinian 
 mysteries, and as the first priest of Demeter and 
 Dionysus, He was succeeded in the priestly office 
 by his son Ceryx (wlio was, according to some 
 
254- 
 
 EUNAPIUS. 
 
 accounts, the. son of Hermea), and his family, the 
 JEumolpidae^ continued till the latest times the 
 priests of Demeter at Eleusis. — The legends con- 
 nected Eumolpas with Hercules, whom he is said 
 to have instructed in music, or initiated into the 
 mysteries. There were so many different traditions 
 ahout Eumolpus that some of the ancients supposed 
 that there were '2 or 3 persons of that name. 
 
 Ennapius (EOi/dTnoy), a Greek sophist, was horn 
 atSardis a. d. 347, and lived and taught at Athens 
 as late as the reign of Theodosiua II. He wrote. 
 1. Lives of Sophists (Bioi <pL\o(r6(pwv teal crotpiffTcav)^ 
 still extant, containing 23 biographies of sophists, 
 most of whom were contemporaries of Eunapius, 
 or had lived shortly before him. Though these 
 biographies are extremely brief, and the style is 
 intolerably inflated, yet they supply us with im- 
 portant information respecting a period, on which 
 we have no other information. Eunapius was an 
 enthusiastic admirer of the philosophy of the New 
 Platonists, and a bitter enemy of Christianit)-. 
 Edited by Boissonade, Amsterdam, 182'2. 2. A 
 continuation of the history of Dexippns (Mera 
 Ae'ltTTTro;/ XpoviitT] iVropia), in 14 books, begau with 
 A. D. 270, and went down to 404. Of this work 
 we have only extracts, which are published along 
 with Dexippns. [Dexippus.] 
 
 Euneus {EijvTjos or EHvevs), a son of Jason and 
 Hj'psipyle in Lemnos, supplied the Greeks with 
 wine during their war against Trny. He purchased 
 Lycaon of Patroclus for a silver urn. 
 Eunoniia. [Horae.] 
 
 Ennomus (Ei/i/o/xos), king of Sparta, is described 
 by some as the father of Lycurgus and Polydectes. 
 Herodotus, on the contrary, places him in his list 
 after Polydectes. In all probabilitj^ the name was 
 invented with reference to the Lycurgean 'Evvo^ia^ 
 and Eimomus, if not wholly rejected, must be 
 identified with Polydectes. 
 
 Eimus (Ei/i/ous), a Sicilian slave, and a native 
 of Apamea in Syria, was the leader of the Sicilian 
 slaves in the servile war. He first attracted atten- 
 tion by pretending to the gift of prophecy, and by 
 interpreting dreams ; to the effect of which he 
 added by appearing to breathe flames from his 
 mouth and other similar juggleries. He was pro- 
 claimed king, and soon collected formidable forces, 
 with which he defeated several Roman armies. 
 The insurrection now became so formidable that 
 for 3 successive years (b. c. 134 — 132) 3 consuls 
 were sent against the insurgents, and it was not 
 till the 3rd year (132) that the revolt was finally 
 put dorni by the consul Rupilius. Eunus was taken 
 prisoner, and died in prison at Morgantia, of the 
 disease called morbus pediadaris. 
 
 Eupalmm or Eupolium {Y.vtv6.\lqv, 'Evtt6Kiov : 
 EyTToAieiis), a town of the Locri Ozolae, N. of Niiu- 
 pactus.^subsequently included in Aetolia Epictetus. 
 Eupator (EyTraratp), a sum;ime assumed by 
 many of the kings in Asia after the time of Alex- 
 ander the Great, See Antiochus, Mithridatjss. 
 Enpatoritim or Eupatoria {Y.vrrar6pioi', Eura- 
 Topia) a town in the ChersonesusTaurica, founded 
 by Mithj-idates Eupator, and named after him. 
 
 Euphaes {Y.u(p6.T)'!\ king of the Messenians, fell 
 in battle against the Spartans in the first Messenian 
 war. He was succeeded by ARiSTODEftius. 
 
 Euphemus (Ei;c^Tj^os), son of Poseidon by 
 Europe, the daughter of Tityus. or by Mecionice or 
 Oris, a daughter of Orion or Eurotas. According 
 to one account he was an inhabitant of Paiiopeus 
 
 EUPHRATES. 
 
 on the Cephissus in Phocia, and according to 
 another of Hyria in Boeotia, and afterwards lived 
 at Taenarus. He was married to Lnonome, the 
 sister of Plercules ; he was one of the Calydonian 
 hunters, and the helmsman of the vessel of the 
 Argonauts, and, by a power which his father had 
 granted to him, he could walk on the sea just as 
 on firm ground. He is mentioned also as the 
 ancestor of Battus, the founder of Cyrene. 
 
 Euphorbus (EiJi^opgos). 1. Son of Panthous, one 
 of the bravest of the Trojans, was slain by Mene- 
 laus, who subsequently dedicated the shield of 
 Euphorbus in the temple of Hera, near Mycenae. 
 Pythagoras asserted that he had once been the 
 Trojan Euphorbus, and in proof of his assertion 
 took down at first sight the shield of Euphorbus 
 from the temple of Hera {clipeo Trojana 7-eJiio iem- 
 pora testatus, Hor. Carm. i. 28. 1 1 ).— 2. Physician 
 of Juba II., king of Mauretania, about the end of 
 the first century ij. c, and brother to Antonius 
 Musa, the physician to Augustus. 
 
 Euphorion {^ucpopiwv) . 1. Father of the poet 
 Aeschylus.^S. Son of Aeschylus, and himself a 
 tragic poet. — 3. Of Chalcis in Euboea, an eminent 
 grammarian and poet, son of Polymnetus, was bom 
 about B. c. 274. He became the librarian of 
 Antiochus the Great, 221, and died in Syria, 
 either at Apamea, or at Antioch. The following 
 were the most important of the poems of Euphorion 
 in heroic verse : — 1. 'Ho"io5os, probably an agri- 
 cultural poem. 2. Moij/oTTta, so called from an old 
 name of Attica, the legends of which country seem 
 to have been the chief subject of the poem. 3. 
 XiAidSes, a poem written against certain persons, 
 who had defrauded Euphorion of money which he 
 had entrusted to their care. It probably derived 
 its title from each of its books consisting of 1000 
 verses. He also wrote epigrams, which were imi- 
 tated by many of the Latin poets, and also by the 
 emperor Tiberius, with whom he was a great fa- 
 vourite. Euphorion likewise wrote many historical 
 and grammatical works. All his works are lost, 
 but the fragments are collected by Meineke, in his 
 Analecta Alexandri?ia, Berol, 1843. 
 
 Euphranor (Eucppdvojp), a distinguished statuary 
 and painter, was a native of the Corinthian isthmus, 
 but practised his art at Athens. He flourished 
 about B. c. 336. His most celebrated statue was a 
 Paris, which expressed alike the judge of the god- 
 desses, the lover of Helen, and the slayer of Achil- 
 les ; the very beautiful sitting figure of Paris, in 
 marble, in the Museo Pio-Clementino is, no doubt, 
 a copy of thfs work. His best paintings were pre- 
 served in a porch in the Ceramicus at Athens. On 
 the one side were the 12 gods; and on the oppo- 
 site wall, Theseus, with Democracy and Demos. 
 — Euphranor also wrote works on proportion and 
 on colours [de Symmetria et Coloribus\ the' two 
 points in which his own excellence seems chiefly 
 to have consisted. Pliny says that he was the 
 first who properly expressed the dignity of heroes, 
 by the proportions he gave to their statues. He 
 made the bodies somewhat more slender, and 
 the heads and limbs larger. 
 
 Euphrates (Eu^parijij, an eminent Stoic philo- 
 sopher, was a native of Tyre, or, according to 
 others, of Byzantium. He was an intimate friend 
 of the younger Pliny. In his old age he became 
 tired of life, and asked and obtained from Hadriaa 
 permission to put an end to himself by poison. 
 Euphrates {'Evcppdr-qs : 0. T. Phrat : Ei Frat\ 
 
iiUi'aKUJN. 
 
 a great river of W. Asia, forming the boundary of 
 Upper and Lower Asia, consists, in its upper course, 
 of 2 branches, both of which rise in the mountains 
 of Armenia. The N. branch (Kara-Suu), which 
 is the true Euphrates, rises in the mountain above 
 Erzeroum (the M. Abus or Capotes of the ancients) 
 and flows W. and S.W. to a little above lat. 39° 
 and E. of long. 39°, where it breaks through the 
 chain of the Anti-Taurus, and, after receiving the 
 S. branch {Mourad-Ckai)^ or, as the ancients called 
 it, the Arsanias, it breaks through the main chain 
 of the Taurus between Melitene and Samosata, and 
 then flows in a general S. direction, till it reaches 
 lat. SG*-", whence it flows in a general S. E. direc- 
 tion, till it approaches the Tigris opposite to Se- 
 leucia, where the distance between the 2 rivers 
 was reckoned at only 200 stadia. Then it flows 
 through the plain of Babylonia, at first receding 
 further from the Tigris, and afterwards approaching 
 it again, till it joins it about 60 miles above the 
 mouth of the Persian Gulf, having already had its 
 waters much diminished by numerous canals, which 
 irrigated the country in ancient times, but the neg- 
 lect of which at present has converted much of the 
 once fertile district watered by the Euphrates into a 
 marshy desert. The whole length of the Euphrates 
 is between 500 and 600 miles. In its upper course, 
 before reaching the Taums, its N. branch and a 
 part of the united stream divided Armenia Major 
 from Colchis and Armenia Minor, and its lower 
 course divided Mesopotamia from Syria. Its chief 
 tributary, besides the Arsanias, was the Aborrhas. 
 Euphrou {Eijcpptuv)^ an Athenian poet of the 
 new comedy, whose plays, however, partook 
 largely of the character of the middle comedy. 
 
 Euphrosyne, one of the Charites or Graces. 
 [Charis.] 
 
 Eupolis (EuiroKis), son of Sosipolis, an Athenian 
 poet of the old comedy, and one of the 3 who are 
 distinguished by Horace, in his well-known line, 
 " Eupolis, atque Cratinus, Aristophanesque poetae," 
 above all the ..." alii quorum prisca comoedia 
 virorum est." He was born about B. c. 446, and 
 13 said to have exhibited his first drama in his 17th 
 year, 429, two years before Aristophanes. The 
 date of his death is uncertain. The common story 
 was, that Alcibiades, when sailing to Sicily (415), 
 threw Eupolis into the sea, in revenge for an attack 
 which he had made upon him in his Bdirrai ; but this 
 cannot be true, as we know that Eupolis produced 
 plays after the Sicilian expedition. He probably 
 died in 41 1. The chief characteristic of the poetry 
 of Eupolis seems to have been the liveliness of his 
 fancy, and the power which he possessed of impart- 
 ing its images to the audience. In elegance he is 
 said to have even surpassed Aristophanes, while in 
 bitter jesting and personal abuse he emulated Cra- 
 tinus. Among the objects of his satire wa^ Socrates, 
 on whom he made a bitter, though less elaborate 
 attack than that in the Clouds of Aristophanes. 
 The dead were not exempt from his abuse, for 
 there are still extant some lines of his, in which 
 Cimon is most unmercifully treated. — A close re- 
 lation subsisted between Eupolis and Aristophanes, 
 not only as rivals, but as imitators of each other. 
 Cratinus attacked Aristophanes for borrowing from 
 Eupolis, and Kupolis in his Ban-rai made the same 
 charge, especially with reference to the Kniyhts. 
 The Scholiasts specify the hist Parabasis of the 
 Knights as borrowed from Eupolis. On the other 
 hand, Aristophanes, in the second (or third) edition 
 
 Jb;UKlPJl>ES. 
 
 25 
 
 of the Clouds^ retorts upon Eupolis the charge of 
 imitating the Knights in his Maricas^ and taunts 
 him with the further indignity of jesting on his 
 rival's baldness. 
 
 Eupompus (EyTTOjUTTos), of Sicyon, a distin- 
 guished Greek painter, was the contemporary of 
 Zeuxis, Parrhasius, and Tiraanthes, and the in- 
 structor of Pamphilus, the master of Apelles. The 
 fame of Eupompus led to the creation of a 3rd 
 school of Greek art, the Sicyonian, at the head of 
 which he was placed. 
 
 Euripides {Zupi-niSrjs). 1. The distinguished 
 tragic poet, was the son of Mnesarchus and Clito, 
 and is said to have been born at Salamis, b. c. 
 480, on the very day that the Greeks defeated the 
 Persians off that island, whither his parents had 
 fled from Athens on the invasion of Xerxes. Some 
 writers relate that his parents were in mean circum- 
 stances, and his mother is represented by Aristo- 
 phanes as a herb-seller, and not a very honest one 
 either ; but much weight cannot be accorded to 
 these statements. It is more probable that his 
 family was respectable. We are told that the poet, 
 when a boy, was cup-bearer to a chorus of noble 
 Athenians at the Thargelian festival, — an office for 
 which nobility of blood was requisite. We know 
 also that he was taught rhetoric by Prodicus, who 
 was certainly not moderate in his terms for in- 
 struction, and who was in the habit of seeking his 
 pupils among youths of high rank. It is said that 
 the future distinction of Euripides was predicted 
 by an oracle, promising that he should be crowned 
 with '*■ sacred garlands," in consequence of which, 
 his father had him trained to gymnastic exercises ; 
 and we learn that, while yet a boy, he won the 
 prize at the Eleusinian and Thesean contests, and 
 offered himself, when 17 years old, as a candidate 
 at the Olympic games, but was not admitted be- 
 cause of some doubt about his age. But he soon 
 abandoned gymnastic pursuits, and studied the art 
 of painting, not, as we learn, without success. To 
 philosophy anH literature he devoted himself with. 
 much interest and energy, studying phj'-sics under 
 Anaxagoras, and rhetoric, as we have already seen, 
 under Prodicus. He lived on intimate terms with. 
 Socrates, and traces of the teaching of Anaxagoras 
 have been remarked in many passages of his plays. 
 He is said to have written a tragedy at the age of 
 18 ; but the first play, which was exhibited in his 
 own name, was the Peliades, when he was 25 
 years of age (b. c. 455). In 441 he gained for the 
 first time the first prize, and he continued to ex- 
 hibit plays until 408, the date of the Orestes. 
 Soon after this he left Athens for the court of 
 Archelaiis, king of Macedonia, his reasons for which 
 step can only be matter of conjecture. Traditionary 
 scandal has ascribed it to his disgust at the intrigue 
 of his wife with Cephisophon, and the ridicule 
 which was showered upon him in consequence by 
 the comic poets. But tlie whole story has been re- 
 futed by modern writers. Other causes more pro- 
 bably led him to accept an invitation from Arche- 
 laiis, at whose court the highest honours awaited 
 him. The attacks of Aristophanes and others had 
 probably not been without their effect ; and he 
 must have been aware that his philosophical tenets 
 were regarded with considerable suspicion. He 
 died in Macedonia in 406, at the age of 75. Most 
 testimonies agree in stating that he was torn in 
 pieces by the king's dogs, which, according to 
 some, were set upon liim through envy by Arrhi- 
 
25C 
 
 EURIPIDES. 
 
 daeiis rinj Cratcuas, two rival poc-ts. The regret 
 of Sophocles for his death is said to hav« been so 
 great, that at the representation ot* his next play he 
 made his actors appear uncrowned. The accounts 
 ■n'hich we find irt some writers of the profligacy of 
 Euripides are mere idle scandal, and scarcely 
 worthy of serious refutation. Nor does there appear 
 to be any better foundation for that other charge 
 "whicli has been brouglit against him, of hatred to 
 the female sex. This is said to liave been occa- 
 sioned by the infidelity of his wife ; but, as has 
 been already remarked, this tale docs not deserve 
 credit. He was a man of a serious and austere 
 temper: and itw;i3 in consequence of this that the 
 charge probably originated. It is certain that the 
 poet who drew such characters as Antigone, Iphi- 
 genia, and, above all, Alcestis, was not blind to 
 the gentleness, the strong affection, the self-aban- 
 doning devotedness of women. With respect to 
 the world and the Deity, he seems to have adopted 
 the doctrines of Anaxagoras, not unmixed appa- 
 rently with pantheistic views. [Anaxagoras.] 
 To cla':s him with atheists, as some have done, is 
 undoubtedly unjust. At the same time, it must 
 be confessed that we look in vain in his plays for 
 the high faith of Aeschylus ; nor can we fail to 
 admit that the pnpil of Anaxagoras conld not sym- 
 pathise with the popular religious system around 
 him, nor throw himself cordially into it. He fre- 
 quently altered in the most arbitraiy manner the 
 ancient legends. Tims, in the Orestes^ Menelaiis 
 comes before us as a selfish coward, and Helen as a 
 ■worthless wanton ; in the Helena^ the notion of 
 Stesichorus is adopted, that the heroine was never 
 carried to Troy at all, and that it was a mere 
 €?5wAyy of her for which the Greeks and Trojans 
 fought ; Andromache, the widow of Hector and 
 slave of Neoptolemus, seems almost to forget the 
 past iji her quarrel with Hermione and the perils of 
 her present situation ; and Electra, married b}'" the 
 policy of Aegisthus to a peasant, scolds her hus- 
 band for inviting guests to dine without regard to 
 the ill-prepared state of the larder. In short, with 
 Euripides tragedy is brought dov/n into the sphere 
 of ever3--day life ; men arc represented, according 
 to the remark of Aristotle, not Jis they ought to bo, 
 but as they are ; under the names of the ancient 
 heroes, the characters of his own time are set before 
 us ; it is not Medea, or Iphigenia, or Alcestis 
 that is speaking, but abstractedly a mother, a 
 daughter, or a wife. All this, indeed, gave fuller 
 scope, perhaps, for the exhibition of passion and for 
 those scenes nf tenderness and pathos in which Euri- 
 pides especially excelled ; and it will serve also to 
 account in great measure for the preference given to 
 his plays by the practical Socrates, who is said to 
 have never entered the theatre unless when they 
 were acted, as well as for the admiration felt for 
 him by Menander and Philemon, and other poets 
 of the new comedy. The most serious defects in 
 his tragedies, artistically speaking, are: bis con- 
 stant employment of the " Deus ex machina ; " 
 tlie dificonnexion of his choral odes from the sub- 
 ject of the play ; the extremely awkward and for- 
 mal character of his prologues ; and the frequent 
 introduction of frigid yvihfxai and of philosophical 
 disquisitions, making Medea talk like a sophist, 
 and Hecuba like a free thinker, and aiming rather 
 at aubtilty than simplicity. On the same prin- 
 ciples on which he brought his subjects and cha- 
 racters to the level of common life, he adopted 
 
 EUROPA. 
 
 also in his style the evcry-day mode of speaking- 
 According to some accounts, he wrote, in all, 75 
 plays ; according to other?, 92. Of these, 18 are 
 extant, if we omit the Rhesus, which is probably 
 spurious. A list is subjoined of the extant plays 
 of Euripides, with their dates, ascertained or pro- 
 bable: — A!ces/is, B. c. 438, This play was broug;ht 
 out as the last of a tetralogy, and stood therefore 
 in the place of a satyric drama, to which indeed it 
 bears, in 3ome parts, great similarity, particularly 
 in the representation of Hercules in his cups. 
 iMeclea, 431. Hippolytus Coroiiifer, 4'2{J, gained; 
 the first nrize. Hecvha^ exhibited before 423. 
 //e;-ac//afa^, about 421. Supplices, about 421. Ion, 
 of uncertain date. Hercules Furens, of uncertain 
 date. Andromache, about 420 — 417. Troades, 
 415. Electra, about 415—413. Helena, 412. 
 Iphigenia at Tauri of uncertain date. Orestes, 40'<). 
 Phoeinssae, of uncertain date. Bacchae : this play 
 was apparently written for representation at Mace- 
 donia, and therefore at a very late period of the 
 life of Euripides. Iphigenia at Aulis : this play, 
 together with the Bacchae and the Alc/naeon, was 
 brought out at Athens, after the poet's death, by 
 the younger Euripides. Cyclops, of uncertain date : 
 it is interesting as the only extant specimen of the 
 Greek satyric drama. Besides the plays, there 
 are extant 5 letters, purporting to have been writ- 
 ten by Euripides, but they are spurious. — Editions, 
 By Musgrave, Oxford, 177B ; by Beck, Leipzig, 
 1778—88 ; by Matthiae, Leipzig, 1813—29 ; and 
 a variormn edition, Glasgow, 1821. Of separate 
 plays there have been many editions, e. g. by Por- 
 son, Elmsley, Valckeuaer, Monk, Pflugk, and Her- 
 maim. — 2. The youngest of the 3 sons of the 
 above. After the death of his father he brought 
 out 3 of his plays at the great Dionysia, viz. the 
 Alcmaemi (no longer extant), the Iphigenia at Ait- 
 lis, and the Bacchae, 
 
 Euiipus (Eiipnros)j any part of the sea where- 
 the ebb and flow of the tide were remarkably vio- 
 lent, is the name especially of the narrow strait 
 which separates Euboea from Boeotia, in which the 
 ancients asserted that the sea ebbed and flowed 7 
 times in the day. The extraordinary tides of the 
 Euripus have been noticed by modem observers : 
 the water sometimes runs as much as 8 miles an 
 hour. At Chalcis there was a bridge over the 
 Euripus, uniting Euboea with the mainland. 
 
 Euxomus (Eiipwfxos : Jaldys), a small town of 
 Caria, at the foot of Mt. Orion (a ridge parallel to 
 Mt. Latmus), in the conventus juridicus of Ala- 
 banda. It lay 8 English miles N.W. of Mylasa. 
 
 Europa (EypfiTrrj), according to the Iliad (xiv. 
 321), a daughter of Phoenix, but according to the 
 common tradition a daughter of the Phoenician 
 king Agenor. Her surpassing beauty charmed 
 Zeus, who assumed the form of a bull and mingled 
 with the herd as Europa and her maidens were 
 sporting on the sea-shore. Encouraged by ths 
 tameness of the animal, Europa ventured to mouu- 
 his back ; whereupon Zeus rushed into the sea, and 
 swam with her in safety to Crete. Here she be- 
 came by Zeus the mother of Minos, Rhadaman- 
 thns, and Sarpedon. She afterwards married 
 Asterion, king of Crete, who brought up the chil- 
 dren whom she had had by the king of the gods. 
 
 Europa (Eu^wtttj), one of the 3 divisions of the 
 ancient world. The name is not found in the Iliad 
 and Odyssey, and first occurs in the Homeric 
 Hymn to Apollo (251), but even there it does not 
 
EUROPUS. 
 
 Jjiclicate the continent, but simply the mainland of 
 Jlellas proper, in opposition to Peloponnesus and 
 the neighbouring islands. Herodotus is tiie first 
 writer who uses it in the sense of one of the divi- 
 sions of the world. The origin of the name is 
 doubtful ; but the most probable of the numerous 
 conjectures is that which supposes that the Asiatic 
 Greeks called it Europa (from fiipus, " broad,'' and 
 the root oV, *' to see"), from the wide extent of its 
 coast. Most of the ancients supposed the name to 
 he derived from Europa, the daughter of Agenor. 
 The boundaries of Europe on the E. differed at 
 ■various periods. In earlier times the river Pliasis 
 "was usually supposed to be its boundary, aud some- 
 times even the Araxes and the Caspian sea ; but 
 at a later period the river Tanais and the Palus 
 Maeotis were usually regarded as the boundaries 
 between Asia and Europe, The N. of Europe was 
 little known to the ancients, but it was generally 
 believed, at least in later times, that it was bounded 
 on the N. by the Ocean. 
 
 Europua. [Titahesius.] 
 
 Europus (EijpajTros). 1. A city of Caria, after- 
 wards named Idrias.— 2. (Yci^abolus^ or Kulai-el- 
 JVcjin ?), a city in the district of Cyn'hestice in 
 Syria, on the W. bank of the Euphrates, a few 
 miles S. of Zeugma ; called after the town of the 
 same name in Macedonia. —3. Europus was the 
 €ai^ier name of Dura Nicanoris in Mesopotamia ; 
 and (4) it was also given by Seleucus Nicator 
 to Rhagae in Media. [Arsacia.] 
 
 Eurotag (Eupwras). 1. {Basilipotamo)^ the 
 chief river in Laconia, but not navigable, rises in 
 ~ Mt. Boreum in Arcadia, then disappears under the 
 earth, rises again near Sciritis, and flows S.wards, 
 passing Sparta on the E., through a narrow and 
 fruitful valley, into the Laconiau gulf, ^2. See 
 Titauesius. 
 
 Euryalns (EupuaAos), 1. Sonof Mecisteu3,one 
 of the Argonauts, and of the Epigoni, accompanied 
 Diomedes to Troy, where he slew several Trojans. 
 ■^ 2. One of the suitors of Hippodamia. 
 
 Euryanassa. [Pelops.J 
 
 Eurybates (EiipugarTis). 1. Called Erihotcs by 
 Latin writers, son of Teleon, and one of the Argo- 
 :iauts.^2. The herald of Ulysses, whom he fol- 
 lowed to Troy. 
 
 EurybatTis (ZhpvSaTos), an Ephesian, whom 
 Croesus sent with a large sum of money to the 
 Peloponnesus to hire mercenaries for liim in his 
 ■war with Cyrus. He, however, went over to Cy- 
 rus, and betrayed the whole matter to him. In 
 consequence of this treacheiy, his name passed into 
 -a proverb amongst the Greeks. 
 
 Eurybia (Eupy^/a), daughter of Pontiis and Ge, 
 mother by Crius oi' Astraeus, Pallas, and Perses. 
 
 Eurybiades. [Themistocles.] 
 
 Etiryclea (EupyKAeia), daughter of Ops, was 
 purchased by Laertes and brought up Telemachus. 
 "When Ulysses returned home, she recognised liim 
 by a scar, and afterwards faithfully assisted him 
 against the suitors. 
 
 Eurydice (EupuS/^Tj). 1. Wife of Orpheus 
 [Orpheus.J. — 2. An Illyrian princess, wife of 
 Amyntas II., king of Macedonia, and mother of 
 the famous Philip.— 3. An Illyrian, wife of Philip 
 of Macedon, and mother of Cynane or Cynna.— 4. 
 Daughter of Amyntas, son of Perdiccas III., king 
 of Macedonia, and Cynane, daughter of Philip. 
 After the death of her mother in Asia [Cynane], 
 Perdiccas gave her in marriage to the king Arrhi- 
 
 EURYPYLUS. 257 
 
 daeus. Sbc was a womaii of a masculine spirit, 
 and entirely ruled her weak husband. On her re- 
 turn to Europe with her husband, she became in- 
 volved in war with Polysperchonand Olynipias, but 
 she was defeated in battle, taken prisoner, aiid com- 
 pelled by Olympias to put an end to her life, B.C. 317. 
 — 5. Daughter of Antipater, and wife of Ptolemy 
 the son of Lagus. She was the mother of 3 sons, 
 viz. Ptolemy Ccraunus, Meleager, and a third 
 (whose name is not mentioned) ; and of 2 daugh- 
 ters, Ptolemais, afterwards married to Demetrius 
 Poliorcetcs, and Lysandra, the wife of Agathocles, 
 son of Lysimachus ^6. An Athenian, of a family 
 descended from the great Miltiades. She was first 
 married to Ophelias, the conqueror of Cyrene, and 
 after his death returned to Athens, where she mar- 
 ried Demetrius Poliorcetes, on occasion of his first 
 visit to that city. 
 
 Euryloclius (EupuXoxos). 1. Companion of 
 Ulysses in his wanderings, was the only one that 
 escaped from the house of Circe, when his friends 
 were metamorphosed into swine. Another per- 
 sonage of the same name is mentioned among the 
 sons of Aegj'ptus. ^2. A Spartan commander, in. 
 the Peloponnesian war, b. c. 426, defeated and 
 slain by Demosthenes at Olpae. 
 
 Eurymedon (Evpu/xeSuu). 1, One of the Ca- 
 biri, son of Hephaestus and Cabiro, and brother of 
 Alcon. — 2. An attendant of Nestor. ^ 3. Son of 
 Ptoleniaeus, and charioteer of Agamemnon. — 4. 
 Son of Thuclea, an Athenian general in the Pelo- 
 ponnesian war. He was one of the commanders in 
 the expedition to Corcyra, b. c. 428, and also in 
 the expedition to Sicil}', 425. In 414, he was ap- 
 pointed, in conjunction with Demosthenes, to the 
 command of the second Syracusan aimament, and 
 fell in the first of the two sea-fights in the harbour 
 of Syracuse. 
 
 Eurymedon (Evpu/xtScav : Kapi-i-Su), a small 
 river in Pamphylia, navigable as far up as the city 
 of AsFENDUS, through which it flowed ; celebrated 
 for the victory which Cimon gained over the Per- 
 sians on its banks (b. c. 469). 
 
 Eurymenae (Evpuixepai), a town in Magnesia 
 in Thessaly, E. of Ossa. 
 
 Eurynome CEvpvvdjj.T}), 1. Daughter of Ocea- 
 nus. When Hephaestus was expelled by Hera 
 from Olympus. Eurjoiome and Thetis received hhn 
 in the bosom of the sea. Before the time of Cro- 
 nos and Rhea, Eurj'nome and Ophion bad ruled in 
 Olympus over the Titans, — 2. A surname of 
 Artemis at Phigalea in Arcadia, where she was 
 represented half woman and half fish, 
 
 Euryphon (Eypi/^wi/), a celebrated physician of 
 Cnidos in Caria, was a contemporary of Hippn- 
 crates, but older. He is quoted by Galen, who 
 says that he was considered to be the author of the 
 ancient medical work entitled KviSiat Vpicixai, and 
 also that some persons attributed to him several 
 works included in the Hippocratic Collection. 
 
 Eurypon, otherwise called Eurytion, CEupvirZy^ 
 EypuTi'wj/), grandson of Procles, was the third kino- 
 of that house at Sparta, and thenceforward gave it 
 the name of Eurypontidae. 
 
 Eurypylus {EvpyirvKos). 1. Son of Euaemon 
 and Ops, appears in different traditions as king 
 either of Ormenion, or liyria, or Cyrene. In the 
 Iliad he is represented as having come from Or- 
 menion to Troy with 40 ships. He slew many 
 Trojans, and when wounded by Paris, he was 
 nursed and cured by Patrocliis, Among the heroes 
 
253 
 
 EURYSACES. 
 
 of Hyria, he is mentioned na a son of Poseidon and 
 Celaeno, wlio went to Libya where he ruled in 
 the country afterwards called Cyrene, and there 
 became connected with the Argonauts. He mar- 
 ried Sterope, the daughter of Helios, by whom he 
 became the father of hycaon and Leucippus. — 2. 
 Son of Poseidon and Astj-palaea, king of Cos, was 
 killed by Hercules who on his return from Troy 
 landed in Cos, and being taken for a pirate, was 
 attacked by its inhabitants. According to another 
 tradition Hercules attacked the island of Cos, in 
 order to obtain possession of Chalciope, the daugh- 
 ter of Eurypylus, whom he loved. ^ 3. Son of 
 Telephus and Astyoche, king of Mysia or Cilicia, 
 was induced by the presents whicli Priam sent to 
 his mother or wife, to assist the Trojans against the 
 Greeks. Eurypylus killed Machaon, but was him- 
 self slain by Neoptolemus. 
 
 Eurysaces (Eupi/iraKTjs), son of the Telamonian 
 Ajax and Tecmessa, named after the *'" broad shield''' 
 of his father. An Athenian tradition related, that 
 Eurysaces and his brother Philaeus had given up 
 to the Athenians the island of Salamis, which they 
 had inherited from their grandfather, and that the 
 2 brothers received in return the Attic franchise. 
 Eurysaces was honoured like his father, at Athens, 
 with an altar. 
 
 Eurysthenes (Eupva-eev-qs), and Procles (npo- 
 kAtjs), the twin sons of Aristodenius, were born, 
 according to the common account before, but, ac- 
 cording to the genuine Spartan story, after their 
 father's return to Peloponnesus and occupation of 
 his allotment of Laconia. He died immediately 
 after the birth of his children, and had not even 
 time to decide which of the 2 should succeed him. 
 The mother professed to be unable to name the 
 elder, and the Lacedaemonians applied to Delphi, 
 and were instructed to make them both kings, but 
 give the greater honour to the elder. The difficulty 
 thus remaining was at last removed at the sugges- 
 tion of Panites, a Messenian, by watching which 
 of the children was first washed and fed by the 
 mother; and the first rank was accordingly given 
 to Eurysthenes and retained by his descendants. 
 From these 2 brothers, the 2 royal families in 
 Sparta were descended, and were called respectively 
 X\it Eurysthenidae a.Tid Frodidae. The former were 
 also called the Agidae from Agis, son of Eurysthenes; 
 and the latter Eurypontidae from Eurypon, grand- 
 son of Procles. 
 
 Eurystlieua. [Hercules.] 
 
 Eurytus (Ei/puroy). 1. Son of Melaneus and 
 Stratnnice, was king of Oechalia, probably the 
 Thessalian town of this name. He was a skilful 
 archer and married to Antioche, by whom he be- 
 came the father of lole, Iphitus, Molion or De'ion, 
 Clytius, and Toxeus. He was proud of his skill in 
 using the how, and is said to have instructed even 
 Hercules in his art. He offered his daughter loIe 
 as a piize to him who should conquer him and his 
 sons in shooting with the bow. Hercules won the 
 prize, but Eurytus and his sons, with the exception 
 of Iphitus, refused to give up lole, because they 
 feared lest Hercules should kill the children he 
 might have by her. Hercules accordingly marched 
 against Oechalia with an army, took the place and 
 killed Eurytus and his sons. According to Homer, on 
 the other hand, Eurytus was killed by Apollo whom 
 he presumed to rival in using the bow. {Od. viii, 
 226.) — 3. Son of Actor and Molione of Elis. 
 [MoLiONES.] — 3. Son of Hermes and Antianira, 
 
 EUSEBIUS. 
 
 and brother of Echion, was one of the Argonauts. 
 ^4. An eminent Pythagorean philosopher, a dis- 
 ciple of Philolaus. 
 
 Eusebiu3 (Eytrefiios), sumamed Parnphili to 
 commemorate his devoted friendship for Pamphilus, 
 bishop of Caesarea. Eusebius was born in Palestine 
 about A. D. 264, was made bishop of Caesarea 315, 
 and died about 340. He had a strong leaning 
 towards the Arians, though he signed the creed of 
 the council of Nicaea. He was a man of great 
 learning. His most important works are : — 1. The 
 Clironicon (xpoviHO. irai'ToSaTr^F IffTopias), a work 
 of great value to us in the study of ancient history. 
 It is in 2 books. The first, entitled xpo:'07pa<^ia, 
 contains a sketch of the history of several ancient 
 nations, as the Chaldaeans, Assyrians, Medes, Per- 
 sians, Lydians, Hebrews, and Egyptians. It is 
 chiefly taken from the work ofAfricanus [Afri- 
 CANUs], and gives lists of kings and other magis- 
 trates, with short accounts of remarkable events 
 from the creation to the time of Eusebius. The 
 second book consists of synch ronological tables, 
 with similar catalogues of rulers and striking occur- 
 rences, from the time of Abraham to the celebration 
 of Constantine'a Viccnnalia atNicomedia, a.d. 327, 
 and at Rome, a. d. 328. The Greek text of the 
 Clironicon is lost, but there is extant part of a Latin 
 translation of it by Jerome, published by Scaliger, 
 Leyden, 1606, of which another enlarged edition ap- 
 peared at Amsterdam, 1658. There is also extant 
 an Armenian translation, which was discovered at 
 Constantinople, and published by Mai and Zohrab 
 at Milan, 1818, and by An cher, Venice, 1818.— 2. 
 The Praeparatio Evangelica {eva-yyi\iKT\s airo- 
 Sei|ea>s irpoirapaa'KevT}) in 15 books, is a collection 
 of various facts and quotations from old writers, by 
 which it was supposed that the mind would be 
 prepared to receive the evidences of Christianity. 
 This book is almost as important to us in the study 
 of ancient philosophy, as the Chronicon is with 
 reference to history, since in it are preserved spe- 
 cimens from the writings of almost every philosopher 
 of any note whose works are not now extant. 
 Edited by R. Stephens, Paris, 1544, and again in 
 1628, and by F. Viger, Cologne, 1688.-3. The 
 Demonstratlo Evangelica {shayy^KiK)] d7r(J56i|is) in 
 20 books, of which 10 are extant, is a collection of 
 evidences, chiefly from the Old Testament, ad- 
 dressed principally to the Jews. This is the com- 
 pletion of the preceding work, giving the arguments 
 which the Praeparatio was intended to make the 
 mind ready to receive. Edited with the Praepa- 
 ratio in the editions both of R. Stephens and Viger. 
 — 4. The Ecclesiastical History {iKKKijciacrTtK^ 
 iVropta), in 10 books, containing the history of 
 Christianity from the birth of Christ to the death 
 of Licinius, a. d. 324. Edited with the other 
 Ecclesiastical historians by Reading, Cambridge, 
 1720, and separately by Burton, Oxford, 1838. — 
 5. De Marty ribus Palaestinae, being an account of 
 the persecutions of Diocletian and Maximin from 
 A. D. 303 to 310. It is in one book, and generally 
 found as an appendix to the eighth of the Ecclesi- 
 astical History. — 6, Against Hierocles. Hierocles 
 had advised Diocletian to begin his persecution, 
 and had written 2 books, called \6yot ^iAoATjOets, 
 comparing our Lord's miracles to those of Apollo- 
 nius of Tyana. In answering this work, Eusebius 
 reviews the life of Apollonius by Philostratus. It 
 is published with the works of Philostratus. — 
 7. Against Marcellus, bishop of Ancj-ra, in 2 books. 
 
EUSTATHIUS. 
 
 fl. De JEcclesiastica Theologia^ a continuation of the 
 former work. — 9. De Vita, Coyistaniini^ 4 books, a 
 panegyric rather than a biography. It has gene- 
 rally been published with the Ecclesiastical History, 
 but edited separately by Heinichen, 1830. — 10. 
 Onomasiicon de- Locis liehraicis, a description of the 
 towns and places mentioned in Holy Scripture, 
 arranged in alphabetical order. It was translated 
 into Latin by Jerome. 
 
 Eustathius (Eva-rddios). 1, Of Cappadocia, a 
 Neo-Platonic philosopher, was a pupil of lamblichus 
 and Aedesius. In a. d. 358, he was sent by Con- 
 stantius as ambassador to king Sapor, and remained 
 in Persia, where he was treated with the greatest 
 honour. ^ 2. Or Eumathius, probably lived as 
 late a3 the twelfth century of our era. He wrote 
 a Greek romance in II books, still extant, con- 
 taining an account of the loves of Hysminias and 
 Hysraine. The tale is wearisome and improbable, 
 and shows no power of invention on the part of its 
 author. Edited by Gaulmin, Paris, 1617, and by 
 Teucher, Lips. 179'3. — 3. Archbishop of Thessa- 
 lonica, was a native of Constantinople, and lived 
 during the latter half of the twelfth century. He was 
 a man of great learning and wrote numerous works, 
 the most important of which is his commentary on 
 the Iliad and Odyssey (Uap^K^oKal ^hrijv'Ofx-ffpov 
 'lAiaSa Kal 'OSytreret ai/), or rather his collection of 
 extracts from earlier commentators on those two 
 poems. This vast compilation was made from the 
 numerous and extensive works of the Alexandrian 
 grammarians and critics ; and as nearly all the 
 works from which Eustathius made his extracts 
 are lost, his commentary is of incalculable value to 
 us. Editions : At Rome, L542— 1 550, 4 vols. fol. ; 
 at Basle, 1559-60 ; at Leipzig, 1825-26, con- 
 taining the commentary on the Odyssey, and at 
 Leipzig, 1827-29, the commentary on the Iliad. 
 There is also extant by Eustathius a commentary 
 on Dionj'sius Periegetes, which is published with 
 most editions of Dionysius. Eustathius likewise 
 wrote a commentary on Pindar, which seems to be 
 lost. —4. Usually called Eustathius Eomanus, 
 a celebrated Graeco-Roman jurist, filled various 
 high offices at Constantinople, from a. r>. 960 to 
 1000. 
 
 Eustratius (Eua-rpdrios), one of the latest 
 commentators on Aristotle, lived about the be- 
 ginning of the twelfth century after Christ, under 
 the emperor Alexius Comnenus, as metropolitan of 
 Nicaea, Of his writings only two are extant, and 
 these in a very fragmentary state : viz. 1. A Com- 
 mentary on the 2nd book of the Analytica. 2. A 
 Commentary on the Etliica Nicomachea. 
 
 Euterpe. [Musae.] 
 
 Euthydemus (Eu^uStj/uos). 1. A sophist, was 
 born at Chios, and migrated with his brother Dio- 
 nj'sodorus to Thurii in Italy. Being exiled thence, 
 they came to Athens, where they resided many 
 years. The pretensions of Euthydemus and his 
 brother are exposed by Plato in the dialogue 
 which bears the name of the former.^3. King of 
 Bactria, was a native of Magnesia. We know no- 
 thing of the circumstances attending his elevation 
 to the sovereignty of Bactria. He extended his 
 power over the neighbouring provinces, so as to 
 become the founder of the greatness of the Bac- 
 trian monarchy. His dominions were invaded 
 about B. c. 212, by Antiochus the Great, with 
 whom he eventually concluded a treaty of peace. 
 
 Euthymus (Ei/0y/ios), a hero of Locri in Italy, 
 
 EVAGORAS. 
 
 259 
 
 son of Astycles or of vhe river-god Caecinus. He 
 was famous for his strength and skill in boxing, 
 and delivered the town of Temesa from the evil 
 spii'it Polites, to whom a fiiir maiden was sacrificed 
 every year. Euthymus himself disappeared at an 
 advanced age in the river Caecinus. 
 
 EutociuB {'Evr6Kios) of Ascalon, the commenta- 
 tor on ApoUonius of Perga and on Archimedes, 
 lived about a. d. 560. His commentaries are 
 printed in the editions of Apollonius and Ar- 
 chimedes. 
 
 Eutrapelus, P. Volumnius, a Roman knight, 
 obtained the surname of Eutrapelus (EurpctTreAoj), 
 on account of his liveliness and wit. He was an 
 intimate friend of Antony, and a companion of his 
 pleasures and debauches. Cytheris, the mistress 
 of Antony, was originally the freedwoman and 
 mistress of Volumnius Eutrapelus, whence we find 
 her called Volumnia, and was surrendered to An- 
 tony by his friend. Eutrapelus is mentioned by 
 Horace. {Epist. i. 18.31.) 
 
 Eutresii (Evrp^ffioi), the inhabitants of a dis- 
 trict in Arcadia, N. of Megalopolis. 
 
 Eutresis (EHrpTjo-is), a small town in Boeotia 
 between Thespiae and Plataeae, with a temple and 
 oracle of Apollo, who hence had the surname Eu- 
 tresltes. 
 
 Eutropius. 1. An eunuch, the favourite of 
 Arcadius, became the virtual governor of the E. on 
 the death of Rufinus, a. d. 395. He was consul 
 in 399, but in that year was deprived of his 
 power by the intrigues of the empress Eudoxia 
 and Gainas, the Goth ; he was first banished to 
 Cyprus, was shortly afterwards recalled and put to 
 death at Chalcedon. The poet Claudian wrote an 
 invective against Eutropius. ^ 2. A Roman his- 
 torian, held the office of a secretary under Constan- 
 tine the Great, was patronised by Julian the 
 Apostate, whom he accompanied in the Persian 
 expedition, and was alive in the reign of Valen- 
 tinian and Valens. He is the author of a brief 
 compendium of Roman history in 10 books, from 
 the foundation of the city to the accession of Valens, 
 A. D. 364, to whom it is inscribed. In drawing up 
 this abridgment Eutropius appears to have con- 
 sulted the best authorities, and to have executed 
 his task in general with care. The style is in 
 perfect good taste and keeping with the nature of 
 the undertaking, being plain, precise, and simple. 
 The best editions are by Tzschucke, Lips. 1796, 
 and by Grosse, Hal., 1813. 
 
 Eutychides (EutuxiStjs), of Sicyon, a statuarj--, 
 and a disciple of Lysippus, flourished B. c. 300. 
 
 Euxinua PoEtus. [Pontus Euxinijs.] 
 
 Evadne {EvdSvn). 1. Daughter of Poseidon 
 and Pitane, who was brought up by the Arcadian 
 king Aepytus, and became by Apollo the mother 
 of lamus. — 2. Daughter of Iphis (hence called 
 Iphias), or Philax, and wife of Capaneus. For 
 details see Capaneus. 
 
 Evagoras (EvaySpas)^ king of Salamis in Cy- 
 prus. He was sprung from a family which claimed 
 descent from Teucer, the reputed founder of Sala- 
 mis ; and his ancestors appear to have been during 
 a long period the hereditary rulers of that city 
 under the supremacy of Persia. They had, how- 
 ever, been expelled by a Phoenician exile, who 
 obtained the sovereignty for himself, and trans- 
 mitted it to his descendants. Evagoras succeeded 
 in recovering his hereditary kingdom, and putting 
 the reigning tyrant to death, about b. c. 410. His 
 
260 
 
 EVAGRIUS. 
 
 rule was dUtin pushed for its mildness and equity, 
 and he greatly increased the power of Salarais, speci- 
 ally by the formation of a powerful fleet. He gave 
 a friendly reception to Conon, when the latter took 
 refuge at Salamis after the defeat of the Athenians 
 at Aegospotami, 405 ; and it was at his interces- 
 sion that the king of Persia allowed Conon the 
 support of the Phoenician fleet. But his growing 
 power excited the jealousy of the Persian court, 
 and at length war was declared against him by 
 Artaxerxes. Evagoras reci-ivcd the assistance of 
 an Athenian fleet under Chabrias, and at first met 
 with great success ; but the fortune of war after- 
 wards turned against him, and lie was glad to con- 
 clude a peace with Persia, by which he resigned 
 his conquests in Cyprus, but was allowed to retain 
 possession of Sal amis, with the title of king. This 
 wnv wns brought to a close in 385. Evagoras was 
 assassinated in 374, together with his eldest son 
 Pnytagnras. He was succeeded by his son Nico- 
 cles. There is still extant an oration of Isocrates 
 in praise of Evagoras, addressed to his soji Nico- 
 cleg. 
 
 Evagriua {Evdypios)^ of Epiphania in Syria, 
 bom about a. d. 536, was by profession a " scho- 
 lasticus" (advocate or pleader), and probably prac- 
 tised at Antioch. He wrote Aft Ecclesiastical 
 History^ still extant, which extends from a. d. 
 431 to 594, It is published with the other Eccle- 
 siastical Historians, by Reading, Camb. 17"30. 
 
 Evander (EifarSpos). 1. Son of Hermes by an 
 Arcadian nymph, called Themis or Nicostrata, and 
 in Roman traditions Carmcnta or Tiburtis. About 
 60 years before the Trojan war, Evander is said to 
 have led a Pelasgian colony from Pallantium in 
 Arcadia into Italy, and there to have built a 
 town, Pailantium, on the Tiber, at the foot of 
 the Palatine Hill, which town was subsequently 
 incorporated with Rome. Evander taught his 
 neighbours milder laws and the arts of peace nnd 
 of social life, and especially the art of writing, 
 ■with which he himself had been made acquainted 
 by Hercules, and music ; he also introduced among 
 them the worship of the Lycaean Pan, of Demeter, 
 Poseidon, and Hercules. Virgil {Aen. viii. 51) 
 represents Evander as still alive at the time when 
 Aeneas arrived in Italy, and as forming an alliance 
 with him against the Latins. Evander was wor- 
 shipped at Pallantium in Arcadia, as a hero. At 
 Rome he had an altar at the foot of the Avcntine. 
 — 2. A Phocian, was the pupil and successor 
 of Lacydes as the head of the Academic School at 
 Athens, about b. c. 215. 
 
 Evenus (Ei/rji/oy). 1. Son of Ares and Demonicc, 
 and father of Marpessa. For details seeMARPESSA. 
 —Z. Two elegiac poets of Paros. One of these 
 poets, though it is uncertain whether the elder or 
 the younger, was a contemporary of Socrates, whom 
 be is said to have instructed in poetry ; and Plato 
 in several passages refers to Evenus, somewhat 
 ironically, as at once a, sophist or philosopher and 
 a poet. There are 16 epigrams in the Greek 
 Anthologj' bearing the name of Evenus, but it is 
 difficult to dctennine which of them should be 
 assigned to the elder and which to the younger 
 Evenus, 
 
 Evenus {Zv-nv6s : Fldhari), formerly called Ly- 
 cormns, rises in Mt. Oeta, and flows with a rapid 
 stream through Aetolia into the sea, 120 stadia 
 W. of Antlrrhium. 
 
 Evenus {Y.utivos : Sandarli), a river of Mysia, 
 
 FABRTCn. 
 rising in Mt. Tcnnius, flowing S. through Aeolis, 
 and fiiilin^j into the Sinus Ela'iticus near Pitane. 
 The city of Adramyttinm, which stood nearly due 
 "W. of its sources, was supplied with water from it 
 by an aqueduct. 
 
 Evergetes (EyepyeTTjs), the " Benefactor," a 
 title of honour, frequently conferred by the Greek 
 states upon those from whom they had received 
 benefits. It was assumed by many of the Greek 
 kings in Egypt and elsewhere [Ptolemaeus.] 
 
 Evxus (Euioy), an epithet of Bacchus, given 
 him from the cheering and animating cr}', eSo, euo? 
 (Lat. cvoe)^ in the festivals of the god. 
 
 Exadius (*E|a5io5), one of the Lapithae, fought 
 at the nuptials of PirithoUs. 
 
 Exsuperantius, Julius, a Roman historian, 
 who lived perhaps about the 5th or 6th centur)'- of 
 our era. He is the author of a short tract entitled 
 De Marii^ Lepidi^ ac Seiiorii hellis civilibus^ which 
 many suppose to have been abridged from the 
 Histories of Sallust. It is appended to several 
 editions of Sallust. 
 
 Eziongeber. [Behenice, No. 1.] 
 
 F. 
 
 Fabaris or Fariarus {Farfu)^ a small river in 
 Italy in the Sabine territory between Reate and 
 Cures. 
 
 Fabatua, L. Eoecius, one of Caesar's lieute- 
 nants in the Gallic war, and praetor in B.C. 49. 
 Pie espoused Pompey's party, and was twice sent 
 with proposals of accommodation to Caesar. He 
 was killed in the battle at Mutina, E. c. 43. 
 
 Fabatus, Calpumius, a Roman knight, ac- 
 cused in A. D. 64, but escaped punishment. He 
 was grandfather to Calpurnia, wife of the younger 
 Pliny, many of v/hose letters are addressed to him. 
 
 Faberins. 1. A debtor of M. Cicero. — 2. 
 One of the private secretaries of C. Julius Caesar. 
 
 Fabia, 2 daughters of M. Fabius Ambustus. 
 The elder was married to Ser. Sulpicius, a patri- 
 cian, and one of the military tribunes b. c. 376, and 
 the younger to the plebeian C. Licinius Stolo. 
 
 Fabia Gens, one of the most ancient patrician 
 gentes at Rome, which traced its origin to Her- 
 cules and the Arcadian Evander. The Fabii oc- 
 cupy a prominent part in history soon after the 
 commencement of the republic ; and 3 brothers be- 
 longing to the gens are said to have been invested 
 with 7 successive consulships, from B.C. 485 to 
 479. The house derived its greatest lustre from 
 the patriotic courage and tragic fate of the 306 
 Fabii in the battle on the Cremera, b. c. 477. 
 [ViBULANUS.] The principal families of this 
 gens bore the names of Ambustus, Buteo, Dor- 
 so, Labeo, Maximus, PiCTOR, and Vieulanus, 
 
 Fabianus, Papirius, a Roman rhetorician and 
 philosopher in the time of Tiberius and Caligula. 
 He wrote works on philosophy and physics, which 
 are referred to by Seneca and Pliny. 
 
 Fabrateria (Fabratemus : Fahatcrra), a town 
 in Latium on the right' bank of the Trerus, originally 
 belonged to tlie Volscians, but was subsequently 
 colonised by the Romans, 
 
 Fabricii belonged originally to the Hemican 
 town of Aletrium, where some of this name lived 
 as late as the time of Cicero. 1. C. Fabricius 
 Luscinus, was probably the first of his family 
 who quitted Aletrium and settled at Rome. He 
 
FAUUS. 
 
 was one of the most popular heroes in tlie Roman 
 annals, and, like Cincinnatiis and Curius, is the 
 representative of tlie purity and honesty of tiie 
 good old times. lu his first consulship, B.C. 282, 
 he defeated the Lucaniaus, Bruttians, and Sani- 
 nites, gained a rich booty and brought into the 
 treasury more than 400 talents. Fabriciua pro- 
 bably served as legate in the unfortunate cam- 
 paign against Pyrrlius in *200 ; and at its close he 
 ■was one of the Roman ambassadors sent to Pyr- 
 rlius at Tarentum to negotiate a ransom or ex- 
 change of prisoners. The conduct of Fabricius on 
 this occasion formed one of the most celebrated 
 stories in Roman history, and was embellished in 
 every possible way by subsequent writers. So 
 mncli, however, seems certain, — thatPyrrhus used 
 every eflbrt to gain the favour of Fabricius ; that 
 he ortered him the most splendid presents, and en- 
 deavoured to persuade him to enter into his service, 
 and accompany him to Greece ; bnt that the sturdy 
 Roman was proof against all his seductions, and 
 rejected all his offers. On the renewal of tlie 
 ■war ill the following year (270), Fabricius again 
 served as legate, and shared in the defeat at the 
 battle of Asculum. In 270 Fabricius was consul 
 a second time, and had tlie conduct of the war 
 against Pyrrhus. The king was "anxious for peace ; 
 and the generosity with which Fabricius sent back 
 to Pyrrhus the traitor who had offered to poison 
 htm, afforded an opfiortunity for opening negotia- 
 tions, which resulted in the evacuation of Italy by 
 Pyrrhus. Fabricius then subdued the allies of tlie 
 king in the S. of Italy. He was censor in 275. 
 and distinguished himself by the severity with 
 which he attempted to repress the growing taste 
 for luxury. His censorship is particularly cele- 
 brated, from his expelling from the senate P. Cor- 
 nelius Rufinus, on account of his possessing ten 
 pounds' weiglit of silver plate. Tlie love of luxmy 
 and the degeneracy of morals which had already 
 commenced, brought out still more prominently 
 the simplicity of life and the integrity of character 
 ■which distinguished Fabricius as well as his con- 
 temporary Curius Dentatus ; and ancient writers 
 luve to tell of the frugal way in which they lived 
 on their hereditary farms, and how they refused 
 the rich presents which the Samnite ambassadors 
 offered them. Fabricius died as poor as he had 
 lived ; he left no dowry for his daughters, which 
 the senate, however, furnished ; and in order to 
 pay the greatest possible respect to his nicniorj', 
 the state interred him within the pomaerium, :il- 
 tliough this was forbidden by the 12 Tables. — 2. 
 1. Fabricius, curator vianira in o. c. 62. built a 
 new bridpe of stone, which connected the city with 
 the island in the Tiber, and which was, after him, 
 called p07is Fabncius, The name of its author is 
 still seen on the remnants of the bridge, which 
 now bears the name of fiontc rptattro cupi.^Z. Q,. 
 Fabricius, tribune of the plebs, 57, proposed as 
 early as the month of January of that year, that 
 Cicero should be recalled from exile; but this 
 attempt was frustrated by P. Clodius by armed 
 force. 
 
 Fadiis, Caapius, appointed by the emperor Clau- 
 dius procurator of Judaea in a. d. 44. He was 
 succeeded by Tiberius Alexander. 
 
 Paesiilae (FaesuhTnus : Fiesutc)^ a city of Etniria, 
 situated on a hill 3 miles N.E. of Florence, was 
 probably not one of the 12 cities of the League. 
 SuUa sent to it a military colony ; and it was the 
 
 FANNIUS. 261 
 
 head-quarters of Catiline''s army. There are still 
 to be seen the remains of its ancient walls, of a 
 theatre, &c. 
 
 Falacrine or Falacrinum, a Sabine town at the 
 foot of the Apennines on the Via Salaria between 
 Asculum and Reate, the birthplace of the emperor 
 Vespasian. 
 
 Falern orFalerium, a town in Etruria, situated 
 on a steep and lofty height near Mt. Soracte, was 
 an ancient Pelasgic town, and is said to have been 
 founded by Halesus, who settled there witli a body 
 of colonists from Argoa. Its inhabitants were called 
 Falisci, and were regarded by many as of the 
 same race as the Aequi, whence we find them often 
 called Aequi Falisci. Falorii afterwards became 
 one of the 12 Etruscan cities; but its inhabitants 
 continued to differ from the rest of the Ktruscnns 
 both in their language and customs even in the 
 time of Augustus. Aft«r a long struggle with Rome, 
 the Faliscans yielded to Camillus b. c. 394. They 
 subsequently joined their neighbours several times 
 in warring against Rome, but were finally subdued. 
 At the close of the 1st Punic war, 241, they again 
 revolted. The Romans now destroyed Falerii and 
 compelled the Faliscans to build a new town in the 
 plain. The ruins of the new city are to be seen 
 at FaJleri ; while the remains of the more ancient 
 one are at Civita Custellana. Tlie ancient town of 
 Falerii was afterwards colonised by the Romans 
 under the name of " Colonia Etruscorum Falisca," 
 or '" Colonia Junonia Faliscorum," but it never be- 
 came again a place of importance. The ancient 
 town was celebrated for its worship of Juno Curitls 
 or Quiritis, and it was in honour of her that the 
 Romans founded the colony. Minerva and Janus 
 were also worshipped in the town. — Falerii had 
 extensive linen manufactories, and its white cow3 
 were prized at Rome as victims for sacrifice. 
 
 FS,IeniU3 Ager, a district in the N. of Campania, 
 extending from the Massic hills to the river Vul- 
 tumus. It produced some of tho finest wine in 
 Italj-, which was reckoned only second to the wine 
 of Setia. Its choicest variety was called Fanstianum. 
 It became fit for drinking in 10 years, and might 
 be used when 20 years old. 
 
 Falesia Portus, a harbour in Etruria, S. of 
 Populonium, opposite the island Ilva. 
 
 Falisci. [Falerii.] 
 
 Faliscus, Gratius, a contemporary of Ovid, and 
 the author of a poem upon the chase, entitled 
 Cij7iegeticon Liber, in 540 hexameter lines. Printed 
 in Burmann's and Wernsdorf 's Poet. Lut. J\Iin. 
 
 Fannia. 1, A woman of Minturnae, wlio hos- 
 pitably entertained Marius, when he came to Min- 
 turnae in his liight, b. c. il8, though he had formerly 
 pronounced her guilty of adulter}-.— 2. The second 
 wife of Helvidius Priscus. 
 
 Fannius. 1. C, tribune of the plebs, b. c. 107. 
 —3. L., deserted from the Roman army in 84, 
 with L. Magius, and went over to Mithridates, 
 whom tht-y persuaded to enter into negotiations 
 with Sertorlus in Spain. Fannius afterwards com- 
 manded a detacbniLMit of the army of Mithridates 
 against Lucullus. — 3. C, one "of the persons 
 wiio signed tho accusation brought a£rainst P. 
 Clodius in 61. In 59 he was mentioned by L, 
 Vettius as an accomplice in the alleged conspiracy 
 against Pompey. — 4. C, tribune of tht^ plebs, 
 59, opposed the lev aymria of Caesar. He be- 
 longed to Pompey's party, and in 49 went as 
 praetor to Sicily. — 5. C, a contemporary of the 
 
 s 3 
 
262 
 
 FANNIUS. 
 
 younger Pliny, the author of a work, very popular 
 at the time, on the deaths of persons executed or 
 exiled by Nero. 
 
 Fannius Caepio. [C.aepio.] 
 Fannius Strabo. [Strabo.J 
 Fannius Quadratus. [Quadratus.] 
 Fanum Tortiinae [Fano)^ an important town 
 in Umhrla at the mouth of the Metaurus, with a 
 celebrated temple of Fortiinn, whence the town 
 derived its name. Augiistiis sent to it a colony of 
 veterans, and it was then called " Colonia Julia 
 Fanestris." Here was a triumphal arch in honour 
 of Augustus. 
 
 Farfams. [Fabaris.] 
 
 Fascmus, an early Latin divinity, and identical 
 with Mutiniis or Tutinus. He was worshipped as 
 the protector from sorcery, witclicraft, and evil 
 daemons ; and represented in the form of a phal- 
 lus, the genuine Latin for which is fasdnum, as 
 this symbol was believed to be most efficacious in 
 averting all evil influences. 
 
 Faula or Fauna, according to some, a concu- 
 bine of Hercules in Italy ; according to others, 
 the wife or sister of Faunus. [Faunus.] 
 
 Faunus, son of Picus, grandson nf Saturniis, 
 and father of Latinus, was the tliird in the series 
 of the kings of the Laurentes. Faunus acts a very 
 prominent part in the mythical historj"- of Latium, 
 and was in later times worshipped in 2 distinct 
 capacities: first, as the god of fields and shepherds, 
 because he had promoted agriculture and the breed- 
 ing of cattle; and secondly, as an oracular divinity, 
 because he was one of the great founders of the 
 religion of the countrj-. The festival of the Fau- 
 nalia, celebrated on the 5th of December by the 
 country people, had reference to him as the god of 
 agriculture and cattle. As a prophetic god, he was 
 believed to reveal the future to man, partly in 
 dreams, and partly by voices of unknown origin, 
 in certain sacred groves, one near Tibm', around 
 the well Albunea, and another on the Aventine, 
 near Rome. What Faunus was to the male sex, 
 his wife Faula or Fauna was to the female. — At 
 Rome there was a round temple of Faunus, sur- 
 rounded with columns, on Mount Caelius ; and 
 another was built to him, in B.C. 196, on the 
 island in the Tiber, where sacrifices were offered 
 to him on the ides of Febmary. — As tlie god 
 manifested himself in various ways, the idea arose 
 of a plurality of Fauns (Fauni), who are described 
 as half men, half goats, and with horns. Faunus 
 gradually came to be identified with the Arcadian 
 Pan, and the Fauni with the Greek Satyrs. 
 
 FauBta. 1. Cornelia, daughter of the dictator 
 Sulla, and twin sister of Faustus Sulla, was bom 
 about B. c. 8R. She was first married to C. Mera- 
 miiis, and afterwards to Milo. She was infamous 
 for her adulteries, and the historian Sallust is said 
 to have been one of her paramours, and to have 
 received a severe flogging from Milo when he was 
 detected on one occasion in the house of the latter. 
 Villius was another of her paramours, whence Ho- 
 race calls him"Sullae gener." (5'<i^ i- 2. 64.) — 
 — 2. Flavia Maximiana, daughter of Maximi- 
 anus, and wife of Constantine the Great, to whom 
 she bore Constantinus, Constantius, and Constans. 
 
 Faustina. 1. Annia Galeria, commonly distin- 
 guished as Faustina Senior, the wife of Antoninus 
 Pius, died in the 3d year of his reign, a.d. 141. 
 Notwithstanding the profligacy of her life, her 
 husband leaded Iut with honours both before 
 
 FJiLiA. 
 
 and after her decense. It was in honour of her 
 that Antoninus established a hospital for the edu- 
 cation and support of young females, who were 
 called after her pucllae alimeriiariae Faustinianae. 
 — 2. Anuia, or Faustina Junior, daughter of the 
 elder Faustina, was married to M. Aurelius in a. d. 
 J 45 or 146, and she died in a village on the skirts 
 of Mount Taurus, in 175, having accompanied the 
 emperor to S}Tia. Her profligacy was so open and 
 infamous, that the gond nature or blindness of her 
 husband, who cherished her fondly while alive, 
 and loaded her with honours after her death, ap- 
 pears truh"' marvellous.^3. Annia, grand-daughter 
 or great-grand-daughter of M. Aurelius, the third 
 of the numerous wives of Elagabalus. 
 Faustiilus. [Romulus.] 
 Faventia (Faventinus : Faenze), a town in. 
 Gallia Cisalpina on the river Anerao and on the 
 Via Aemilia, celebrated for its linen manufactories. 
 Favonii Portus {Forlo Favone)^ a harbour on 
 the coast of Corsica. 
 
 M. Favonius, an imitator of Cato Uticensis, 
 whose character and conduct he copied so servilely 
 as to receive the nickname of Cato's ape. He was 
 always a warm supporter of the party of the op- 
 timates, and actively opposed all the measures of 
 the first triumvirate. On the breaking out of the 
 civil war in B. c. 49, he joined Pompey, notwith- 
 standing his personal aversion to the latter, and op- 
 posed all proposals of reconciliation between Caesar 
 and Pompey. He served in the campaign against 
 Caesar in Greece in 48, and after the defeat of his 
 party at Pharsalus, he accompanied Pompey in his 
 flight, and showed him the greatest kindness and 
 attention. Upon Pompey's death he returned to 
 Italy, and was pardoned by Caesar. He took no 
 part iu the conspiracy against Caesar's life, but 
 after the murder of the latter, he espoused the side 
 of Brutus and Cassias. He was taken prisoner in. 
 the battle of Philippi in 42, and was put to death 
 by Octavianus. 
 
 Favorinus, a philosopher and sopliist in the 
 reign of Hadrian, was a native of Aries in Gaul. 
 He resided at different periods of his life in Rome, 
 Greece, and Asia Minor, and obtained high dis- 
 tinctions. He was intimate with some of his most 
 distinguished contemporaries, among others, with 
 Plutarch, who dedicated to bim his treatise on the 
 principle of cold, and with Herodes Atticns, to 
 whom he bequeathed his library and house at 
 Rome. He wrote several works on various sub- 
 jects, but none of them are extant. 
 
 Febris, the goddess, or rather the averter, of 
 fever. She had 3 sanctuaries at Rome, in which 
 amulets were dedicated which people had worn, 
 during a fever. 
 
 Febriius, an ancient Italian divinity, to whom 
 the month of February was sacred, for in the latter 
 half of that month general purifications and lustra- 
 tions were celebrated. The name is connected 
 with februare (to purify), and ff.bruaa (purifica- 
 tions). Februus was also regarded as a god of the 
 lower world, and the festival of the dead {Feralia) 
 was celebrated in February. 
 
 Felicitaa, the personification of happiness, to 
 whom a temple was erected by LucuUus in B. c. 
 75, which was burnt down in the reign of Clau- 
 dius. Felicitas is frequently seen on Roman me- 
 dals, in the form of a matron, with the staff of 
 Mercury (caducevs) and a cornucopia. 
 
 Feliz, AntoniUB, procurator of Judaea, in the 
 
FELIX. 
 
 reigns of Claudius and Nero, waa a brother of the 
 freedman Pallas, and was himself a freedinan of the 
 emperor Claudius. Hence he is also called Clau- 
 dius Felix. In his private and his public charac- 
 ter alike Felix was unscrupulous and profligate. 
 Having fallen in love with Drusilla, daughter of 
 Agrippa I., and wife of Azizua, king of Emesa, he 
 induced her to leave her husband ; and she was 
 still living with him in 60, when St. Paul preached 
 before him " of righteousness, temperance, and 
 judgment to come." His government, though cruel 
 and oppressive, "was strong ; he suppressed all dis- 
 turbances, and cleared the country of robbers. He 
 ■was recalled in 62, and succeeded by Porcius 
 Festus ; and the Jews having lodged accusations 
 against him at Rome, he was saved from condign 
 punishment only by the influence of his brother 
 Pallas with Nero. 
 
 Felix, M, Minucius, a Roman lawyer, who 
 flourished about a.d. 230, wrote a dialogue en- 
 titled OciaviuSj which occupies a conspicuous place 
 among the early Apologies for Christianity. Edited 
 by Gronovius, Lug. Bat. 1707 ; by Ernesti,. ibid. 
 3773 ; and by Muralto, Turic. 1836. 
 
 Felsina. [Bononia.] 
 
 Feltria (Feltrinus : Felire)^ a town in: Rhaetia, 
 a little N. of the river Plavia. 
 
 Fenestella, a Roman historian, who lived in 
 the time of Augustus, and died a.d. 21, in the 
 70th year of his age. His work,, entitled An7iales^ 
 extended to at least 22 books. The few fragments 
 preserved relate to events subsequent to the Car- 
 thaginian wars ; and we know that it embraced 
 the greater part of Cicero''6 career. A treatise, De 
 Sacerdotiis et Alagistratibus Romanorum Lihn II., 
 ascribed to Fenestella, is a modern forgery., 
 
 Fenni, a savage people living by the chase, 
 whom Tacitus {Getin. 46) reckons among the 
 Germans. They appear to have dwelt in the further 
 part of E. Prussia, and to have been the same as 
 the modem Finns. 
 
 Ferentinum (Ferentinas, Ferentlnus). 1. (Fa- 
 renio), a town of Etruria, S. of Volsinii, the birth- 
 place of the emperor Otho. It is called both a 
 coionia and a municipium. There are still remains 
 of its walls, of a theatre and of sepulchres at Ferento. 
 — 2. {Fere?iio)y an ancient town of the Hemici in 
 Latium, S.W. of Anagnia, colonised by the Romans 
 in the 2nd Punic war. There are still remains of 
 its ancient walls. In its neighbourhood was the 
 source of the sacred brook Ferentina, at which tlie 
 Latins used to hold their meetings. 
 
 Ferentum. [Forentum.] 
 
 Feretrius, a surname of Jupiter, derived from 
 /erire, to strike ; for persons who took an oath 
 called upon Jupiter to strike them if the}' swore 
 falsel}', as they struck the victim which they sacri- 
 ficed to him. Others derived it from yerre, because 
 he was the giver of peace, or because people de- 
 dicated {ferehant) to him spolia opima. 
 
 Feroma, an ancient Italian divinity, who ori- 
 ginally belonged to the Sabines and Faliscans, and 
 was introduced by them among the Romans. It 
 .is difficult to form a definite notion of the nature of 
 this goddess. Some consider her to have been the 
 goddess of liberty ; others look upon her as the 
 goddess of commerce and traffic, and others again 
 regard her as a goddess of the earth or the lower 
 world. Her chief sanctuary was at Terracina, near 
 mount Soracte. 
 
 Ferox, TTrseius, a Roman juiiat, who probably 
 
 FIDENAE. 
 
 263 
 
 flourished between the time of Tiberius and Ves- 
 pasian. 
 
 Ferratus Mons {Jchel-Jurjurak)^ one of the 
 principal mountain-chains in the Lesser Atlas 
 system, in N. Africa, on the borders of Mauretania 
 Caesarieusis and Mauretania Sitifensis. 
 
 Fesceimiimi or Fescennia (Fescennlnus), a 
 town of the Falisci in Etruria, and consequently 
 like Falerii of Pelasgic origin. [Falerii.] From 
 this town the Romans are said to have derived the 
 Foscennine songs. The site of the town is uncer- 
 tain ; it may perhaps be placed at 5. Silvesio. Many 
 writers place it at Clviia Castellana, but this was the 
 site of Falerii. 
 
 Festus, Sext. Pompeius, a Roman grammarian, 
 probably lived in the 4th centurj' of our era. His 
 name is attached to a dictionary or glossary of 
 Latin words and phrases, divided into 20 books, 
 and commonly called Sexti Pompeii Festi de Verbo- 
 runi Siynijuaiiove. It was abridged by Festus 
 from a work with the same title by M. Verrius 
 Flaccus, a celebrated grammarian in the reign of 
 Augustus. Festus made a few alterations and cri- 
 ticisms of his own, and inserted numerous extracts 
 from other writings of Verrius ; but altogether 
 omitted those words which had fallen into disuse, 
 intending to malce these the subject of a se- 
 parate volume. Towards the end of the 8th 
 century, Paul, eon of Wamefrid, better known 
 aa Paulus Diaconus, fiom having officiated as a 
 deacon of the church at Aquileia, abridged the 
 abridgement of Festus. The original work of Ver- 
 rius Flaccus has perished with the exception of one 
 or two inconsiderable fragments. Of the abstract 
 by Festus one imperfect MS. only has come down 
 to us. The numerous blanks in this MS. have 
 been ingeniously filled up by Scaliger and Ursinua, 
 partly from conjecture and partly from the corre- 
 sponding paragraphs of Paulus, whose performance 
 appears in a complete form in many MSS. The 
 best edition of Festus is by K. 0. Miiller, Lip3. 
 1839, in which the text of Festus is placed face to 
 face with the corresponding text of Paulus, so as 
 to admit of easy comparison. The work is one of 
 great value, containing a rich treasure of learning 
 upon many points connected with antiquities, my- 
 thology, and grammar. 
 
 Festus, Porcius, succeeded Antonius Felix as 
 procurator of Judaea in A. i>. 62, and died not long 
 after his appointment. It was he who bore testi- 
 mony to the innocence of St. Paul, when he de- 
 fended himself before him in the same year. 
 
 Fibreuus. [Arpinum.] 
 
 Ficana (Ficanensis), one of the ancient Latin 
 towns destroyed by Ancus Martius. 
 
 Ficulea (Ficuleas, -atis, Ficolensis), an ancient 
 town of tlie Sabines, E. of Fidenae, said to have 
 been founded by the Aborigines, but early sunk 
 into decay. 
 
 Fideuae, soraetinies Fidena (Fidenas. -atis : 
 Castd Giuhileo\ an ancient town in the land of the 
 Sabines, 40 stadia (o miles) N.E. of Rome, situated 
 on a steep hill, between the Tiber and the Anio. 
 It is said to have been founded by Alba Longa, 
 and also to have been conquered and colonised by 
 Romulus ; but the population appears to have been 
 partly Etruscan, and it was probably colonised by 
 the Etruscan Veii, with which city we find it in 
 close alliance. It frequently revolted and was fre- 
 quently taken by the Romans. Its last revolt was 
 in B. c. 438, and in the following year it waa de- 
 
 s 4 
 
264 
 
 FIDENTIA. 
 
 stroyed by the Romans. Subseqviently the town 
 was rebuilt ; but it is not mentioned again till the 
 reign of Tiberius ; when in consequence of the fall 
 of a temporary wooden theatre in the town 20,000, 
 or, according to some accounts, 50,000 persons 
 lost their lives. 
 
 Fidentia (Fidentinus: Borrio S. Donino)^ a 
 town in Cisalpine Gaul on the Via Aemilia between 
 Paraia and Placentia, memorable for the victory 
 "which SuUa's generals gained over Carbo, b. c. o'J. 
 
 Pides, the personification of fidelity or faithful- 
 ness. Nuraa is said to have built a temple to Fidtfs 
 publico, on the Capitol, and another was built there 
 in the consulship of M. Aemilius Scaurus, b. c. II 5. 
 She was represented as a matron wearing a wreath 
 of olive or laurel leaves, and carrying in her hand 
 com ears, or a basket with fruit. 
 
 Fldius, an ancient form of j?/z«5, occurs in the 
 connection of Dius Fldius^ or Meilius Fidius, that 
 is, me Diiis (Ai6s) jUius, or the son of Jupiter, that 
 is, Hercules. Hence the expression medius fidius 
 is equivalent to me Hercules^ scil. juvct. Home- 
 times Fidius is used alone. Some of the ancients 
 connected _^//ks with^^es. 
 
 Figiilus, C. Harcius. L Consul b. c. 162. and 
 again consul 15G, when he carried on war with the 
 Dalmatae in Ill3'ricum. — 3. Consul 64, supported 
 Cicero in his consulship. 
 
 Figiiltis, P. Nigidius, a Pythagorean philoso- 
 pher of high reputation, who flourished about b. c. 
 CO. Mathematical and physical investigations ap- 
 pear to have occupied a large share of his attention ; 
 and such was his fame as an astrologer, that it 
 -vas generally believed, in later times at least, that 
 fie had predicted the future greatness of Octavianus 
 on hearing the announcement of his birth. He, 
 •■jioreover, possessed considerable influence in poli- 
 tical affairs ; was one of the senators selected by 
 Cicero to take down the depositions of the wit- 
 nesses who gave evidence with regard to Catiline's 
 conspiracy, u. c. 63 ; was praetor, 59 ; took an 
 active part in the civil war on the siJe of Pompey ; 
 was compelled in consequence by Caesar to live 
 abroad, and died in exile, 44. 
 
 Fimbria, C. Flavius. 1. A liomo 7ioims, who 
 rose to the highest honours through his own merits 
 and talents. Cicero praises him both as a jurist 
 and an orator. He was consul b. c. 104, and was 
 subsequently accused of extortion in liis province, 
 but was acquitted. — 2. Probably son of the pre- 
 ceding, was one of the most violent partizans of 
 Marius and Cinna during the civil war with Sulla. 
 In B. c. 8G he was sent into Asia as legate of Vale- 
 rius Flaccus, and took advantage of the unpopu- ; 
 larity of his commander with the soldiers to excite 
 a mutiny against him. Flaccus was killed at 
 Chalcedon, and was succeeded in the command by ■ 
 Fimbria, who carried on the war with success 
 against the generals of Mithridates. In 84 Sulla 
 crossed over from Greece into Asia, and, after con- 
 cluding peace with Mithridates, marched against 
 Fimbria. The latter was deserted by his troops, 
 and put an end to liis life, 
 
 ^ Fines, the name of a great number of places, 
 either on the borders of Roman provinces or of 
 difl'erent tribes. Tliese places are usually found 
 only in the Itineraries, and are not of sufficient 
 importance to be enumerated here. 
 
 Firmanus, Tarutius, a mathematician and 
 astrologer, contemporai-y with M. Varro and Cicero. 
 At Vurro'a request Firmanus took the horoscope of 
 
 FLACCUS. 
 
 Romulus, and from the circumstances of the life and 
 death of the founder determined the era of Home. 
 
 Firmianus Symposius, Caelius, of uncertain 
 age and country, the author of 100 insipid riddles, 
 each comprised in 3 hexameter lines, collected, as- 
 we are told in the prologue, for the purpose of pro- 
 moting the festivities of the Saturnalia. Printed 
 in the /-*oel, Lai. Min. of Wernsdorf, vol. vi. 
 
 Finiucus Irlatemus, Julius, or perhaps Vil- 
 lius, the author of a work entitled Maiheseos 
 Libri VIII., which is a formal introduction to ju- 
 dicial astrology, according to the discipline of the 
 Eg}'ptians and Babylonians. The writer lived in 
 the time of Conscantine the Great, and had during 
 a portion of his life practised ns a forensic pleader. 
 There is also ascribed to this Firmicus Maternus a 
 work in favour of Christianitj', entitled De Et-rwe 
 Pvofanarum Rclvjionuui ad Conslanliiivt al Conslan- 
 t&m. This work was, however, probably written 
 by a different person of the same name, since the 
 author of the work on astrology was a pagan. 
 
 Firmum (Firmanus: Fermo), a town in Picenum, 
 
 3 miles from the coast, and S. of the river Tinna, 
 colonised by the Romans at the beginning of the 
 1st Punic war. On the coast wjis its strongly 
 fortified harbour, CasteUum Firmanum or Fir- 
 manorum {Forio di Fei-mo). 
 
 M. Firmus, a native of Seleucia, the friend and 
 ally of Zenobia, seized upon Alexandria, and jiro- 
 claimed himself emperor, but was defeated and 
 slain by Aurelian, a. d. "273. 
 
 Flaccus, Calpuniius, a rhetorician in the reign 
 of Hadrian, whose 51 declamations are frequently 
 printed with those of Quintilian. 
 
 Flaccus, Fulvius. 1. M., consul with App. 
 Claudius Caudex, B. c. 264, in whicJi year the first 
 Punic war broke out. — 2. Q,, son of No. 1, consul 
 237, fought against the Ligurians in Italy. In 
 ■3'24 he was consul a ind time, and conquered the 
 Gauls and Insubrians in the N. of Italy. In 215 
 he was praetor, after having been twice consul ; 
 and in the following year (214) he was re-elected 
 praetor. In 213 he was consul for the 3rd time, 
 mid carried on the war in Campania against the 
 Carthaginians. He and his colleague, Ap. Claudius 
 Pulcher, took Hanno's camp by storm, and then 
 laid siege to Capua, which they took in the follow- 
 ing year (212). In 209 he was consul for the 
 
 4 th time, and continued the war against the Car- 
 thaginians in the S. of Italy. — 3, Cn., brother of 
 No. 2, was praetor 212, and had Apulia for his 
 province : he was defeated by Hannibal near 
 Herdonea. In consequence of his cowardice in 
 this battle he was accused before the people, and 
 went into voluntary exile before the trial. ^4. Q.^ 
 son of No. 2, was praetor 182, and carried on war 
 in Spain against the Celtiberians, whom he defeated 
 in several battles. He was consul 179 with his bro- 
 ther, L. Manilas Acidinus Fulvianug, who had been 
 adopted by Manlius Acidinus. In his consulship 
 he defeated the Ligurians. In 174 he was censor 
 with A. Postumius Albinus. Sliortly afterwards 
 he became deranged, and hung himself in his bed- 
 chamber.— 5. M., nephew of No. 4, and a friend of 
 the Gracchi, was consul 125, when he subdued the 
 Transalpine Ligurians. He was one of the tri- 
 umvirs ibr carrying into execution the agrarinnlaw 
 of Tib. Gracchus, and was slain together with C. 
 Gracchus in 121. He was a man of a bold and 
 determined character, and was more ready to have 
 recourse to violence and open force than C. Grac- 
 
FLACCUS. 
 
 chus. — 6. Q., praetor in Sardinia, IfiT, find consul 
 180.^7. Ser., consul 135, subdued the Vardaeans 
 in lUyricum. 
 
 Placcus, Granius, a contemporary of Jnlina 
 Caesar, wrote a book, De Jure Papiriano^ which 
 ■was a collection of the laws of the ancient kings of 
 Rome, made by Papirina. [Papirius]. 
 
 Flaccus, Eoratius. [Horatius.] 
 
 Flaccus, Eordeouius, consular legate of Upper 
 Germany at Nero"'s death, a. d. 68. He was 
 secretly attachedto the cause of Vespasian, for which 
 reason he made no effectual attempt to put down 
 the insurrection of Civilis [CiviLis]. His troops, 
 Tvho were in favour of Vitellius, compelled him 
 to give up the command to Vocula, and shortly 
 afterwards put him to death. 
 
 Flaccus, C. Norbanus, a general of Octavian 
 and Antony in the campaign against Brutus and 
 Cassius, B. c. 42. He was consul in 38. 
 
 Flaccus, Persius. [Persius.] 
 
 Flaccus Siciilris, an agrimensor by profession, 
 probably lived about the reign of Nerva. He wrote 
 a treatise entitled De Ciniditlonibus Agroruvi^ of' 
 ■which the commencement is preserved in. the col- 
 lection of Agrimen sores. [Frontinus.] 
 
 Flaccus, Valerius. 1. L., curule aedile b. c. 
 201, praetor 200, and consul 195. with M. Porcius 
 Cato. In his considship, and in the following year, 
 he carried on war, with great success, against the 
 Gauls in the N. of Italy. In 184 he was the col- 
 league of M. Cato in the censorship, and in the 
 same year was made princeps senatus. He died 
 100.-— 2. L., consul 131, with F. Licinius Cras- 
 8us. — 3. L., consul 100 with C. Mai'lus, when he 
 took an active part in putting down the insuirec- 
 tion of Saturninus. In 97 he tvas censor with 
 M. Antonius, the orator. In 86 he was chosen 
 consul in place of Marias, who had died in his 7tli 
 consulship, and was sent by Cinna into Asia to 
 oppose Sulla, and to bring the war against Mithri- 
 dates to a close. The avarice and severity of 
 Flaccus made him unpopular with the soldiers, who 
 at length rose in mutiny at the instigation of 
 Fimbria. Flaccus was then put to death by order 
 of Fimbria. [Fimbria.]— 4. L., the interred, who 
 proposed that Sulla should be made dictator, 82, 
 and who was afterwards made by Sulla his magis- 
 ter equitum. — 5. C, praetor 98, consul 93, and 
 afterwards proconsul in Spain. ^6. L., praetor 63, 
 and afterwards propraetor in Asia, ■where he was 
 succeeded by Q. Cicero. In 59 he was accused 
 by D. Laelius of extortion in Asia ; but, although 
 undoubtedly guilty, he was defended by Cicero (in 
 the oration pro Flacco^ which is still extant) and 
 Q. Hortensius, and was acquitted. ^7. C, a poet, 
 was a native of Padua, and lived in the time of 
 Vespasian. He is the author of the Arrfonaulica, 
 an unfinished heroic poem in 8 books, on the Ar- 
 gonautic expedition, in which he follows the ge- 
 neral plan and arrangement of ApolloniusRhodius. 
 The 8th book terminates abruptly, at the point 
 ■where Medea is urging Jason to make her the 
 companion of his homeward journey. Flaccus is 
 only a second-rate poet. His diction ia pure ; his 
 general style is free from aflfectation ; his versifica- 
 tion is polished and harmonious ; his descriptions 
 are lively and vigorous ; but he displays no ori- 
 ginality, nor any of the higher attributes of genius. 
 Editions by Burmannus, Leid. 1724 ; by Harles, 
 Altenb. 1781 ; and by Wagner, Gotting. 1805. 
 
 Flaccus, Verrius, a freedman by birth, and a 
 
 FLAMINIUS. 
 
 265 
 
 distinguished grammarian, in the reign of Augus- 
 tus, who entrusted him with the education of his 
 grandsons, Caiua and laicius Caesar. He died at 
 an advanced age, in the reign of Tiberius. At 
 the lower end of the market-place at Praeneste 
 was a stitue of Verrius Flaccus, fronting the He- 
 micyclium, on the inner curve of which were set 
 up marble tablets, inscribed with the Fasti Ver- 
 riani. These Fasti were a calendar of the day& 
 and vacations of public business — dies fasti, ne~ 
 fasti, and intcrdsi — of religious festivals, triumphs, 
 &c., especially including such as Avere peculiar to 
 tiie family of the Caesars. In 1770 the founda- 
 tions of the Hemicyclium of Praeneste were dis- 
 covered, and among the ruins were found fra.i,mients 
 of the Fasti Verriani. They are given at the end 
 of Wolf's edition of Suetonius, Lips. 1802. — 
 Flaccus wrote numerous works on philology, his- 
 tory, and archaeology-. Of these the most cele- 
 brated was his work De Verhomm. Siprificalione, 
 which was abridged by Festus. [Festus.] 
 
 Flamininus, Quintius. 1. T., a distinguished 
 general, was consul b. c. 198, and had the conduct 
 of the war against Philip of Macedonia, which he 
 carried on with ability and success. He pretended 
 to have come to Greece to liberate the country 
 from the Macedonian yoke, and thus induced the 
 Achaean league, and many of the other Greek 
 states, to give him their support. The war was 
 brought to a close in 197, by the defeat of Philip 
 by Flamininus, at the battle of Cynoscephalae in 
 Thessaly ; i-ind peace was shortly afterwards con- 
 cluded with Philip. Flamininus continued in 
 Greece for the next 3 years, in order to settle the 
 alfairs of the country. At the celebration of the 
 Isthmian games at Corinth in 196, he caused a 
 lierald to proclaim, in the name of the Roman se- 
 nate, the freedom and independence of Greece. 
 In 195 he made war against Nabis, tj'rant of 
 Sparta, whom he soon compelled to submit to the 
 Romans ; and in 1 94 he returned to Rome, having 
 won the affections of the Greeks by his prudent* 
 and conciliating conduct. In 192 he was again- 
 sent to Greece as ambassador, and remained there 
 till 190, exercising a sort of protectorate over the 
 country. In 183 he was sent as ambassador to 
 Prusias of Bithynia, in order to demand the sur- 
 render of Hannibal. He died about 174.^2. L.. 
 brother of the preceding, was curule aedile 200, 
 praetor 199, and afterwards served under his bro- 
 ther as legate in the war against Macedonia. He 
 ■was consul in 192, and received Gaul as his pro- 
 vince, where he behaved with the greatest bar- 
 barity. On one occasion he killed a chief of the 
 Boii who had taken refuge in his camp, in order 
 to afford amusement to a profligate favourite. For 
 this and similar acts of cruelty he was expelled 
 from the senate in 184, by M. Cato, who was then 
 censor. He died in 170. — 3. T., consul 160, 
 with M'. Acilius Balbus. — 4. T., consul 123^, 
 witli Q. Metellus Balearicus. Cicero says that he 
 spoke Latin ■with elegance, but that he was an 
 illiterate man. 
 
 Flaminius. 1. C, -was tribune of the plebs, 
 B. c. 232, in which year, notwithstanding the vio- 
 lent opposition of the senate, he carried an agrarian 
 law, ordaining that the Affer Gallicus Ficemts, 
 which luid recently been conquered, should be dis- 
 tributed among the plebeians. In 227, in which 
 year 4 praetors were appointed for the first time, 
 be was one of them, and received Sicily for hia 
 
266 
 
 FLANATICUS. 
 
 province, wliere he earned the goodwill of the pro- 
 vincials by his integrity and justice. In 223 he 
 was consul, and marched against the Insubriun 
 Gauls. As the senate were anxious to deprive 
 Flaminius of his office, they declared that the con- 
 sular election was not valid on account of some fault 
 in the auspices, and sent a letter to the consuls, 
 with orders to return to Rome. But as all prepa- 
 rations had been made for a battle against the 
 Insubrians, the letter was left unopened until the 
 battle was gained. In 220 he was censor, and 
 executed 2 great works, which bore his name, viz. 
 the Circus Flaminius and the Via Flaviinia. In 
 217 he was consul a second time, and marched 
 against Hannibal, but was defeated by the latter 
 at the fatal battle of the Trasimene lake, on the 
 23d of June, in which he perished with the greater 
 part of his army. — 2. C, son of No. 1, was 
 quaestor of Scipw Africanus in Spain, 210 ; curule 
 aediie 196, when he distributed among the people 
 a large quantity of grain at a low price, which was 
 furnished him by the Sicilians as a mark of grati- 
 tude towards his father and himself; was praetor 
 193, and obtained Hispania Citerior as his pro- 
 vince, where he carried on the war with success ; 
 and was consul 185, when he defeated the Li- 
 guriana. 
 
 Flanaticus or Flanonicus Sinus {GvJf of 
 Qicarnaro), a bay of the Adi'latic aea on the coast 
 of Liburnia, nnmed after the people Flanates and 
 their town Flanona {Fianona). 
 
 Flavxa, a surname given to several towns in the 
 Roman empire in honour of the Flavian family. 
 
 Plavia gens, celebrated as the house to which 
 the emperor Vespasian belonged. During the later 
 period of the Roman empire, the name Flavins de- 
 scended from one emperor to another, Constantius, 
 the father of Constantine the Great, being the first 
 in the series. 
 
 Flavia Domitilla. [Domitilla.] 
 Flavius, Cn., the son of a freedman, became 
 secretary to App. Claudius Caecus, and, in conse- 
 quence of this connection, attained distinguished 
 honours in the commonwealth. He is celebrated 
 in the annals of Roman law for having been the 
 first to divulge certain technicalities of procedure, 
 which previously had been kept secret as the ex- 
 clusive patrimony of the pontiffs and the patricians. 
 He was elected curule aediie b. c. 303, in spite of, 
 Ms ignominious burtli. 
 
 Flavius Pimbria. [Fimbria.] 
 Flavius Josephus. [Joseph us.] 
 Flavius Vopiscus. [Vopiscus.] 
 Flavus, L. Caesetius, tribune of the plebs, 
 B. c, 44, was deposed from his office by C. Julius 
 Caesar, because, in concert with C. Epidius Marul- 
 lus, one of his colleagues in the tribunate, he had 
 removed the crowns from the statues of the dic- 
 tator, and imprisoned a person who had saluted 
 Caesar aii "king." 
 
 Flavus or Flavius, Subrius, tribune in the 
 Praetorian guards, was the most active agent in the 
 conspiracy against Nero, a. d. QG, which, from its 
 most distinguished member, was called Piso's con- 
 spiracy. 
 
 Flevum, a fortress in Germany at the mouth of 
 the Amisia (Ems). 
 
 Flevum, Flevo. [Rhenus.] 
 Flora, the Roman goddess of flowers and spring. 
 The writers, whose object was to bring the Roman 
 religion into contempt, relate that Flora was a 
 
 FONTEIUS. 
 
 ; courtezan, who had accumulated a large property, 
 and bequeathed it to the Roman people, in return 
 for which she was honoured with the annual festi- 
 val of the Floralia. But her worship was esta- 
 blished at Rome in the very earliest times, for a 
 temple is said to have been vowed to her by king 
 Tatiu3,and Numa appointed a flamen to her. The 
 resemblance between the names Flora and Chloria 
 led the later Romans to identify the two divinities. 
 Her t.-*mple at Rome was situated near the Circus 
 Maximus, and her festival was celebrated from the 
 28th of April till the ist of May, with extravagant 
 merriment and lasciviousness. (DicL of Ant. art. 
 Floralia.) 
 
 Florentia (Florentlnus). 1. (Firenze, Florence)., 
 a town in Etruria on the Arnus, was a Roman 
 colony, and was probably founded by the Romans 
 during their wars with the Ligurians. In the time 
 of Sulla it was a flourishing municipium, but its 
 greatness as a city dates from the middle ages.^2. 
 {Fiorenzuola)., a town in Cisalpine Gaul on the 
 Aemilia Via between Placentia and Parma. 
 
 Florentlnus, a jurist, one of the council of the 
 emperor Severus Alexander, wrote Iiistituiiones in 
 12 books, which are quoted in the Corpus Juris. 
 
 Florianus, M. Annius, the brother, by a dif- 
 ferent father, of the emperor Tacitus, upon whose 
 decease he was proclaimed emperor at Rome, a.d. 
 276. He was murdered by his own troops at 
 Tarsus, after a reign of about 2 months, while on, 
 his march against Probus, who had been proclaimed 
 emperor by the legions in Syria. 
 
 Florus, Annaeus. 1. L., a Roman historian, 
 lived under Trajan and Hadrian, and wrote a sum- 
 mary of Roman history, divided into 4 books, ex- 
 tending from the foundation of the city to the 
 establishment of the empire under Augustus, en- 
 titled Reram Roinanarzmi Libri IV., or Epitome de 
 Gestis Romanorum. This compendium presents 
 within a very moderate compass a striking view of 
 the leading events comprehended by the above 
 limits. It is written in a declamatory style, and 
 the sentiments frequently assume the form of tumid 
 conceits expressed in violent metaphors. The best 
 editions are, by Duker, Lug. Bat. 1722, 1744, re- 
 prmted Lips. 1832 ; by Titze, Prag. 1819 ; and 
 by Seebode, Lips. 1821. — 2. A Roman poet in 
 the time of Hadrian. 
 
 Florus, Gessius, a native of Clazomenae, suc- 
 ceeded Albinus as procurator of Judaea, a. d. 
 64 — 65. His cruel and oppressive government 
 was the main cause of tlie rebellion of the Jews. 
 He is sometimes called Festus and Cestius Florus. 
 ■ Florus, Julius, addressed by Horace in 2 
 epistles (i. 3, ii. 2), was attached to the suite of 
 Claudius Tiberius Nero, when the latter was de- 
 spatched by Augustus to place Tigranes upon the 
 throne of Anncnia. He was both a poet and an 
 orator. 
 
 Foca or Pliocas, a Latin grammarian, author of 
 a dull, foolish life of Virgil in hexameter verse, of 
 which 119 lint'S are preserved. Printed in the 
 AntlioL Lat. of Burmann and Werusdorf. 
 
 Foenicularius Campus, i. c, the Fennel Fields, 
 a plain covered with fennel, near Tarraco in Spain. 
 
 Fouteius, M,, governed as propraetor Narbon- 
 nese Gaul, between B. c. 76 — 73, and was accused 
 of extortion in his province by M. Plaetorius in 69. 
 He was defended by Cicero in an oration {pro M. 
 Foiiteio)^ p;irt of which is extant. 
 
 Fonteius Capito. [Capito.] 
 
FONTUS- 
 
 Fontms, a Romaa divinity, son of Janus, had an 
 altar on the Janiculus, which derived its name from 
 his father, and on which Nunia was believed to be 
 buried. The name of this divinity- is connected 
 ■with ybns. a fountain ; and he was the personifica- 
 tion of the flowing waters. On the 13th of Octo- 
 ber the Romans celebrated ths festival of the 
 fountains called Fontinalia, at which the fountains 
 were adorned with garlands. 
 
 rorentiuu or Ferentum. (Forentanus : Fo- 
 renza\ a town in Apulia, surrounded by fertile 
 fields and in a low situation, according to Horace 
 {arvum pingue humiiis Forenti^ Caiin. iii. 4. 16). 
 Livy (ix. 20) describes it as a fortified place, which 
 was taken by C.Junius Bubulcus, B.C. 317- The 
 modern town lies on a hill. 
 
 rormiae (Formianus : nr. Mola di Ga'cta, Ru.), 
 a town in Latium, on the Appia Via, in the inner- 
 most corner of the beautiful Sinus Caietanus {Gulf 
 of GaUta). It was a very ancient town, founded 
 by the Pelasgic TjTrhenians ; and it appears to 
 have been one of the head-quarters of the Tyrrhe- 
 nian pirates, whence later poets supposed the city 
 of Lamus, inhabited by the Laestrygones, of which 
 Homer speaks {Od. x. 81), to be the same as 
 Formiae. Formiae became a municipium and re- 
 ceived the Roman franchise at an early period. 
 The beauty of the surrounding country induced 
 many of the Roman nobles to build villas at this 
 spot : of these the best known is the Formianum 
 of Cicero, in the neighbourhood of which he was 
 killed. The remains of Cicero's^ villa are still to 
 be seen at the Vilia Marsana. near Casiiglione. 
 The hills of Formiae produced good wine. (Hor. 
 Ckirm. i. 20.) 
 
 Eonnio {Formione., liusano), a small river, form- 
 ing the N. boundary of Istria. 
 
 Fornax, a Roman goddess, said to have been 
 worshipped that she might ripen the com, and pre- 
 vent its being burnt in baking in the oven 
 {foTiiax). Her festival, the Fomacalia, was an- 
 nounced by the curio maximus. 
 
 Fortuna (Tyx^/)) the goddess of fortune, was 
 worshipped both in Greece and Italy, Hesiod de- 
 scribes her as a daughter of Oceanus ; Pindar in 
 one place calls her a daughter of Zeus the Liberator, 
 and in another place one of the Moerae or Fates. She 
 was represented with different attributes. With 
 arudder, she was conceived as the divinity guiding 
 and conducting the affairs of the world ; with a 
 ball, she represents the varying unsteadiness of for- 
 tune ; with Plutos or the horn of Amalthea, she 
 was the symbol of the plentiful gifts of fortune. 
 She was worshipped in most cities in Greece. Her 
 statue at Smyrna held with one hand a globe on 
 her head, and in the other carried the horn of 
 Amalthea. Fortuna was still more worshipped 
 by the Rnmans than by the Greeks. Her wor- 
 ship is traced to the reigns of Ancus Martins and 
 Servius Tullius, and the latter is said to hava built 
 2 temples to her, the one in the forum boarium, 
 and the other on the banks of the Tiber. The 
 Romans mention her with a variety of surnames 
 and epithets, as puhlica, pi-ivaia^ viuliebris (said to 
 have originated at the time when Coriolauus was 
 prevented by the entreaties of the women from de- 
 atroyino" Rome), regina^ consei'^vatnx, pniniyenia^ 
 viriiis^ &c. Fortuna Virginensis was worshipped 
 by newly-married women, who dedicated their 
 maiden garments and girdle in her temple. For- 
 tuna Virilis was v/orshipped by women, who prayed 
 
 FORUM. 
 
 267 
 
 to her that she might preserve their charms, and 
 thus enable them to please their husbands. Her 
 surnames, in gen eral , express either particular 
 kinds of good fortune, or the persons or classes of 
 persons to whom she granted it. Her worship was 
 of great imporUmce also at Antium and Praeneste, 
 where her sortcs or oracles were very celebrated. 
 
 Fortunatae or -orum Insiilae [at riHif fxaKd- 
 ptav TTjaoi, i.e. the Islands of the Blessed). The 
 early Greeks, as we leani from Homer, placed 
 the Elysian fields, into which favoured heroes passed 
 without dying, at the extremity of the earth, near 
 the river Oceanus. [Elysium.] In poems later 
 than Homer, an island is clearly spoken of as their 
 abode ; and though its position was of course in- 
 definite, both the poets, and the geograpiiers who 
 followed them, placed it beyond the pillars of Her- 
 ciiles. Hence when, just after the time of the 
 Marian civil wars, certain islands were discovered in 
 the Ocean, off the W. coast of Africa, the name of 
 Fortunatae Insulae was applied to them. As to 
 the names of the individual islands, and the exact 
 identification of them by their modem names, there 
 are difficulties : but it may be safely said, gene- 
 rally, that the Fortunatae Insulae of Pliny, Ptolemy, 
 and others, are the Canary Islands, and probably 
 the Madeira group ; the latter being perhaps those 
 called by Pliny (after Juba) Parpurariae. 
 
 Fortunatianns, Atilius, a Latin gi-ammarian, 
 author of a treatise {Ars) upon prosody, and the 
 metres of Horace, printed in the collection of 
 Putschius. 
 
 Fortunatianus, Curius or Chirius, a Roman 
 lawyer, flourished about a. d. 450. He is the author 
 of a compendium of technical rhetoric, in 3 books, 
 under the title Curii Foriunatiani Considtl Artis 
 Rlietnricae SchoUcae Libri tres^ which at one period 
 was held in high esteem as a manual. Printed in 
 the Rhetores Laiini Aniiqui, of Pithou, Paris, 1599. 
 
 Forum, an open space of ground, in which the 
 people met for the transaction of any kind of busi- 
 ness. At Rome the number of fora increased with 
 the growth of the city. They were level pieces of 
 ground of an oblong form, and were surrounded by 
 buildings, both private and public. They were 
 divid;^d into 2 classes ifora civitia^ in which justice 
 was administered and public busineis transacted, 
 and fora venalia, in which provisions and other 
 things were sold, and which were distinguished as 
 the forum boanum^ oliioriuin^ suarium, piscurium, 
 ^0. The principal fora at Rome were : 1. Forum 
 Eomanum, also called simply the Forum, and at 
 a later time distinguished by the epithets vetus or 
 maijimm. It is usually described as lying between 
 the Capitoline and Palatine hills ; but to speak 
 more correctly, it lay between the Capitoline and 
 the Velian ridge, which was a hill opposite the 
 Palatine. It ran lengthwise from tlie foot of the 
 Capitol or the arch of Septimius Sevenis in the 
 direction of the arch of Titus ; but it did not 
 extend so far as the latter, and came to an end at 
 the commencement of the ascent to the Velian 
 ridge, where was the temple of Antoninus and 
 Faustina. Its shape was that of an irregular 
 quadrangle, of which the 2 longer sides were not 
 parallel, but were much wider near the Capitol 
 than at the other end. Its length was 630 French 
 feet, and its breadth varied from 190 to 100 feet, 
 an extent undoubtedly small for the greatness of 
 Rome ; but it must be recollected that the limits 
 of the forum were fixed in the early days of Rome 
 
268 
 
 FORUM. 
 
 and never underwent any alteration. The origin 
 of the fornm is ascribed to Romuhi3 and Tatius, 
 who are said to have filled up the swamp or marsh 
 which occupied its site, and to have set it apart as 
 a place for the administration of justice and for 
 holding the assemblies of the people. The forum 
 in its widest sense included the fornm properly so 
 called, and the Comitium. The Comitium occupied 
 the narrow or upper end of the forum, and was 
 the place where the patricians met in their comitia 
 curiata: the forum, in its narrower sense, was 
 originally only a market-place, and was not used 
 for any political purpose. At a later time the 
 forum in its narrower sense was the place of 
 meeting for the plebeians in their comitia tri- 
 buta, and was separated from the comitium by 
 the Rostra or platform, from which the orators 
 addressed the people. The most important of 
 the public buildings which surrounded the forum 
 in early times was the Curia Hostilia, the place of 
 meeting of the senate, which was said to have been 
 erected by Tullus Ilostilius. It stood on the N. 
 side of the Comitia. In the time of Tarquin the 
 forum was surrounded by a range of shops, pro- 
 bably of a mean character, but they gradually un- 
 derwent a change, and were eventually occupied 
 by bankers and money-changers. The shops on 
 the N. side underwent this change first, whence 
 they were called Novae or Argentariae Tahemae ; 
 while the shops on the S. side, though they subse- 
 quently experienced the same change, were distin- 
 guished by the name of Veteres Taheimae. As 
 Rome grew in greatness, the forum was adorned 
 with statues of celebrated men, with temples and 
 basilicae, and with other public buildings. The 
 site of the ancient forum is occupied by the Campo 
 Vaccino.^2. Fomm Julium or Fortun Caesaria, 
 was built by Julius Caesar, because the old forum 
 was found too small for the transaction of public 
 business. It was close by the old forum, behind 
 the church of St. Martina. Caesar built here a 
 magnificent temple of VenusGenitrix.— 3. Forum 
 AugTisti, built by Augustus, because the 2 exist- 
 ing fora were not found sufficient for the great in- 
 crease of business which had taken place. It stood 
 behind the Forum Julium, and its entrance at the 
 other end was by an arcli, now called Arco de' 
 Pantoni. Augustus adorned it with a temple of 
 Mars Ultor, and with the statues of the most dis- 
 tinguished men of tlie republic. This forum was 
 used for caiLsae ■puhlicae and soriUiones judicum. ^ 
 4. Forum Nervae or Forum Transitorium, was 
 a small fnruni lying between the Temple of Peace 
 and the fora of Julius Caesar and Augustus. The 
 Temple of Peace was built by Vespasian ; and as 
 there were private buildings between it and the 
 fora of Caesar and Augustus, Domitian resolved to 
 pull down those buildings, and thus form a 4th 
 forum, which was not, however, intended like the 
 other 3 for the transaction of public business, but 
 simply to serve a3 a passage from the Temple of 
 Peace to the fora of Caesar and Augustus : hence 
 its name Transitorium. The plan was carried into 
 execution by Nerva, whence the fornm is also 
 called by the name of tliis emperor. — 5. Forum 
 Trajani, built by the emperor Trajan, who em- 
 ployed the architect ApoUodorus for the purpose. 
 It lay between the forum of Augustus and the 
 Campus Martius. It was the most splendid of all 
 the fora, and considerable remains of it are still 
 extant. Here were the Basilica Ulpia and Biblio- 
 
 FOSSA. 
 
 ileca Ulpia^ the celebrated Columna Trajam, an 
 equestrian statue and a triumphal arch of Trajan, 
 and a temple of Trajan built by Hadrian. 
 
 Fonun, the name of several towns in various 
 parts of the Roman empire, which were originally 
 simply markets or places for the administration of 
 justice. 1. Alieni {Ferrara ?), in Cisalpine Gaul.— 
 2. Appii (nr. S. Donate, Ru.), in Latium, on the Ap- 
 pia Via, in the midst of the Pomptine marshes, 43 
 miles S. E. of Rome, founded by the censor Appius 
 Claudius when he made the Appia Via. Here the 
 Christians from Rome met the Apostle Paul {Ads, 
 xxviii.l5).^3. Amelii or Amelium (MoTitaUo)^ in 
 Etruria on the Aurclia Via. — 4. Cassii, in Etru- 
 ria on the Cassia Via, near Viterbo. — 5. Clodii 
 {Oriido\ in Etmria. — 6. Comelii (Ijiwla), in 
 Gallia Cispadana, on the Aemilia Via, between 
 Bononia and Faventia, a colony founded by Cor- 
 nelius Sulla. —7. Flaminii, in Umbria on the 
 Flaminia Via.— 8. Fulvii, sumamed Valentinum 
 (Valcnza), in Liguria on the Po, on the road from 
 Dertona to Asta.^9. Gallorum (Castel Franco\ in 
 Gallia Cisalpina on the Aemilia Via between Mu- 
 tina and Bononia, memorable for the 2 battles fought 
 between Antonius and the consuls Pansa and 
 Hirtius.^10. Hadriani (Voorburg), in the island 
 of the Batavi in Gallia Belgica, where several 
 Roman remains have been found. ^ 11. JTuIii or 
 Julium (Forojuliensis : Frejus), a Roman colony 
 founded by Julius Caesar, B.C. 44, in Gallia Nar- 
 bonensis, on the river Argenteus and on the coast, 
 600 stadia N. E. of MassUia. It possessed a good 
 harbour, and was the usual station of a part of the 
 Roman fleet. It was the birthplace of Agricola. 
 At Frejus are the remains of a Roman aqueduct, 
 circus, arch, &c. — 12. Julai or Julium {Friaul), a 
 fortified town and a Roman colony in the country 
 of the Cami, N. E. of Aquileia : in the middle ages 
 it became a place of importance. ^13. Julium. See 
 Illiturgis.— 14.Livii(i^o77i), in Cisalpine Gaul, 
 in the territory of the Boii, on the Aemilia Via,. 
 S. W. of Ravenna : here the Gothic king Athaulf 
 married GallaPlacidia.— 15. Fopilii(ivj?-/z;«7Jrijjo^z), 
 in Gallia Cisalpina, E. of No. 14, and on the same 
 road.— 16. Popilii {Polla)^ in Lucania, E. of Paes- 
 tum on the Tangcrandon the Popilia Via. On the- 
 wall of an inn at Polla was discovered an inscription 
 respecting thepraetorPopilius. ^17. Segusianorum 
 (Feurs\ in GallJa Lugdunensis, on the Liger, and 
 W. of Lugdunum, a town of the Segusiani and a 
 Roman colony with the surname Julia Felix.^18. 
 Sempronii (Forosemproniensis : Fosso7nh'oiie\ a 
 municipium in Umbria, on the Flaminia Via.— 19. 
 Vocontii [Vidauhan E. of Canet), a town of the 
 Salves in Gallia Narbonensis. 
 
 Fosi, a people of Germany, the neighbours and 
 allies of the Chenisci, in whose fate they shared. 
 [CiiEKUsci.] It is supposed that their name is 
 retained in the river Fuse in Bmnswick. 
 
 Fossa or Fossae, a canal. 1. Clodia, a canal 
 between the mouth of the Po and Altinum in the 
 N. of Italy, there was a town of the same name 
 upon it. — 2. Cluiiia or Cluiliae, a trench about 5 
 miles from Rome, said to have been the ditch with 
 which the Alban king Cluilius protected his camp, 
 when he marched against Rome in the reign of 
 Tullus Hostilius. — 3. Corbulonis, a canal in the 
 island of the Batavi, connecting the Maas and the 
 Rhine, dug by command of Corbulo in the reign of 
 Claudius. — 4. Drusiauae or Drusinae, a canal 
 which Drusus caused his soldiers to dig in B.C. 11, 
 
FRANCI. 
 
 uniting; the Rhine Tvith the Yssel. It probably 
 commenced near Arnheiin on the Rhine and fell 
 into the Yssel near Doesberg. — 6. Mariana or 
 Marianae, a canal dug by command of Marius 
 during his war with the Cimbri, in order to connect 
 the Rhone with the Mediterranean, and thus make 
 an easier passage for vessels into the Rhone, because 
 the mouths of the river were frequently choked np 
 with sand. The canal commenced near Arelate, 
 but in consequence of the frequent changes in the 
 course of the Rhone, it is impossible now to trace 
 the course of the canal. -^ 6. Xerxis. See Athos. 
 
 Franci, i. e., " the Free men,'" a confederacy of 
 German tribes, formed on the Lower Rhine in the 
 place of the ancient league of the Cherusci, and 
 consisting of the Sigambri, the chief tribe, the 
 Chamavi, Ampsivarii, Bructeri, Chatti, &c. They 
 are first mentioned about a. d. 2-10. After carrj'ing 
 on frequent wars with the Romans, they at length 
 settled permanently in Gaui, of which they became 
 the rulers under their great king Clovis, a. d. 496. 
 
 Fregellae (Fregellilnus : Ceprano), an ancient 
 and important town of the Volsci on the Liris in 
 Latium, conquered by the Romans, and colonised 
 B. c. 328. It took part with the allies in the Social 
 war, and was destroyed by Opimius. 
 
 Fregenae, sometimes called Fregellae (Torre 
 ]\faccarese'), a town of Etruria on the coast between 
 Alsium and tlie Tiber, on a low swampy shore, 
 colonised by the Romans, B. c. 2'15. 
 
 Frentani, a Samnite people, inhabiting a fertile 
 and well watered territory on the coast of the 
 Adriatic, from the river Sagrus on the N. (and sub- 
 sequently almost as far N. as from the Atemus) 
 to the river Frento on the S., from the latter of 
 -which rivers they derived their name. They were 
 bounded by the Marrucini on the N., by the Pcligni 
 and by Saninium on the W., and by Apulia on the 
 S. They submitted to the Romans in b. c. 304, 
 and concluded a peace with the republic. 
 
 Frento (Fortore), a river in Italy forming the 
 boundary between the Frentani and Apulia, rises in 
 the Apennines and falls into the Adriatic sea. 
 
 Friniates, a people in Liguria, probably the 
 same as the Briniates, who, after being subdued by 
 the Romans, were transplanted to Samnium. 
 
 Frisiabones, probably a tribe of the Frisii, in- 
 habiting the islands at the mouth of the Rhine. 
 
 Frisii, a people in the N. W. of Germany, in- 
 habited the coast from the E. mouth of the Rhine 
 to the Amisia {Ems), and were bounded on the S. 
 by the Bructeri, consequently in the modem Fries- 
 land^ Groniiigen, &c. Tacitus divided them into 
 Majorcs and Minores, the former probably in the 
 E., and the latter in the W. of the country. The 
 Frisii were on friendly terms with the Romans 
 from the time of the first campaign of Drusus till 
 A. It. 28, when the oppressions of the Roman offi- 
 cers drove them to revolt. In the 5th century we 
 find them joining the Saxons and Angli in their 
 invasion of Britain. 
 
 Frontinus, Sex. Julius, was praetor a. d. 70, 
 and in 75 succeeded Cerealis as governor of Bri- 
 tain, where he distinguished himself by the con- 
 quest of the Silures, and maintained the Roman 
 power unbroken until superseded by Agricola in 
 7S. In 97 Frontinus was nominated curator aqua- 
 rum. He died about 106. Two works undoubt- 
 edly by this author are still extant : — 1. Siraiege- 
 maiicon Libri IV.y a sort of treatise on the art of 
 >var, developed in a collection of the sayings and 
 
 FUFIUS. 
 
 269 
 
 doings of the most renowned leaders of antiquity. 
 2. 1)g Aquacductibus (Jrbis Romae Libri 11.^ which 
 forms a valuable contribution to the iiistory of 
 architecLure. The best editions of the Stralegcvia- 
 lica iire, by Oudendorp, Lug. Bat. 1779, and by 
 Schwebel, Lips. 1772 ; of tlie De Aquacductibus by 
 Polcnus, Patav. 1722. — In the collection of the 
 Agrimensores or Rei Agi'ariae Auctores (ed. Goe- 
 sius, Amst. 1674 ; ed. Lachmann, Berlin, 1048), 
 are preserved some treatises usually ascribed to 
 Sex. Julius Frontinus, The collection consists of 
 fragments connected with the art of measuring 
 land and ascertaining boundaries. It was put 
 together without skill, pages of different works 
 being mi,-ced up together, and tlie writings of one 
 author being sometimes attributed to another. 
 
 Fronto, M. Cornelius, was bom at Cirta in 
 Numidia, in the reign of Domitian, and came to 
 Rome in the reign of Hadrian, where he attained 
 great celebrity as a pleader and a teacher of rhetoric. 
 He was entrusted with the education of the future 
 emperors, M. Aurelius and L. Vcrus, and was re- 
 warded with wealth and honours. He was raised 
 to the consulship in 143. So great was his fame 
 as a speaker, that a sect of rhetoricians arose who 
 were denominated Frontoniaiii. Following the 
 example of their founder, they avoided the exag- 
 geration of the Greek sophistical school, and be- 
 stowed especial care on the purity of their language 
 and the simplicity of their style. Fronto lived till 
 the reign of M. Aurelius. The latest of his epistles 
 belongs to the year 166. — Up to a recent period no 
 work of Fronto was known to be in existence, with 
 the exception of a corrupt and worthless tract en- 
 titled De Differe7itiis Vocabulorum^ and a few frag- 
 ments preserved by the grammarians. But about 
 the year 1814 Angelo Mai discovered on a pa- 
 limpsest in the Arabrosian library at Milan a 
 considerable number of letters which had passed 
 between Fronto, Antoninus Pius, M. Aurelius, 
 L. Verus, and various friends, together with some 
 short essays. These were pubHshed by Mai at 
 Milan in 1815, and in an improved form by Niebuhr, 
 Buttmann and Heindorf, Berlin, 1816. Subse- 
 quently Mai discovered on a palimpsest in the 
 Vatican library at Rome, upwards of 100 new 
 letters ; and he published these at Rome in 1823, 
 together with those which had been previously dis- 
 covered. 
 
 Fronto, PapiritLS, a jurist, who probably lived 
 about the time of Antoninus Pius, or rather earlier. 
 
 Frosino (Frusinas, -atis: Frosinone), a town of 
 the Hernici in Latium, in the valley of the river 
 Cosas, and subsequently a Roman colony. It was 
 celebrated for its prodigies, which occurred here 
 almost more frequently than at any other place. 
 
 Fucentis, Fucentia. [Alba, No, 4.] 
 
 Fucinus Lacus {Lago di CeUino or C'ap?$irano), 
 a large lake in the centre of Italy and in the coun- 
 try of the Marsi, about 30 miles in circumference, 
 into which all the mountain streams of the Apen- 
 nines flow. As the water of this lake had no 
 visible outlet, and frequently inundated the sur- 
 rounding country, the emperor Claudius constnicted 
 an emissarium or artificial channel for carrj-ing off 
 the waters of the lake into the river Liris. This 
 emissarium is still nearly perfect : it is almost 3 
 miles in length. It appears that the actual drainage 
 was relinquished soon after the death of Claudius, 
 for it was reopened by Hadrian. 
 
 Fiifiua Caleuus. [Calenus.] 
 
C70 FUFIDTUS. 
 
 Ftlfidius, a jurist, who probably lived between 
 tlie time of Vespasijin and Hadrian. 
 
 Fulgentius, Fabius Planciades, a Latin gram- 
 marian of uncertain date, prol}abl3' not earlier than 
 the 6th century after Clirist, appears to have been 
 of African origin. He is the author of : 1. My- 
 tholoffiarum Libri Til. ad Catuin P reahyterum^ a 
 collection of tlie most remarkable tales connected 
 with the history and exploits of gods and heroes, 
 2. Eorpositio Sermonum Antiquorum cum Testimomis 
 ad Chalcidicum Grammaiicum^ a glossary of obso- 
 lete words and phrases ; of very little value. 3. 
 Liber de Ejpositione Virgiliavxie Continentiae ad 
 Chalcidicum Grammaiicum, a title which means, an 
 eaplanaiion of what is contained in Virgil^ that is 
 to say, of the esoteric truths allegoricall}'" conveyed 
 in the Virgilian poems. — The best edition of these 
 works is in the Mythograpki Latini of Muncker, 
 Auct. 1681, and of Van Staveren, Lug. Bat. 1742. 
 
 Fulgima, Fulginium (Fulginaa, -atis : Fuligno), 
 a town in the interior of Umbria on the Via Fla- 
 minia, was a municipium. 
 
 Fulvia. 1. The mistress of Q. Curius, one of 
 Catiline's conspirators, divulged the plot to Cicero. 
 ^2. A daughter of M. Fulvius Bambalio of Tus- 
 cubim, thrice married, 1st to the celebrated P. 
 Clodias, by whom she had a daughter Clodia, 
 afterwards the wife of Octavianus ; 2ndly to C. 
 Scribonius Curio, and Srdly to M. Antony, by 
 whom she had 2 sons. She was a bold and am- 
 bitious woman. In the proscription of b. c. 43 she 
 acted with the greatest arrogance and bratality : 
 she gazed with delight upon the head of Cicero, 
 the victim of her husband. Her turbulent and 
 ambitious spirit excited a new war in Italy in 41. 
 Jealous of the power of Octavianus, and anxious to 
 withdraw Antony from the E., she induced L. An- 
 tonius, the brother of her husband, to take up anns 
 against Octavianus. But Lucius was unable to 
 resist Octavianus, and threw himself into Perusia, 
 which he was obliged to surrender in the following 
 year (40). Fulvia fled to Greece and died at Si- 
 cyon in the course of the same year. 
 
 Fulvia Gens, plebeian, but one of the moat 
 illustrious Roman gentes. It originally came from 
 Tusculum. The principal families in the gens are 
 thoae of Centumalus, Flaccus, Nobilior, and 
 Paetinus. 
 
 rundanius. 1. C, father of Fundania, the wife 
 of M. Tercntius Van-o, is one of the speakers in 
 Varro's dialogue, De Re Rustica. '^-2, M., de- 
 fended by Cicero, b. c. QS ; but the scanty fragments 
 of Cicero's speech do not enable us to understand 
 the nature of tlie charge. ^ 3. A writer of comedies 
 praised by Horace {Sat i. 10. 41, 42). 
 
 Fundi (Fundanus: Fondi), an ancient town in 
 Latium on the Appla Via, at the head of a narrow 
 bay of the sea running a considerable way into the 
 land, cnlled the Lacus Fundanus. Fundi was a 
 municipium, and was subsequently colonised by 
 the veterans of Augustas. The surrounding coun- 
 try produced good wine. There are still remains 
 at Fondi of the walls of the ancient town. 
 
 Furciilae Caudinae. [Caudium.] 
 
 Furia Gens, an ancient patrician gens, probably 
 came from Tusculum. The most celebrated fa- 
 milies of the gens bore the names of Camillus, 
 Medullinus, Pacilus, and Philus. For others 
 of less note see Bibaculus, Crassipes, P urpureo. 
 
 Fiiriae. [Eumenjdes,] 
 
 Furina, an ancient Roman divinity, who had a 
 
 GABINIUS. 
 
 sacred grove at Rome. Her worship seems to have 
 become extinct at an early time. An annual fes- 
 tival {Fui-inalia OT Furinales feriae) had been cele- 
 brated in honour of her, and a flamen {fiamen Fu- 
 rinalis) conducted her worship. She had also a 
 temple in the neighbourhood of Satricum. 
 
 C. Fumitis, a friend and correspondent of Cicero, 
 was tribune of the plebs b, c. 50 ; sided with Caesar 
 in the civil war ; and after Caesar's death was a 
 staunch adherent of Antony. After the battle of 
 Actium, 31, he was reconciled to Augustus, through 
 the mediation of his son, was appointed consul in 
 29, and was prefect of Hither Spain in 21. 
 
 Fuscus. 1, Arellius, a rhetorician at Rome in 
 the latter years of Augustus, instructed in rhetoric 
 the poet Ovid. He declaimed more frequently in 
 Greek than in Latin, and his style of declamation 
 is described by Seneca, as more brilliant than 
 solid, antithetical rather than eloquent. His rival 
 in teaching and declaiming was Porcius Latro. 
 [ Latro. ] ^ 2. Ariatiua, a friend of the poet Horace, 
 who addressed to him an ode {Cann. i. 22) and 
 an epistle {Ep.\. 10), and who also introduces him 
 elsewhere {Sat i. 9. 61; 10. 83). — 3. Cornelius, 
 one of the most active adherents of Vespasian in 
 his contest for the empire, a. n. 69. In the reign 
 of Domitian he wns sent against the Dacians, by 
 whom he was defeated. Martial wrote an epitaph 
 on Fuscus {Ep. vi. 76), in which he refers to the 
 Dacian campaign. 
 
 Gabae {Va§ai). 1. (DarabgJierd 9\ a fortress 
 and royal residence in the interior of Persis, S. E. 
 of Pasargadae, near the borders of Carmania. ^ 
 2. Or Gabaza, or Cazaba, a fortress in Sogdlana. 
 on the confines of the Massagetae. 
 
 Gabala (rdSaA.a), a sea-port town of Syria 
 Seleucis, S. of Laodicea ; whence good storax was 
 obtained. 
 
 Gabali, a people in Gallia Aquitanica, whose 
 country possessed silver mines and good pasturage. 
 Their chief town was Anderitum {Anterieux). 
 
 Gabiana or -ene {Ta^iavi}^ TaSiyjvh), a fertile 
 district in the Persian province of Susiana, W. of 
 M, Zagros. 
 
 Gabli (Gabinus : nr. Casiiglione Ru.), a town 
 in Latium, on the Lacus Gabinus {Logo di Gavi), 
 between Rome and Praeneste, was in early times 
 one of the most powerful Latin cities ; a colony 
 from Alba Longa ; and the place, according to 
 tradition, where Romulus was brought up. It \\a.3 
 taken by Tarquinius Superbus by stratagem, and 
 it was in ruins in the time of Augustus {Gabiis de- 
 sertior vicus, Hor. Ep. i. 11. 7). The cincliis Ga- 
 binus^ a peculiar mode of wearing the toga at Rome, 
 appears to have been derived from this town. In 
 the neighbourhood of Gabii are the immense stone 
 quarries, from which a part of Rome was built. 
 
 A. Gablnius, dissipated his fortune in youth 
 by his profligate mode of life. He was tribune of 
 the plebs b. c. ^Q, when he proposed and carried a 
 law conferring upon Pompey the command of the 
 war against the pirates. He was praetor in 61, 
 and consul in 58 with L. Piso. Both consuls sup- 
 ported Clodius in his measures against Cicero, 
 which resulted in the banishment of the orator. 
 In 57 Gabinius went to Syria as proconsul. His 
 first attention was directed to the affairs of Judea. 
 
GADARA. 
 
 He restored Hj-rcanxis to the high priesthood, of 
 which he had been dispossessed by Alexander, the 
 son of Arifitobulns. He next marched into Egypt, 
 and restored Ptolemy Auletes to the throne. The 
 restoration of Ptolemy had been forbidden by a 
 decree of the senate, and by the Sibylline books ; 
 but Gabiniua had been promised by the king a 
 sum of 10,000 talents for this service, and accord- 
 ingly set at nought both the senate and the Sibyl. 
 His government of the province was marked in 
 other respects by the most shameful venality and 
 oppression. He returned to Rome in 54, He was 
 accused of majestas or high treason, on account of 
 his restoration of Ptolemy Auletes, in defiance of 
 the Sibyl, and the authority of the senate. He 
 was acquitted on this charge ; but he was forthi.vith 
 accused of repetundae, for the illegal receipt of 
 10,000 talents from Ptolemy. He was defended 
 by Cicero, who had been persuaded by Pompe}', 
 much against his will, to undertake the defence. 
 Gabinius, however, was condemned nn this charge, 
 and went into exile. He was recalled from exile 
 by Caesar in 49, and in the following year (48) 
 was sent into Illyricum by Caesar with some newly 
 levied troops, in order to reinforce Q. Cornificius. 
 He died in Illyricum about the end of 48, or the 
 beginning of the following year. 
 
 Gadara (raSapa : raSapijvSs: C/j»-^ezs), alarge 
 fortified city of Palestine, one of the 10 which 
 formed the Decapolis in Peraea, stood a little S. 
 of the Hieromax {Yarmuk)^ an eastern tributaiy 
 of the Jordan, The surrounding district, S. E. of 
 the Lake of Tiberias, was called Gadaris, and was 
 very fertile. Gadara was probably favoured by 
 the Greek kings of Syria, as it is sometimes called 
 Antiochia and Seleucia ; it was restored by Pom- 
 pey ; Augustus presented it to king Herod, after 
 whose death it was assigned to the province of 
 Syria. It was made the seat of a Christian 
 bishopric, Tliere were celebrated baths in its 
 neighbourhood, at Amatha. 
 
 Gades (ra TdSeipa : raSeipetJs, Gaditanus : Ca- 
 diz)^ a very ancient town in Hispania Baetica, 
 W. of the Pillars of Hercules, founded by the 
 Phoenicians, and one of the chief scats of their 
 commerce in the W. of Europe, was situated on a 
 small island of the same name (/. de Leon)^ se- 
 parated from the mainland by a narrow channel, 
 which in its narrowest part was only the breadtli 
 of a stadium, and over which a bridge was built. 
 Herodotus says (iv. 8) that the island of Erythia 
 was close to Gadeira ; whence most later writers 
 supposed the island of Gades to be the same as the 
 mythical island of Erythia, from which Hercules 
 carried off the oxen of Geryon. A new town was 
 "built by Cornelius Balbus, a native of Gades, and 
 the circumference of the old and new towns together 
 was only 20 stadia. There were, however, several 
 inhabitants on the mainland opposite the island, 
 as well as on a smaller island {S. Sebastian or Tro- 
 cadcro) in the immediate neighbourhood of the 
 larger one. After the 1st Punic War Gades came 
 into the hands of the Carthaginians ; and in the 
 2nd Punic war it surrendered of its own accord to 
 the Romans. Its inhabitants received the Roman 
 franchise from Julius Caesar. It became a muni- 
 cipium, and was called Augusta urhs Julia Gadi- 
 iana, — Gades was from the earliest to the latest 
 times an important commercial town. Its inha- 
 bitants were wealthy, luxurious, and licentious ; 
 -and their lascivious dances were celebrated at 
 
 GAINAS. 
 
 271 
 
 Rome. (.luv. xi. 162.) Gades possessed cele- 
 brated temples of Cronus and Hercules. Its drink- 
 ing water was as had in antiquity as it is in the 
 present day. — Gades gave its name to the Fretum 
 Gaditanum, the straits at the entrance of the Me- 
 diterranean between Europe and Africa {Straits of 
 Gibraltar). 
 
 Gaea or Ge (Ta^a or r^), the personification 
 of the earth. Homer describes her as a divine 
 being, to whom black sheep were sacrificed, and 
 who was invoked by persons taking oaths ; and he 
 calls her the mother of Erechtheus and Tithyus, 
 In Hesiod she is the first being that sprang from 
 Chaos, and gave birth to Uranus and Pontus. By 
 Uranus she became the mother of Oceanus, Coeus, 
 Crius, Hyperion, lapetus, Thia, Rheia, Themis, 
 Mnemosyne, Phoebe, Thetys, Cronos, the Cyclopes, 
 Brontes, Steropes, Arges, Cottus, Briareus, and 
 Gyges. These children were hated by their father, 
 and Ge therefore concealed them in the bosom of 
 the earth ; but she made a large iron sickle, gave it 
 to her sons, and requested them to take vengeance 
 upon their father. Cronos undertook the task, and 
 mutilated Uranus. The drops of blood, which fell 
 from him upon the earth (Ge), became the seeds 
 of the Erinnyes, the Gigantes, and the Melian 
 nymphs. Subsequently Ge became, by Pontus, 
 the mother of Nereus, Thaumas, Phorcys, Ceto, and 
 Eurybia. Ge belonged to the gods of the nether 
 world (^eol x^fJ^toi), and hence she is frequently 
 mentioned where they are invoked. The surnames 
 and epithets given to her have more or less refer- 
 ence to hercharacterasthe all-producing and all-nou- 
 rishing mother {mater omniparens et alma).' Her 
 worship appears to have been universal among the 
 Greeks, and she had temples or altars in almost 
 all the cities of Greece, At Rome the earth was 
 worshipped under the name of Tellus (which is 
 only a variation of Terra). She was regarded by 
 the Romans also as one of the gods of the nether 
 world {In/eri), and is mentioned in connection 
 with Dia and the Manes. A temple was built to 
 her by the consul P. Sempronius Sophus, in b. c. 
 304. Her festival was celebrated on the 15 th of 
 April, and was called Fordicidia or Hordicidia. 
 The sacrifice, consisting of cows, was offered up in 
 the Capitol in the presence of the Vestals, 
 
 Gaeson, Gaesus, or Gessus {Taio-wv), a river 
 of Ionia in Asia Minor, falling into the Gulf of 
 Maeander near the promontory of Mycale. 
 
 Gaettilia {TairovKla), the interior of N, Africa, 
 S. of Mam-etania, Numidia, and the region border- 
 ing on the Syrtes, reaching to the Atlantic Ocean 
 on the W., and of very indefinite extent towards 
 the E. and S. The people included under the 
 name Gaetuli (TaiTouAoi), in its widest sense, 
 were the inhabitants of the region between the 
 countries just mentioned and the Great Desert, 
 and also in the Oases of the latter, and nearly as 
 far S. as the river Niger. They were a great 
 nomad race, including several tribes, the chief of 
 whom were the Autololes and Pharusii on the W. 
 coast, the Darae, or Gaetuli-Darae, in the steppes 
 of the Great Atlas, and the Melanogaetuli, a black 
 race resulting from the intermixture of the Gaetuli 
 with their S, neighbours, the Nigritae, The pure 
 Gaetulians were not an Aethiopic (i. e. negro), 
 but a Libyan race, and were most probably of 
 Asiatic origin. They are supposed to have been 
 the ancestors of the Berbers. 
 
 Gainas, [Arcadius.] 
 
27-2 GAIUS. 
 
 Gains or Caias, a celebrated Roman jurist, 
 •wrote under Antoninus Pius and M. Aureliits. liis 
 works were very numerous, and great use was 
 made of them in the compilation of the Digest. 
 One of his most celebrated works was an elemen- 
 tary treatise on Roman law, entitled Inst'Uuiioves^ 
 in 4 books. This work was for a long time the 
 ordinary text book used by those who were com- 
 mencing the study of the Roman law ; but it went 
 out of u?e after the compilation of the Institutiones 
 of Justinian, and was finally lost. This long lost 
 work was discovered by Niebuhr in 1816 in the 
 library of the Chapter at Verona, The MS. con- 
 taining Gains was a palimpsest one. The original 
 writing of Gains had on some pages been washed 
 out, and on others scratched out, and the whole was 
 re-written with the Letters of St. Jerome. The task 
 of deciphering the original MS. was a verj' difficult 
 one, and some parts were completclj'" destroyed. It 
 was first published by Gdschen in 1821 : a second 
 edition appeared in 1824. and a third in 1842. 
 
 Gagae (rdyai), a to^vn on the coast of Lycia, 
 E. of Myra, whence was obtained the mineral 
 called Gagates lapis, that is, jet, or, as it is still 
 ■called in German, gagat. 
 
 GalantMs. [Galinthias.] 
 
 Galatea (roAareia), daughter of Nereus and 
 Doris. For details, see Acis, 
 
 Galatia (raAaria : TdKarris : in the E. part of 
 Anadoli and the W. part of Huviili), a country of 
 Asia Minor, composed of parts of Phrygla and 
 Cappadocia, and bounded on the W., S., and S. E. 
 by those countries, and on the N. E., N., and 
 K. "W, by Pontus, Papblagonia, and Bithynia. 
 It derived its name from its inhabitants, who were 
 Gauls that had invaded and settled in Asia Minor 
 at various periods during the 3d century B. c. 
 First, a portion of the army which Brcnnus led 
 ■against Greece, separated from the main body, and 
 marched into Thrace, and, having pressed forward 
 as far as the shores of the Propontis, some of them 
 crossed the Hellespont on their own account, while 
 others, who had reached Byzantium, were invited 
 to pass the Bosporus by Nicomedes I., king of 
 Bithynia, who required their aid against his bro- 
 ther Zipoetus (b. c. 279). They speedily overran 
 all Asia Minor within the Taurus, and exacted 
 tribute from its various princes, and served as 
 mercenaries not only in the armies of these princes, 
 but also of the kings of Syria and Egypt ; and, 
 according to one account, a body of them found 
 their way to Babylon, During their ascendancy, 
 other bodies of Gauls followed them into Asia. 
 Their progress was at length checked by the arms 
 of the kings of Pergamua; Eumenes foughtagainst 
 them with various fortune ; but Attalus I. gained 
 a. complete victory over them (b. c. 230), and com- 
 pelled them to settle down within the limits of the 
 country thenceforth called Galatia, and also, on ac- 
 count of the mixture of Greeks with the Celtic 
 inhahitants, which speedily took place, Gi*aeco- 
 Galatia and Gallograecia. The people of Galatia 
 adopted to a great extent Greek habits and man- 
 ners and religious observances, but preserved their 
 own language, which is spoken of as resembling 
 that of the Treviri. They retained also their poli- 
 tical divisions and forms of government. They 
 consisted of 3 great tribes, the Tolistobogi, the 
 Trocmi, and the Tectosages, each subdivided into 
 4 parts, called by the Greeks r^rpapxlai. At the 
 head of each of tiiese 12 Tetrarchies was a chief, 
 
 GALBA. 
 
 or Tetrarch, who appointed the chief magistrate 
 (5LKaar7}s)y and the commander of the army 
 (fTTpaTo^uAal), and 2 lieutenant-generals (uiro- 
 <rrparo(pvKaKGs). The 12 tctrarchs together had 
 the general government of the country, but their 
 power was checked by an assistant senate of 300, 
 who met in a place called Drynaemetum (or, pro- 
 bably, Drj-^aenetum, i, c. the oak-grove)^ and had 
 jurisdiction in all capital cases. This form of 
 government had a natural tendency to monarchy, 
 according as either of the 12 tetrarchs became 
 more powerful than the rest, especially under the 
 protection of the Romans, to whom Galatia became 
 virtually subject as the result of the campaign 
 which the consul Cn. Manlius undertook against 
 the Gauls, to punish them for the assistance they 
 had given to Antiochus the Great (b. c IQ9). 
 At length one of the tetrarchs, DEiO'i'Aaus, was 
 rewarded for his services to the Romans in the 
 Mithi-idatic War, by the title of king, together 
 with a grant of Pontus and Armenia Minor ; and 
 after the death of his successor Amyntas, Galatia 
 was made by Augustus a Roman province (b. c. 
 25). It was soon after enlarged by the addition 
 of Paphlagonia. Under Constantine it was re- 
 stricted to its old limits, and under Valens it was 
 divided into 2 provinces, Galatia Prima and Ga- 
 latia Secunda. The countrjr was beautiful and 
 fertile, being watered by the rivers Halys and 
 Sangarius. Its only important cities were, in the 
 S.W. Pessinus, the capital of the Tolistobogi ; in 
 the centre Ancyua, the capital of the Tectosages ; 
 and in the N. E., Tavium, the capital of the 
 Trocmi. — From the Epistle of St. Paul to the 
 Galatians, we learn not only that man}"" Christian 
 churches had been formed in Galatia during the 
 apostolic age, but also that those churches con- 
 sisted, in great part, of Jewish converts. 
 
 Galaxius (TaXd^tos)^ a small river in Boeotia, 
 on which stood a temple of Apollo Galaxies : it 
 derived its name from its milky colour, which was 
 owing to the chalky nature of the soil through 
 which it flowed. 
 
 Galba, Sulpicius, patricians. 1. P., consul b, c. 
 211, received Macedonia as his province, where he 
 remained as proconsul till 204, and carried o]i the 
 war against Philip. In 200, he was consul a se- 
 cond time, and again obtained Macedonia as his 
 province ; but he was unable to accomplish any 
 thing of importance against Philip, and was suc- 
 ceeded in tlie command in the following year by 
 Villius Tappulus. He was one of the 10 commis- 
 sioners sent to Greece in 196, after the defeat of 
 Philip by Flamininus, and was one of the ambas- 
 sadors sent to Antiochus in 193.^2. Ser., was 
 praetor 151, and received Spain as his province. 
 His name is infamous on account of his treacherous 
 and atrocious murder of the Lusitanlans, with their 
 wives and children, who had surrendered to him 
 on the promise of receiving grants of land. Viria- 
 thus was one of the few Lusitanians, who escaped 
 from the bloody scene. [Viriathus.] On his 
 retm'n to Rome in 149, he was brought to trial on 
 account of his horrible massacre of the Lusitanians. 
 His conduct was denounced in the strongest terms 
 by Cato, who was then 85 years old, but he was 
 nevertheless acquitted. He was consul 144. Ci- 
 cero praises his oratory in the highest terms. — 
 3. Ser., groat-grandfather of the emperor Galba, 
 served under Caesar in the Gallic war, and was 
 praetor in 54. After Caesar's death he served 
 
GALBA 
 
 against Antony in the war of Mutina. ^4, C, 
 father of the emperor Galba, was consul in a. d, ■22. 
 
 Galba, Ser. Sulpicius, Roman emperur, from 
 June A. D. 6y to JaimaL-y, A. D. G9. He was born 
 near Terracina, on the 24th of December, b. c. 3. 
 Both Augustus and Tiberius are said to have told 
 hini, that one day he would be at the head of the 
 Roman world, from which we must infer that he 
 was a young man of more than ordinaiy talents. 
 From his parents he inlierited great wealth. He 
 was invested with the curule offices before attain- 
 ing the legitimate age. He was praetor A. D. 20, 
 and consul 33. After his consulship he had the 
 government of Gaul," 39, where he carried on a 
 successful war against the Germans, and restored 
 discipline among the troops. On the death of 
 Caligula many of his friends urged him to seize 
 the empire, but he preferred living in a private 
 station. Claudius entrusted him, in 45, with the 
 administration of Africa, which he governed with 
 wisdom and integrity. In the reign of Nero he lived 
 for several years in retirement, through fear of be- 
 coming the victim of the tyrant's suspicion; butinGJ, 
 Nero gave him the government of Hispania Tarra- 
 conensis, where he remained for 8 j'ears. In 68 Vin- 
 dex rebelled in Gaul. About the same timeGalba was 
 informed that Nero had sent secret orders for his as- 
 sassination. He therefore resolved at once to follow 
 the example of Vindex; but he did not assume the 
 imperial title, and professed to act only as the legate 
 of the Roman senate and people. Shortly after- 
 wards Nero was murdered ; and Galba thereupon 
 proceeded to Rome, where he was acknowledged 
 as emperor. But his severity and avarice soon 
 made him unpopular with his new subjects, and 
 especially with the soldiers. His powers had also 
 hecome enfeebled by age, and he was completely 
 under the sway of favourites, who perpetrated 
 many enormities in his name. Perceiving the 
 weakness of his government, he adopted Piso Li- 
 cinianus, a noble young Roman^ as his successor. 
 But this only hastened his ruin. Otho, who had 
 hoped to be adopted by Galba, formed a conspiracy 
 among the soldiers, who rose in rebellion 6 days 
 after the adoption of Piso. Galba was murdered, 
 and Otho was proclaimed emperor. 
 
 Galenus, Claudius, commonly called Galen, a 
 very celebrated physician, whose works have had a 
 longer and more extensive influence on the different 
 tranches of medical science than those of any other 
 individual either in ancient or modern times. He 
 was born at Pergaraum in A. d. 130. His father 
 Nicon, who was an architect and geometrician, 
 carefully superintended his education. In his 17th 
 year (HfJ), his father, who had hitherto destined 
 him to be a philosopher, altered his intentions, and, 
 in consequence of a dream, chose for him the pro- 
 fession of Medicine. He at first studied medicine 
 in his native city. In his 20th year (149), he lost 
 his father, and about the same time he went to 
 Smyrna for the purpose of studying under Pelops 
 the physician, and Albinus the Platonic philosopher. 
 He afterwards studied at Corinth and Alexandria. 
 He returned to Pergamum in his 29th year (158), 
 and was immediately appointed physician to the 
 school of gladiators, an office which he filled with 
 great reputation and success. In 164 he quitted 
 his native country on account of some popular com- 
 motions, and went to Rome for the first time. Here 
 he stayed about 4 years, and gained great reputa- 
 tion from his skill in anatomy and medicine. He 
 
 GALINTHIAS. 273 
 
 returned to Pergamum in 16U, but had scarcely 
 settled there, when he received a summons from 
 the emperors M. Aurelius and L. Verus to attend 
 them at Aqutleia in Venetia. From Aquileia Galen 
 followed M. Aurelius to Rome in 170. When the 
 emperor again set out, to conduct the war on the 
 Danube, Galen with difficulty obtained permission 
 to be left behind at Rome, alleging that such was 
 the will of Aesculapius. Before leaving the city the 
 emperor committed to the medical care of Galen his 
 son Commodus, who was then 9 years of age. 
 Galen stayed at Rome some years, during which 
 time he employed himself in lecturing, writing, and 
 practising, with great success. He subsequently 
 returned to Pergamum, but whether he again visited 
 Rome is uncertain. He is said to have died in the 
 year 200, at the age of 70, in the reign of Septimius 
 Severus ; but it ia not improbable that he lived 
 some years longer. Galen wrote a great number of 
 works on medical and philosophical subjects. 
 The works still extant under the name of Galen 
 consist of 83 treatises acknowledged to be genuine; 
 
 19 whose genuineness has been doubted ; 45 un- 
 doubtedly spurious ; 19 fragments ; and 15 cora-- 
 mentaries on different works of Hippocrates. Galen 
 attached himself exclusively to none of the medical 
 sects into which the profession was divided, but 
 chose from the tenets of each what he helieved to 
 be good and trae, and called those persons slaves 
 who designated themselves as followers of Hippo- 
 crates, Praxagoras, or any other man. The best 
 edition of his works is by KUhn, Lips. 1821 — 1833, 
 
 20 vols. 8vo. 
 
 Galepsus (Ta\7}\p6s ; TaX-fi^pLos), a town in Ma- 
 cedonia, on the Toronaic gulf. 
 
 Galerius Maximianus. [Ma.ximianus.] 
 
 Galerius Trachalus. [Trachalus.] 
 
 Galesus {Galeso), a river in the S. of Italy, 
 flows into the gulf of Tarentum, through the mea- 
 dows where the sheep fed whose wool was so cele- 
 brated in antiquity (didce pelliiis ovibus Gulaesi 
 Jiumen^ Hor. Carm. ii, 6. 10.) 
 
 Galeus {TdXeos)^ that is, " the lizard," son of 
 Apollo and Themisto, the daughter of the Hyper- 
 borean king Zabius. In pursuance of an oracle of 
 the Dodonean Zeus, Galeus emigrated to Sicily, 
 where he built a sanctuary to his father Apollo. 
 The Galeotae, a family of Sicilian soothsayers, de- 
 rived their origin from him. The principal seat of 
 the Galeotae was the town of Hybla, whicli was^ 
 hence called Galeotis or Galeatis. 
 
 Galilaea (Tahi\ala), at the birth of Christy, 
 was the N.-most of the 3 divisions of Palestine 
 W. of the Jordan. It lay between the Jordan and- 
 the Mediterranean on the E. and W., and the 
 mountains of Hermon and Carmel on the N. and S- 
 It was divided into Upper or N. Galilee, and 
 Lower or S, Galilee. It was very fertile and 
 densely peopled ; but its inhabitants were a mixed 
 race of Jews, Syrians, PJioenicians, Greeks, and 
 others, and were therefore despised by the Jews of 
 Judaea. [ P al aestina.] 
 
 Galiuthias or Gaianthis (Ov. Met. ix. 306), 
 daughter of Proetus of Thebes and a friend of 
 Alcmene. When Alcmene was on the point of 
 giving birth to Hercules, and the Moerae audi 
 Ilithyiae, at the request of Hera, were endeavouring 
 to delay the birth, Galinthias suddenly rushed in 
 with the false report that Alcmene had given birth 
 to a son. The hostile goddesses were so surprised 
 at this information that they dropped their annfla 
 
?7i 
 
 GALLA. 
 
 Thus the charm wa3 broken, and Alcraene wiis 
 enabled to give birth to Hercules. The deluded 
 goddesses avenged the deception practised upon 
 thera by metamorphosing Galinthias into a weasel 
 or cat {yaKri). Hecate, however, took pity upon 
 her, and made her her attendant, and Hercules 
 afterwards erected a sanctuary to her. At Thebes 
 it was customary at the festival of Hercules first to 
 offer sacrifices to Galinthias. 
 
 Galla. 1. Wife of Conatantius, son of the emperor 
 Constantius Chlorus. She was the mother of Gallus 
 Caesar. [Gallus.]— 2. Daughter of the emperor 
 Valentinian I., and 2nd wife of Theodosius the 
 Great, — 3. Galla Placidia or simply Placidia, 
 daughter of Theodosius the Great by No. 2. She fell 
 into the hands of Alaric, when he took Rome, a. d. 
 410; and Ataulpims, the Gothic king, married her in 
 414. After the death of Ataulphus, she was restored 
 to Honorius ; and in 4 1 7 she was married to Constan- 
 tius, to whom she bore the emperor Valentinian III. 
 During the minority of the latter she governed the 
 Western empire. She died about 450. 
 
 Gallaecia, the country of the Gallaeci (KoA- 
 Aai'Koi), in the N. of Spain, between the Astures 
 and the Durius, was in earlier times included in 
 Lusitania. Gallaecia was sometimes used in a 
 wider sense to include the country of the Astures 
 and the Cantabri. It produced tin, gold, and a 
 precious stone called gemma Gallaica. Its inha- 
 bitants were some of the most uncivilised in Spain. 
 They were defeated with great slaughter by D. 
 Brutus, consul b. c. 1 38, who obtained in conse- 
 quence the surname of Gallaecus. 
 
 Gallia (?) KcAtikt}, VaXaria), was used before 
 the time of Julius Caesar, to indicate all the land 
 inhabited by the Galli or Celtae, and consequently 
 included not only the later Gaul and the N. of 
 Italy, bat a part of Spain, the greater part of Ger- 
 many, the British isles, and other countries. The 
 early history of the Celtic race, and their various 
 settlements in different parts of Europe, are related 
 under Celtae. ^1. Gallia, also called Gallia 
 Transalpina or Gallia Ulterior, to distinguish it 
 J'rom Gallia Cisalpina, or the N. of Italy. Gallia 
 Sraccata and Gallia Comata are also used in 
 contradistinction to Gallia Togata or the N. of 
 Italy, but these names are not identical with the 
 whole of Gallia Transalpina. Gallia Braccata was 
 the part of the country first subdued by the Romans, 
 the later Provincia, and was so called, because the 
 inhabitants wore hraccae or trowsers. Gallia Co- 
 mata was the remainder of the country, excluding 
 Gallia Braccata, and derived its name from the in- 
 habitants wearing their hair long. The Romans 
 were acquainted with only a small portion of Trans- 
 alpine Gaul till the time of Caesar. In the time of 
 Augustus it was bounded on the S, by the Pyrenees 
 and the Mediterranean; on the E.bythe river Varus 
 and the Alps, which separated it from Italy, and 
 by the river Rhine, which separated it from Ger- 
 many ; on the N. by the German Ocean and the 
 English Channel ; and on the W. by the Atlantic ; 
 thus including not only the whole of France and 
 Belgium, but a part of Holland, a great part of Swit- 
 zerland, and all the provinces of Germany W. of 
 the Rhine. The greater part of this country is a 
 plain, well watered by numerous rivers. The 
 principal mountains were Mons Cbbenna or Ge- 
 benna in the S.; the lofty range of Mons Juka in 
 llie E., separating the Sequani and the Helvetii ; 
 and Mons Vosegus or Vogksus, a continuation 
 
 GALLIA. 
 
 of the Jura. The cliief forest was the Silva Ar- 
 DUENNA, extending from the Rhine and the Tre- 
 viri as far as the Scheldt. The principal rivers 
 were, in the E. and N., the Rhenus (Rhi?ie), 
 with its tributaries the Mosa (Maas) and Mo- 
 sella {Moselle) ; the Seqoana {Sei7te)^ with its 
 tributary the Matrona : in the centre the Lige- 
 RIS (Loire) ; in the W. the Garumna (Garonne) ; 
 and in the S. the Rhodanus (Rhotie), The 
 country was celebrated for its fertility in ancient 
 times, and possessed a numerous and warlike po- 
 pulation. — The Greeks, at a very early period, be- 
 came acquainted with the S. coast of Gaul, where 
 they founded, in B. c. 600, tH^e important town of 
 Massilia, which in its turn founded several co- 
 lonies, and exercised a kind of supremacy over the 
 nf ighbouring districts. The Romans did not attempt 
 to make any conquests in Transalpine Gaul till 
 they had finally conquered not only Africa, but 
 Greece and a great part of "Western Asia. In b. c. 
 125 the consul M. Fu!vius Flaccua commenced the 
 subjugation of the Salluvii in the S. of Gaul- In 
 the next 3 years (124 — 122) the Salluvii were 
 completely subdued by Sextius Calvinns, and the 
 colony of Aquae Sextiae (Aix) .'w?l'A founded in 
 their country. In 121 the AUobroges were de- 
 feated by the proconsul Domitius Ahenobarbus ; 
 and in the same year Q. Fabius Maximus gained a 
 great victory over the united forces of the AUobroges 
 and Arvemi, at the confluence of the Isara and the 
 Rhone, The S. of Gaul was now made a Roman 
 province ; and in 118 was founded the colony of 
 Narbo Martins (Narbonne)^ which was the chief 
 town of the province. In Caesar's Commentaries 
 the Roman province is called simply Provincia, in 
 contradistinction to the rest of the country : hence 
 comes the modem name oi Proveiice. The rest of the 
 country was subdued by Caesar after a struggle of 
 several years (58 — 50). At this time Gaul was di- 
 vided into 3 parts, Aquilania^ Celtica, and Belgica, 
 according to the 3 different races by which it was in- 
 habited. The Aquitani dwelt in the S.W. between 
 the Pyrenees and the Garumna ; the Celtae, or Galli 
 proper, in the centre and W., between the Ga- 
 rumna and the Sequana and the Matrona ; and the 
 Belgae in the N.E. between the two last mentioned 
 rivers and the Rhine. The different tribes inha- 
 biting Aquitania and Belgica are given elsewhere. 
 [ Aquitania : Belgae.] The most important 
 tribes of the Celtie or Galli were : 1. Between the 
 Sequana and the Liger : the Armorici, the name 
 of all the tribes dwelling on the coast between the 
 mouths of these 2 rivers ; the Aulerci, dwelling 
 inland close to the Armorici ; the Namnetes, 
 Andecavi or Andes on the banks of the Liger ; 
 E. of them the Carnutes ; and on the Sequana, 
 the Parish, Senones, and Tricasses. — 2. Be- 
 tween the Liger and ilie Garumna : on the coast 
 the Pictones and Santones ; inland the Tu- 
 RONES, probably on both sides of the Liger, the 
 BiTURiGES CuBi, Lhmovices, Petrocorii, and 
 Cadurci ; E. of these, in the mountains of Ge- 
 henna, the powerful Arverni (in the modem 
 Auvergne) ; and S. of them the Rutenl — 3. On 
 tlie Rhone and in tlie surrounding country . between 
 the Rhone and the Pyrenees, the Volcae ; be- 
 tween the Rhone and the Alps, the Salves or 
 Salluvii ; N. of them the Cavares ; between 
 the Rhone, the Isara, and the Alps, the Allo- 
 BROGES ; and further N. the Aeuui, Sequani, 
 and Helvetii, 3 of the most powerful people in 
 
GALLIA. 
 
 all Gaul. — Augustus divided Gaul into 4 provinces. 
 1. Gallia Narbonensis, the same as the old Pro- 
 vincia, 2. G. Aqiiitanica, which extended from 
 the Pyrenees to the Liger. 3. G. Lugdu7iensis^ 
 the country between the Liger, the Sequana, and 
 the Arar, so called from the colony of Lugdunum 
 (£j/on), founded by Munatius Plancus. 4. 6^. Bd- 
 ffica, the country between the Sequana, the Arar, 
 and the Rhine. Shortly afterwards the portion of 
 Belgica bordering on the Rhine, and inhabited by 
 Oerman tribes, was subdivided into 2 new pro- 
 vinces, called Germania Prima and Secunda^ or 
 Germania Superior and Inferior. At a later time 
 the provinces of Gaul were still further subdivided, 
 till at length, under the emperor Gratian, they 
 reached the number of 17. — Gallia Narbonensis 
 belonged to the senate, and was governed by a 
 proconsul ; the other provinces belonged to the 
 emperor, and were governed by imperial legati. 
 After the time of Claudius, when a formidable in- 
 flurrection of the Gauls was suppressed, the country 
 became more and more Romanized. The Latin 
 language gradually became the language of the in- 
 habitants, and Roman civilisation took deep root 
 in all parts of the country. The rhetoricians and 
 poets of Gaul occupy a distinguished place in the 
 later history of Roman literature ; and Burdigala, 
 Narbo, Lugdunum, and other towns, possessed 
 schools, in which literature and philosophy were 
 cultivated with success. On the dissolution of the 
 Roman empire, Gaul, like the other Roman pro- 
 vinces, was overrun by barbarians, and the greater 
 part of it finally became subject to the Franci or 
 Franks, under their king Clovis, about a. d. 496. 
 —2. Gallia Cisalpina, also called G. Citerior 
 and G. Togata, a Roman province in the N. of 
 Italy, was bounded on the W. by Liguria and 
 Gallia Narbonensis (from which it was separated 
 by the Alps), on the N. by Rhaetia and Noricum, 
 on the E. by the Adriatic and Venetia (from which 
 it was separated by the Athesis), and on the S. by 
 Etniria and Umbria (from which it was separated 
 by the river Rubico). It was divided by the Po 
 into Gallia Transpadana, also called Italia Trans- 
 padana, in the N., and Gallia Cispadaaa in the 
 S. The greater part of the country is a vast plain, 
 drained by the Padus {Po) and its affluents, and 
 has always been one of the most fertile countnes of 
 Europe. It was originally inhabited by Liguriana, 
 Umbrians, Etruscans, and other races ; but its fer- 
 tility attracted the Gauls, who at different periods 
 crossed the Alps, and settled in the country, after 
 expelling the original inhabitants. We have men- 
 tion of 6 distinct immigrations of Gauls into the 
 N. of Italy. The 1st was in the reign of Tar- 
 quinius Priscus, and is said to have been led by 
 Bellovesus, who settled with his followers in the 
 country of the Insubres, and built Milan. The 
 2nd consisted of the Cenomani, who settled in the 
 neighbourhood of Brixia and Verona. The 3rd of 
 the Salluvii, who pressed forward as far as the Ti- 
 cinus. The 4th of the Boii and Lingones, who 
 crossed the Po, and took possession of the country 
 as far as the Apennines, driving out the Etruscans 
 and Umbrians. The 5th immigration was the most 
 important, consisting of the warlike race of the 
 Senones, who invaded Italy in immense numbers, 
 under the command of Brennus, and took Rome in 
 B. c. 390. part of them subsequently recrossed the 
 Alps and returned home ; but a great number of 
 them remained in the N, of Italy, and were for 
 
 GALLONIUS. 
 
 275 
 
 more than a century a source of terror to the Ro- 
 mans. After the 1st Punic war the Romans re- 
 solved to make a vigorous effort to subdue their 
 dangerous neighbours. In the course of 4 years 
 (225 — 222) the whole comUry was conquered, and 
 upon the conclusion of the war (222) was reduced 
 to the form of a Roman province. The inhabitants, 
 however, did not bear the yoke patiently, and it 
 was not till after the final defeat of the Boii in 1 91 
 that the country became submissive to the Romans. 
 
 — The most important tribes wore : In GallJa 
 Transpadana, in the direction of W. to E., the 
 Taurini, Salassi, Libici, Insubres, Ceno- 
 mani: in G. Cispadana, in the same direction, the 
 Bon, Lingones, Senones. 
 
 Gallienus, with his full name, P. LioiNlus 
 Valerianus Egnatius Gallienus, Roman em- 
 peror A. D. 260—268. He succeeded his father 
 Valerian, when tlie latter was taken prisoner by 
 the Persians in 260; but he had previously reigned 
 in conjunction with his father from his accession in 
 253. Gallienus was indolent, profligate, and in- 
 different to the public welfare; and his reign was 
 one of the most ignoble and disastrous in the history 
 of Rome. The barbarians ravaged the fairest 
 portion of the empire, and the inhabitants were 
 swept away by one of the most frightful plagues 
 recorded in history. This pestilence followed a 
 long protracted famine. When it was at its greatest 
 height, 5000 sick are said to have perished daily 
 at Rome; and, after the scourge had passed away, 
 it was found that the inhabitants of Alexandria 
 were diminished by nearly two thirds. The com- 
 plete dissolution of the empire was averted mainly 
 by a series of internal rebellions. In every district 
 able officers sprang up, who asserted and strove to 
 maintain the dignity of independent princes. The 
 armies levied by these usurpers, who are commonly 
 distinguished as The Thirty Tyrants^ in many cases 
 arrested the progress of the invaders, and restored 
 order in the provinces which they governed. Gal- 
 lienus was at length slain by his own soldiers in 
 268, while besieging Milan,, in which the usurper 
 Aureolus had taken refuge. 
 
 Gallinaria. 1. {Galinara)^ an island off the 
 coast of Liguria, celebrated for its number of hens ; 
 whence its name. ^3. Silva, a forest of pine-trees 
 near Cumae in Campania. 
 
 Gallio, Junius. 1. A Roman rhetorician, and a 
 friend of M. Annaeus Seneca, the rhetorician, whose 
 son he adopted. He was put to death by Nero. 
 In early life he had been a friend of Ovid {Ex Pont. 
 iv. 11). — 2. Son of the rhetorician M. Annaeus 
 Seneca, and an elder brother of the philosopher 
 Seneca, was adopted by No. I. 
 
 Q. Galliufl, was a candidate for the praetorship 
 in B. c. 64, and was accused of ambitus or bribery 
 by M. Calidius. He was defended on that occasion 
 by Cicero in an oration of which a few fragments 
 have come down to us. He was praetor urbanus 
 B. c. 63, and presided at the trial of C. Cornelius. 
 
 — He left two sons, Q. Gallius, who was praetor 
 in 43, and waa put to death by the triumvirs ; and 
 M. GalUus, who is mentioned as one of Antony's 
 partizani in 43. 
 
 Gallogxaecia, [Gaiatia.] 
 
 Gallonius, a public crier at Rome, probably 
 contemporary with the younger Scipio, whose wealth 
 and gluttony passed into the proverb *^ to live like 
 Gallonius." He was satirised by Horace {Sat ii, 
 2. 46). 
 
276 
 
 GALLUS. 
 
 Gallus, Aelius. 1. A jurist, contemporary with 
 Cicero and Varro, though, probably rather older 
 than either. He was the author of a treatise, De 
 Verhoriim^ quae ad Jus Civile jiei-tineni^ Significa- 
 iione, which is frequently cited by the grammarians. 
 ^ 2. An intimate friend of the geographer Strabo, 
 was praefect of Egypt in the reign of Augustus. 
 In B. c. 24. he invaded Arabia, and after his army 
 had suffered dreadfully from the heat and want of 
 water, he was oblitjed to retreat with great loss. 
 
 Gallus, L, Anicius, praetor b. c. 168, conducted 
 the war against Gentius, king of the Illyrians, 
 whom he compelled to submit to the Romans. 
 
 Gallus, C. Aquillius, a distinguished Roman 
 jurist, was a pupil of Q. Mucins Scaevola, and the 
 instructor of Serv. Sulpicius. He was praetor 
 along with Cicero, B.C. 66. He is often cited by the 
 jurists in the Digest, but there is no direct extract 
 from his own works in the Digest. 
 
 Gallus Saloninus, L. Asinius, son of C. Asi- 
 nius PoUio, was consul b. c. 8. He was hated by 
 Tiberius, because he had married VipsFinia, the 
 former wife of Tiberius. In a. d. 30, Tiberius got 
 the senate to sentence him to death, and kept him 
 imprisoned for 3 years, on the raoat scanty supply 
 of food. He died in prison of starvation, but 
 whether his death was compulsory or voluntary is 
 unknown. Gallus wrote a work, entitled De Com- 
 ^paraiio7ie patns ac Cicero7iis^ which was unfavour- 
 able to the latter, and against which the emperor 
 Claudius wrote his defence of Cicero. 
 
 Gallus, L. Cauimus, was tribune of the plebs, 
 B. c. b6^ when he supported the views of Pompe}', 
 During the civil war he appears to have remained 
 neutral. He died in 44. 
 
 Gallus, Cestius, governor of Syria {legaiiis^ a. d. 
 64, 6b)^ under whom the Jews broke out into the 
 rebellion which ended in the destruction of their 
 city and temple by Titus. 
 
 Gallus, Constantius, son of Julius Constantius 
 and Galla, grandson of Constantius Chloriis, nephew 
 of Constantine the Great, and elder brother by a 
 different mother, of Julian the Apostate. In a. D. 
 351 he was named Caesar by Constantius IT., and 
 was left in the command of the E., where he con- 
 ducted himself with the greatest haughtiness and 
 cruelty. In 354 he went to the W. to meet Con- 
 stantius at Milan, but was arrested at Petovio in 
 Pannonia, and sent to Pola in Istria, where he was 
 beheaded in a prison. 
 
 Gallus, C. Cornelius, was born at Forum Julii 
 (Frejus) in Gaul, of poor parents, about B. c. 66. 
 He went to Italy at an early age, and began his 
 career as a poet when he wag about 20. He had 
 already attained considerable distinction at the 
 time of Caesar's death, 44 ; and upon the arrival 
 of Octavian in Italy after that event, Gallus em- 
 braced liis party, and soon acquired great influence 
 with him. In 41 he was one of the triumviri ap- 
 pointed by Octavian to distribute lands in the N. 
 of Italy among his veterans, and on that occasion 
 he afforded protection to the inhabitants of Mantua 
 and to Virgil. He afterwards accompanied Octa- 
 vian to tlie battle of Actiura, 31, and commanded a 
 detachment of the army. After the battle, Gallus 
 was sent with the army to Egypt, in pursuit of 
 Antony ; and when Egypt was made a Roman 
 province, Octavian appointed Gallus the first pre- 
 fect of the province. He remained in Egypt for 
 nearly 4 years ; but he incurred at length the en- 
 mity of Octavian, though the exact nature of his 
 
 GANDARAE. 
 
 offence is uncertain. According to some accounts 
 he spoke of the emperor in an offensive and insult- 
 ing manner ; he erected numerous statues of him- 
 self in Egypt, and had his own exploits inscribed 
 on the pyramids. The senate deprived him of his 
 estates, and sent him into exile ; whereupon he put an 
 end to his life by throwing himself upon his own 
 sword, B.C. 2G. The intimate friendship existing be- 
 tween Galkis and the most eminent men of the time, 
 as Asinius Polllo, Virgil, Vams, and Ovid, and the- 
 high praise they bestow upon him, prove that he was 
 a man of great intellectiial powers and acquirements. 
 Ovid {Ti'ist. iv. 10. 5) assigns to him the first place 
 among the Roman elegiac poets; and we know 
 that lie wrote a collection of elegies in 4 books, 
 the principal subject of which was his love of Ly- 
 coris. But all his productions have perished ; for 
 the 4 epigrams in the Latin Anthologj'-attriijuted 
 to Gallus could not have been written by a con- 
 temporary of Augustus. Gallus translated in to- 
 Latin the poems of Euphorion of Chalcis, but this 
 translation is also lost. Some critics attribute to 
 him the poem Ciris, usually printed among the 
 works of Virgil, but the arguments do not appear 
 satisfactory. 
 
 Gallus, Sulpicius, a distinguished orator, was 
 praetor e. c. 169, and consul 166, when he fought 
 against the LIgurians. In 168 he served as tri- 
 bune of the soldiers under Aemilius Paulus \n 
 Macedonia, and during this campaign predicted an 
 eclipse of the moon. 
 
 Gallus, Trebouianus, Roman emperor, a.d, 251 
 -254. His full name was C. ViBius Trkbon'i.anus 
 Gallus. He served under Decius in the campaign 
 against the Goths, 251, and he is said to have 
 contributed by his treachery to the disastrous issue 
 of the battle, which proved fatal to Deciiis and his 
 son Herennius. Gallus was thereupon elected em- 
 peror, and Hostilianus, the surviving son of Decius, 
 was nominated his colleague. He purchased a 
 peace of the Goths by allowing them to retain 
 their plunder, and promising them a fixed annual 
 tribute. In 253 the Goths again invaded the 
 Roman dominions, but they were driven back by 
 Aemilianus, whose troops proclaimed him emperor 
 in Moesia. Aemilianus thereupon marched into 
 Italy ; and Callus was put to death by his own sol- 
 diers, together with his son Volusianus, before any 
 collision had taken place between the opposing 
 armies. The name of Gallus is associated with, 
 nothing but cowardice and dishonour. In addition 
 to the misery produced by the inroads of the bar- 
 barians during this reign, a deadly pestilence broke 
 out in 252, and continued its ravages over every 
 part of the empire for 15 years. 
 
 Gallus. 1. A river in Bithynia, rising near 
 Modra, on the borders of Phrygia, and falling into 
 the Sangarius near Leucae {Lefkeh).^2. A river 
 in Galatia, which also fell into the Sangarius, near 
 Pessinus. From it the priests of Cybele are said 
 to have obtained their name of Galli. 
 
 Gamelii {ya/x7}\ioi S-eof}, that is, the divinities 
 protecting and presiding over marriage. These 
 divinities are usually regarded as the protectors of 
 marriage. Respecting the festival of the Gamelia 
 see DicUofAniiq. s.v. 
 
 Gandarae {TavZa.pai\ an Indian people in the 
 Paroparaisus, on the N.W. of the Punjab, between 
 the rivers Indus and Suastus. Under Xerxes they 
 were subjects of the Persian empire. Their country 
 was called Gandaritis {Tav^apiTis)^ 
 
GANDARIDAE. 
 
 ■Gandaridae or Gandaritae (roi/3aDi5ci, Tap- 
 oapiTai), an Indian people, in tlie middle of the 
 Punjab, between the rivers Acesines {Chenuh) and 
 Hydrantes (/I'at-ee), whose king, at the time of 
 Alexander's invasion, was a cousin and namesake 
 of the celebrated Porus. "VVljether they were dif- 
 ferent from the Gandarae is uncertain. Sanskrit 
 writers mention the Ghandara in the centre of the 
 Punjab. 
 
 Gangaridae (ra77api5at), an Indian people 
 <ibout the mouths of the Ganges. 
 
 Ganges [Taypis : Gimges or Ganga)^ the greatest 
 river of India, wliich it divided into the 2 parts 
 named by the ancients India intra Gangem {Hin- 
 -ihi-sian) and India Extra Gangem (Burinah, Cochin 
 Cldua^ Siam, and the Maloj/ Peninsula). It rises 
 ^n the highest part of the Emodi Montes (^Hima- 
 laj/a), and flows in a general S. E. direction till it 
 falls by several mouths into the head of the Gan- 
 •geticus Sinus (Bai/ of Bengal). Like the Nile, it 
 overflows its banks periodically, and these inun- 
 dations render its valley the most fertile part of 
 India. The knowledge of the ancients respecting 
 it was very imperfect, and they give very various 
 iiccounts of its source, its size, and the number of 
 its mouths. The breadth, which Dictdorus Siculus 
 assigns to it in the lower part of its course, 32 
 stadia, or abont 3 miles, is perfectly correct. The 
 following rivers are mentioned as its tributaries : 
 ■Cninas, JomanesorDiamimas,Sarabus,Condochates, 
 OedaneSjCosoagus or Cossoanus, Erannoboas, Sonus 
 •or Soas, Sittocestis, Solomatis, Sambus, Magon, 
 Agoranis, Omalis, Commenases, Cacuthis, Ando- 
 matis, Amystis, Oxymagis, and Errhenysis. — The 
 name is also applied to a city in the interior of 
 India, on the Ganges, where it makes its great 
 bend to the E., perhaps Allahabad. 
 
 Gangra {rdyypa: Kankari)^ a city of Paphla- 
 gonia, near the confines of Galatia, -was originally 
 a fortress ; in the time of king Deiotarus, a royal 
 residence; and under the later emperors, the capital 
 ■of Paphlagonia. 
 
 Ganos (Vdvos)^ a fortress in Thrace, on the 
 Proponlis. 
 
 (zanymedes (ravu^'^Sijs), son of Tros and 
 Callirrhoe, and brother of Ilus and Assaracus, was 
 the most beautiful of all mortals, and was carried otF 
 by the gods that he might fill the cup of Zeus, and 
 live among the eternal gods. This is the Homeric 
 -account ; but other traditions give different details. 
 Some call him son of Laomedon, others son of 
 Ilus, and others again of Erichthonius or Assara- 
 cus. The manner in which he was carried away 
 from the earth is likewise differently described ; 
 for while Homer mentions the gods in general, 
 later writers state that Zeus himself carried him 
 off, either in his natural shape, or in the form of 
 -an eagle, or by means of his eagle. There is, fur- 
 ther, no agreement as to the place where the event 
 occurred ; though later writers usually represent 
 him as carried off from Mount Ida (cupius alt /da, 
 Hor. Cann. iv. 4). The early legend simply states 
 that Ganymedes was carried off that he might be 
 the ciip-bearer of Zeus» in which office he was con- 
 -ceived to have succeeded Hebe; but later writers 
 -describe him as the beloved and favourite of Zeus, 
 without allusion to his office. Zens compensated 
 the father for his loss by a pair of divine horses. 
 Astronomers have placed Ganymedes among the 
 stars under the name of Aquarius. The Romans 
 called him by a corrupt form of his name,CatamitU3. 
 
 GAZA. 
 
 277 
 
 Garama. [Garamantes.] 
 
 Garamantes {FapafiavTes), the S.most people 
 known to the ancients in N. Africa, dwelt far S. 
 of the Great Syrtis in the region called Phazania 
 (Fezzan), where they had a capital city, Garama 
 (rdpa!xa : Mourzouk, lat. iS*^ Sa' N., long. 14^ 10' 
 E.). They are mentioned by Herodotus as a weak 
 unwarlike people; he places thera 19 days* journey 
 from Acthiopia and the shores of the Indian Ocean, 
 15 days' journey from Ammonium, and 30 days' 
 journey from Eg^'pt. The Romans obtained fresli 
 knowledge of them by the expedition of Cornelius 
 Balbus into their country, in b. c. 43. 
 
 Garganus Mons {Monte Gargano), a mountain 
 and promontory in Apulia, on which were oak 
 forests (querceta Gargani, Hor. Carm. ii. 9. 7.) 
 
 Gargara, -on, or -us (Tdpyapa, ov, os: Tap- 
 yapevs). 1. {Kuz-Dagk) the S. summit of M. Ida, 
 in the Troad. — 2. A city at the foot of M. Ida, on 
 the shore of the Gulf of Adramyttium, between 
 Assus and Antandrus ; said to have been founded 
 originally on the summit of the mountain by the 
 Leleges ; afterwards colonised from Miletus ; and 
 removed to the lower .site on account of the incle- 
 mency of its situation on the mountain. Its neigh- 
 bourhood was rich in com. 
 
 Gargettua {Vapy7\TT6s : Tapy-qTrios), a demu3 
 in Attica, belonging to the tribe Acgeis, on the 
 N.W. slope of Mt. Hymettus ; the birthplace of 
 the philosopher Epicurus. 
 
 Garites, a people in Aquitanin, neighbours of" 
 the Ausci, in the modern Comiede Gaiive. 
 
 Garoceli, a people in Gallia Narbonensis, near 
 Mt. Cenis, in the neighbourhood of St. Jean de 
 Mawienne. 
 
 Garsaiiria, or -itis {Fapcraovpia^ or -tVis), a 
 praefectura in Cappadocia, on the borders of Lyca- 
 onia and Tyanitis. Its chief town was called 
 Vapa-doupa. 
 
 Gariili, a people of Ligurla in the Apennines, 
 
 Garumna {Garonne)^ one of the chief rivers of ■ 
 Gaul, rises in the Pyrenees, flows N.W. through 
 Aquitania, and becomes a bay of the sea below 
 Burdigala {Bordeaux). 
 
 Garumni, a people in Aquitania on the Garumna. 
 
 Gatlieae (FaSeai), a town in Arcadia on the 
 Gatheatas, a river which flows into the Alpheus, 
 W.S.W. of Megalopolis. 
 
 Gaugamela (ra Tavydjx-r\\a ; Karmelis)^ a village 
 in the dis^.rict of Aturia in Assyria, the scene of the 
 last and decisive battle between Alexander and 
 Darius Codomanmis, B.C. 331, commonly called 
 the battle of Arbela. 
 
 Gaulanitis {Vav\a~ ov -ovlris: Jaulan\ a dis- 
 trict in the N. of Palestine, on the E. side of the 
 Lake of Tiberias, as far S. as the river Hieromax 
 named from the town of Golan {TavKava). 
 
 Gaulo3 (Fai/Aos : TavkWiis : Gozzo\ an island 
 in the Sicilian sea near Melite {Malta), 
 
 Gaiireleon, Gaurion. [Andros.] 
 
 Gaurus Mons, Gauranus or -ni M. (iMonte 
 Gauro), a volcanic range of mountains in Cam- 
 pania, between Cumae and Neapolis, in the neigli- 
 bonrhood of Puteoli, which produced good wine, 
 and was memorable for the defeat of the Samnites 
 by M. Valerius Corvus, b. c. 343. 
 
 Gaza [rdCa). I. {Ghuzzeh), the last city on the 
 S. W. frontier of Palestine, and the key of the 
 country on the side of Egypt, stood on an eminence 
 about 2 miles from the sea, and was, from the very 
 earliest times of which we have any record, very 
 
 T '^ 
 
278 
 
 GAZACA. 
 
 strongly fortified. It was one of the 5 cities of 
 the Philistines; and, though taken from them more 
 than once by the Jews, was each time recovered. 
 It was taken by Cyrus the Great, and remained 
 in the hands of the Persians till the time of Alex- 
 ander, who only gained possession of it after an 
 obstinate defence of several months. In B.C. 315, 
 it fell into the power of Ptolemy the son of Lagas, 
 as the result of his victory over Demetrius before 
 the city, and was destroyed by him. But it again 
 recovered, and wag possessed alternately by the 
 kings of Syria and Egypt, during their prolonged 
 wars, and afterwards by the Asmonaean princes of 
 Judaea, one of whom, Alexander Jannaeus, again 
 destroyed it, B- c. 96. It was rebuilt by Gabiiiius; 
 given by Augustus to Herod the Great ; and, after 
 Herod*s death, united to the Roman province of Syria. 
 In A. D. 65, it was again destroyed in an insurrec- 
 tion of its Jewish inhabitants ; but it recovered once 
 more, and remained a flourishing city till it fell 
 into the hands of the Arabs in a. d. 634. In ad- 
 dition to its importance as a military post, it pos- 
 sessed an extensive commerce, carried on through 
 its port, Majuma, or Constantia. ^2. (Gkaz), a 
 city in the Persian province of Sogdiana, between 
 Alexandria and Cyropolis; one of the 7 cities which 
 rebelled against Alexander in b. c. 328. 
 
 Gazaca (Tcffa/ca: Tabreez)^ a city in the N. of 
 Media Atropatene, equidistant from Artaxata and 
 Ecbatana, was a summer residence of the kings of 
 Media. 
 
 G-aziura (ra^ioi/pa), a city in Pontus Galatii-us, 
 on the river Iris, below Amasia, was the ancient 
 residence of the kings of Pontus ; but in StKibo''s 
 time it had fallen to decay. 
 
 Gebaleue (re §0X771/17), the district of Arabia 
 Petraea around the city of Petra. 
 
 Gebenna Mons. [Cebbnna.] 
 
 Gedrosia (reSpwcm, and raSpwo-fa: S.E. part of 
 Beloochistan)^ the furthest province of the Persian 
 empire on the S. E., and one of the subdivisions of 
 Ariana, was bounded on theW. byCarmania, on 
 the N. by Drangiana and Arachosia, on the E. by 
 India (or, as the country about the lower course of 
 the Indus was called, Indo-Scythia), and on the S. 
 by the Mare Erythraeum, or Indian Ocean. It is 
 formed by a succession of sandy steppes, rising from 
 the sea-coast towards the table land of Ariana, and 
 produced little besides aromatic shrubs. The slip 
 of land between the coast and the lowest mountain 
 range is watered by several rivers, the chief of 
 which was called Arabis {Doosee ?); but even this 
 district is for the most part only a series of salt 
 marshes. Gedrosia is known in history chiefly 
 through the distress suffered for want of water, in 
 passing through it, by the armies of Cyrus and of 
 Alexander. The inhabitants were divided by the 
 Greek writers into 2 races, the Ichthyophagi on the 
 sea coast, and the Gedrosi in the interior. The 
 latter were a wild nomade people, whom even 
 Alexander was only able to reduce to a temporary 
 subjection. The whole country was divided into 8 
 districts. Its chief cities were Rhambacia and 
 Pura, or Parsis. 
 
 Gegania Gens, traced its origin to the mythical 
 Gyas, one of the companions of Aeneas. It was 
 one of the most distinguished Alban houses, trans- 
 planted to Rome on the destruction of Alba hy 
 TuUus Hostilius, and enrolled among the Roman 
 patricians. There appears to have been only one 
 family in this gens, that of Maceiinv^^ many mem- 
 
 GELON. 
 
 bers of which filled the highest offices in the state 
 in the earl}-- times of the republic. 
 
 Gela (7} r€A.a, Ion. FeATj : TeAwoy, Gelensis : 
 nr. Terra Nuova Ru.), a city on the S. coast of 
 Sicily, on a river of the same name {Fiicme di Terra 
 Nuova), founded by Rhodians from Lindos, and 
 by Cretans, b. c. 690. It soon obtained great 
 power and wealth ; and, in 582, it founded Agri- 
 gentum, which, however, became more powerful 
 than the mother city. Like the other cities of 
 Sicily, it was subject to tyrants, of whom the most 
 important were Hippocrates, Gelon, and Hie- 
 RON. Gelon transported half of its inhabitants to 
 Syracuse ; the place gradually fell into decay, and 
 in the time of Augustus was no longer inhabited. 
 The poet Aeschylus died here. — N. of Gela were 
 the celebrated Campi Geloi, which produced rich 
 crops of wijeat. 
 
 Gelae. [Cacush.] 
 
 Gelanor (reAa;'ctjp),king of Argos, was expelled 
 by Danaus. 
 
 Gelduba (Gelb, below Cologne\ a fortified place 
 of the Ubii on the Rhine in Lower Germany. 
 
 Gellia Gens, plebeian, was of Samnite origin, 
 and afterwards settled at Rome. There were 2 
 generals of this name in the Samnite wars, Gellius 
 Statius in the 2nd Samnite war, who was defeated 
 and taken prisoner, b. c. 305, and Gellius Egnatius 
 in the 3rd Samnite war. [Egnatius.] The chief 
 family of the Gellii at Rome bore the name of 
 
 PUBLICOLA. 
 
 Gellins. 1. Cn., a contemporary of the Gracchi, 
 the author of a history of Rome from the earliest 
 epoch down to B. c. 145 at least. The work is 
 lost, but it is frequently quoted by later writers. 
 — 2, Aulus, a Latin grammarian of good family, 
 was probably a native of Rome. He studied rhe- 
 toric under T. Castricius and Sulpicius ApoUinaris, 
 philosophy under Calvisius Taurus and Peregrinus 
 Proteus, and enjoj-^ed also the friendship and in- 
 structions of Favorinus, Herodes Atticus, and Cor- 
 nelius Fronto. While yet a youth he was ap- 
 pointed by the praetor to act as an umpire in civil 
 causes. The precise date of his bfrth and death is 
 unknown ; but he must have lived under Hadrian, 
 Antoninus Pius, and M. Aurelius, a. d. 117 — 180. 
 He wrote a work entitled Nodes Atticae, because 
 it was composed in a country house near Athens, 
 during the long nights of winter. It is a sort of 
 miscellany, containing numerous extracts from 
 Greek and Roman writers, on a variety of topics 
 connected with history, antiquities, philosophy, and 
 philolog}'', interspersed with original remarks, the 
 whole thrown together into 20 books, without any 
 attempt at order or arrangement. The 8th book 
 is entirely lost with the exception of the index. — 
 The best editions are by Jac, Gronovius, Lug. Bat. 
 1706 f reprinted by Conradi, Lips. 17()2), and by 
 Lion, Getting. 1824. — 3. Publicius, a jurist, one 
 of the disciples of Ser. Sulpicius. 
 
 Gelon {TeKwv). L Son of Dinomenes, tyrant 
 of Gela, and afterwards of Syracuse, was descended 
 from one of the most illustrious families in Gela. 
 He held the chief command of the cavalry in the 
 service of Hippocrates, tyrant of Gela ; shortly after 
 whose death he obtained the supreme power, B.C. 
 491. In 485 he availed himself of the internal 
 dissensions of Syracuse to make himself master of 
 this city also. From this time he neglected Gela, 
 and bent all his eflForts to the. aggrandisement of 
 Syracuse, to which place he removed many of the 
 
GELONT. 
 
 inhabitants of the other cities of Sicily. In 480 
 he gained a brilliimt victory at Himera over the 
 Carthaginians, who had invaded Sicily with an 
 army, amounting, it is said, to the incredible 
 number of 300,000 men. Scarcely any of this 
 Tast host survived to cany the news to Carthage. 
 The victory is said to have been gained on the very 
 same day as that of Salamis. He died in 478 of 
 a dropsy, after reigning 7 years at Syracuse. He 
 was succeeded by his brother Hieron. He is re- 
 presented as a man of singular leniency and mo- 
 deration, and as seeking in every way to promote 
 the welfare of his subjects ; and his name even 
 appears to have become almost proverbial as an in- 
 stance of a good monarch. A splendid tomb was 
 erected to him by the Syracusans at the public ex- 
 pense, and heroic honours were decreed to his me- 
 mory ^2. Son of Hieron 11., king of Syracuse, 
 who died before his father, at the age of more than 
 50 years. He received the title of king in the 
 lifetime of his father. 
 
 Geloni (FeAwj/oi), a Scythian people, who dwelt 
 in Samiatia Asiatica, to the E. of the river Tana'is 
 {Don). They were said to have been of Greek 
 origin, and to have migrated from the shores of the 
 Euxine; but they intermixed with the Scythians so 
 as to lose all traces of their Hellenic race. Their 
 chief city was called Gelonus {TeKoivos). 
 
 Geminus (re/ntj/os), an astronomer, was a native 
 of Rhodes, and flourished about B. c. 77. He is 
 the author of an extant work, entitled Eicraywyij 
 e£s- TO ^aii/ci/iej/o, which is a descriptive treatise on 
 elementary astronomy, with a great deal of histo- 
 rical allusion. It is printed in the Uranologion of 
 Petavius, Paris, 1630, and in Halma''s edition of 
 Ptolemy, Paris, 1819. 
 
 Geminus, Servilius. 1 P., twice consul with 
 C. Aurelius Cotta in the 1st Punic war, namely, in 
 B. c. 252 and 248. In both years he carried on 
 war against the Carthaginians. — 2. Cu., son of 
 No. 1, was consul 217 with C. Flaminius, in the 
 2nd Punic war, and ravaged the coast of Africa. 
 He fell in the battle of Cannae, 21 (i. — 3. M., also 
 sumamed Pulex, consul 202 with Tib. Claudius 
 Nero, obtained Etruria for his province. He is 
 mentioned on several occasions subsequently. 
 
 Gemoniae (&calae) or Gemonii (gradus), a 
 flight of steps cut out of the Aventine, down which 
 the bodies of criminals strangled in the prison were 
 dragged, and afterwards thrown into the Tiber. 
 
 Genabum or Cenabum {Ch-kans), a town in 
 Gallia Lugdunensis, on the N. bank of the Ligeris, 
 was the chief town of the Carnutes : it was plun- 
 dered and burnt by Caesar, but subsequently re- 
 built In later times it was called Civitas Aure- 
 lianorum or Aurelianensis Urbs, whence its modern 
 name. 
 
 Genauni, a people in Viudelicia^ the inhabitants 
 of the Alpine viiUey, now called Valle di Non^ 
 were subdued by Drusus. (Hor. Carm. iv. 14. 10.) 
 
 Geneaius, Josephus, lived about a. d. 940, and 
 wrote in 4 books a history of the Byzantine em- 
 perors from A- D. 813 to 886, consequently of the 
 reigns of Leo V., Michael IL, Theophilus, Michael 
 III., and Basil I. Edited by Lachmann, Bonn, 
 1834. 
 
 Genetaeus (r^^'TjTafos), a surname of Zeus, 
 from Cf!pe Genetus on the Euxine, where he was 
 worshipped as eSj^etyos^ i.e. "the hospitable." 
 
 Geuetyllis (rGveTvWis)^ the protectress of 
 births, occurs both as a sunvinie of Aphrodite, 
 
 GENIUS. 
 
 279 
 
 and as a distinct divinity and a companion of 
 Aphrodite. We also find the plural, repeTuWlBes, 
 or revvaiSes, as a class of divinities presiding over 
 generation and birth, and as companions of Aphro- 
 dite Colias, 
 
 Geneva or Genava (Genevensis: Gejieva), the 
 last town of the Allobroges, on the frontiers of the 
 Helvetii, was situated on the S. bank of the Rhone, 
 at the spot where the river flowed out of the Lacus 
 Lemannus. There was a bridge here over the 
 Rhone. 
 
 Genitrix, that is, *' the mother,*' is used by 
 Ovid (Tl/e/. xiv, 530) as a surname of Cybele, in 
 the place of mater^ or magna water ; but it is 
 better known as a surname of Venus, to whom 
 Caesar dedicated a temple at Rome, as the mother 
 of the Julia Gens. 
 
 Genius, a protecting spirit, analogous to the 
 guardian angels invoked by the Church of Rome. 
 The belief in such spirits existed both in Greece 
 and at Rome. The Greeks called them Saliiovcs^ 
 Daemtms, and appear to have believed in them 
 from the earliest times, though Homer does not 
 mention them. Hesiod says that the Daemons 
 were 30,000 in number, and that they dwelled on 
 earth unseen by mortals, as the ministers of Zeus, 
 and as the guardians of men and of justice. Hh 
 further conceives them to be the souls of the righ- 
 teous men who lived in the golden age of the 
 world. The Greek philosophers took up this idea, 
 and developed a complete theory of daemons. Thua 
 we read in Plato, that daemons are assigned to 
 men at the moment of their birth, that they ac- 
 company men through life, and after death conduct 
 their souls to Hades. Pindar, in several passages, 
 speaks of yev46\ios daifiwv, that is, the spirit 
 watching over the fate of man from the hour of his 
 birth. The daemons are further described as the 
 ministers and companions of the gods, who carry 
 the prayers of men to the gods, and the gifts of 
 the gods to men, and accordingly float in immense 
 numbers in the space between heaven and earth. 
 There was also a distinct class of daemons, who 
 were exclusively the ministers of the gods. — The 
 Romans seem to have received their notions re- 
 specting the genii from the Etruscans, though the 
 name Genius itself is Latin (it is connected with 
 gi-gn-o, gen-ui^ and equivalent in meaning to gene- 
 rator or father). The genii of the Romans are 
 the powers which produce life {dii genitales)^ and 
 accompany man through it as his second or spiritual 
 self. They were further not confined to man, but 
 every living being, animal as well as man, and 
 every place had its genius. Every human being at 
 his birth obtained {sortitur) a genius, whom he 
 worshipped as sanclits et sanctissimus deus, especially 
 on his birthday, with libations of wine, incense, and 
 garlands of flowers. The bridal bed was sacred 
 to the genius, on account of his connection with 
 generation, and the bed itself was called lectus gc~ 
 nialis. On other merry occasions, also, sacrifices 
 were off'ered to the genius, and to indulge in merri- 
 ment was not unfrequently expressed bv genio in- 
 dulgere^ genium curare^ or ptacare. The whole 
 body of the Roman people had its own genius, who 
 is often seen represented on coins of Hadrian and 
 Trajan. He was worshipped on sad as well ns 
 joyous occasions ; thus, sacrifices were offered to 
 him at the beginning of the 2nd year of the war 
 with Hannibal. The genii are usually represented 
 in works of art as winged beings. The peiiius of 
 
 T 4 
 
360 GENSERIC. 
 
 a place appears in the form of a serpent eating 
 
 fruit placed bei'ure him. 
 
 Genseric, king of the Vandals, and the most 
 terrible of all the barbiirian invaders of the em- 
 pire. In A. D. 4*20 he crossed over from Spain to 
 Africa, and ravaged the country with frightful se- 
 verity. Hippo was taken by him in 431, but Car- 
 thage did not fall into his hands till 439. Having 
 thus become master of the whole of the N.W. of 
 Africa, he attacked Italy itself. In 455 he took 
 Rome and plundered it for 14 days, and in the same 
 year he destroyed Capua, Nola, and Neapolis. Twice 
 the empire endeavoured to revenge itself, and twice 
 it failed : the first was the attempt of the "Western 
 emperor Majorian (457), whose fleet was destroyed 
 in the bay of Carthagena. The 2nd was the ex- 
 pedition sent by the Eastern emperor Leo (468), 
 which was also baffled by the burning of the fleet 
 oiT Bona. Genseric died in 477, at a great age. 
 He was an Arian ; and in the cruelties exercised 
 under his orders against his Catholic subjects he 
 exhibited the first instance of persecution carried 
 on upon a large scale b}' one body of Christians 
 against another. 
 
 Gentius, son of Pleuratus, a king of the Illy- 
 rians. As early a^ e.g. 100, he had given oifence 
 to the Romans on account of the piracies of his 
 subjects ; and in 168 he entered into an alliance 
 with Perseus, king of Macedonia. In the follow- 
 ing year the praetor L. Anicius Callus Avas sent 
 against him. The war was finished within 30 
 days. Gentius was defeated in battle, and then 
 surrenderid himself to Anicius, who carried him to 
 Home to adorn his triumph. He was afterwards 
 kept as a prisoner at Spoletium. 
 
 Genua (Genuns, -atis, Genuensis : Genoa), an 
 important commercial town in Liguria, situated at 
 the extremity of the Ligurlan gulf {Gtdf of Genoa) ^ 
 was in the possession of the Romans at the be- 
 ginning of the 2ud Punic war, but towards the end 
 of the war was held for some time by the Car- 
 thaginian Mago. It was a Roman municipimn, 
 but it did not become of political importance till the 
 middle ages, when it was commonly called i/awiw. 
 
 Geniicia Gens, patrician, of which the principal 
 families bore the names of Aventinensis and 
 
 AUGURINUS. 
 
 Genusus [Iskunii), a river in Greek Illyria, N. 
 of the Apsus. 
 
 Gephyraei {r€(pvpa7oi\ an Athenian family, to 
 which Harmodius and Aristoglton belonged. They 
 said that they came originally from EretriainEuboea. 
 Herodotus believed them to be of Phoenician de- 
 scent, to have followed Cadmus into Boeotia, and 
 from thence to have emigrated to Athens. They 
 dwelt en the banks of the Cephisus, which sepa- 
 rated the territory of Athens from that of Eleusis, 
 and their name was said to have been derived from 
 the hrid(/e {y4(pvpa), which was built over the river 
 at this point. Such a notion, however, is quite 
 untenable, since "bridge" appears to have been a 
 comparative recent meaning of yeipupa. We find 
 that there were temples at Athens, belonging 
 peculiariy to the Gephyruei, to the exclusion of the 
 rest of the Athenians, especially one to Demeter 
 Achaca, whose worship they seem to have brought 
 with them from Boeotia. 
 
 ^ Gepidae, a Gothic people, who came from Scan- 
 dinavia, and first settled in the countiy between 
 the Oder and the Vistula, from which they ex- 
 pelled the Burgundiones. Subsequently they joined 
 
 GERMANIA. 
 
 the numerous hosts of Attila ; and after his deatli 
 they settled in Dacia, on the banks of the Danube. 
 As they were dangerous neighbours to the Eastern 
 empire, Justinian invoked the aid of the Lango- 
 bardi or Lombards, who conquered the Gepidae 
 and destroyed their kingdom. 
 
 Ger or Gir (Teip : Ghir or Mansollg)^ a river of 
 Gaetulia in Africa, S. of Mauretania Caesariensis ; 
 flowing S. E. from the S. slope of M. Atlas, till it 
 is lost in the desert. It first became known to the 
 Romans through the expedition of Suetonius Pauli- 
 nus in the reign of Nero. 
 
 Geraestu3 {r^paia-rSs : repatVTios), a promon- 
 tory and harbour at the S. extremity of Euboea, 
 with a celebrated temple of Poseidon, in whose 
 honour the festival of the Geraestia {Tipaiaria) 
 was here celebrated. 
 
 Geranea (tJ Tepai/eta), a range of mountains, 
 beginning at the S.W. slope of Cithaeron, and run- 
 ning along the W. coast of Megaris, till it termi- 
 nated in the promontory Olmiae in the Corinthian 
 territory ; but the name is sometimes confined to 
 the mnuntain in the Corinthian territory'. 
 
 Gerenia {Vspy\vla\ an ancient town in Messe- 
 nia, the birthplace of Nestor, who is hence called 
 Gerenian (FepTj^ios). It was regarded b}' some as 
 the same place as the Homeric Enope. 
 
 Gergis, or Gergitha, or -es, or -us, {Vipyi?, 
 rdpyida^ or -es, or -os : TepyWios), a town in the 
 Troad, N. of the Scamander, inliabited by Teu- 
 crians. Attains removed the inhabitants to the 
 sources of the Caicus, where mention is made of a 
 place called Gergetha or Gergithion, in the territory 
 of Cyme. 
 
 Gergovia. 1. A fortified town of the Arverni 
 in Gaul, situated on a high and inaccessible hill, 
 W. or S.W. of the Elaver {Allier). Its site is 
 uncertain ; but it was probably in the neighbour- 
 hood of the modern Clermo7it. ^ 2. A town of the 
 Boii in Gaul, of uncertain site. 
 
 Germa (rep/Aij), the name of 3 cities in Asia 
 Minor. 1. {Germaslu, Ru.) in Mysia Minor, near 
 Cyzicus.^2. {Yermatepe) in Mysia, between Per- 
 gamus and Thyatira.-— 3. {Ytrma)^ in Galatia, be- 
 tween Pessinus and Ancyra; a colonia. 
 
 Germania, was bounded by the Rhine on the 
 W., by the Vistula and the Carpathiin mountiins 
 on the E., by the Danube on the S., and by the 
 German Ocean and the Baltic on the N. It thus 
 included much more than modern Germany on the 
 N. and E., but much less in the W. and S. The 
 N. and N.E. of Gallia Belgica were likewise called 
 Germania Prima and SecunJa under the Roman 
 emperors [see p. "275, a.] ; and it was in contradis- 
 tinction to these provinces tliat Germania proper 
 was also called Germania Magna or G. Ti'ans- 
 riienana or G. Barbara. It was Tiot till Caesar's 
 campaigns in Gaul (b. c. 50 — 50) that the Ro- 
 mans obtained any accurate knowledge of the 
 country. The Roman writers represent Germany 
 as a dismal land, covered for the most part with 
 forests and swamps, producing little corn, and 
 subject to intense frosts and almost eternal winter. 
 Although these accounts are probably exaggerated, 
 yet there can be no doubt thftt, before the immense 
 woods were cleared and the morasses drained, the 
 climate of Germany was much colder than it is at 
 present. — The N. of Germany is a vast plain, but 
 in the S. there are many mountains, which were 
 covered in antiquity with vast forests, and thus 
 were frequently c^^lled SUvae. Of these the most 
 
GERMANIA. 
 
 important was the Hercynia Silva. — The chief 
 rivers were the Rhenus (Wii)te\ Danubiuh (/)«- 
 K?i&e),ViSTULA,AMisiA (Ems)fy iSunGis{ Weser), 
 Albis (Elbe), ViADUS (Oder). • — The inhabitants 
 ■were called Germani by the Romans. Tacitus 
 says {Germ. 2) that Gerraani was the name of the 
 Tungri, who were the first German people that 
 ■crossed the Rhine. It would Seem tliat this 
 name properly belonged only to those tribes who 
 were settled in Gaul ; and as these were the first 
 German tribes with wliich the Romans came into 
 contact, thoy extended the name to the whole 
 nation. The etymology of the name is uncertain. 
 Some modern writers derive it from the German 
 ge.i\ gwer^ J-Ieei\ Wehr, bo that the word would be 
 equivalent to Wekrjnan, Wehnn'dnner^ that is, 
 warriors. Tlie Germans themselves do not appear 
 to have used any one name to indicate the whole 
 ration ; for there is no reason to believe, as some 
 have done, that the name Teutones (i. e. Tcuien, 
 Deutsche), was the general name of the nation in 
 the time of the Romans. The Germans regarded 
 themselves as indigenous in the country ; but there 
 can be no doubt that they were a branch of the 
 great Indo-Germanic race, who, along with the 
 Celts, migrated into Europe from the Caucasus and 
 the countries around the Black and Caspian seas, 
 at a period long anterior to historical records. 
 They are described as a people of high stature and 
 of great bodily strength, with fair complexions, 
 blue eyes, and yellow or red hair. Notwithstand- 
 ing tiie severity of their climate, they wore little 
 clothing, and their children went entirely naked. 
 They had scarcely any defensive armour : their 
 chief oiFensive weapon was the framea, a long 
 spear with a narrow iron point, which they either 
 darted from a distance or pushed in close combat. 
 Their houses were only low huts, made of rough 
 timber, and thatched with straw. A number of 
 these were of course often built near each other ; 
 but they could not be said to have any towns pro- 
 perly so called. Many of their tribes were nomad, 
 and every year changed their place of abode. — The 
 men found their chief delight in the perils and ex- 
 citement of war. In peace they passed their lives 
 in listless indolence, only varied by deep gaming 
 and excessive drinking. Their chief drink was 
 beer ; and their carouses frequently ended in 
 bloody brawls. The women were held in high 
 honour. Their chastity was without reproach. 
 They accompanied their husbands to battle, and 
 cheered them on by their presence, and frequently 
 by their example as well. Both sexes were equally 
 distinguished for their unconquerable love of li- 
 berty ; and the women frequently destroyed both 
 themselves and their children, rather than fall into 
 the power of their husbands'" conquerors. — In each 
 tribe we find the people divided into 4 classes : the 
 nobles ; the freemen ; the freedmen or vassals ; and 
 the slaves. All questions relating to peace and 
 war, and the general interests of the tribe, were 
 decided in the popular assembly, in which each 
 freeman had a right to take part. In these as- 
 semblies a king was elected from among the nobles ; 
 but his power was very limited, and he only acted 
 as the supreme magistrate in time of peace ; for 
 when a war broke out, the people elected a dis- 
 tinguished warrior as their leader, upon whom the 
 prerogatives of the king devolved. — The religion . 
 of the Germans is known to us only from the 
 Greek and Roman writers, who have confuted the | 
 
 GERMANIA. 
 
 281 
 
 subject by seeking to identify the gods of the 
 Germans with their own divinities. We know 
 that they worshipped the Sun, the Moon, and 
 the Stars. They are also said to have paid espe- 
 cial honour to Mercury, who was probably the 
 German Wodan or Odin. Their other chief di- 
 vinities were Isis (probably Freia, the wife of 
 Odin) ; Mars {Tyr or Zlo, the German god of 
 war) ; the mother of the gods, called Nerilms (less 
 correctly Herihus or Hcrtlia.) ; and Jupiter {Thor, 
 or the god of tluinder). The n'orship of the gods 
 v^as simple. They had both priests and priestesses 
 to attend to their service ; and some of the 
 priestesses, such as Veleda among the Bructeri, 
 were celebrated throughout Germany for their pro- 
 phetic powers. — The Gennani first appear in his- 
 tory in the campaigns of the Clmbri and Teutones 
 (d.c. 113), the latter of whom were undoubtedly 
 a Germanic people. [Teutones.] About 50 
 years afterwards Ariovistus, a German chief, crossed 
 the Rhine, with a vast host of Germans, and sub- 
 dued a great part of Gaul ; but he was defeated 
 by Caesnr with great slaughter (58), and driven 
 beyond the Rhine. Caesar twice crossed this river 
 (.55, 53), but made no permanent conquest on the 
 E. bank. In the reign of Augustus, his stepson 
 Drusus carried on war in Germany with great 
 success for 4 years (12 — 9), and penetrated as far 
 as the Elbe. On his death (9), his brother Ti- 
 berius succeeded to the command ; and under him 
 the country between the Rhine and the Visnrgis 
 (TF(?5er) was entirely subjugated, and bid fair to 
 become a Roman province. But in A, D. 9, the im- 
 politic and tyrannical conduct of the Roman go- 
 vernor Quintilius Varus, provoked a general insur- 
 rection of the various German tribes, headed by 
 Arminius, the Cheruscan. Varus and his legions 
 were defeated and destroyed, and the Romans lost 
 all their conquests E. of the Rhine. [Varus.] 
 The defeat of Varus was avenged by the successful 
 campaigns of Germauicus, who would probably 
 have recovered the Roman dominions E. of the 
 river, had not the jealousy of Tiberius recalled 
 him to Rome, a. d. 16. From this time the Ro- 
 mans abandoned all further attempts to conquer 
 Germany ; but in consequence of the civil dissen- 
 sions which broke out in Gennany soon after the 
 departure of Tiberius, they were enabled to ob- 
 tain peaceable possession of a large portion of the 
 S.W. of Germany between the Rhine and the Da- 
 nube, to which they gave the name of the Agri 
 Decumates. [See p. 27, b.] On the death of 
 Nero, several of the tribes in W. Germany joined 
 the Batavi in their insurrection against the Ro- 
 mans (a. d. G9 — 71). Domitian and Trajan had 
 to repel the attacks of some German tribes ; but 
 in the reign of Antoninus Pius, the Marcomanni, 
 joined by various other tribes, made a more for- 
 midable attack upon the Roman dominions, and 
 threatened the empire with destruction. From 
 this time the Romans were often called upon to 
 defend the left bank of the Rhine against their 
 dangerous neighbours, especially against the 2 
 powerful confederacies of the Alemanni and Franks 
 [Alemanni ; FiiANCiJ ; and in the 4th and 5tli 
 centuries the Germans obtained possession of some 
 of the faitcst provinces of the empire. — The Ger- 
 mans are divided by Tacitus into 3 great tribes : 
 I. Ingacvones, on the Ocean. 2. Hei'miones^ in- 
 habiting the central parts. 3. Istaevones^ in the 
 remainder of Germany, consequtntly in the E. and 
 
2S2 GERxMANICUS. 
 
 S. parts. These 3 names were said to be derived 
 from the 3 sons of Mannus, the son of Taiaco. 
 Pliny makes 5 divisions: 1. Vindili, including 
 Bargundionea, Varini, Carini, and Guttones. 2. 
 Imjaevones^ including Cimbri,Teutones, and Chauci. 
 3. Aiacvone5,including the midland Cimbri. 4. Hcr- 
 miones^ including the Suevi, Hermunduri, Chatti, 
 and Chenisci. 5. Peucini and Bastamae^ border- 
 ing on the Dacians. But whether we adopt the 
 division of Tacitus or Pliny, we ought to add the 
 inhabitants of the Scandinavian peninsula, the Hil- 
 leviones, divided into the Sinones and Sitor.es. It 
 is difficult to fix with accuracy the position of the 
 various tribes, as they frequently migrated from 
 one spot to another. An account of each, is given 
 under the name of the tribe. See Chauci, Che- 
 Ru&ci, Cimbri, Suevi, &c. 
 
 Germaiucus Caesar, son of Nero Claudius Dru- 
 sus and Antonia, the daughter of the triumvir An- 
 tony, was born b. c. 15. He was adopted by his 
 uncle Tiberius in the lifetime of Augustus, and 
 was raised at an early age to the honours of the 
 state. He assisted Tiberius in the war against the 
 Pannonians and Dalmatians (a, d. 7 — 10), and also 
 fought along with Tiberius against the Germans 
 in the 2 following years (11, 12). He had the 
 command of the legions in Germany, when the 
 alarming mutiny broke out among the troops in 
 Germany and Iliyricum, upon the death of Au- 
 gustus (14). Gcnnaiiicus was a favourite with 
 the soldiers, and they offered to place him at the 
 head of tlie empire ; but he rejected their pro- 
 posal, and exerted all his influence to quell the 
 mutiny, and reconcile them to their new sove- 
 reign. After restoring order among the troops, 
 he crossed the Rhine, and laid waste the country 
 of the Marsi with fire and sword. In the follow- 
 ing year (15). he again crossed the Rhine, and 
 marched into the interior of the country. He pe- 
 netrated as far as the Saltus Teutoburgiensis, N. of 
 the Lippe, in which forest the army of Quintiiius 
 Varus had been destroyed by the Germans. Here 
 his troops gathered up the bones of their ill-fated 
 comrades, and paid the last honours to their me- 
 mory. But meantime Arminius had collected a 
 formidable army, with which he attacked the Ro- 
 mans : and it was not without considerable loss 
 that Germanicus made good his retreat to the 
 Rhine. It was in this campaign that Thusnelda, 
 the wife of Arminius, fell into the hands of Ger- 
 manicus. [Arminius.] Next year (16) Ger- 
 manicus placed his troops on board a fleet of 
 1000 vessels, and sailed through the canal of his 
 father, Drusus [see p. 233, b.], and the Zuydersee 
 to the ocean, and from thence to the mouth of the 
 Amisia (Ems), where he landed his forces. After 
 crossing the Ems and the Weaer, he fought 2 bat- 
 tles with Arminius, in both of which the Germans 
 ■were completely defeated. The Germans could no 
 longer offer him any effectual resistance, and Ger- 
 manicus needed only another year to reduce com- 
 pletely the whole country between the Rhine and 
 the Elbe. But the jealousy of Tiberius saved 
 Germany. Upon pretence of the dangerous state 
 of affairs in the E., the emperor recalled Gei-mani- 
 cus to Rome, which he entered in triumph on the 
 26th of May, 17. In the same year all the Eastern 
 provinces were assigned to Germanicus ; but Ti- 
 berius placed Cn. Piso in command of Syria, with 
 secret instructions to check and thwart Germanicus. 
 Piao Boon showed his hostility to Germanicus ; and 
 
 GIGANTES. 
 
 his wife Plancina, in like manner, did every tiling 
 in her power to annoy Agrippina, the wife of Ger- 
 manicus. In 18, Germanicus proceeded to Arme- 
 nia, where he placed Zeno on the throne, and in 
 the following year (19) he visited Egypt, and on 
 his return he was seized with a dangerous illness, 
 of which he died. He believed that he had been 
 poisoned by Pfso, and shortly before he died, he 
 summoned his friends, and called upon them to 
 avenge his murder. He was deeply and sincerely 
 lamented by the Roman people ; and Tiberius was 
 obliged to sacrifice Piso to the public indignation. 
 [PiSO.] By Agrippina he had 9 children, of 
 whom 6 survived him. Of these the most noto- 
 rious were the emperor Caligula, and Agrippina, 
 the mother of Nero. Germanicus was an author 
 of some repute. He wrote several poetical works. 
 We stilt possess the remains of his Latin transla- 
 tion of the Phaenomena of Aratus. The latest 
 edition of this work is by Qrelli at the end of his 
 Phaedrus, Zurich, 1831. 
 
 GermanicTa or Caesarea Germanica (Vipfxa- 
 viK€ia, Koiaapeta TepfiaviKT}), a town in the Syrian 
 province of Commagene, near the borders of Cap- 
 padocia ; the birthplace of the heretic Nestorius. 
 
 Gerra {T4ppa; near El-Katif)^ one of the chief 
 cities of Arabia, and a great emporium for the trade 
 of Arabia and India, stood on the N. E. coast of 
 Arabia Felix, 200 stadia (20 geog. miles) from the 
 shore of the Sinus Gerraeus or Gerraicus {Elwah 
 Bay3)y a bay on the W. side of the Persian Gulf, 
 2400 stadia (240 geog. mile3=4° of hit.) from the 
 mouth of the Tigris. The city was 3 Roman miles 
 in circuit. The inhabitants, called Gerrael {Vippaioi) 
 were said to have been originally Chaldaeans, "who 
 were driven out of Babylon. There was a small 
 place of the same name on the N. E. frontier of 
 Egypt, between Pelusium and M. Casius, 50 stadia 
 or 8 Roman miles from the former. 
 
 Gerrhus (Tep^os), a river of Scythla, flowing 
 through a country of the same name, was a branch 
 of the Borysthenes, and flowed into the Hypacyris, 
 dividing the country of the Nomad Scythians from 
 that of the Royal Scythians. 
 
 Genmda [Gei-ona), a town of the Ausetani in 
 Hispania Tarraconensis, on the road from Tarraco 
 to Narbo in Gaul. 
 
 Geryon or Geryonea {r-rjpvSfT}^), son of Chrj-- 
 saor and Callirrhoe, a monster with 3 heads, or, 
 according to others, with 3 bodies united together, 
 was a king in Spain, and possessed magnificent 
 oxen, which Hercules carried away. For details 
 see Hercules. 
 
 Gesoriacum (Boulogne)^ a port of the Morini 
 in Gallia Belgica, at which persons usually em- 
 barked to cross over to Britain : it was subse- 
 quently called Bouonla, whence its modern name. 
 
 Geasius Florus. [Florus.] 
 
 Geta, Septimiua, brother of Caracalla, by whom 
 he was assassinated, A. D. 212. For details see 
 Caracalla. 
 
 Getae, a Thracian people, called Baci by the 
 Romans. Herodotus and Thucydides place them 
 S. of the Ister {Danube) near its mouths ; but in 
 the time of Alexander the Great they dwelt be- 
 yond this river and N. of the Triballi, They were 
 driven by the Sarmatians further W. towards Ger- 
 many. For their later history see Dacia. 
 
 Glgantcs {riydvTes), the giants. According to 
 Homer, they were a pigantic and savage race ot 
 men, dwelling in the distant AV". in the island oi 
 
GIGONUS. 
 
 Trinacia, and were destroj-ed on account of their 
 insolence towards the gods. — Hesiod considers 
 them as divine beings, who sprang from the blood 
 that fell from Uranus upon the earth, so that Ge 
 (the earth) was their mother. Neither Homer nor 
 Hesiod know any thing about their contest with 
 the gods. — Later poets and mythographers fre- 
 quently confound them with the Titans, and repre- 
 sent them as enemies of Zeus and the gods, whose 
 abode on Olympus they attempt to take by storm. 
 Their battle with the gods seems to be only an imi- 
 tation of the revolt of the Titans against Uranus. 
 Ge, it is said, indignant at the fate of her former 
 children, the Titans, gave birth to the Gigantes, 
 who were beings of a monstrous size, with fearful 
 countenances and the tails of dragons. They were 
 born, according to some, in the Phlegraean plains 
 in Sicily, Campania, or Arcadia, and, according to 
 others, in the Thraclan Pallene. In their native 
 land they made an attack upon heaven, being 
 armed with huge rocks and trunks of trees. The 
 gods were told that they could not conquer the 
 giants without the assistance of a mortal ; where- 
 upon they summoned Hercules to their aid. The 
 giants Alcyoneus and Porphyrion distinguished 
 themselves above their brethren. Alc^'oneus was 
 immortal so long as he fought in his native land ; 
 but Hercules dragged him away to a foreign land, 
 and thus killed him. Porphyrion was killed by 
 the lightning of Zeus and the arrows of Hercules, 
 The other giants, whose number is said to have 
 been 24, were then killed one after another by the 
 gods and Hercules, and some of them were buried 
 by their conquerors under (volcanic) islands. — It 
 is worthy of remark, that most writers place the 
 giants in volcanic districts ; and it is probable that 
 the story of their contest with the gods took its 
 origin from volcanic convulsions. 
 
 Gigonus {Tiyujvus: riycavioi), a town and pro- 
 montory of Macedonia on the Thermaic gulf. 
 
 Gildo, or Gildon, a Moorish chieftain, governed 
 Africa for some years as a subject of the Western 
 empire ; but in a. d. 397, he transferred his alle- 
 giance to the Eastern empire, and the emperor Ar- 
 cadius accepted him as a subject. Stilicho, guardian 
 of Honorius, sent an army against him. Gildo 
 was defeated ; and being taken prisoner, he put an 
 end to his own life by hanging himself (598), 
 The history of this war forma the subject of one of 
 Claudian's poems (De Bello Gildonico). 
 
 Gindarua {Tivdapos: Gindaries), a very strong 
 fortress in the district of Cyrrhestice in Syria, 
 N. E. of Antioch. 
 
 Girba, a city on the island of Meninx {JerbaJi), 
 at the S. extremity of the Lesser Syrtis, in N. 
 Africa: celebrated for its manufactures of purple. 
 
 Gisco or GisgO {TicKcet/ or TeaKwy). 1. Son of 
 Hamilcar who was defeated and killed in the battle 
 of Himera, B. c. 480. In consequence of this 
 calamity, Gisgo was banished from Carthage. He 
 died at Selinus in Sicily. — 2. Son of Hanno, 
 was in exile when the Carthaginians were defeated 
 at the river Crimissus by Timoleon, 339. He was 
 then recalled from eiile, and sent to oppose Timo- 
 leon, but was unable to accomplish any thing of 
 importance. ^3. Commander of the Carthaginim 
 garrison at Lilybaeum, at the end of the first Punic 
 war. After the conclusion of peace, 241, he was 
 deputed by the government to treat with the mer- 
 cenaries who had risen in revolt, but he was seized 
 by them and put to death. 
 
 GLAUCUS. 
 
 sns 
 
 Giti^das (rinaSaj), a Lacedaemonian arclillect 
 statuary, and poet. He completed the temple cf 
 Athena Poliouchos at Sparta, and ornamented it 
 with works in brnnze, from which it was called 
 the Brazen House, and hence the goddess received 
 the surname o[ Xa\Koo7Kos. He composed a hymn 
 to the goddess, besides other poems. He flourished 
 about B.C. 516, and is the last Spartan artist of 
 any distinction. 
 
 Glabrio, Acilius, plebeians. 1. C, quaestor 
 B. c. 203, and tribune of the plebs 197. He acted 
 as interpreter to the Athenian embassy in 155, 
 when the 3 philosophers, Carneades, Diogenes, and 
 Critolaus came as envoys to Rome. He wrote in 
 Greek a history of Rome from the earliest period 
 to his own times. It was translated into Latin by 
 one Claudius, and his version is cited by Livy, 
 under the titles of Annates Aciliani (xxv. 39) and 
 Libri Adliani (xxxv. 14). — 2. M\, tribune of the 
 plebs 201, praetor 196, and consul 191. In his 
 consulship he defeated Antiochus at Thermopylae, 
 and subsequently the Aetolians likewise.^3. Iff'., 
 married a daughter of M. Aemilius Scaurus, consul 
 115, whom Sulla, in 82, compelled him to divorce. 
 Glabrio was praetor urbanus in 70, when he presided 
 at the impeachment of Verres. He was consul In 
 67, and in the following y^-ar proconsul of Cilicia. 
 He succeeded L. Luculhis in the command of the 
 war against Mithridates, but remained inactive in 
 Bithynia. He was superseded by Cn. Ponipey.— 
 4. M'., son of No. 3, was born in the house of 
 Cn. Pompey, B.C. 8 J, who married his mother 
 after her compulsory divorce from the elder Gla- 
 brio. Aemilia died in giving birth to him. In 
 the civil war, Glabrio was one of Caesar's lieu- 
 tenants ; commanded the garrison of Oricum in 
 Epirus in 48, and was stationed in Sicily in 46. 
 He was twice defended on capital charges by 
 Cicero, and acquitted. 
 
 -Glanis, more usually written Clanis. 
 
 GlaiLum Livii (nr. iit. Remy Ru.), a town of the 
 Salyes in Gallia Narbonensis. 
 
 Glaphyra. [Archelaus, No. 6.] 
 
 Glauce (FAatittTj). 1. One of the Nereides, the 
 name Glauce being only a personification of the 
 colour of the sea. — 2. Daughter of Creon of Co- 
 rinth, also called Crensa. For details see Creon. 
 
 Glaucia, C. Servilius, praetor b. c. 100, the 
 chief supporter of Satuniinus, with whom he was 
 put to death in this year. [Saturninus.] 
 
 Glaucias {VKavKias). 1. King of the Taulan- 
 tians, one of the Illyrian tribes, fought against 
 Alexander the Great, b. c. 335. In 316 he afforded 
 an asylum to the infant Pyrrhus, and refused to 
 surrender him to Cassander. In 307 he invaded 
 Epirus, and placed Pyrrhus, then 12 years old, 
 upon the throne. ^2. A Greek physician, who 
 probably lived in the 3rd or 2nd century b. c. — 
 3, A statuarj- of Aegina, who made the bronze 
 chariot and statue of Gelon, flourished b. c. 488. 
 
 Glaucon (VKa\iKo:v). 1. Son of Critias, brother 
 of Callaeschrus, and father of Charmides and of 
 Plato's mother, Perictione. — 3. Brother of Plato, 
 who makes him one of the speakers in the Republic. 
 
 Glaucus {VhavKos). 1. Grandson of Aeolus, son 
 of Sisyphus and Merope, and father of Bellero- 
 phontes. He lived at Potniae, despised the power 
 of Aphrodite, and did not allow his mares to breed, 
 that they might be the stronger for the horse race. 
 According to others he fed them with human flesh. 
 This excited the anger of Apliroditc, who dcstrovud 
 
284 
 
 GLAUCUS. 
 
 him. According to some accounts his horses be- 
 came frightened and threw him out of his chariot, 
 as he was contending in the funeral games cele- 
 brated by Acnstus in honour of his father Pelias. 
 According to others, his horses tore him to pieces, 
 having drunk, from the water of a sacred well in 
 Boeotia, in consequence of which they were seized 
 "with madness. Glaucus of Potniae (tXavKos Uot- 
 viivs) was the title of one of the lost tragedies of 
 Aeschylus. ^2. Son of Hippolochus, and grand- 
 son of Belierophontes, was a Lycian prince, and 
 assisted Priara in the Trojan war. He was con- 
 nected with Diomedes by ties of hospitality ; and 
 ■when they recognised one another in the battle, 
 they abstained from fighting, and exchanged arms 
 with one another. Glaucus was slain by Ajax. ^ 
 3. Son of the Messenian king Aepytus, whom he 
 succeeded on the throne. — 4. One of the sons of 
 the Cretan king Minos by Pasiphae or Crete. 
 "When a boy, he fell into a cask full of honey, 
 and was smothered. Minos searched for his son 
 in vain, and was at length informed by Apollo or 
 the Curetes that the person who should devise 
 the most appropriate comparison between a cow, 
 ■which could assume 3 different colours, and any 
 other object, would find the boy. The soothsayer 
 Polyidus of Argos solved the problem by likening 
 the cow to a mulberry, which is at first white, 
 then red, and in the end black. By hia prophetic 
 powers he then discovered the bo}'. Minos now 
 required Polyidus to restore his son to life ; but as 
 he could not accomplish this, Minos ordered him to 
 be entombed alive with the body of Glaucus. 
 "When Polyidus was thus shut up in the vault, he 
 saw a serpent approaching the dead body, and 
 killed the reptile. Presently another serpent came, 
 and placed a herb upon the dead serpent, which 
 Tvas thereby restored to life. Thereupon Polyidus 
 covered the body of Glaucus with the same herb, 
 and the boy at once rose into life again. The 
 ■story of Glaucus and Polyidus was a favourite sub- 
 ject with the ancient poets and artists. ^5. Of 
 Anthedon in Boeotia, a fisherman, who became 
 immortal by eating a part of the divine herb which 
 Cronos had sown. His parentage is differently 
 stated : some called his father Copeus, others Po- 
 lybus, the husband of Euboea, and others again 
 Anthedon or Poseidon. He was further said to 
 have been a clever diver, to have built the ship 
 Argo, and to have accompanied the Argonauts as 
 their steersman. In the sea-fight of Jason against 
 the Tyrrhenians, Glaucus alone remained unhurt ; 
 he sank to the bottom of the sea, where he was 
 visible to none save Jason. From this moment he 
 became a marine deity, and was of service to the 
 Argonauts. The story of his sinking or leaping 
 into the sea was variously modified in the different 
 traditions. There was a belief in Greece that once 
 in every year Glaucus visited all the coasts and 
 islands, accompanied by marine monsters, and gave 
 his prophecies. Fishermen and sailors paid particular 
 reverence to him, and watched his oracles, which 
 ■were believed to be very trustworthy. He is said 
 to have even instructed Apollo in the prophetic 
 art. Some writers stated that he dwelt in Delos, 
 where he prophesied in conjunction with the 
 nymphs ; but the place of his abode varied in dif- 
 ferent traditions. The stories about his various 
 loves were favourite subjects with the ancient poets. 
 — 6. Of Chios, a statuary in metal, distinguished 
 as the inventor of the art of soldering metals (kiJa- 
 
 GONNI. 
 
 \77crts), flourished B. c. 400. His most noted work 
 was an iron base {vTroicpTjTTipidioi'), which, with 
 the silver bowl it supported, was presented to the 
 temple at Delphi by Alyattes, king of Lydia. 
 
 Glaucus (FAauKOs). 1. A small river of Phrygia, 
 falling into the Maeander near Eumenia.^B. A 
 small river of Lycia, on the borders of Caria, flow- 
 ing into the Sinus Glaucus [Gulf of Makri), 
 
 Glaucus Siaus. [Glaucus.] 
 
 Glessaria {Ameland)^ an island off the coast of 
 the Friaii, so called from "glessum " or amber which 
 was found there : its proper name was Austeravia. 
 
 Glisas (rAiVar : TKiaavrios)^ an ancient town 
 in Boeotia, on Mt. Hypaton. It was in ruins in 
 the time of Pausanias. 
 
 Glycas, Micliael, a Byzantine historian, the 
 author of a work t\\i\i\e&. Amials {^iSXos xpoviK^)^ 
 containing the history of the world from the 
 creation to the death of Alexis I. Comnenus, A. D. 
 1118. Edited by Bekker, Bonn, 1836. 
 
 Glycera (rAu/cepa), ''tlie sweet one," a fa- 
 vourite name of hetairae. The most celebrated 
 hetairae of this name are, 1. The daughter of Tha- 
 lassis, and the mistress of Harpalus. ^2. Of Sicyon, 
 and the mistress of Pausias. ^3. A favourite of 
 Horace. 
 
 Glycerius, became emperor of the W. A. d. 
 473, after the death of Olybrius, by the assistance 
 of Gundobald the Burgundian. But the Byzantine 
 court did not acknowledge Glycerins, and pro- 
 claimed Julius Nepos emperor, by whom Glycerins 
 was dethroned (474), and compelled to become a 
 priest. He was appointed bishop of Salona in 
 Dalmatia. 
 
 Glycon {V\vKbiv\ an Athenian sculptor, known 
 to us by his magnificent colossal marble statue of 
 Hercules, commonly called the " Famese Her- 
 cules."" It was found in the baths of Caracalla, 
 and, after adorning the Famese palace for some 
 time, was removed to the royal museum at Naples, 
 It represents the hero resting on his club, after one 
 of his labours. The swollen muscles admirably 
 express repose after severe exertion. Glycon pro- 
 bably lived under the early Roman emperors. 
 
 Gnipho, H. Antonius, a Roman rhetorician, 
 was bom B.C. 114, in Gaul, but studied at Alex- 
 andria. He afterwards established a school at 
 Rome, which was attended by many distinguished 
 men, and among others by Cicero, when he was 
 praetor. 
 
 Gaosus, Gnossus. [Cnosus.] 
 
 Gobryas (Fw^puas), a noble Persian, one of the 
 7 conspirators against Smerdis the Magian. He 
 accompanied Darius into Scythia. Pie was doubly 
 related to Darius by marriage : Darius married the 
 daughter of Gobrj'as, and Gobryas mairied the 
 sister of Darius. 
 
 Golgi (roA7oi : V6\yios), a town in Cyprus, of 
 uncertain site, was a Sicyonian colony, and one of the 
 chief seats of the worship of Aphrodite (Venus). 
 
 Gomphi (FtJ^^ot : Foju^eus), a town in Hestiae- 
 otis in Thessaly, was a strong fortress on the confines 
 of Epirus, and commanded the chief pass between 
 Thessaly and Epirus : it was taken and destroyed 
 by Caesar (b. c. 48), but was afterwards rebuilt 
 
 Gonni, Gonuus iV6vvoi, V6vvos : Tdwios), a 
 strongly fortified town of the Perrhaebi in Thessaly, 
 on the river Peneus and at the entrance of the vale 
 of Tempe, was, from its position, of great military 
 importance ; but it is not mentioned after the time 
 of the wars between the Macedonians and Romans. 
 
GOKDIANUS. 
 
 Gordianus, M. Antoulus, the name of 3 Ro- 
 mnn emperors, father, son, and grandson. 1. Siir- 
 iiamed Africanus, son of Melius Marullus and 
 Ulpia Gordiana, possessed a princely fortune, and 
 ivas distinguished alike by moral and intellectual 
 «xcellence. In his 1st consulship, a. d. 213, he 
 was the colleague ofCaracalla ; in his 2nd of Alex- 
 ander Sevenis ; and soon afterwards was nominated 
 proconsul of Africa. After governing Africa for 
 several years with justice and integrity, a rebellion 
 broke out in the province in consequence of the 
 tyranny of the procurator of Maximinus. The 
 ringleaders of the conspiracy compelled Gordian, 
 who was now in his 80th year, to assume the im- 
 perial title. He entered on his new duties at Car- 
 thage in the month of February, associated his son 
 with him in the empire, and despatched letters to 
 Rome, announcing his elevation. Gordianus and 
 his son were at once proclaimed Augusti by the 
 senate, and preparations were made in Italy to 
 resist Maximinus. But meantime a certain Capel- 
 lianus, procurator of Numidia, refused to acknow- 
 ledge the authority of the Gordiani and marched 
 against them. The younger Gordianus was de- 
 feated by him, and slain in the battle ; and his 
 aged father thereupon put an end to his own life, 
 after reigning less than 2 months, •^ 2. Son of the 
 preceding and of Fafaia Orestflia, was bom A. D. 
 192, was associated with his father in the purple, 
 and fell in battle, as recorded above. ^ 3. Grand- 
 son of the cider Gordianus, either by a daughter or 
 by the younger Gordianus. The soldiers pro- 
 claimed him emperor in July, a. d. 238, after the 
 murder of Balbinus .^nd Pupienus, although he was 
 a mere boy, probably not more than 12 years old. 
 He reigned 6 years, from 238 to 244. In 241 he 
 married the daughter of Misitheus, and in the same 
 year set out for the E. to cany on the war against 
 the Persians. With the assistance of Misitheus, 
 he defeated the Persians in 242. Misitheus died in 
 the following year ; and Philippus, whom Gordian 
 had taken into his confidence, excited discontent 
 among the soldiers, who at length rose in open 
 mutiny, and assassinated Gordian in Mesopotamia, 
 244. He was succeeded by Philippus. 
 
 Gordium {r6pBioVj Vopdiou Kci/i??), the ancient 
 capital of Phrj-gia, the royal residence of the kings 
 of the dynasty of Gordius, and the scene of Alex- 
 ander's celebrated exploit of *' cutting the Gordian 
 knot." [Gordius]. It was situated in the W. 
 of that part of Phrygia which was afterwards called 
 Galatia, N. of Pessinus, on the N. bank of the 
 Sangarius. In the reign of Augustus it received 
 the name of Juliopolis {'IovX.iovtto\is). 
 
 Gordius (r6pSios), an ancient king of Phrygia, 
 and father of Midas, was originally a poor peasant. 
 Internal disturbances having broken out in Phn'gia, 
 an oracle informed the inhabitants that a waggon 
 would bring them a king, who should at the same 
 time put an end to the disturbances. When the 
 people were deliberating on these points, Gordius, 
 with his wife and son, suddenly appeared riding in 
 his waggon in the assembly of the people, who at 
 once acknowledged him as king. Gordius, out of 
 gratitude, dedicated his chariot to Zeus, in the 
 acropolis of Gordium. The pole was fastened to 
 the yoke by a knot of bark ; and an oracle de- 
 clared that whosoever should untie the knot 
 should reign over all Asia. Alexander, on his 
 arrival at Gordium, cut the knot with his sword, 
 and applied the oracle to himself. 
 
 GORGIAS. 
 
 285 
 
 Gordiutichos (Top^iov reTxos), a town in Caria^ 
 near the borders nf Phrygia, between Antiochia ad 
 Maeandrum and Tabae. 
 
 Gordyaei. [Gordyene.] 
 
 Gordyaei Montes (to. rop5va7a opTj: Mouyitimt^ 
 of Kurdistan\ the name given by Strabo to the N. 
 part of the broad belt of mountains, which separates 
 the Tigris valley from the great table land of Jran^ 
 and which divided Mesopotamia and Assyria from 
 Armenia and Media. They are connected with the 
 mountains of Armenia at Ararat, whence they rui> 
 S. E. between the Arsissa Palus {Lake Van) and 
 the sources of the Tigris and its upper confluenta^ 
 as far as the confines of Media, where the chain 
 turns more to the S. and was called Zagros. 
 
 Gordyene or Cordiiene (ropSuTji-Ti, Kopdov-qvi})^ 
 a mountainous district in the S. of Armenia Major, 
 between the Arsissa Palus {Lake Van) and the 
 Gordyaei Montes. After the Mithridatic War, 
 it was assigned by Pompey to Tigranes, with whom 
 its possession had been disputed by the Parthian 
 king Phraates. Trajan added it to the Roman 
 empire; and it formed afterwards a constant object 
 of contention between the Romans and the Parthian 
 and Persian kings, but was for the most part 
 virtually independent. Its warlike inhabitants,, 
 called TopZvatoi or Gordueni, were no doubt the 
 same people as the Carduchi of the earlier Greek 
 geographers, and the Kurds of modem times. 
 
 Gorge {rSpjT])^ daughter of Oeneus and Althea- 
 She and her sister Deianira alone retained their 
 original forms, when their other sisters were meta- 
 morphosed by Artemis into birds. 
 
 Gorgias (Topyias). 1. Of Leontini, in Sicily, 
 a celebrated rhetorician and orator, sophist and 
 philosopher, was born about b. c. 480, and is said 
 to have lived 105, or even 109 years. Of his- 
 early life we have no particulars ; but when he 
 was of advanced age (b. c. 427) he was sent by 
 his fellow-citizens as ambassador to Athens, for 
 the purpose of soliciting its protection against Sy- 
 racuse. He seems to have returned to Leontini 
 only for a short time, and to have spent the re- 
 maining years of his vigorous old age in the towna 
 of Greece Proper, especially at Athens and the 
 Thessalian Larissa, enjoying honour everywhere 
 as an orator and teacher of rhetoric. The common 
 statement that Pericles and the historian Thucy- 
 dides were among his disciples, cannot be true, as 
 he did not go to Athens till after the death of Pe- 
 ricles ; but Alcibiades, Alcidamas, Aeschjnes, imd 
 Antisthenes, are called either pupils or imitators of 
 Gorgias, and his oratory must have had great in- 
 fluence upon the rhetorician Isocrates. The high 
 estimation in which he was held at Athens appears 
 from the way in which he is introduced in the dia- 
 logue of Plato, which bears his name. The elo- 
 quence of Gorgias was chiefly calculated to tickle 
 the ear by antitheses, alliterations, the symmetry of 
 its parts, and similar artifices. Two declamations- 
 have come down to us under the name of Gorgias. 
 viz. the Apology of Palamedes, and the Encomium 
 on Helena, the genuineness of which is doubtful. 
 Besides his orations, which were mostly what the 
 Greeks called Epideiiic or speeches for display, 
 such as his oration addressed to the assembled 
 Gi"eeks at Olympia, Gorgias also wrote loci com- 
 munes^ probably as rhetorical exercises ; a work on 
 dissimilar and homogeneous words, and another on 
 rhetoric. The works of Gorgias did not even 
 conttiin the elements of a scientific theory of ora- 
 
286 
 
 GORGO. 
 
 tory, any more tlian his oral instructions. He con- 
 fined himself to teaching hia pupils a variety of 
 rhetorical artifices, and made them learn by heart 
 certain formulas relative to them. —2. Of Athens, 
 gave instruction in rhetoric to young M. Cicero, 
 when he was at Athens. He wrote a rhetorical 
 work, a Latin abridgment of which by Rutilius 
 Lupus is still extant, under the title De Figuris 
 Sententiarum et Elocuiioms. 
 
 Gorgo and Gorgones {Topyiii and TSpyoves). 
 Homer mentions only one Gorgo, who appears in 
 the Odyssey (xi. 633) as one of the frightful phan- 
 toms in Hades : in the Iliad the Aegis of Athena 
 contains the head of Gorgo, the terror of her 
 enemies. Hesiod mentions 3 Gorgones, Stheno, 
 Etiryale, and Medusa, daughters of Phorcys and 
 Ceto, whence they are sometimes called Phorcydes. 
 Hesiod placed them in the far W. in the Ocean, in 
 the neighbourhood of Night and the Hesperides ; 
 but later traditions transferred them to Libya. They 
 were frightful beings ; instead of hair, their heads 
 were covered with hissing serpents ; and they had 
 wings, brazen claws, and enormous teeth. Medusa, 
 who alone of her sisters was mortal, was, according 
 to some legends, at first a beautiful maiden, but 
 her hair was changed into serpents by Athena, in 
 consequence of her having become by Poseidon 
 the mother of Chrysaor and Pegasus, in one of 
 Athena's temples. Her head now became so fear- 
 ful that every one who looked at it was changed 
 into stone. Hence the great difficulty which Per- 
 seus had in killing her. [Perseus.] Athena af- 
 terwards placed the head in the centre of her 
 shield or breastplate. 
 
 Gortyn, Gor^TLa. {T6prvv^T6pTvva: ToprvvLos). 
 1. (Nr. HagiosDkehx Ru., 6 miles from the foot of 
 Mt. Ida), one of the most ancient cities in Crete, 
 on the river Lethaeus, 90 stadia from its harbour 
 Leben, and 130 stadia from its other harbour Ma- 
 talia. It was one of the chief seats of the worship 
 of Europa, whence it was called Hellotis ,• and it 
 was subsequently peopled by Minyans and Tyrr- 
 hene-Pelasgians, whence it also bore the name of 
 Larissa. It was the 2nd city in Crete, being only 
 inferior to Cnossus ; and on the decline of the latter 
 place under the Romans, it became the metropolis 
 of the island. ^3. Also Gortys [iiir:. Atzilcolo Ru.), 
 a town in Arcadia on the river Gortynius, a tributary 
 of the Alpheus. 
 
 Goi'tynia {Toprwia)^ a town in Emathia in 
 Macedonia, of uncertain site. 
 
 Gotarzea. [Arsaces XX. XXI.] 
 
 Gothi, Gothones, Guttones, a powerful German 
 people, who played an important part in the over- 
 throw of the Roman empire. They originally dwelt 
 on the Prussian coast of the Baltic at the mouth of 
 the Vistula, where they are placed by Tacitus ; but 
 they afterwards migrated S., and at the beginning 
 of the 3rd century, they appear on the coasts of the 
 Black Sea, where Caracalla encountered them on 
 ins march to the E. In the reign of the emperor 
 Philippus (a. d. 244 — 249), they obtained pos- 
 session of a great part of the Roman province of 
 Dacia; and in consequence of their settling in the 
 countries formerly inhabited by the Getae and 
 Scythians, they are frequently called both Getae 
 and Scythians by later writers. From the time of 
 Philippus the attacks of the Goths against the 
 Roman empire became more frequent and more 
 destructive. In a. d. 272 the emperor Aurelian 
 surrendered to them the whole of Bacia. It is about 
 
 GRACCHUS. 
 
 this time that we find them separated into 2 great 
 divisions, the Ostrogoths or E. Goths, and the 
 Visigoths or W. Goths. The Ostrogoths settled in 
 Moesia and Pannonia, while the Visigoths remained 
 N. of the Danube. — The Visigoths under their king 
 Alaric invaded Italy, and took and plundered Rome 
 (410). A few years afterwards they settled per- 
 manently in the S. W. of Gaul, and established a 
 kingdom of which Tolosa was the capital. From 
 thence they invaded Spain, where they also founded 
 a kingdom, which lasted for more tlian 2 centuries, 
 till it was overthrown by the Arabs. — The Ostro- 
 goths meantime had extended their dominions 
 almost up to the gates of Constantinople ; and the 
 emperor Zeno was glad to get rid of them by giving 
 them permission to invade and conquer Italy. 
 Under their king Theodoric the Great they obtained 
 possession of the whole of Italy ( 493). Theodoric 
 took the title of king of Italy, and an Ostrogothic 
 dynasty reigned in the country, till it was destroyed 
 bj' Narses, the general of Justinian, a. d. 553. — 
 The Ostrogoths embraced Christianity at an eariy 
 period ; and it was for tlieir use that Ulphilas 
 translated the sacred Scriptures into Gothic, about 
 the middle of the 4th century. 
 
 Gothini, a Celtic people in the S. E. of Germany, 
 subject to the Quadi. 
 
 GracchanuB, M. JUiilus, assumed his cognomen 
 on account of his friendship with C. Gracchus. He 
 wrote a work, De Potesiatibus, which gave an 
 account of the Roman constitution and magistracies 
 from the time of the kings. It was addressed to 
 T. PomponiuB Atticus, the father of Cicero's friend. 
 This work, which appears to have been one of 
 great value, is lost, but some parts of it are cited 
 by Joannes Lydus. [Lydus.] 
 
 Gracchus, Sempronius, plebeians.— 1. Tib., a 
 distinguished general in the 2nd Punic war. In 
 B.C. 216 he was magister equitum to the dictator, M. 
 Junius Pera ; in 215 consul for the first time ; and 
 in 213 consul for the 2nd time. In 212 he fell in 
 battle against Mago, at Campi Veteres, in Lucania. 
 His body was sent to Hannibal, who honoured it 
 with a magnificent burial. ^2. Tib,, was tribune of 
 the plebs in 187 ; and although personally hostile 
 to P. Scipio Africanus, he defended him against 
 the attacks of the other tribunes, for which he re- 
 ceived the thanks of the aristocratical party. Soon 
 after this occurrence Gracchus was-, rewarded with 
 the hand of Cornelia, the youngest daughter of P. 
 Scipio Africanus. In 181 he-was praetor, and re- 
 ceived Hispania Citerior as his province, where he 
 carried on the war with great success against the 
 Celtiberians. After defeating them in battle, he 
 gained their confidence by his justice and kindness. 
 He returned to Rome in 178 ; and was consul in 
 177, when he was sent against the Sardinians, who 
 revolted. He reduced them to complete submission 
 in 176, and returned to Rome in 175. He brought 
 with him so large a number of captives, that they 
 were sold for a mere trifle, which gave rise to 
 the proverb Sardi venales. In 169 he was censor 
 with C. Claudius Pulcher, and was consul a 2nd 
 time in 163. — He had 12 children by Cornelia, all 
 of whom died at an early age, except the 2 tribunes, 
 Tiberius and Caius, and a daughter, Cornelia, who 
 was married to P. Scipio Africanus the younger. ^ 3. 
 Tib., elder son of No. 2, lost his father at an early 
 age. He was educated together with his brother 
 Caius by his illustrious mother, Cornelia, who made 
 it the object of her life to render her sons worthy 
 
GHACCHUS. 
 
 of their father and of her own ancestors. She was 
 assisted in the education of her children by eminent 
 Greeks, who exercised great influence upon the 
 minds of the two brothers, and among whom we 
 have especial mention of Diophanes of Mytilene, 
 Menelaus of Marathon, and Blossius of Cnmae. 
 Tiberius was 9 years older than his brother Caiua; 
 and although they grew up under the same influence, 
 and their characters resembled each other in the 
 main outlines, yet they differed from each other in 
 several important particulars. Tiberius was inferior 
 to his brother in talent, but surpassed him in the 
 amiable traits of his gentle nature : the simplicity 
 of his demeanour, and his calm dignity, won for 
 him the hearts of the people. His eloquence, too, 
 formed a strong contrast with the passionate and 
 impetuous harangues of Caius ; for it was temperate, 
 graceful, persuasive, and, proceeding as it did from 
 the fulness of his own heart, it found a ready en- 
 trance into the hearts of his hearers. Tiberius 
 served in Africa under P. Scipio Africanus the 
 younger, who had married his sister, and was pre- 
 sent at the destruction of Carthage (146). In 
 137 he was quaestor, and in that capacity he 
 accompanied the consul, Hostilius Mancinus, to 
 Hispania Citerior, where he gained both the affec- 
 tion of the Roman soldiers, and the esteem and 
 confidence of the victorious enemy. The distressed 
 condition of the Roman people had deeply excited 
 the sympathies of Tiberius. As he travelled through 
 Etruria on his journey to Spain, he observed with 
 grief and indignation the deserted state of tliat 
 fertile country; thousands of foreign slaves in chains 
 were employed in cultivating the land and tending 
 the flocks upon the immense estates of the wealthy, 
 while the poorer classes of Roman citizens, who 
 were thus thrown out of employment, had scarcely 
 their daily bread or a clod of earth to call their 
 own. He resolved to use every effort to remedy 
 this state of things by endeavouring to create an 
 industrious middle class of agriculturists, and to 
 put a check upon the unbounded avarice of the 
 ruling party, whose covetousness, combined with 
 the disasters of the 2nd Punic war, had completely 
 destroyed the middle class of small landowners. 
 With this view, he offered himself as a candidate 
 for the tribuneship, and obtained it for the year 1 33. 
 The agrarian law of Licinius, which enacted that 
 no one should possess more than 500 jugera of 
 public land, had never been repealed, but had for 
 a long series of years been totally disregarded. The 
 first measure, therefore, of Tiberius was to propose 
 a bill to the people, renewing and enforcing the 
 Licinian law, but with the modification, that be- 
 sides the SCO jugera allowed by that law, any one 
 might possess 2.o0 jugera of the public land for each 
 of his sons. This clause, however, seems to have 
 been limited to 2 ; so that a father of 2 sons might 
 occupy 1000 jugera of public land. The surplus 
 was to be taken from them and distributed in small 
 farms among the poor citizens. The business of 
 measuring and distributing the land was to be 
 entrusted to triumvirs, who were to be elected as 
 a pennanent magistracy. This measure encountered 
 the most vehement opposition from the senate and 
 the aristocracy, and they got one of the tribunes 
 M. Octavius, to put his intercessio or veto upon the 
 bilL When neither persuasions nor threats would 
 induce Octavius to withdraw his opposition, the 
 people, upon the proposition of Tiberius, deposed 
 Octavius from his office. The law was then passed; 
 
 GRACCHUS. 
 
 287 
 
 and the triumvirs appointed to carry it into execu- 
 tion were Tib. Gracchus, App. Claudius, his father- 
 in-law, and his brother C. Gracchus, who was then 
 little more than 20 years old, and was serving in 
 the camp of P. Scipio at Numantia. About this 
 time Attains died, bequeathing bis kingdom and 
 his property to the Roman people. Gracchus there- 
 upon proposed that this property should be distri- 
 buted among the people, to enable the poor, who 
 were to receive lands, to purchase the necessary 
 implements, cattle and the like. When the time 
 came for the election of the tribunes for the follow- 
 ing year, Tiberius again offered himself as a candi- 
 date. The senate declared that it was illegal for 
 any one to hold this office for 2 consecutive years ; 
 but Tiberius paid no attention to the objection. 
 While the tribes were voting, a band of senators, 
 headed by P. Scipio Nasica, rushed from the senate 
 house into the forum and attacked the people. 
 Tiberius was killed as he was attempting to escape. 
 He was probably about 35 years of age at the time 
 of his death. Whatever were the errors of Tiberius 
 in legislation, his motives were pure ; and he died 
 the death of a martyr in the protection of the poor 
 and oppressed. All the odium that has for many 
 centuries been thrown upon Tiberius and his brother 
 Caius arose from party prejudice, and more espe- 
 cially from a misunderstanding of the nature of a 
 Roman agrarian law, which did not deal with 
 private property, but only with the public land of 
 the state. (See Did. ofAniiq. art. Agrariae Leges.') 
 —4, C, brother of No. 3, was in Spain at the time 
 of his brother's murder, as has been already stated. 
 He returned to Rome in the following year (132), 
 but kept aloof from public affairs for some years. 
 In 126 he was quaestor, and went to Sardinia, 
 under the consul L. Aurelius Orestes ; and there 
 gained the approbation of his superiors and the 
 attachment of the soldiers. The senate attempted 
 to keep him in Sardinia, dreading his popularity in 
 Rome; but after he had remained there 2 years, he 
 left the province without leave, and returned to the 
 city in 124. Urged on by the popular wish, and 
 by the desire of avenging the cause of his murdered 
 brother, he became a candidate for the tribuneship 
 of the plebs, and was elected for the year 123. His 
 reforms were far more extensive than his brother's, 
 and such was his influence with the people that he 
 carried all he proposed; and the senate were deprived 
 of some of their most important privileges. His 
 first measure was the renewal of the agrarian law 
 of his brother. He next carried several laws for 
 the amelioration of the condition of the poor, en- 
 acting, that the soldiers should be equipped at the 
 expense of the republic ; that no person under the 
 age of 17 should be drafted for the army ; and 
 that every month corn should be sold at a low- 
 fixed price to the poor. In order to weaken the 
 power of the senate, he enacted, that the judices in 
 the judicia publlca, who had hitherto been elected 
 from the senate, should in future be chosen from 
 the equites ; and that in every year, before the 
 consuls were elected, the senate should determine 
 the 2 provinces which the consuls should have. No 
 branch of the public administration appears to have 
 escaped his notice. He gave a regular organisation 
 to the province of Asia, which had for many years 
 been left unsettled. In order to facilitate inter- 
 course between the several parts of Italy, and at 
 the same time to give employment to the poor, he 
 made new roads in all directions, repaired the old 
 
238 
 
 ailADTVUS. 
 
 ones, and set up milestones alnng them. — Caius 
 was elected tribune af^^in for the foUowini; year, 
 r2"2. The senate, finding it impossible to resist the 
 measures of Caius, resolved it possible to destroy 
 his influence with the people, that they miE^ht 
 retain the government in their own hands. For 
 this pui-pose they persuaded M. Liviua Drusus, 
 one of the colleagues of Caius, to propose measures 
 still more popular than those of Caius. Tlie people 
 allowed themselves to be duped by the treacherous 
 agent of the senate, and the popularity of Caius 
 gradually waned. Duiing his absence in Africa, 
 whither he had gone as one of the triumvifs to 
 establish a colony at Cai'thage, in accordance with 
 one of his own laws, his party had been considerablj'" 
 weakened by the influence of Dinisus and the aris- 
 tocracy, and many of his friends had deserted his 
 cause. He failed in obtaining the tribuneshlp for 
 the following year (121); and when his year of office 
 expired, his enemies began to repeal several of his 
 enactments. Caius appeared in the forum to oppose 
 these proceedings. One of the attendants of the 
 consul Opimius was slain by the friends of Caius. 
 Opimius gladly availed himself of this pretext to 
 persuade the senate to confer upon him unlimited 
 power to act as he thought best for the good of the 
 republic Fulvius Flaccus, and the other friends 
 of Caius, called upon him to repel force by force ; 
 but he refused to arm, and while his friends fought 
 in his defence, he fled to the grove of the Furies, 
 where he fell by the hands of his slave, whom he 
 had commanded to put him to death. The bodies 
 of the slain, whose number is said to have amounted 
 to 3000, were thrown into the Tiber, their property 
 ■was confiscated, and their houses demolished. All 
 the other friends of Gracchus who fell into the 
 hands of their enemies were thrown into prison, 
 and there strangled, 
 
 Gradivus, i. e. the marching (probably from 
 ffradioi-}, a surname of Mars, who is hence called 
 (jradivits pater and rex gradivus. Mars Gradivus 
 had a temple outside the porta Capena on the 
 Appian road, and it is said that king Numa ap- 
 pointed 12 Salii as priests of this god. 
 
 Graeae (rpamt), that is, " the old women," 
 daughters of Phorcys and Ceto, were 3 in number, 
 Pephredo, Emjo^ and Dino^ and were also called 
 IViorcydes. They had grey hair from their birth ; 
 and had only one tooth and one eye in common, 
 which they borrowed from each other when they 
 "Wanted them. They were perhaps marine dei- 
 ties, like the other children of Phorcys. 
 
 Graecia or Hellas (77 'EAXcts), a country in 
 Europe, the inhabitants of which were called Graeci 
 or Hellenes ("EAATjf es). Among the Greeks Hellas 
 did not signify any particular country, bounded by 
 certain geographical limits, but was used in general 
 to signify the abode ai t\\Q Hellenes^ wherever they 
 might happen to be settled. Thus the Greek co- 
 lonies of Cyrene in Africa, of Syracuse in Sicily, of 
 Tarentum in Italy, and of Smyrna in Asia, are said 
 to be in Hellas. In the most ancient times Hellas 
 was a small district of Phthiotis in Thessal^^, in 
 which was situated a to\vn of the same name. As 
 the inhabitants of this district, the Hellenes, gra- 
 dually spread over the surrounding country, their 
 name was adopted by other tribes, who became 
 assimilated in language, manners and customs to 
 the original Hellenes ; till at length the whole of 
 the N. of Greece from the Ceraunian and Cam- 
 bunian mountains to the Corinthian isthmus was 
 
 GRAKCIA. 
 
 designated by the name of Hellas.* Peloponnesus 
 was generally spoken of during the flourishing times 
 of Greek independence, as distinct from Hellas 
 proper ; but subsequently Peloponnesus and the 
 Greek islands were also included under the general 
 name of Hellas, in opposition to the land of the 
 barbarians. Still later even Macedonia, and the S. 
 part of Illyria were sometimes reckoned part of 
 Hellas. The Romans called the land of the Hellenes 
 (Jraecia, whence we have derived the name of 
 Greece. They probably gave this name to the 
 country from their first becoming acquainted with 
 the tribe of the Graeci, who were said to be de- 
 scended from Graecus, a son of Thessalus, and who 
 appear at an early period tn have dwelt on the W. 
 coast of Epirus. — Hellas or Greece proper, including 
 Peloponnesus, lies between the 36th and 46th de- 
 grees of N. latitude, and between the 21st and 26tlt 
 degrees of E. longitude. Its greatest length froni 
 Mt. Olympus to Cape Taenanis ia about 250 English 
 miles : its greatest breadth from the W. coast of 
 Acamania to Marathon in Attica is about 180 
 miles. Its area is somewhat less than that of Por- 
 tugal. On the N. it was separated by the Cambu- 
 nian and Ceraunian mountains from Macedonia and 
 Illyria ; and on the other 3 sides it ia bounded by 
 the sea, namely, by the Ionian sea on the W"., and 
 by the Aegaean on the E. and S. It is one of the 
 most mountainous countries of Europe, and possesses 
 few extensive plains and few continuous valleys. 
 The inhabitants were thus separated from one 
 another by barriers which it was not easy to sur- 
 mount, and were naturally led to form separate poli- 
 tical communities. At a later time the N. of Greece 
 was generally divided into 10 districts: Epieus, 
 Thessalia, Acarnania, Aetolia, Doris, Lo- 
 CRis, Phocis, BoEOTiA, Attica and Megaris. 
 The S. of Greece or Peloponnesus was usually 
 divided into 10 districts likewise: Corinthia,. 
 SiCYONiA, Phliasia, Achaia, Elis, Messenia, 
 ItAcoNicA, Cynoria, Argolis and Arcadia. 
 An account of the geography, early inhabitants, 
 and history of each of these districts is given in 
 separate articles. It is only necessary to remark 
 here that before the Hellenes had spread over the 
 country, it was inhabited by various tribes, whom 
 the Greeks call by the general name of barbarians. 
 Of these the most celebrated were the Pelasgians, 
 who had settled in most parts of Greece, and from 
 whom a considerable part of the Greek population 
 was undoubtedly descended. These Pelasgians 
 were a branch of the great Indo-Germanic race, 
 and spoke a language akin to that of the Hellenes, 
 whence the amalgamation of the 2 races was ren- 
 dered much easier. [Pelasgi.] The Hellenes 
 traced their origin to a mythical ancestor Hellen, 
 from whose sons and grandsons they were divided 
 into the 4 great tribes of Dorians, AeolianSy 
 Achaeans and lonians. [Hellen.] 
 
 Graecia Magna orG. Major (t\ /j.eydkr]'E\\(i?),. 
 a name given to the districts in the S. of Italy, 
 inhabited by the Greeks. This name was never 
 used simply to indicate the S. of Italy ; it was 
 always confined to the Greek cities and their terri- 
 tories, and did not include the surrounding districts, 
 inhabited by the Italian tribes. It appears to have 
 been applied chiefly to the cities on the Tarcntine 
 
 * Epirus is, for the sake of convenience, usually ui- 
 cludeil in Hellas by modern geographers, but Avas 
 excluded by the Greeks themselves, iis tiie Epirots were 
 not regarded as genuine Hellenes. 
 
GRAMPIUS. 
 
 gulf, Tarentum, Sybaris, Croton, Caiilonia, Siris 
 (Heraclea), Metapontum, Locri and Rlieginm; but 
 it also included the Greek cities on tlie W. coast, 
 such as Cumae and Neapolis. Strabo extends the 
 appellation even to the Greek cities of Sicily. The 
 origin of the name is doubtful ; whether it was given 
 to the Greek cities by the Italian tribes from their 
 admiring the magnificence of these cities, or whether 
 it was assumed by the inhabitants themselves out 
 of vanity and ostentation, to show tlieir superiority 
 to the mother country. 
 
 Grampius Mons {Grampian HUls), a range of 
 mountains in Britannia Barbara or Caledonia, se- 
 parating the Highlands and Lowlands of Scotland. 
 Agricola penetrated as far aa these mountains and 
 defeated Galgacus at their foot. 
 
 Oranlcus {VpdpiKos : Koja-Chai), a river of 
 Mysia Minor, rising in M. Cotylus, the N. summit 
 of Ida, flowing N.E. through the plain of Adrastea, 
 and falling into the Propontis {Sea of Marmara) 
 E. of Priapus ; memorable as the scene of the first 
 of the 3 great victories by which Alexander the 
 Great overthrew the Persian empire (b. c. 334), 
 and, in a less degree, for a victory gained upon Its 
 banks by LucuUus over Mithridates, b. c. 73. 
 
 Granis (Fpai/ts: Kkisht)^ a river of Persis, with 
 a royal palace on its banks. It fell into the Persian 
 Gulf near Taoce. 
 
 Q. Granius, a clerk employed by the auc- 
 tioneers at Home to collect the money at sales, 
 lived about B.C. 110. Although his occupation 
 was humble, his wit and caustic humour rendered 
 him famous among his contemporaries, and have 
 transmitted his name to posterity, 
 
 Granua {Vpavova : Groan), a river in the land 
 of the Quadi and the S, E. of Germany, and a 
 tributary of the Danube, on the banks of which M. 
 Aurelius wrote the 1st book of his Meditations. 
 
 Gratiae. [Charitks.] 
 
 Gratianus. 1, Emperor of the "Western Em- 
 pire, A. D. 367 — 383, son of Valentinian I., waa 
 mised by his father to the rank of Augustus in 367, 
 when he was only 8 years old. On the death of 
 Valentinian in 375, Gratian did not succeed to the 
 sole sovereignty ; as Valentinian II., the half bro- 
 ther of Augustus, was proclaimed Augustus by the 
 troops. By the death of his uncle, Valens (378), 
 the Eastern empire devolved upon him ; but the 
 danger to which the E. was exposed from the Goths 
 led Gratian to send for Theodosius, and appoint 
 him emperor of the E. (379). Gratian was fond 
 of quiet and repose, and was greatly under the 
 influence of ecclesiastics, especially of Ambrose of 
 Milan. He became unpopular with the army. 
 Maximus was declared emperor in Britain, and 
 crossed over to Gaul, where he defeated Gratian, 
 who was overtaken and slain in his flight after 
 the battle.— 2. A usurper, who assumed the purple 
 in Britain, and was murdered by his troops about 
 4 months after his elevation (407). He was suc- 
 ceeded by Constantine. [Constantinus, No. 3.] 
 Gratianopolis. [Cularo.] 
 Gratiarum Collis (XapiT«y \6fos, flerod. iv^ 
 1 75 : mils of Tarhounak)^ a range of wooded hills 
 running parallel to the coast of N. Africa between 
 the Syrtes, and containing the source of the Cinyps 
 and the other small rivers of that coast. 
 Gratius Faliscua. [Faliscus.] 
 Gratus, Valerius, procurator of Judaea from 
 A.D. 15 to 27, and the immediate predecessor of 
 Pontius Pilate. | 
 
 GREGORIUS. 
 
 289 
 
 Graviscae, an ancient city of Etruria, subject 
 to Tarquinii, was colonised by the Romans b. c. 183, 
 and received new colonists under Augustus. It 
 was situated in the Maremraa, and its air was un- 
 healthy {inieinpestae Graviscae^ Virg. Aen. x. 184); 
 whence the ancients ridiculously derived its name 
 from a'tr gravis. Its ruins are on the right bank of 
 the river Maria, about 2 miles from the sea, where 
 are the remains of a magnificent arch. 
 
 Gregoras, Kicephorus, one of the most im- 
 portint Byzantine historians, was born about a. d. 
 1295, and died about 1359. Plis principal work 
 is entitled Historia Byzantina. It is in 38 books, 
 of which only 24 have been printed. It begins 
 with the capture of Constantinople by the Latins 
 in 1204, and goes down to 1359 ; the 24 printed 
 books contain the period from 1204 to 1351. 
 Edited by Schopen, Bonn, 1829. 
 
 Gregorius {rpT}y6pios). 1. Simiamed Nazian- 
 zenus, and usually called Gregory Nazianzen, 
 was bom in a village near Nazianzus in Cappa- 
 docia about A. d. 329. His father took the great- 
 est pains with his education, and he afterwards 
 prosecuted his studies at Athena, where he earned 
 the greatest reputation for his knowledge of rhetoric, 
 philosophy, and mathematics. Among his fellow 
 students was Julian, the future emperor, and Basil, 
 with the latter of whom he formed a most intimate 
 friendship. Gregory appears to have remained at 
 Athens about 6 jeaia (350 — 356), and then re- 
 turned home. Having received ordination, he con- 
 tinued to reside at Nazianzus, where he discharged 
 his duties as a presbyter, and assisted his aged 
 father, who was bishop of the town. In 372 he 
 was associated with his father in the bishopric ; 
 but after the death of the latter in 374, he refused 
 to continue bishop of Nazianzus, as he was averse 
 from public life, and fond of solitary meditation. 
 After living some years in retirement, he was sum- 
 moned to Constantinople in 379, in order to defend 
 the orthodox faith against the Arians and other 
 heretics. In 380 he was made bishop of Con- 
 stantinople by the emperor Theodosius ; but he 
 resigned the ofiice in the following year (381), and 
 withdrew altogether from public life. He lived in so- 
 litude at his paternal estate at Nazianzus, and there 
 he died in 389 or 390. His extant works are, 1. 
 Orations or Sermons ; 2. Letters ; 3. Poems. His 
 discourses, though sometimes really eloquent, are 
 generally nothing more than favourable specimens 
 of the rhetoric of the schools. He is more earnest 
 than Chrysostom, but not so ornamental. He is 
 more artificial, but also more attractive, than Basil. 
 Edited by Morell, Paris, 2 vols, fol., 1609—1611, 
 reprinted 1630. Of the Benedictine edition, only 
 the first volume containing the discourses, was 
 published, Paris, 1778. — 2. Nyssenua, bishop of 
 Nyssa in Cappadocia, was the younger brother of 
 Basil, and was born at Caesarea in Cappadocia, 
 about 331. He was made bishop of Nyssa about 
 372, and, like his brother Basil and their friend 
 Gregory Nazianzen, was one of the pillars of 
 orthodoxy. He died soon after 394. Like his 
 brother, he was an eminent rhetorician, but his 
 oratory often offends by its extravagance. His 
 works are edited by Morell and Gretser, 2 vols, 
 fol. Paris, 1615 — 1618,-3. Sumanied Thauma- 
 turgus, from his miracles, was born at Neocae- 
 sarea in Cappadocia, of heathen parents. He was 
 converted to Ciiristianity by Origen, about 234, 
 and subsequently became the bishop of his native 
 
290 GRUDII. 
 
 town. He died soon after 265. His works are 
 not numerous. The best edition is the one pub- 
 lished at Paris, 1622. 
 
 Grudii, a people in Gallia Belgica, subject to the 
 Nervii, N. of the Scheldt. 
 
 Grume-atam. (GrumentTnus : II Palazzo) y a 
 town in the interior of Lucania on the road from 
 Beneventum to Heraclea, frequently mentioned in 
 the 2nd Punic war. 
 
 Gryllus (rpuAAos), elder son of Xenopbon, fell 
 at the battle of Mantinea, b. c. 3(52, after he had, 
 according to some accounts, given Epammondas his 
 mortal wound. 
 
 Grynia or -lum (Vpupeia^ rpvuiou)^ a very ancient 
 fortified city on the coast of the Sinus Elaiticus, in 
 the S. of Mysia, between Elaea and Myrina, 70 
 stadia from the former and 40 from the latter; 
 celebrated for its temple and oracle of Apollo, who 
 is hence called Grynaeus Apollo (Vir<,'. Aen. iv. 
 3-15). It possessed also a good harbour. Pannenion, 
 tlie general of Alexander, destroyed the city and 
 snld the inhabitants as slaves. It was never again 
 restored. 
 
 Grj^s or Gryphus (Vpv'p)^ a griffin, a fabulous 
 animal, dwelling in the Rhipaean mountains, be- 
 tween the Hyperboreans and the one-eyed Ari- 
 maspians, and guarding the gold of the north. The 
 Arimaspians moimted on horseback, and attempted 
 to steal the gold, and hence arose the hostility be- 
 tween the horse and the griffin. The body of the 
 griffin was that of a lion, while the head and wings 
 were tliose of an eagle. It is probable that the 
 origin of the belief in griffins must be looked for 
 in the East, where it seems to have been very an- 
 cient. They are also mentioned among the fabulous 
 animals which guarded the gold of India. 
 
 Gugemi or Gubemi, a people of Germany, pro- 
 bably of the same race as the Sigambri, crossed the 
 Rhine, and settled on its left bank, between the 
 Ubii and Batavi. 
 
 Gulussa, a Numidian, 2nd son of Masinissa, 
 and brother to Micipsa and Mastanabal. On the 
 death of Masinissa, in b. c. 149, be succeeded 
 along with bis brothers to the dominions of their 
 father. He left a son, named Massive. 
 
 Guraeiis (roupa7o?, Ta^fiolas)^ a river of India, 
 flowing through the country of the Guraei (in the 
 N-W. of the I-'ujijub)^ into the Copheu. 
 
 Guttones. [Gothi.] 
 
 Gyarus or Gyara(7J TtJapor, ret Vvapa; ructpeu?: 
 Chiura or Jura), one of the Cyclades, a small island 
 S. W. of Andros, poor and unproductive, and in- 
 habited only by fishermen. Under the Roman em- 
 perors it was a place of banishment. (Aude aliquid 
 brevihiis Gyarls et carcere dici'Huni^ Juv. i. 73) 
 
 Gyes or Gygeg (FuTjy, Tvyns)^ son of Uranus 
 (Heaven) and Ge (Earth), one of the giants with 
 100 hands, who made war upon the gods. 
 
 Gygaeus Lacus (-^ ruyai-ri \i/j.irq: ImIcb nf Mar- 
 mora), a small lake in Lydia, between the rivers 
 Hermua and Hyllus, N. of Sardis, the necropolis of 
 which city was on its banks. It was afterwards 
 called Coloe. 
 
 Gyges (TvyTjs), the first king of Lydia of the 
 dynasty of the Mermnadae, dethroned Candaules, , 
 and succeeded to the kingdom, as related under 
 Candaules. He reigned B.C. 716— G78. He 
 sent magnificent presents to Delphi, and carried on 
 various wars with the cities of Asia Minor, such 
 as Miletus, Smyrna, Colophon, and Magnesia. 
 ^ The riches of Gyges" became a proverb. 
 
 HADES. 
 
 Gylippus (ruAiTTTTos), a Spartan, son of Clean- 
 dridas, was sent as the Spartan commander to 
 Syracuse, to oppose the Athenians, B. c. 41 -i-. 
 Under his command the Syracusans annihilated 
 tlie great Athenian armament, and took Demos- 
 thenes and Nicias prisoners, 413. In 404 he was 
 commissioned by Lysander, after the capture of 
 Athens, to carry home the treasure; but by open- 
 ing the seams of the sacks underneath, he ab- 
 stracted a considerable portion. The theft was 
 discovered, and Gylippus went at once into exile, 
 — The syllable TuA- in the name of Gylippus is 
 probably identical with the Latin Gilvuft. 
 
 Gymuesiae. [Baleares.] 
 
 GyuaeCOpolis {rwaiKoiroXis, or VwaiKcov ir6\is\ 
 a city in the Delta of Egypt, on the W. bank of the 
 Canopic bnmch of the Nile, between Hermopolia 
 and Momemphis. It was the capital of the Nomos 
 Gynaecopolites. 
 
 Gyndes (Tuvd-os), a river of Assyria, rising in 
 the country of the Matieni (in the mountains of 
 Kiu'distan)^ and flowing into the Tigris, celebrated 
 through the story that Cyrus the Great drew off its 
 waters by 360 channels. (Herod, i. 189.) It is 
 very difficult to identify this river: perhaps it is 
 the same as the Delas or Silla (Dia/a)^ which falls 
 into the Tigris just above Ctesiphon and Seleucia. 
 It is also doubtful whether the Sindes of Tacitus 
 {Ajtn. xi. 10.) is tlie same river. 
 
 Gyrton, Gyrtona {rvpTivu^rvpTwvjj: Tuprwuios: 
 nr. Tatari Ru.), an ancient town in Pelasgiotis in 
 Thessaly, on the Peneus. 
 
 Gytheiiin, Gythium {rh Tv&^iov, VvQwv. Tvded- 
 TTjy : Palaeopolis nr. AfaratJionisi), an ancient to\vn on 
 the coast of Laconia, founded by the Achaeans, lay 
 near the head of the Laconian bay, S. W. of the 
 mouth of the river Eurotas. It served as the harbour 
 of Sparta, and was important in a military point of 
 view. In the Persian war the Lacedaemonian fleet 
 was stationed at Gytheura, and here the Athenians 
 under Tolraides burnt the Lacedaemonian arsenal, 
 B. c. 455. After the battle of Leuctra (370) it 
 was taken by Epaminondaa. In 195 it was taken 
 by Flamininus, and made independent of Nabis, 
 tyrant of Sparta; whereupon it joined the Achaean 
 league. 
 
 Gyzantes (ru^ai'Tes), a people in the W. part of 
 Libya (N. Africa), whose country was rich in 
 honey and wax. They seera to have dwelt in 
 Byzacium, 
 
 H. 
 
 Hades or Pluto ("AtSTjs, n\ovrcov, or poetically 
 *Ai'5Tjy, 'Ai'Swcevs, TlAoureuy), the God of the Ne- 
 ther World. Plato observes that people preferred 
 calling him Pluto (the giver of wealth) to pronoun- 
 cing the dreaded name of Hades or Aides. Hence 
 we find that in ordinary life and in the mysteries 
 the name Pluto became generally established, while 
 the poets preferred the ancient name A'ides or the 
 form Pluteus. The Roman poets use the names 
 Bis, Orcus, and Tartarus, ns synonymous with 
 Pluto, for the god of the Nether World. Hades 
 was son of Cronus and Rhea, and brother of 
 Zeus and Poseidon. His wife was Persephone or 
 Proserpina, the daughter of Demeter, whom he 
 carried off from the upper world, as is related else- 
 where. [See p. 212.] In the division of the 
 world among the 3 brothers, Hades obtained the 
 
HADRANUM. 
 
 Nether Worltl, the ahode of the shades, over wliich 
 he ruled. Hence he is called the infernal Zou3 
 (Zeus KaTax06i'ios)^ or the king- of the shades {&pa^ 
 evipwv). He possessed a helmet which rendered 
 the wearer invisible, and later traditions stated 
 that this helmet was given him as a present by 
 the Cyclopes after their delivery from Tartarus. 
 Ancient story mentions both gods and men who 
 were honoured by Hades with the temporary use 
 of this helmet. His character is described as fierce 
 and inexorable, whence of all the gods he was most 
 hated by mortals. He kept the gates of the 
 lower world closed (and is therefore called riu- 
 AdpTTjs), that no shades might be able to escape 
 or return to the region of light. When mortals 
 invoked him, they struck the earth with their 
 hands ; the sacriHces which were offered to him and 
 Persephone consisted of black sheep ; and the 
 person who offered the sacrifice had to tuni away 
 his face. The ensign of his power was a staff, 
 with which, like Hermes, he drove the shades 
 into the lower world. There he sat upon a throne 
 with his consort Persephone. Like the other gods, 
 he was not a faithful husband ; the Furies are called 
 his daughters ; the nymph Mintho, whom he loved, 
 was metamorphosed by Persephone into the plant 
 called mint ; and ihe nymph Leuce, with whom he 
 was likewise in love, was changed by him after 
 her death into a white poplar, and transferred to 
 Elysium. Being the king of the lower world, 
 Pluto is the giver of all the blessings that come 
 from the earth : he is the possessor and giver of all 
 the metals contained in the earth, and hence his 
 name Pluto. He bears several surnames referring 
 to his ultimately assembling all mortals in his 
 kingdom, and bringing them to rest and peace ; 
 such as Polydegmon,^ Polydecies^ ClyTnenus^ &c. 
 He was worshipped throughout Greece and Italy. 
 We possess few representations of this divinity, 
 hut in those which still exist, he resembles his 
 brother Zeus and Poseidon, except that his hair 
 falls down his forehead, and that his appearance is 
 dark and gloomy. His ordinary attributes are the 
 key of Hades and Cerberus. In Homer Aides is 
 invariably the name of the god ; but in later times 
 it was transferred to his house, his ahode or king- 
 dom, so that it became a name for the nether world. 
 
 Hadrantun. [Adbanum.J 
 
 Hadria. [Adria.] 
 
 Hadrianopolia {'PiSpiav6TTo\is : ' K^piavoTroM- 
 TTjj : Adriuniyple\ a town in Thrace on the right 
 bank of the Hebrus, in an extensive plain, founded 
 by the emperor Hadrian, It was strongly for- 
 tified ; possessed an extensive commerce ; and in 
 the middle ages was the most important town in 
 the country after Constantinople. 
 
 Hadrianothera or-ae ('A5piai/ou0^pa), a city in 
 Mysia, between Pergamus and Miletopolis, founded 
 by the emperor Hadrian. 
 
 Hadrianus, P. Aelius, usually cabled Hadrian, 
 Roman emperor, a. d. 117 — 138, was born at 
 Rome, A. D. 76- He lost his father at the age of 
 10, and was brought up by his kinsman Ulpius 
 Trajanus (afterwards emperor) and by Caelius At- 
 tianus. From an early age he studied with zeal the 
 Greek language and literature. At the age of 15 he 
 went to Spain, where he entered upon his military 
 career- and he subsequently served as military tribune 
 in Lower Moesia. After the elevation of Trajan to 
 the throne (90), he married Julia Sabina, a grand- 
 daughter of Trajan's sister Marciana. This mar- 
 
 HADRIANUS. 
 
 201 
 
 riage was brought about through the influence of 
 Plotina, the wife of Trajan ; and from this time 
 Hadrian rose rapidly in the emperor's favour. He 
 was raised successively to the quaeatorship (101), 
 praetorship (107), and consulship (109). He ac- 
 companied Trajan in most of his expeditions, and 
 distinguished himself in the second war against 
 the Dacians, 104 — 106; was made governor of 
 Pannonia in 108 ; and subsequently fought under 
 Trajan against the Parthians. When Trajan's 
 serious illness obliged him to leave the E., he placed 
 Hadrian at the head of the anny. Trajan died at 
 Cilicia on his journey to Rome (117). Hadrian, 
 who pretended that he had been adopted by 
 Trajan, was proclaimed emperor by the legions in 
 Syria, and the senate ratihed the election. Ha- 
 drian's first care was to make peace with the Pnr- 
 thians, which he obtained by relinquishing the 
 conquests of Trajan, E. of the Euphrates. He 
 returned to Rome in TIH ; but almost immediately 
 afterwards set out for Moesia, in consequence of the 
 invasion of this province by the Sarmatians. After 
 making peace with the Sarmatians, and suppressing 
 a formidable conspiracy which had been formed 
 against his life by some of the most distinguished 
 Roman nobles, all of whom he put to death, he 
 returned to Rome in the course of the same year. 
 He sought to gain the goodwill of the senate by 
 gladiatorial exhibitions and liberal largesses, and he 
 also cancelled all arrears of taxes due to the state 
 for the last 15 years. The remainder of Hadrian's 
 reign was disturbed by few wars. He spent the 
 greater pai-t of his reign in travelling through the 
 various provinces of the empire, in order that he 
 might nispect personally the state of affairs in the 
 provinces, and apply the necessary remedies wher- 
 ever mismanagement was discovered. He com- 
 menced these travels in 119, visiting first Gaul, 
 Germany, and Britain, in the latter of which coun- 
 tries he caused a wall to be built from the Solway 
 to the mouth of the river Tyne. He afterwards 
 visited Spain, Africa, and the E., and took up his 
 residence at Athens for 3 years (1'23 — 12b'). 
 Athens was his favourite city, and he conferred 
 upon its inhabitants many privileges. The most 
 important war during his reign was that against 
 the Jews, which broke out in 131. The Jews had 
 revolted in consequence of the establishment of a 
 colony under the name of Aelia Capitolina on the 
 site of Jerusalem, and of their having been forbid- 
 den to practise the rite of circumcision. The war was 
 carried on by the Jews as a national struggle with 
 the most desperate fury, and was not brought to an 
 end till 136, after the country had been nearly re- 
 duced to a wilderness. During the last few years of 
 Hadrian's life, his hcaltli failed. He became sus- 
 picious and cruel, and put to death several persons of 
 distinction. As he had no children, he adopted L. 
 AcliusVerus.and gave him the title of Caesar in 1 36. 
 Verus died on the 1st of January, 138, whereupon 
 Hadrian adopted Antoninus, afterwards surnamed 
 Pius, and conferred upon him likewise the title of 
 Caesar. In July in the same year, Hadrian him- 
 self died in his 6'2nd year, and was succeeded bv 
 Antoninus. — The reign of Hadrian may be re- 
 garded as one of the happiest periods in Roman his- 
 tory. His policy was to preserve peace with foreign 
 nations, and not to extend the bomidaries of the 
 empire, but to secure the old provinces, and promote 
 their welfare. He paid particular attention to the 
 administration of justice in the pro>ince« m wr.it ;i.-i 
 
292 
 
 HADRIANUS. 
 
 in Italy, His reign forms an epoch in the history of 
 Roman jurisprudence. It was at Hadnan''a com- 
 mand that the jurist Salvius Julianas drew up the 
 edictum peqieitium^ which formed a fixed code of 
 laws. Some of the laws promulgated by Hadrian 
 are of a tnily humane character, and aimed at im- 
 proving the public morality of the time. The va- 
 rious cities which he visited received marks of his 
 favour or liberality ; in many places he built aquae- 
 ducts, and in others harbours or other public build- 
 iiif^a, either for use or oniament. But what h-as 
 rendered his name more illustrious than any thing 
 else are the numerous and magnificent architectural 
 works which he planned and commenced during 
 his travels, especially at Athens, in the S. part of 
 which he built an entirely new city, AdrianopoHs. 
 "VVe cannot here enter into an account of the nurae- 
 roas buildings he erected ; it is sufficient to direct 
 attention to his villa at Tibur, which has been a 
 real mine of treasures of art, and his mausoleum at 
 Rome, which forms the groundwork of the present 
 castle of St. Angelo. Hadrian was a patron of learn- 
 ing and literature, as well as of the arts, and he 
 cultivated the society of poets, scholars, rhetoricians, 
 and philosophers. He founded at Rome a scientific 
 institution under the name of Athenaeum, which 
 continued to flourish for a long time after him. He 
 was himself an author, and wrote numerous works 
 both in prose and in verse, all of which are lost, 
 with the exception of a few epigrams in the Greek 
 and Latin Anthologies. 
 
 Hadrianus, the rhetoriciaji. [Adrianus.] 
 Hadriimetmn or AdrJimetmn i^ASpv^i-ri : Ham- 
 meim\ a flourishing city founded by the Phoenicians 
 in N. Africa, on the E. coast of B^'cazena, of which 
 district it was the capital underthe Romans. Trajan 
 made it a colony ; and it was afterwards called 
 Justinianopolis. 
 
 Haemon (Atfioiv). 1. Son o^f Pelasgus and fa- 
 ther of Thessalua, from whom the ancient name of 
 Thessaly, Haemonia or Aemonia, was believed 
 to be derived. The Roman poets frequently use 
 the adjective Huemonius as equivalent to Thes- 
 salian. — 2. Son of Lycaon, and the reputed 
 founder of Haemonia in Arcadia. ^3. Son of 
 Creon of Thebes, was destroj-ed, according to some 
 accounts, by the sphinx. But, according to other 
 traditions, he was in love with Antigone, and killed 
 himself on hearing that she was condemned by his 
 father to be entombed alive. 
 
 Haemonia (AlfMovia), [Haemon, No. 1.] 
 Haemus (AT^uos), son of Boreas and Orithyia, 
 wife of Rhodope, and father of Hebrus. As he 
 and his wife presumed to assume the names of 
 Zeus and Hera, both were metamorphosed into 
 mountains. 
 
 Haemus {6 AT/xos, rh AT/xov : Balkan\ a lofty 
 range of mountains, separating Thrace and Moesia, 
 extended from M. Scomius, or, according to Hero- 
 dotus, from M. Rhodope on the W. to the Black 
 Sea on the E. The name is probably connected 
 with the Sanscrit hima (whence comes the word 
 Himalaya)^ the Greek x^'M^^'i ^"'^ *^^ Latin 
 liiems ; and the mountains were so called on account 
 of their cold and snowy climate. The height of 
 these mountains was greatly exaggerated by the an- 
 cients: the mean height does not exceed 3000 or 
 4000 feet above the sea. There are several passes 
 over them ; but the one most used in antiquity was 
 in the W. part of the rangs, called "Succi" or 
 " Succorum angustiae," also " Porta Trajani " 
 
 HALICARNASSUS. 
 
 (Ssulu Derle)id\ between Philippopolls and Ser- 
 dica. The later province of " Haemimontus " in 
 Thrace derived its name from this mountain. 
 
 Hagniia i^Ayvovs^ -ovvtqs : ' Ayvovaios : nr. 
 Markopiilo)^ a demus in Attica, W. of Paeania, 
 belonging to the tribe Acamantis. 
 
 Halae ('AAai,''AAai, *AAo/: 'AXateus). L H. 
 Araphenides ('Apa^TjwSes), a demus in Attica, 
 belonging to the tribe Aegeis, was situated on the 
 E. coast of Attica, and served as the harbour of 
 Brauron : it possessed a temple of Artemis. ^2. H. 
 Aexonides (At^wi'iSes), a demus in Attica, belong- 
 ing to the tribe Cecropis, situated on the W. coast. 
 — 3. A town, formerly of the Opuntii Locri, after- 
 wards of Boeotia, situated on the Opuntian gulf. 
 
 Hales ("AXijs). 1. A river of Ionia in Asia 
 Minor, near Colophon, celebrated for the coldness 
 of its water. ^ 2. A river in the island of Cos. 
 
 Halesa ^AKai<ra : Hakslnus : Torre di Pitti- 
 neo\ a town on the N. coast of Sicily, on the 
 river Halesus {Piitineo), was founded by the 
 Greek mercenaries of Archonides, a chief of the 
 Sieuli, and was originally called Arclioiiidioii. It 
 became a place of considerable importance, and was 
 in later times a municipium, exempt from taxes. 
 
 Halesus, a chief of the Auruncans and Oscans, 
 the son of a soothsayer, and an ally of Turnus, was 
 slain by Evander. He came to Italy from Argos 
 in Greece, whence he is called Agamemnonius^ 
 Ai7-ideSj or Argolicus. He is said to have founded 
 the town of Falerii. 
 
 Halex. [Alex.] 
 
 Hallacmon ('A\idKfj.uv: Visiriza), an impor- 
 tant river in Macedonia, rises in the Tymphaean 
 mountains, flows first S.E. through Elimaea, then 
 N,E. forming the boundary between Eordaea and 
 Pieria, and falls into the Thermaic gulf in Bot- 
 tiaeis. Caesar {B. C. iii. 36) incorrectly makes it 
 the boundary between Macedonia and Thessaly. 
 
 Haliartus {'A\lapros : 'A\idpTios : Mazi), an 
 ancient town in Boeotia on the S. of the lake Co- 
 pais. It was destroyed by Xerxes in his invasion 
 of Greece (b. c. 480), but was rebuilt, and appears 
 as an important place in the Pclnponnesian war. 
 Under its walls Lysander lost his life (395). It 
 was destroyed by the Romans (171), because it 
 supported Perseus, king of Macedonia, and its ter- 
 ritory was given to the Athenians. 
 
 Halias {'AKias : 'AAieus), a district on the coast 
 of Argolis between Asine and Hermione, so called 
 because fishing was the chief occupation of its in- 
 habitants. Their town was called Haliae {'AMal) 
 or Halies ('A^ieis). 
 
 Halicarnaasus ('AAiKapracro'tis, Ion- 'AKucapvyjcT' 
 <j6s : 'AAt/fapyao-fl-eur, Halicamassensis, Halicamaa- 
 sius: Budnim^ Ru.), a celebrated city of Asia Minor, 
 stood in the S.W. part of Caria, on the N. coast of 
 the Sinus Ceramicus, opposite to the island of Cos. 
 It was said to have been founded by Dorians from 
 Troezene, and was at first called Zephyra. It was 
 one of the fi cities that originally formed the Dorian 
 Hexapolia, but it was early excluded from the confe- 
 deracy, as a punishment for the violation, by one of 
 its citizens, of a law connected with the common 
 worship of the Triopian Apollo. (Herod, i. 144.) 
 With the rest of the coast of Asia Minor, it fell 
 underthe dominion of the Persians, at an early period 
 of whose rule Lygdamis made himself tyrant of the 
 city, and founded a dynasty which lasted for some 
 generations. His daughter Artemisia assisted Xerxes 
 in his expedition against Greece [Artkmisia, No. 
 
EALICYAE. 
 
 1]. Her grandson L^'^gdamis was overthrown by 
 a revolution, in which Herodotus ia said to have 
 taken part [Herodotus]. In the Peloponnesian 
 War, we find Halicarnassus, with the other Dorian 
 cities of Caria, on the side of the Athenians ; but we 
 do not know what was its form of government, until 
 the reestablishment, by Hecatomnus, of a dynasty 
 ruling over all Caria, with its capital first at 
 Mj'lasa, and afterwards at Halicarnassus, and vir- 
 tu:JIy independent of Persia ; before b. c. 380. It 
 seems not unlikely that both this and the older 
 dynasty of tyrants of Halicarnassus, were a race of 
 native Carian princes, whose ascendancy at Hali- 
 carnassus may be accounted for by the prevalence 
 of the Carian element in its population at an early 
 period. Hecatomnus left 3 sons and 2 daughters, 
 who all succeeded to his throne in the following 
 order, Mausolus, Artemisia, Idrieus, Ada, Pixodarua, 
 and Ada again. In r c. 334, Alexander took the 
 city, after an obstinate defence by the Persian general 
 Memnon, and destroyed it. From this blow it never 
 recovered, although it continued to be celebrated 
 for the Mausoleum, a magnificent edifice which 
 Artemisia 11. built as a tomb for Mausolus, and 
 which was adorned with the works of the most 
 eminent Greek sculptors of the age. Fragments of 
 these sculptures, which were discovered built into 
 the walls of the citadel of Budntm, are now in the 
 British Museum. With the rest of Caria, Hali- 
 carnassus was assigned by the Romans, after their 
 victory over Antiochus the Great, to the government 
 of Rhodes, and was afterwards united to the pro- 
 vince of Asia. The city was very strongly fortified, 
 and had a fine harbour, which was protected by 
 the island of ArcO'Nnesus : its citadel was called 
 Salmacis (2aA/ioffis) from the name of a spring 
 which rose from the hill on which it stood. Hali- 
 carnassus was the birthplace of the historians He- 
 rodotus and DiONYSius. 
 
 Halicyae ('AXiKuai : Ilalicyensis), a town in the 
 N.W. of Sicily, between Entella and Lilybaeum, 
 was loi;g in the possession of the Carthaginians, 
 and in Cicero ""s time was a municipium, exempt 
 from taxes. 
 
 Halimus ('AKifiovs -ovvros: 'AXifiovaios), a 
 demus of Attica, belonging to the tribe Leontis, on 
 the W. coast, a little S. of Athens. 
 
 Halipedon ('A?J7re5oj/), a plain near the Pi- 
 raeus, probably between the Piraeus and the 
 Academy. 
 
 HaluThothius {'A\i^&6dios)j son of Poseidon 
 and Euryte, attempted to violate Alcippe, daughter 
 of Ares and Agraulos, but was slain by Ares. 
 Ares was brought to trial by Poseidon for this 
 murder, on the hill at Athens, which was hence 
 called Areopagus, or the Hill of Ares. 
 
 Haliiisa {'AXiovaa? Karavi), an island in the 
 Argolic gulf. 
 
 Kalizones ('AAi^wj'es', and -oi), a people of 
 Bithyniii, with a capital city Alj-he (*AAx>€tj), men- 
 tioned by Homer as allies of the Trojans. 
 
 Halmydessus. [Salmydessus.] 
 
 Halmyris {'AhixvpU, sc. Xi/i-nu), a bay of the 
 sea in Mnesia formed by the S. mouth of the Da- 
 nube, with a town of the same name upon it. 
 
 Halonesus ('A\6!^7}(ros^ 'A\6i'vtj(tos : 'AKovij- 
 (Tios, ' AKQV{\ff'iTi)s : KldUodromia)^ an island of the 
 Aegean sea, off the coast of Thessaly, and E. of 
 Sciathos and Peparethos, with a town of the 
 same name upon it. The possession of this island 
 occasioned great disputes between Pliilip and the 
 
 HAMILCAR. 
 
 203 
 
 Athenians : there is a speech on this subject 
 among the extant orations of Demosthenes, but it 
 was probably written by Hegesippus. 
 
 Halosydne ('AAoo-uSctj), " the Sea-born," a 
 Bumame of Amphitrite and Thetys. 
 
 Haluntium. [Aluntium.] 
 
 Halus. [Alus.] 
 
 Halycus {"AXvkos : Platani), a river in the S. 
 of Sicily, which flows into the sea near Heraclea 
 Minoa. 
 
 Haiys ("AKvs : Kizil-Jrmak^ i. e. tlie Red River), 
 the greatest river of Asia Minor, rises in that part 
 of the Anti-Taurus range called Paryadres, on the 
 borders of Armenia Minor and Pontus, and after 
 flowing W. by S. through Cappadociji, turns to thp 
 N. and flows through Galatia to the borders of 
 Paphlagonia, where it takes a N. E. direction, 
 dividing Paphlagonia from Pontua, and at last falls 
 into the Euxine {Black Sea) between Sinope and 
 Amisus. In early times it was a most important 
 boundary,, ethnographical as well as political. It 
 divided the Indo-European races which peopled the 
 W. part of Asia Minor from the Semitic (Syro- 
 Arabian) races of the rest of S. W. Asia ; and it 
 separated the Lydian empire from the Medo-Pcrsian, 
 until, by marching over it to meet Cyrus, Croesus 
 began the contest which at once ended in the over- 
 throw of the former and the extension of the latter 
 to the Aegean Sea. 
 
 Hamadryades. [Nywphae.] 
 
 Hamaxitus {'A/Mo^trSs), a small town on the 
 coast of the Troad, near the promontory Lectum; 
 said to have been the first settlement of the Teucrian 
 immigi'ants from Crete. The surrounding district 
 was called 'Aixa^nia. Lysimachus removed the 
 inhabitants to Alexandria Troas. 
 
 Hamaxobii {'Afj.a^6SLoi), a people in European 
 Sarmatia, in the neighbourhood of the Palus 
 Maeotis, were a nomad race, as their name signifies. 
 
 Hamilcar {^Af^l\Ka?). The 2 last syllables of 
 this name ai-e the same as Melcaiih^ the tutelary 
 deity of the Tyrians, called hy the Greeks Her- 
 cules, and the name probably signifies " the gift of 
 Melcarth." 1. Son of Hunno, or Mago, com- 
 mandiT of the great Cartliaginian expedition to 
 Sicily, B. c. 4o0, which was defeated and almost 
 destroyed b}- Gelon at Himera. [Gelon.] Ha- 
 milcar fell in the battle.— 3. Sumamed Rhodanus, 
 was sent by the Carthaginians to Alexander after 
 the fall of Tyre, b. c. 332. On his return home 
 he was put to death by the Carthaginians for hav- 
 ing betrayed their interests. — 3. Carthaginian 
 governor in Sicily at the- time that Agathocles was 
 rising into power. At first he supported the party 
 at Syracuse, which had driven Agathocles into 
 exile, but he afterwiirds espoused the cause of' 
 Agathocles, who waa thus enabled to make himself 
 master of Syracuse, 317. — 4. Son of Gisco, suc- 
 ceeded the preceding as Carthaginian commander in 
 Sicily, 311. He carried on war against Agatho- 
 cles, whom he defeated with great slaughter, and 
 then obtained possession of the greater part of 
 Sicily ; but he was taken prisoner while besieging 
 Syracuse, and was put to death by Agathocles. — 
 6. A Carthaginian general in the 1st Punic war, 
 must be carefully distinguished from the great 
 Hamilcar Barca [No. 6.]. In the 3d year of the 
 war (262) he succeeded Hanno in the command 
 in Sicily, and carried on the operations by land 
 with success. He made himself master of Enna 
 and Camarina, and fortified Drepanum. In 257 
 
 u 3 
 
294 
 
 HANNIBAL. 
 
 lie commanded the Carthaginian fleet on the N. 
 coast of Sicil}', and fought a naval action -with the 
 Roman consul C. AtiUua Regulua. In the follow- 
 ing year (256), he and Hanno commanded the 
 great Carthaginian fleet, whicli "was defeated by 
 the 2 consuls M. Atilius Regulus and L. Manliiis 
 Vulso, oft' Ecnomus, on the S. coast of Sicily. He 
 "^vas afterwards one of the commanders of the land 
 forces in Africa opposed to Regulus. — 6. Sur- 
 named Barca, an epithet sirpposed to be related 
 to the Hebrew Barak, and to signify " lightning/' 
 It was mere!}' a personal appellation, and is not to 
 be regarded as a family name, though from the 
 great distinction that be obtained, we often find 
 the name of Barcme applied either to his family or 
 his party in the state. He was appointed to the 
 command of the Carthaginian forces in Sicily, in 
 the 18th year of the 1st Punic War, 247. At 
 this time the Romans were masters of the whole 
 of Sicily, with the exception of Drepanum and 
 Lilybaeum, both of which were blockaded by them 
 on the land side. Hamilcar established himself 
 with his whole array on a moimtain named Hercte 
 {Monte PeUegrino)^ in the midst of the enemy''s 
 country, and in the immediate neighbourhood of 
 Panormus, one of their most important cities. 
 Here he succeeded in maintaining his ground, 
 to the astonishment alike of friends and foes, 
 for nearly 3 years. In 244 he abruptly quitted 
 Hercte, and took up a still stronger position on Mt. 
 Eryx, after seizing the town of that name. Here 
 he also maintained himself in spite of all the efforts 
 of the Romans to dislodge him. After the great 
 naval defeat of the Carthaginians by Lutatius Ca- 
 tnlus (241), Hanulcar, who was still at Eiyx, was 
 entrusted by the Carthaginian government with 
 the conclusion of the peace with the Romans. — 
 On his return home, he had to carry on war in 
 Africa with the Carthaginian mercenaries, whom 
 he succeeded in subduing after an arduous stniggle 
 of "6 years (240 — 238). Hamilcar now formed 
 the project of establishing in Spain a new empire, 
 which should not only be a source of strength 
 and wealth to Carthage, but should be the 
 point from whence he might at a subsequent pe- 
 riod renew hostilities against Rome. He crossed 
 over into Spain soon after the termination of the 
 war with the mercenaries ; but we know nothing 
 of his operations in the country, save that he ob- 
 tained possession of a considerable portion of Spain, 
 partly by force of arms, and partly by negotiation. 
 After remaining in Spain nearly 9 years, he fell in 
 battle (220) against the Vettones. He was suc- 
 ceeded in the command by his son-in-law Has- 
 drubal. He left 3 sons, the celebrated Hannibal, 
 Hasdnibal, and Mago. — 7. Son of GIsco, Car- 
 thaginian governor of Melite [MuJta), whicli sur- 
 rendered to the Romans, 210,— -8, Son of Bomilcar, 
 one of the generals in Spain, 215, with Has- 
 drubal and Mago, the 2 sons of Barca. The 
 3 generals were defeated by the 2 Scipios, while 
 besieging Illiturgi. — 9. A Carthaginian, who ex- 
 cited a general revolt of the Gauls in Upper Italy, 
 about 200, and took the Roman colony of Placeii- 
 tia. On the defeat of the Gaids by the consul 
 Cethegus in 197, he was taken prisoner. 
 
 Hannibal (^P^wiSas). The name signifies " the 
 grace or favour of Baal ; " the final syllable haU of 
 Buch common occurrence in Punic names, alwavs 
 having reference to this tutelary deity of the 
 Phoenicians. — 1. Son of Gisco, and grandson of 
 
 HANNIBAL. 
 
 Hamilcar [No. 1 ]. In 409 he was sent to Sicily, 
 at the head of a Carthaginian army to assist the 
 Segestans against the Selinuntines. He took Se- 
 linus, and subsequently Himera also. In 40f) he 
 again commanded a Carthaginian army in Sicily 
 along with Himilco, but died of a pestilence while 
 besieging Agrigentum. — S. Son of Gisco, was 
 the Carthaginian commander at Agrigentum, when 
 it was besieged by the Romans, 262. After stand- 
 ing a siege of 7 months, he broke through the 
 enem^'-'s lines, leaving the town to its fate. After 
 this he carried on the contest by sea, and for the 
 next year or two ravaged the coast of Italy; but in 
 260 he was defeated by the consul Duilius. In 
 259 he was sent to the defence of Sardinia. Here 
 he was again unfortunate, and was seized b}'' his 
 own mutinous troops, and put to death. — 3. Son 
 of Hamilcar (perhaps Hamilcar, No. 5), succeeded 
 in carrj'ing succours of men and provisions to Lily- 
 baeum, when it was besieged by the Romans, 250. 
 ■—4. A general in the war of the Carthaginians 
 against the mercenaries (240 — 238), was taken 
 prisoner by the insurgents, and crucified. —5. Son 
 of Hamilcar Barca, and one of the most illustrious 
 generals of antiquity, was born B. c. 247. He was 
 only 9 years old when his father took him with 
 him into Spain, and it was on this occasion that 
 Hamilcar made him swear upon the altar eternal 
 hostility to Rome. Child as he then was, Hannibal 
 never forgot his vow, and his whole life was one 
 continual struggle against the power and domination 
 of Rome. He was early tmined in arms under the 
 eye of his father, and was present with him in the 
 battle in which Hamilcar perished (229). Thnugh 
 only 18 years old at this time, he had already dis- 
 played so much courage and capacity for war, that 
 he was entrusted by Hasdnibal (the son-in-law and 
 successor of Hamilcar) with the chief command of 
 most of the military enterprises planned by tliat 
 general. He secured to himself the devoted at- 
 tachment of the army under his command ; and, 
 accordingly, on the assassination of Hasdrubal (221 ), 
 the soldiers unanimously proclaimed their youthful 
 leader commander-in-chief, which the goverament 
 at Carthage forthwith ratified. Hannibal was at 
 this time in the 26th year of his age. There can 
 be no doubt that he already looked forward to the 
 invasion and conquest of Italy as the goal of his 
 ambition ; but it was necessary for him first to 
 complete the work which had been so ably begun 
 by his 2 predecessors, and to establish the Cartha- 
 ginian power as firmly as possible in Spain. In 
 2 campaigns he subdued all the country S. of the 
 Iberus, with the exception of the wealthy town of 
 Saguntum. In the spring of 219 he proceeded to 
 lay siege to Saguntum, which he took after a des- 
 perate resistance, which lasted nearly 8 montlis. 
 Saguntum lay S. of the Iberus, and was therefore 
 not included under the protection of the treaty 
 which had been made between Hasdrubal and tlie 
 Romans ; but as it had concluded an alliance with 
 the Romans, the latter regarded its attack as a 
 violation of the treaty between the 2 nations. On 
 the fall of Saguntum, the Romans demanded the 
 surrender of Hannibal; and when this demand was 
 refused, war was declared, and thus began the long 
 and arduous struggle called the 2nd Punic War. 
 In the spring of 218 Hannibal quitted his winter- 
 quarters at New Carthage and commenced his 
 march for Italy. He crossed the Pyr'nie<'s, and 
 marched along the S. coast of Gaul. The ilomans 
 
HANNIBAL. 
 
 Bent the consul P. Scipio to oppose him in Gaiil ; 
 but when Scipio arrived in Gaul, he found that 
 Hannibal liad already reached the Rhone, and that 
 it was impossible to overtake him. After Hannibal 
 had crodsed the Rlione, he continued his march np 
 the left bank of the river as far as its confluence with 
 the Isere. Here he struck away to the right and 
 commenced his passage across the Alps. He pro- 
 bably crossed the Alps by the pass of the Little 
 St. Bernard, called in antiq^uity the Graian Alps. 
 His army suffered much from the attacks of the 
 Gaulish mountaineers, and from the natural diffi- 
 culties of the road, which were enhanced by the 
 lateness of the season (the beginning of October, 
 at which time the snows have already commenced 
 in the high Alps). So heavy were his losses, that 
 when he at length emerged from the valley of 
 Aosta into the plains of the Po, he had with him 
 no more than 20,000 foot and 6000 horse. During 
 Hannibal's march over the Alps, P. Scipio had sent 
 on his own anny into Spain, under the command of 
 his brother Cneius, and had himself returned to 
 Italy. He forthwith hastened into Cisalpine Gaul, 
 took the command of the praetor''s army, which he 
 found there, and led it against Hannibal. In the 
 first action, which took place near the Ticinus, the 
 cavalry and light-armed troops of the two armies 
 were alone engaged ; the Romans were completely 
 routed, and Scipio himself severely wounded. Scipio 
 then crossed the Po and withdrew to the hills on the 
 left bank of the Trebia, where he was soon after 
 joined by the other consul, Ti. Sempronius Longus. 
 Here a second and more decisive battle was fought. 
 The Romans were completely defeated, with heavy 
 loss, and the remains of their army took refuge 
 within the walls of Placentia. This battle was 
 fought towards the end of 210. Hannibal was now 
 joined by all the Gaulish tribes, and he was able 
 to take up his winter-quarters in security. Early 
 in 217 he descended by the valley of the Macra 
 into the marshes on the banks of the Amo. In 
 struggling through these marshes great numbers of 
 his horses and beasts of burthen perisiied, and he 
 himself lost the sight of one eye by a violent attack 
 of ophthalmia. The consul Flaminlus hastened to 
 meet him, and a battle was fought on the lake 
 Trasimenus, in which the Roman army was de- 
 stroyed; thousands fell by the sword, among whom 
 was the consul himself; thousands more perished in 
 the lake, and no less than 1 5,000 prisoners fell into 
 the hands of Hannibal. Hannibal now marched 
 through the Apennines into Picenum, and thence 
 into Apulia, where he spent a great part of the 
 summer. The Romans had collected a fresh army, 
 and placed it under the command of the dictator 
 Fabius Maximus, who had prndently avoided a 
 general action, and only attempted to harass and 
 aimoy the Carthaginian arm}-. Meanwliile the 
 Romans had made great preparations for the cam- 
 paign of the following year (216). The 2 new 
 consuls, L. Aemilius Paulus and C. Terentius Varro, 
 marched into Apulia, at the head of an ai-my of 
 little less than 90,000 men. To this mighty host 
 Hannibal gave battle in the plains on the right 
 bank of the Aufidus, just below the town of Cannae. 
 The Roman army was again annihilated : between 
 40 and 50 thousand men are said to have fallen in 
 the field, among whom was the consul Aemilius 
 Paulus, both the consuls of the preceding year, 
 above 80 senators, and a multitude of the wealthy 
 knights who composed the Roman cavalry. The 
 
 HANNIBAL. 
 
 2D5 
 
 other consul, Varro, escaped with a few horsemen 
 to Venusia, and a small band of resolute men forced 
 their way from the Roman camp to Canusiura ; all 
 the rest were killed, dispersed, or taken prisoners. 
 This victory was followed by the revolt from Rome 
 of most of the nations in the S. of Italy. Hannibal 
 established his arm)'' in winter-quarters in Capua, 
 which had espoused his side. Capua was celebrated 
 for its wealth and luxury, and the enervating effect 
 which these produced upon the army of Hannibal 
 became a favourite theme of rhetorical exaggeration 
 in later ages. The futility of such declamations Is 
 sufficiently shoA\Ti by the simple fact that the su- 
 periority of that army in the field remained as 
 decided as ever. Still it may be tinly said that the 
 winter spent at Capua, 216 — 215, was in great 
 measure the turning point of Hannibars fortune, 
 and from this time the war assumed an altered 
 chamcter. The experiment of what he could effect 
 with his single army had now been fully tried, and, 
 notwithstanding all his victorips, it had decidedly 
 failed ; for Rome was still unsubdued, and still 
 provided with the means of maintaining a protmcted 
 contest. From this time the Romans in great 
 measure changed their plan of operations, and, in- 
 stead of opposing to Hannibal one great army in 
 the field, they hemmed in his movements on all 
 sides, and kept up an army in every provuice of 
 Italy, to thwart the operations of his lieutenants, 
 and check the rising disposition to revolt. It is 
 impossible here to follow the complicated movements 
 of the subsequent campaigns, during which Hannibal 
 himself frequently traversed Italy in all directions. 
 In 215 Hannibal entered into negotiations with 
 Philip, king of Macedonia, and Hieronymus of 
 Syracuse, and thus sowed the seeds of 2 fresh wars. 
 From 214 to 212 the Romans were busily engaged 
 with the siege of Syracuse, which was at length 
 taken by Marcellus in the latter of these years. 
 In 212 Hannibal obtained possession of Tarentum; 
 but in the following year he lost the important city 
 of Capua, which was recovered by the Romans 
 after a long siege. In 209 the Romans also reco- 
 vered Tarentum. Hannibal's forces gradualU' be- 
 came more and more weakened; and his only object 
 now was to maintain his ground in the S. until his 
 brother Hasdrubal siiould appenr in the N. of Italy, 
 an event to which he had long looked forward with 
 anxious expectation. In 207 Hasdrubal at length 
 crossed the Alps, and descended into Italy ; but 
 he was defeated and slain on the Metaurus. [Mas- 
 URUBAL, No. 3.] The deleat and death of Hhs- 
 drubal was decisive of the fate of the war in Italy. 
 From this time Hannibal abandoned all thoughts 
 of offensive operations, and collected together his 
 forces within the peninsula of Bruttium. In the 
 fastnesses of that wild and moimtainous region he 
 maintained his ground for nearly 4 years (207 — 
 20?»). He crossed over to Africa' towards the end 
 of 203 in order to oppose P. Scipio. In the follow- 
 ing year (202) the decisive battle was fought near 
 Zama. Hannibal was completely defeated with 
 great loss. All hopes of resistance were now at an 
 end, and he was one of the first to urge the neces- 
 sity of an immediate peace. The treaty between 
 Rome and Carthage was not finally concfuded until 
 tiie next year (201). By this treaty Hannibal saw 
 the object of his whole life frustrated, and Carthage 
 effectually humbled before her imperious rival. But 
 his enmity to Rome was unabated ; and though 
 now more than 45 years old, he set himself to work 
 
 u 4 
 
29 n 
 
 HANNIBALLIANUS. 
 
 to prepare the means for renewing the contest at no 
 distant period. He introduced the most beneficial 
 reforms into the state, and restored the ruined 
 finances; but having provoked the enmity of a pow- 
 erful party at Carthage, they denounced hira to the 
 Romans as urging on Antiochus III. king of Syria, 
 to take up arms against Rome. Hannibal waa 
 obliged to flee from Carthage, and took refuge at 
 the court of Antiochus, who was at this time 
 (193) on the eve of war with Rome. Hannibal in 
 vain urged the necessity of carrying the war at 
 once into Italy, instead of awaiting the Romans in 
 Greece. On the defeat of Antiochus (190), the 
 surrender of Hannibal was one of the conditions of 
 the peace granted to the king. Hannibal, however, 
 foresaw his danger, and took refuge at the court of 
 Prusias, king of Bithynia. Here he found for some 
 years a secure asylum ; but the Romans could not 
 be at ease so long as he lived ; and T. Quintius 
 Flamininus was at length despatched to the court 
 of Prusiaa to demand the surrender of the fugitive. 
 The Bithynian king was unable to resist ; and 
 Hannibal, perceiving that flight was impossible, 
 took poison, to avoid falling into the hands of his 
 enemies, about the year 1133. Of Hannibal's abilities 
 as a general it is unnecessary to speak : all the great 
 masters of the art of war, from Scipio to the em- 
 peror Napoleon, have concurred in their homage to 
 his genius. But in comparing Hannibal with any 
 other of the great leaders of antiquity, we must 
 ever bear in mind the peculiar circumstances in 
 which he was placed. Feebly and grudgingly sup- 
 ported by the government at home, he stood alone, 
 at the head of an anny composed of mercenaries of 
 many nations. Yet not only did he retain the at- 
 tachment of these men, unshaken by any change of 
 fortune, for a period of more than 15 years, but he 
 trained up army after army ; and long a,fter the 
 veterans that had followed him over the Alps had 
 dwindled to an inconsiderable remnant, his new 
 levies were still as invincible as their predecessors. 
 Hanniballianus. 1. Son of ConstantinsChlorus 
 and his second wife Theodora, and half-brother of 
 Constantine the Great. He was put to death in 
 337 on the death of Constantine. — 2. Son of the 
 elder, brother of the j'-ounger Delmatius, was also 
 put to death on the death of Constantine. 
 Hannibalis Castra. [C^stra, No. 2,] 
 Hanno CAfvcav)^ one of the most common names 
 at Carthage. Only the most important persons of 
 the name can be mentioned, ^ 1. One of the Car- 
 thaginian generals who fought against Agathocles 
 in Africa, B.C. 310. ■^2, Commander of the Car- 
 thaginian garrison at Messana, at the beginning of 
 the Ist Punic war, 264. In consequence of his 
 surrendering the <;itadel of this city to the Romans, 
 he was crucified on his return home. ^3. Son of 
 Mannibal, was sent to Sici!y by the Carthaginians 
 ■with a large force immediately after the capture of 
 Messana, 364, where he carried on the war against 
 the Roman consul Ap. Ckudius. In 262 he again 
 commanded in Sicily, but failed in relieving Agri- 
 gentum, where Hannibal was kept besieged by the 
 Romans. [Hannibal, No. 2.] In 266 he com- 
 manded the Carthaginian fleet, along with Hamilca.r, 
 at the great battle <Ff Ecnomus.— 4. Commander of 
 the Carthaginian fleet, which was defeated by 
 Lutatius Catulua off the Aegates, 241. On his 
 return home, he was crucified. ^ 5. Surnamed the 
 Great, apparently for his successes in Africa. We 
 do not, however, know against what nations of 
 
 HARMODIUS. 
 
 Africa his arms were directed, nor what was the 
 occasion of the war. He was one of the commanders 
 in the war against the mercenaries in Africa after 
 the end of the Ist Punic war (240—238). From 
 this time forward he appears to have taken no active 
 part in any of the foreign wars or enterprises of 
 Carthage. But his influence in her councils at 
 home was great; he was the leader of the aristocratic 
 party, and, as such, the chief adversary of Hamilcar 
 Barca and his family. On all occasions, from the 
 landing of Barca in Spain till the return of Hanni- 
 bal from Italy, a period of above 35 years, Hanno 
 is represented as thwarting the measures of that 
 able and powerful family, and taking the lead in 
 opposition to the war with Rome, the great object 
 to which all their efforts were directed. He sur- 
 vived the battle of Zama, 202.— 6. A Carthaginian 
 officer left in Spain by Hannibal when that general 
 crossed the Pyrenees, 218. He was shortly after- 
 wards defeated by Cn. Scipio, and taken prisoner. 
 ^7. Son of Bomilcar, one of the most distinguished 
 of Hannibal's officers. He commanded the right 
 wing at the battle of Cannae (216), and is fre- 
 quently mentioned during the succeeding years of 
 the war. In 203 he took the command of the 
 Carthaginian forces in Africa, which he held till 
 the arrival of Hannibal.— 8. A Carthaginian general, 
 who carried on the war in Sicily after the fall of 
 Syracuse, 21 1. He left Sicily in the following year, 
 when Agrigentum was betrayed to the Romans. 
 — 9. The last commander of the Carthaginian gar- 
 rison at Capua, when it was besieged by the Romans 
 (212 — 211).— 10. A Carthaginian navig(itor,under 
 whose name we possess a Periplus (Trep'nrXovs), 
 which was originally written in the Punic language, 
 and afterwards translated into Greek. The author 
 had held the office of suffetes, or supreme magistrate 
 at Carthage, and he is said by Pliny to have un- 
 dertaken the voyage when Carthage was in a most 
 flourishing condition. Hence it has been conjectured 
 that he was the same as the Hanno, the father or 
 son of Hamilcar, who was killed at Himera, d. c. 
 480; but this is quite uncertain. In the Periplus 
 itself Hanno says that he was sent out by his 
 countrynien to undertake a voyage beyond the 
 Pillars of Hercules, and to found Libyphoenician 
 towns, and that he sailed with a body of colonists 
 to the number of 30,000. On his return from hia 
 voj'age, he dedicated an account of it, inscribed on 
 a tablet, in the temple of Cronos. It is therefore 
 presumed that our periplus ia a Greek version of 
 the contents of that Punic tablet. Edited by Fal- 
 coner, Lond. 1797, with an English translation. 
 
 Harma {rh "Ap/ia : *Ap/xoTei>s). 1. A small 
 place in Boeotia near Tanngra, said to have been 
 so called from the harma or chariot of Adrastus, 
 which broke down here, or from the chariot of 
 Amphiaraus, who was here swallowed up by the 
 earth along with his chariot. — 2. A small place 
 in Attica, near Phylo, 
 
 HarmatUs ('ApjuaTous), a city and promontory 
 on the coast of Aeolis in Asia Minor, on the N. 
 side of the Sinus Elaiticus. 
 
 Harmodiua and Aristogtton ('Ap,u(}5ios, 'Apt- 
 (TToyefTcuj/), Athenians, of the blood of the Gk- 
 phyhaez, were the murderers of Hipparchus, 
 brother of the tyrant Hippias, in b. c. 514. Ari- 
 stogiton was strongly attached to the young and 
 beautiful Harmodius, who returned his alfection 
 with equal warmth. Hipparchus endeavoured to 
 withdraw the youth's love to himself, and, failing 
 
HARMONIA. 
 
 in this, resolved to avenge the slight by putting 
 upon him a public insult. Accordingly, he took 
 care that the sister of Harraodius should bo sum- 
 moned to bear one of the sacred baskets in some 
 religious procession, and when she presented her- 
 self for the purpose, he caused her to be dismissed 
 and declared unworthy of the honour. This fresh 
 insult determined the 2 friends to slay both Hip- 
 parchus and his brother Hippias as well. They 
 communicated their plot to a few friends ; and se- 
 lected for their enterprise the day of the festival of 
 the great Panathenaea, tiie only day on which they 
 could appear in arms without exciting suspicion. 
 "When the appointed time arrived, the 2 chief con- 
 spirators observed one of their accomplices in con- 
 versation with Hippias. Believing, therefore, that 
 they were betrayed, they slew Hipparchus. Har- 
 modius was immediately cut down by the guards. 
 Aristogiton at first escaped, but was afterwards 
 taken, and was put to the torture ; but he died 
 ■without revealing any of the names of the conspi- 
 rators. Four years after this Hippias was expelled, 
 and thenceforth Harmodius and Aristogiton ob- 
 tained among the Athenians of all succeeding ge- 
 nerations the character of patriots, deliverers, and 
 martyrs, — names often abused indeed, but seldom 
 more grossly than in the present case. Their deed 
 of murderous vengeance formed a favourite subject 
 of drinking songs. To be born of their blood was 
 esteemed among the highest of honours, and their 
 descendants enjoyed an immunity from public bur- 
 dens. Their statues, made of bronze by Antenor, 
 ■were set up in the Agora. When Xerxes took the 
 city, he carried these statues away, and new ones, 
 the work of Critias, were erected in 477. The 
 original statues were afterwards sent back to Athens 
 by Alexander the Great. 
 
 Harmonia {'Ap/iovla), daughter of Ares and 
 Aphrodite, or, according to others, of Zeua and 
 Electra, the daughter of Atlas, in Samothrace. 
 When Athena assigned to Cadmus the government 
 of Thebes, Zeus gave him Harmonia for his wife, 
 and all the gods of Olympus were present at the 
 marriage. On the wedding-day Cadmus received 
 a present of a necklace, which afterwards became 
 fatal to all who possessed it. Harmonia accom- 
 panied Cadmus when he was obliged to quit 
 Thebes, and shared his fate. [Cadmus.] Poly- 
 nices, who inherited the fatal necklace, gave it to 
 Kriphyle, that she might persuade her husband, 
 Amphiaraus, to undertake the expedition against 
 Thebes. Through Alcmaeon, the son of Eriphyle, 
 the necklace came into the hands of Arsinoe, next 
 into those of the sons of Phegeus, Pronous and 
 Agenor, and lastly into those of the sons of Alc- 
 maeon, Amphoterus and Acaman, who dedicated 
 it in the temple of Athena Pronoea at Delphi. 
 
 Harpagia, or -iiim ('Ap7ra7era, or -0710*'), a 
 small town in Mysia, between Cyzicus and Priapus, 
 the scene of the rape of Ganymedes, according to 
 some legends. 
 
 Harpagus ("Apwayo^). 1. A noble Median, 
 whose preservation of the infant Cyrus, -vvitli the 
 events consequent upon it, are related under Cyrus. 
 He became one of the generals of Cyrus, and con- 
 quered the Greek cities of Asia Minor. — 2. A 
 Persian general, under Darius I., took Histiaeus 
 prisoner. 
 
 Harp^us ("ApTraAos). 1. A Macedonian of 
 noble birth, accompanied Alexander the Great to 
 Asia, aa superintendent of the treasury. After the 
 
 HARPYIAE. 
 
 297 
 
 conquest of Darius, he was left by Alexander in 
 charge of the royal treasury, and with the admi- 
 nistration of the wealthy satrapy of Babylon. Here, 
 during Alexander^'s absence in India, he gave him- 
 self up to the most extravagant luxury and profu- 
 sion, and squandered the treasures entrusted to him. 
 When he heard that Alexander, contrary to his 
 expectations, was returning from India, he fled 
 from Babylon with about 5000 talents and a body 
 of 6000 mercenaries, and crossed over to Greece, 
 B. c. 324. He took refuge at Athens, where he 
 employed his treasures to gain over the orators, 
 and induce the people to support him against Alex- 
 ander and his vicegerent, Antipater. Among those 
 whom he thus corrupted are said to have been De- 
 mades, Charicles, the son-in-law of Phocion, and 
 even Demosthenes himself. [Demosthenes.] But 
 he failed in his general object, for Antipater, hav- 
 ing demanded his sun-ender from the Athenians, 
 it was resolved to place him in confinement until 
 the Macedonians should send for him. He suc- 
 ceeded in making his escape from prison, and fled 
 to Crete, where he was assassinated soon after his 
 arrival, by Thimbron, one of his own officers. ^ 3. 
 A Greek astronomer, introduced some improve- 
 ments into the cycle of Cleostratus. Harpalus 
 lived before Meton. 
 
 Harpalyce ('Ap7raXi5«Tj). 1. Daughter of Har- 
 palycus, king in Thrace. As she lost her mother 
 in infancy, she -was brought up by her father 
 with the milk of cows and mares, and "was trained 
 in all manly exercises. After the death of her 
 father, she lived in the forests as a robber, being so 
 swift in running that horses ■were unable to over- 
 take her. At length she was caught in a snare by 
 shepherds, who killed her. ^ 2. Daughter of Cly- 
 menus and Epicaste, was seduced by her own fa- 
 ther. To revenge herself she slew her younger 
 brother, and served him up as food before her father. 
 The gods changed her into a bird. 
 
 Harpasa ("ApTroo-o : Arepas), a city of Caria, on 
 the river Harpasus. 
 
 Harpasus {"Apiracros). 1. (Arpa-Su), a river of 
 Cariii, flowing N. into the Maeander, into which it 
 falls opposite to Nysa. ^ 2. (Harpa-Su), a river of 
 Armenia Major, flowing S. into the Araxes. Xe- 
 nophon, "who crossed it ■with the 10,000 Greeks, 
 states its "width as 4 plethra (about 400 feet). 
 
 Earpina or Harpinna ("Aptriva, "ApTnwa)^ a 
 town in Elis Pisatis, near Olympia, said to have 
 been called after a daughter of Asopus. 
 
 Harpocration, Valerius, a Greek grammarian 
 of Alexandria, of uncertain date, the author of 
 an extant dictionary to the works of the 10 Attic 
 orators, entitled Ilepi rdv Ae'^ew*' rwv SeVa Stjto- 
 pwi/, or Ai^iKhv r&v SiKa ^r)T6p<av. It contains not 
 only explanations of legal and political terms, but 
 also accounts of persons and tilings mentioned in the 
 Attic orators, and is a work of great value. The 
 best editions are the one published at Leipzig, 
 1824, and the one by Bekker, Berlin, 1833. 
 
 Harpyiae ("ApTrumi), the Harpies^ that is, the 
 Robbers or Spoilers^ ose. in Homer nothing but per- 
 sonified storm winds, -who are said to carry off any 
 one who had suddenly disappeared from the earth. 
 Thus they carried off the daughters of king Pan- 
 dareus, and gave them aa servants to the Erinnyes. 
 — Hesiod describes them as daughters of Thaumas 
 by the Oceanid Electra, fair-locked and winged 
 maidens, who surpassed winds and birds in the ra- 
 pidity of their flight. But even in Aeschylus they 
 
298 
 
 IIARUDES. 
 
 appear as ugly creatures with wings ; and later 
 writers represent them as most disgusting monsters, 
 being birds with the heads of maidens, with long 
 claws and witli faces pale with hunger. They were 
 sent hy the Gods to torment the blind Phineus, 
 and wlienevcr a meal was placed before him, they 
 darted down from the air and carried it off ; later 
 writers add, that they either devoured the food 
 themselves, or rendered it unfit to be eaten. Phi- 
 neus was delivered from them by Zetes and Calais, 
 sons of Boreas, and 2 of the Argonauts, [See p, 
 76, a,] Hesiod mentions 2 Harpies, Ocypete and 
 Al'llo : later writers 3 ; but their names are not 
 the same in all accounta. Besides the 2 already 
 mentioned, we find Aellopos, Nicothoe, Ocythoe, 
 Ocj-pode, Celaeno, Acholoe. Virgil places them 
 in the islands called Strophades, in the Ionian sea 
 (Aen. iii. 210), where they took up their abode 
 after they had been driven away from Phineus. — 
 In the famous Harpy monument recently brought 
 from Lycia to this country, the Harpies are repre- 
 sented in the act of carrj'ing off the daughters of 
 Pandnreus. 
 
 Hartides, a people in the army of Ariovistus 
 (b. c. .5!!), supposed to be the same as the Charu- 
 des mentioned by Ptolemy, and placed by him in 
 the Chersonesus Cimbrica. 
 
 Hasdriibal ('AtrSpouSas), a Carthaginian name, 
 probably signifies one whose help is Baal. 1. 
 Son of Hanno, a Carthaginian general in the 
 1st Punic war. He was one of the 2 generals 
 defeated by Regulus B. c. 256. In 254 he 
 was sent into Sicily, with a large army, and re- 
 mained in the island 4 years. In 250, he was to- 
 tally defeated by Metellus, and was put to death 
 on his return to Carthage. — 2. A Carthaginian, 
 son-in-law of Hamilcar Barca, on whose death in 
 229, he succeeded to the command in Spain. He 
 ably carried out the plans of his father-in-law for 
 extending the Carthaginian dominions in Spain, and 
 entrusted the conduct of most of his military enter- 
 prises to the young Hannibal. He founded New 
 Carthage, and concluded with the Romans the ce- 
 lebrated treaty which fixed the Iberus as the 
 boundary between the Carthaginian and Roman 
 dominions. He was assassinated by a slave, whose 
 master he had put to death (221), and was suc- 
 ceeded in the command by Hannibal. — 3, Son 
 of Hamilcar Barca, and brother of Hannibal. When 
 Hannibal set out for Italy (218), Hasdrubal was 
 left in the command in Spain, and there fought for 
 some years against the 2 Scipios. In 2U7 he 
 crossed the Alps and marched into Italy, in order 
 to assist Hannibal ; but he was defeated on 
 the Metauma, by the consuls C. Claudius Nero 
 and M. Livius Salinator, his army was destroyed, 
 and he himself fell in the battle. His head was 
 cut off and thrown into Hannibal''s camp. — 4. One 
 of Hannibal's chief officers, commanded the left 
 wing of the Carthaginian army at the battle of 
 Cannae (216). — 5. Surnamed the Bald (Calvus), 
 commander of the Carthaginian expedition to Sar- 
 dinia in the 2nd Punic war, 215. He was de- 
 feated by the Roman praetor, T. Manlius, taken 
 prisoner, and carried to Rome. — 6. Son of Gisco, 
 one of the Carthaginian generals in Spain during 
 the 2nd Pnnic war. He fought in Spain from 214 
 to 206. After he and Mago had been defi^ated by 
 Scipio in the latter of these years, he crossed over 
 to Africa, where he succeeded in obtaining the 
 alliance of Syphax by giving him hia daughter So- 
 
 HECATAEUS. 
 
 phonisba in marriage. In conjunction with Syphax, 
 Hasdrubal carried on war against Masinissa, but 
 he was defeated by Scipio, who landed in Africa 
 in 204, He was condemned to death for his ill 
 success by the Carthaginian government, but he 
 still continued in arms against the Ramans. On 
 the arrival of Hannibal from Italj'his sentence was 
 reversed ; but the popular feeling against hiin had 
 not subsided, and in order to escape death from his 
 enemies, he put an end to his life by poison.— 
 7. Commander of the Carthaginian fleet in Africa 
 in 203, must be distinguished from the preceding. 
 — 8. Surnamed the Kid (Ilaedus), one of the 
 leaders of the part}' at Carthage favourable to peace 
 towards the end of the 2nd Punic war. — 9. Ge- 
 neral of the Carthaginians in the 3rd Punic war. 
 When the city was taken, he surrendered to Scipio, 
 who spared his life. After adorning Scipio^s 
 triumph, he spent the rest of his life in Italy. 
 
 Hateritis, Q., a senator and rhetorician in the 
 age of Augustus and Tiberius, died a, d. 26, in 
 the 09th year of his age. 
 
 Hebe ("H^tj), called Juventas by the Romans, 
 the goddess of youth, was a daughter of Zeus and 
 Hera. She waited upon the gods, and filled their 
 cups with nectar, before Ganymedes obtained this 
 ofhce ; and she is further represented as assisting 
 her mother Hera in putting the horses to her cha- 
 riot, and in bathing and dressing her brother Ares. 
 She married Hercules after he was received among 
 the gods, and bore to him 2 sons, Alexiares and 
 Anticetus. Later traditions represent her as a 
 divinity who liad it in her power to make aged 
 persons young again. At Rome there were several 
 temples of Juventas. She is even said to have had 
 a chapel on the Capitol before the teinpie of Jupiter 
 was built there. 
 
 Hebromagus. [Euukomagus.J 
 
 Hebron {'ESp^i^^XeSpuiv "ESpwvios: EUKhiUl\ 
 a cit}- in the S. of Judaea, as old as the times of the 
 patriarchs, and tint first capital of the kingdom of 
 David, who reigned there 7^ years, as king of 
 Judah only. 
 
 Hebrus ("ESpos: Afaritza), the principal river 
 in Thrace, rises in the mountains of Scomius and 
 Rhodope, flows first S.E. and then S.W., becomes 
 navigable for smaller vessels at Philippnpolis, and 
 for larger ones at Hadriannpolis, and falls into the 
 Aegean sea near Aenos, after forming by another 
 branch an estuary called Stentoris Lacus. — The 
 Hebrus was celebrated in Greek legends. On its 
 banks Orpheus was torn to pieces by the Thracian 
 women ; and it is fiequently mentioned in con- 
 nexion with the worship of Dionysus. 
 
 Hecaerge {'EKaepyj]). 1. Daughter of Boreas, 
 and one of the Hyperborean maidens, who were 
 believed to have introduced the worship of Artemis 
 in Delos. — 2. A surname of Artemis, signifying 
 the goddess who hits at a distance. 
 
 Hecale ('E/eaAi)), a poor old woman, who hos- 
 pitably received Theseus, wlien he had gone out 
 for the purpose of killing the Marathonian bull. 
 She vowed to offer to Zeus a sacrifice for the safe 
 return of the hero ; but as she died before his 
 return, Theseus ordained tliat the inhabitants of 
 the Attic totrapolis should offer a sacrifice to her 
 and Zeus Hecalns, or Hecaleius. 
 
 Hecataeus ('EfcaraTos). 1. Of Miletus, one of 
 the earliest and most distinguished Greek histo- 
 rians and geographers. He was the son of Hege- 
 sander, and belonged to a very ancient and illus- 
 
HECATE. 
 
 trious family. We have only a few particulnrs of his 
 life. In B. c. 500 he endeavoured to dissuade hia 
 countrymen from revolting from the Persians ; and 
 when this advice was disregarded, lie gave them 
 some sensible counsel respecting the conduct of the 
 war, which was also neglected. Previous to this, 
 Hecataeus had visited Egypt and many other 
 countries. He survived the Persian wars, and ap- 
 pears to have died ahout 476. He wrote 2 works: 
 — 1. Tlcpiodos 7^?, or TlepiT}-p}(rts, divided into 2 
 parts, one of which contained a description of Eu- 
 rope, and the other of Asia, Egypt, and Libya. 
 Both parts were subdivided into smaller sections, 
 which are sometimes quoted under their respective 
 names, such as Hellespontus, &c. — 2. TeveaAoyiai 
 or 'Io"To/Jioi, in 4 books, contained an account of 
 the poetical fables and traditions of the Greeks. 
 His work on geography was the more important, 
 as it embodied the results of his numerous travels. 
 He also corrected and improved the map of the 
 earth drawn up by Anaximander. Herodotus 
 knew the works of Hecataeus well, and frequently 
 controverts his opinions. Hecataeus wrote in the 
 Ionic dialect in a pure and simple style. The frag- 
 ments of his works are collected by Klausen, Ileca- 
 taei Alilesii Fracfnienta, Berlin, 1831, and by C. 
 and Th. Miiller, i^ra^. Hist. Graec. Paris, ]fJ41. 
 ^2. Of Abdera, a contemporar}' of Alexander 
 the Great and Ptolemy, the son of Lagus, ap- 
 pears to have accompanied the former on his Asiatic 
 expedition. He was a pupil of the Sceptic Pyrrho, 
 and is liimself called a philosopher, critic, and 
 grammarian. In the reign of the first Ptolemy he 
 travelled up the Nile as far as Thebes. He was 
 the author of several works, of which the most 
 important were : — 1. A History of Egypt. — 2. 
 A work on the Hj'perboreans. — 3. A History of 
 the Jews, frequently referred to by Josephus and 
 other ancient writers. This work was declared 
 SDurious by Origen : modem critics are divided in 
 their opinions. 
 
 Hecate ('EKctTTj) a mysterious divinity, com- 
 monly represented as a daughter of Persaeus or 
 Perses and Asteria, and hence called Perseis. She 
 is also described as a daughter of Zeus and Deme- 
 ter, or of Zeus and Pheraea or Hera, or of Leto or 
 Tartarus. Homer does not mention her. According 
 to the most genuine traditions, she appears to have 
 been an ancient Thracian divinity, and a Titan, who 
 ruled in heaven, on the earth, and in the sea, bestow- 
 ing on mortals wealth, victory, wisdom, good luck 
 to sailors and hunters, and prosperity to youth and 
 to the flocks of cattle. She was the only one 
 among the Titans who retained this power under 
 the rule of Zeus, and she was honoured by all the 
 immortal gods. The extensive power possessed by 
 Plecate was probably the reason that she was sub- 
 sequently identified with several other divinities, 
 and at length became a mystic goddess, to whom 
 mysteries were celebrated in Samothrace and in 
 Aegina. In tlie Homeric hymn to Demeter, she 
 is represented as taking an active part in the search 
 after Proserpina, and when the latter was found as 
 remaining with her as her attendant and com- 
 panion. [See p. 212, a.] She thus became a 
 deitv of the lower worid, and is described in this 
 capacity as a mighty and formidable divinity. In 
 consequence of her being identified with other di- 
 vinities, she is said to have been Selene or Luna 
 in heaven, Artemis or Diana in earth, and Perse- 
 phone or Proserpina in the lower world. Being 
 
 HECTOR. 299 
 
 thus as it were a 3-fold goddess, she is described 
 with 3 bodies or 3 heads, the one of a horse, the 
 2nd of a dog, and the 3rd of a lion. Hence her 
 epithets Tergeminus^ Tn/ormis, Triceps^ &c. From 
 her being an infurnal divinity, she came to be re- 
 garded as a spectral being, who sent at night all 
 kinds of demons and terrible phantoms from the 
 lower world, who taught sorcery and witchcraft, and 
 dwelt at places where 2 roads crossed, on tombs, and 
 near the blood of murdered persons. She herself wan- 
 dered about with the souls of the dead, and her ap- 
 proach was announced by the whining and howling 
 of dogs. — At Athens there were very many small 
 stitues or symbolical representations of Hecate {eicd- 
 Taia), placed before or in houses, and on spots where 
 2 roads crossed : it would seem that people consulted 
 such Hecataea as oracles. At the close of every 
 month dishes with food were set out for her and other 
 averters of evil at the points where 2 roads crossed ; 
 and this food was consumed by poor people. The 
 sacrifices offered to her consisted of dogs, honey, 
 and black female lambs. 
 
 Hecatomntis {'EKard/j-vais)^ king or dynast of 
 Caria, in the reign of Artaxerxes III. lie left 3 
 sons, Maussolus, Idrieus, and Pisodarus, all of 
 whom, in their tuni, succeeded him in the sove- 
 reignty ; and 2 daughters, Artemisia and Ada. 
 
 Hecatompylos ('E«aT(i^7ru\oF, i. e. hin-hig 100 
 .gates). 1. An epithet of Thebes in Egypt [Tiiebae]. 
 ■^2. Acity in the middle of Parthia, 1260 .stadia or 
 133 Roman miles from the Caspiae Pylae; enlarged 
 by Seleucus ; and afterwards used by the Parthian 
 kings as a royal residence. 
 
 Hecaton ('EkcEtoi*'), a Stoic philosopher, a na- 
 tive of Rhodes, studied under Panaetius, and wrote 
 numerous works, all of which are lost. 
 
 Hecatonnesi (^^.tcarovvqa-oi : MosJco-msi), a 
 group of small islands, between Lesbos and the 
 coast of Aeolis, on the S. side of the mouth of the 
 Gulf of Adramyttium. The name, 100 islands, was 
 indefinite ; the real number was reckoned by some 
 at 20, by others at 40. Strabo derives tlie name, 
 not from eKaroUj 100, but from "Efcaros, a surname 
 of Apollo. 
 
 Hector ("Ewrrwp), the chief hero of the Trojans 
 in their war with the Greeks, was the eldest son of 
 Priam and Hecuba, the husband of Andromnclie, 
 and father of Scamandrius. He fought with the 
 bravest of the Greeks, and at length slew I'atro- 
 clus, the friend of Achilles. The death of liis 
 friend roused Achilles to the fight. The otlier 
 Trojans fled before him into the city. Hector alone 
 remained without the walls, though his parents 
 implored him to return ; but when he saw Achilles, 
 his heart failed him. and he took to flight. Thrice 
 did he race round the cit^-, pursued by the swift- 
 footed Achilles, and then fell pierced by Achilles' 
 spear. Achilles tied Hector's body to his chariot, 
 and thus dragged him into the camp of the Greeks ; 
 but later traditions relate that he first dragged the 
 body thrice around the walls of Ilium. At the 
 command of Zeus, Achilles surrendered the bodv 
 to the prayers of Priam, who biu'ied it at TroV 
 with great pomp. Hector is one of the noblest 
 conceptions of the poet of tlie Iliad. He is the great 
 bulwark of Troy, and even Achilles trembles when 
 he approaches him. He has a presentiment of the 
 fall of his country, but he perseveres in his heroic 
 resistance, prefen-ing death to slavery and disgrace. 
 Besides these vii-tues of a warrior, he is distin- 
 guislied also by those of a man: his heart is open 
 
800 
 
 HECUBA. 
 
 to the gentle feelings of a son, a husband, and a 
 father. 
 
 Hecuba ('EKaSnj), daughter of Dymas in Phry- 
 gia, or of Cisseus, king of Thrace. She was the 
 wife of Priam, king of Troy, to whom she bore 
 Hector, Paris, Deiphobus, Helenas, Cassandra, and 
 many other children. On the capture of Troy, she 
 was carried away as a slave by the Greeks. Ac- 
 cording to the tragedy of Euripides, which bears 
 her name, she was carried by the Greeks to Cher- 
 fionesQs, and there saw her daughter Polyxena sacri- 
 ficjij. On the same day the waves of the sea washed 
 on the coast the body of her last son Polydorus, who 
 had been murdered by Polymestor, king of the 
 Thracian Chersonesus, to whose care he had been 
 entrusted by Priam. Hecuba thereupon killed 
 the children of Polymestor, and tore out the eyes 
 of their father. Agamemnon pardoned her the 
 crime, and Polymestor prophesied that she should 
 be metamorphosed into a she-dog, and should leap 
 into the sea at a place called Cynossema. It was 
 added that the inhabitants of Thrace endeavoured 
 to stone her, but that she was metamorphosed into 
 a dog, and in tliis form howled through the country 
 for a long time. — According to other accounts she 
 was given as a slave to Ulysses, and in despair 
 leaped into the Hellespont ; or being anxious to 
 die, she uttered such invectives against the Greeks, 
 that the warriors put her to death, and called the 
 place where she was buried Cynossema, with re- 
 ference to her impudent invectives. 
 
 Hedylus ("HSuXos), son of MelJcertus, was a 
 native of Samos or of Athens, and an epigrammatic 
 poet. 11 of his epigrams are in the Greek Antho- 
 logy. He was a contemporary and rival of Calli- 
 machus, and lived therefore about the middle of 
 the ord century B. c. 
 
 Hedylius Mons {'USvXeiav), a range of moun- 
 tams in Boeotia, W. of the Cephissus. 
 
 Hegemon {"Hynfiuy), of Thasos, a poet of the 
 old comedy at Athens, but more celebrated for his 
 parodies, of which kind of poetry he was the in- 
 ventor. He was nicknamed 4»aKTj, on account of 
 his fondness for that kind of pulse. He lived in 
 the time of the Peloponnesian war; and his parody 
 of the Gif/ajiiomachia was tlie piece to which the 
 Athenians were listening, when the nev/s was 
 brought to them in the theatre of the destruction 
 of tlie expedition to Sicily. 
 
 Hegemone ('Hy^/xSuT])^ the leader or ruler, is 
 the name of one of the Athenian Charites or Graces. 
 Hegemone was also a surname of Artemis at Sparta, 
 and in Arcadia. 
 
 Hegesianax {'}iy7j(ridva^\ an historian of Alex- 
 andria, is said to have been the real author of the 
 work called Troica. which went under the name of 
 Cephalon, or Cephalion. He appears to be the same 
 as the Hegesiiinax, who was sent by Antiochus 
 the Great as one of his envoys to the Romans in 
 B.C. 1.9G and 193. 
 
 Heg"esias {'Uyrja-ias). 1. Of Magnesia, a rhe- 
 torician and historian, lived about B.C. 290, and 
 wrote the history of Alexander the Great. He was 
 regarded by some as the founder of that degenerate 
 style of composition which bore the name of the 
 Asiatic. His own style was destitute of all vigour 
 and dignit}', and was marked chiefly by childish 
 conceits and minute prettinesses. ^ S. Of Salamis, 
 supposed by some to have been the author of the 
 Cyprian poem, which, on better authority, is ascribed 
 toStasinus. — 3. A Cyrenaic philosopher, who lived 
 
 HELENA. 
 
 at Alexandria in the time of the Ptolemies, perhaps 
 about B. c. 260. He wrote a work containing such 
 gloomy descriptions of human misery, that it di'ove 
 many persons to commit suicide ; hence he was 
 sumamed Peisitlianatos (Jlei<n6a.va,ros\ He was, 
 in consequence, forbidden to teach by Ptolemy. 
 
 Hegesiaa (^Uyiiaias) and Hegias ('H7/as), 2 
 Greek statuaries, whom many scholars identify with 
 one another. They lived at the period immediately 
 preceding that of Phidias. The chief work of He- 
 gesias was the statues of Castor and Pollux, which 
 are supposed to be the same as those which now 
 stand on the stairs leading to the Capitol. 
 
 Hegesinug (^Hyriaivovs)^ of Pergamum, the 
 successor of Evander and the immediate predecessor 
 of Carneades in the chair of the Academy, flourished 
 about B. c. 185. 
 
 Hegesippus ('H7Tjcri7r7ros). L An Athenian 
 orator, and a contemporary of Demosthenes, to 
 whose political party he belonged. The grammarians 
 ascribe to him the oration on Halonesus, which has 
 come down to us under the name of Demosthenes. 
 — 2. A poet of the New Comedy, flourished about 
 B. c. 300. ^3. A Greek historian of Mecybema, 
 wrote an account of the peninsula of Pallene. 
 
 Hegesipyla ('Httjo-ittuAt]), daughter of Olonis, 
 king of Thrace, and wife of Miltiades. 
 
 Hegias. [Hegesias.] 
 
 Helena ('EAeV?;), daughter of Zeus and Leda, 
 and sister of Castor and Pollux (the Dioscuri). She 
 was of surpassing beauty. In her youth she wag 
 carried off by Theseus and Pirithous to Attica. 
 When Theseus was absent in Hades, Castor and 
 Pollux undertook an expedition to Attica, to liberate 
 their sister. Athens was taken, Helen delivered, 
 and Aethra, the mother of Theseus, made prisoner, 
 and carried as a slave of Helen, to Sparta. Ac- 
 cording to some accounts she bore to Theseus a 
 daughter Iphigenia. On her return home, she was 
 sought in marriage by the noblest chiefs from all 
 parts of Greece. She chose Menelaus for her hus- 
 band, and became by him the mother of Hcrmione. 
 She was subsequently seduced and carried off by 
 Paris to Troy. [For details, see Paris and Me- 
 nelaus.] The Greek chiefs who had been her 
 suitors, resolved to revenge her abduction, and ac- 
 cordingly sailed against Troy. Hence arose the 
 celebrated Trojan war, which lasted 10 years. 
 During the course of the war she is represented as 
 showing great sympathy with the Greeks. After 
 the death of Paris towards the end of the war, she 
 married his brother Deiphobus. On the capture of 
 Tro}', which she is said to have favoured, she be- 
 trayed Deiphobus to the Greeks, and became recon- 
 ciled to Menelaus, whom she accompanied to Sparta. 
 Here she lived with him for some years in peace 
 and happiness ; and here, according to Homer, Te- 
 lemachus found her solemnising the marriage of 
 her daughter Hermione with Neoptolemus. The 
 accounts of Helen's death differ. According to the 
 prophecy of Proteus in the Odyssey, Menelaus and 
 Helen were not to die, but the gods were to conduct 
 them to Elysium. Others relate that she and Me- 
 nelaus were buried at Therapne in Laconia, where 
 their tomb was seen by Pausanias. Others again 
 relate, that after the death of Menelaus she was 
 driven out of Peloponnesus by the sons of the latter 
 and fled to Rhodes, where she was tied to a tree 
 and strangled by Polyxo : the Rhodians expiated 
 the crime by dedicating a temple to her under the 
 name of Helena Dcndritis. According to another 
 
HELENA. 
 
 tradition she married Achilles in the island of Leuce, 
 and bore him a son Euphorion. — The Egj'ptian 
 priests told Herodotus that Helen never went to 
 Troy, but that when Paris reached Egj-^t with 
 Helen on his way to Troy, she was detiiined by 
 Proteus, king of Egvpt ; and that she was restored 
 to Menelaus when he visited Egypt in search of 
 her after the Trojan war, finding that she had never 
 been at Troy. 
 
 Helena, Flavia Julia. 1. The mother of Con- 
 stantine the Great. When her husband Cnnstantius 
 was raised to the dignity of Caesar by Diocletian, 
 
 A. D. 292, he was compelled to repudiate his wife, 
 to make way for Theodora, the step-child of Maxi- 
 mianus Herculius. Subsequently, when her sou 
 succeeded to the purple, Helena was treated with 
 marked distinction and received the title of Au- 
 gusta, She died about 328. She was a Christian, 
 and is said to have discovered at Jerusalem the 
 sepulchre of our Lord, together with the wood of 
 the true cross. — 2. Daughter of Constantiiie the 
 Great and Faiista, married her cousin Julian the 
 Apostate, 355, and died l-i60. 
 
 Helena {'E\4vtj), 1. {Makronisi\ a small and 
 rocky island, between the S. of Attica and Ceos, 
 formerly called Cranae. — 2. The later name of 
 Illiberris in Gaul. 
 
 Helenas ("EAecos). 1. Son of Priam and Hecuba, 
 was celebmted for his prophetic powers, and also 
 fought against the Greeks in the Trojan war. In 
 Homer we have no further particulars about He- 
 lenus ; but in later traditions he is said to have 
 deserted his countrymen and joined the Greeks, 
 There are likewise vai-ious accounts respecting his 
 desertion of the Trojans. According to some he 
 did it of liis own accord ; according to others, he 
 was ensnared by Ulysses, who was anxious to 
 obtain his prophecy respecting the fall of Troy. 
 Others, again, relate that, on the death of Paris, 
 Heleuus andDeiphobus contended for the possession 
 of Helena, and that Helenus being conquered, fled 
 to Mt. Ida, where he was taken prisoner by the 
 Greeks. After the fall of Troy, he fell to the share 
 of Pyrrhus. He foretold Pyrrhus the sufferings 
 which awaited the Greeks who returned home by 
 sea, and prevailed upon him to return by land to 
 Epirus, After the death of Pyrrhus he received a 
 portion of the country, and married Andromache, 
 by whom he became the father of Cestrinus. When 
 Aeneas in his wanderings arrived in Epirus, he 
 was hospitably received by Helenus, who also fore- 
 told him the future events of his liie. ^2. Son of 
 Pyrrhus, king of Epirus, by Lanassa, daughter of 
 Agathocles. He accompanied his father to Italy 
 
 B. c. 280, and was with him when Pyrrhus perished 
 at Argos, 272. He ihen fell into the hands of 
 Antigonus Gonatas, who however sent him back in 
 safety to Epirus. 
 
 Heliadae and Heliades (*HAic£5ai and 'HAuiSes), 
 the sons and daughters of Helios (the Sun). The 
 name Heliades is given especially to Pha'tthusa, 
 Lampetie and Phoebe^ the daughters of Helios and 
 the nymph Clymene, and the sisters of Phaeton. 
 They bewailed the death of their brother Phaeton 
 Bo bitterly on the banks of the Eridanus, that the 
 gods in compassion changed them into poplar-trees 
 and their tears into amber. [See Eridanus.] 
 
 Helice ('EA(/ct;), daughter of Lycaon, was beloved 
 by Zeus, but Hera, out of jealousy, metamorphosed 
 her into a she- bear, whereupon Zeus placed her 
 nmon" the stars, under the name of the Great Bear. 
 
 HELIOPOLIS. 301 
 
 Helice ('EA^KTj : "EXiKdiVios^ *E\i«rei/5). 1. The 
 ancient capital of Acliaia, said to have been founded 
 by Ion, possessed a celebrated temple of Poseidon, 
 which was regarded as the great sanctuary of the 
 Achaean race. Helice was swallowed up by an 
 earthquake together with Bura, b. c. 373. The 
 earth sunk deep into the ground, and the place on 
 which the cities stood was ever afterwards covered 
 by the sea. — 2. An ancient town in Thessaly, 
 which disappeared in early times. 
 
 Helicon ('EAiKiiy), son of Acesas, a celebrated 
 artist. [Acesas.] 
 
 Helicon {'EXiKiiiv : Helicon^ Palaeo-Bnni, Turk. 
 Zaff07-a ), a celebrated range of mountains in Boeotia, 
 between the lake Copais and the Corinthian gulf, 
 was covered with snow the greater part of the 
 year, and possessed many romantic ravines and 
 lovely vallies. Helicon was sacred to Apollo and 
 the Muses, the latter of whom are hence called 
 'EAiKcii/icii TTapQivoi and 'EAiKwcioSes vv^ipai by 
 the Greek poets, and Uelicotdades and Helicoiiides 
 by the Roman poets. Here sprung the celebrated 
 fountains of the Muses, Aganippe and Hippo- 
 CRENE. At the fountain of Ilippocrene was a 
 grove sacred to the Muses, which was adorned with 
 some of the finest works of art. On the slopes and 
 in the valleys of the mountains grew many medi- 
 cinal plants, which may have given occasion to the 
 worship of Apollo, as the healing god. 
 
 Heliodoma ('HAniSojpos). 1. An Athenian, sur- 
 named Periegetea (UipirjyTjT'rjs)^ probably lived 
 about B. c. 164, and wrote a description of the 
 works of art in the Acropolis at Athens. This work 
 was one of the authorities for Pliny^'s account of 
 the Greek artists. — 2. A rhetorician at Rome in 
 the time of Augustus, whom Horace mentions as 
 the companion of his journey to Brundisium (Sat. i. 
 5. 2, 3.) — 3. A Stoic philosopher at Rome, who 
 became a deluior in the reign of Nero. ( Juv. Sat i. 
 33.) -^4. A rhetorician, and private secretary to 
 the emperor Hadrian. ^5. Of Emesa in Syria, lived 
 about the end of the 4th century of our era, and 
 was bishop of Tricca in Thessaly. Before he was 
 made bisliop, he wrote a romance in 10 books, en- 
 titled Aeihiopica. because the scene of the beginning 
 and the end of the story is laid in Aethiopia. This 
 work has come down to us, and is far superior to the 
 other Greek romances. It relates the loves of 
 Theagenes and Chariclea. Though deficient in 
 those characteristics of modem fiction which appeal 
 to the universal sympathies of our nature, the ro- 
 mance of Heliodorus is interesting on account of 
 the rapid succession of sti-ange and not altogether 
 improbable adventui'es, the many and various 
 characters introduced, and the beautiful scenes de- 
 scribed. The language is simple and elegant. The 
 best editions are by Mitsclierlich in his Scrip- 
 tores Graeci JErotici, Argentorat. 1790, and by 
 Coraes, Paris, 1804. ^6. Of Larissa, the author of 
 a short work on optics, still extant, chiefly taken 
 from EncUd's Optica : edited by Matani,Pistor.l758. 
 
 Heliogabalus. [Elagabalus.] 
 
 Heliopolis ('HAiouTrtJAis or 'HAioiiTroAis, i. e. the 
 City ofiJie Sun). 1. (Heb. Baalath : Baalbek, Ru.), 
 a celebrated city of Syria, a chief seat of the 
 worship of Baal, one of whose symbols was the 
 Sun, and whom the Greeks identified with Apollo, 
 as well as with Zeus : hence the Greek name of the 
 city. With the worship of Baal, here as elsewhere, 
 was aasociated that of Astarte, whom the Greeks 
 identified with Aphrodite. It was situated in the 
 
302 
 
 HELIOS. 
 
 middle of Coele-S3'ria, at the W. foot of Anti- 
 Libaniia, on' a rising ground at the N. E. extremity 
 of a large plain which reaches almost to tlie sea, 
 and which is well watered by the river Leontea 
 {Nahr-el^KasimiyelC), near whose sources Heliupolis 
 was built : the sources of the Orontes also are not 
 far N. of the city. The situation of Heliopolis 
 necessarily made it a place of great commercial 
 importance, as it was on the direct road from Egypt 
 and the Red Sea and also from Tyre to Syria, 
 Aaia Minor, and Europe; and hence, probably, the 
 wealth of the city, to which its ruins still bear 
 witness. We know, however, very little of its 
 history. It was made a Roman colony by the name 
 of Colonia Julia Augusta Felix Heliopolitana, and 
 colonised by veterans of the 5th and 8th legions, 
 under Augustus. Antoninus Pius built the great 
 temple of Jupiter (i. e. Baal), of which the ruins 
 still exist ; and there are medals which shew, in 
 addition to other testimony, that it was favoured 
 by several of the later emperors. All the existing 
 ruins are of the Roman period, and most of them 
 probably of later date than the great temple just 
 mentioned ; but it is impossible to determine their 
 exact times. They consist of a large quadrangular 
 court in front of the great temple, another hexagonal 
 court outside of this, and, in front of all, a portico, 
 or propylaea, approached by a flight of steps. 
 Attached to one corner of, the quadrangular court 
 is a smaller, but more perfect, temple; and, at some 
 distance from all these buildings, there is a circular 
 edifice, of a unique and very interesting archi- 
 tectural form. There is also a single Doric columa 
 on a rising ground, and traces of the city walls. ^ 
 2. (0. T. On, or Bethshemesh : Mataricli, Ru. N.E. 
 of CazVo), a celebrated city of Lower Egypt, capital 
 of theNomos Heliopolites, stood on the E. side of the 
 Pelusiac branch of the Nile, a little below the apex 
 of the Delta, and near the canal of Trajan, and was, 
 in the earliest period of which we have any record, 
 a chief seat of the Egyptian worship of the Sun. 
 Here also was established the worship of Mnevis, 
 a sacred bull similar to Apis. The priests of 
 Heliopolis were renowned for their learning. It 
 suffered much during the invasion of Carabyses ; 
 and by the time of Strabo it was entirely ruined. 
 
 Helios ("HAios or'HiKios), called Sol by the 
 Romans, the god of the sun. He was the son of 
 Hyperion and Thea, and a brother of Selene and 
 Eos. From his father, he is frequently called 
 Hyperionides, or Hyperion, the latter of which is 
 an abridged form of the patronymic, HyperionioiL 
 In the Homeric hymn on Helios, he is called a son 
 of Hyperion and Eurypiiaessa. Homer describes 
 Helios as giving light both to gods and men: he rises 
 m the E. from Oceanus, traverses the heaven, and 
 descends in the evening into the darkness of the W. 
 and Oceanus. Later poets have marvellously embel- 
 lished this simple notion. They tell of a most mag- 
 nificent palace of Helios in the E., containing a 
 throne occupied by the god, and surrounded by per- 
 sonifications of the different divisions of time. They 
 also assign him a second palace in the W., and 
 describe his horses as feeding upon herbs growing 
 in the islands of the Blessed, The manner in 
 which Helios during the night passes from the 
 western into the eastern ocean is not mentioned 
 either by Homer or Hesiod, but hiter poets make 
 him sail in a golden boat, the work of Hephaestus, 
 round one-half of the earth, and thus arrive in the 
 E. at the point from which he has to rise again. 
 
 HELLE. 
 
 Others represent him as making his nightly voyage 
 while slumbering in a golden bed. The horses 
 and chariot with which Helios traverses the hea- 
 vens are not mentioned in the Iliad and Odyssey, 
 but first occur in the Homeric hymn on Helios, and 
 both are described minutely by later poets. — Helios 
 is described as the god who sees and hears every 
 thing, and was thus able to reveal to Hephaestus 
 the faithlessness of Aphrodite, and to Demeterthe 
 abduction of her daughter. At a later time Helios 
 became identified with Apollo, though the 2 gods 
 were originally quite distinct; but the identification 
 was never carried out completely, for no Greek 
 poet ever made Apollo ride in the chariot of Helios 
 through the heavens, and among the Romans we 
 find this idea only after the time of Virgil. The 
 representations of Apollo with rays around his 
 head, to characterise him as identical with the sun, 
 belong to the time of the Roman empire. — The 
 island of Thrinacia (Sicily) was sacred to Hflios, 
 and there he had flocks of sheep and oxen, which 
 were tended by his daughters Phaetusa and Lam- 
 petia. Later traditions ascribe to him flocks also 
 in the island of Erythia ; and it may be re- 
 marked in general, that sacred flocks, especially of 
 oxen, occur in most places where the worship of 
 Helios was established. — His descendants are very 
 numerous ; and the surnames and epithets given 
 him by the poets are mostly descriptive of his 
 character as the sun. Temples of Helios (7]\ie7a) 
 existed in Greece at a very early time; and in later 
 times we find his worship established in various 
 places, and especially in the island of Rhodes, 
 where the famous colossus was a representation of 
 the god. The sacrifices offered to him consisted 
 of white rams, boars, bulls, goats. Iambs, especially 
 white horses, and honey. Among the animals sacred 
 to him, the cock is especially mentioned. The Ro- 
 man poets, when speaking of the god of the sun 
 (Sol), usually adopt the notions of the Greeks. The 
 worship of Sol was introduced at Rome, especially 
 after the Romans had become acquainted with the 
 East, though traces of the worship of the sun and 
 moon occur at an early period. 
 
 Helisson ('EAio-o-wv or 'EXura-ous), a small town 
 in Arcadia, on a river of the same name, which falls 
 into the Alpheua. 
 
 Hellanicus ('EAAai/tKos). I. Of Mytilene in 
 Lesbos, the most eminent of the Greek logographers, 
 or early Greek historians, was in all probability born 
 about B. c. 496, and died 411. We have no par- 
 ticulars of his life, bnt we may presume that he visited 
 many of the countries, of whose history he gave an 
 account. He wrote a great number of genealogical, 
 chronological and historical works, which are cited 
 under the titles of Troica^ Aeolica, Fersica^ &c. One 
 of his most popular works was entitled 'Upeiai rrjs 
 "Hpas : it contained a chronological list of the 
 priestesses of Hera at Argos, compiled from the 
 records preserved in the temple of the goddess of 
 this place. This work was oneof the earliest attempts 
 to regulate chronology, and was made use of by 
 Thucydides, Tiraaeus and others. The fragments 
 of Hellanicus are collected by Sturz, Hdlanici Leshii 
 Fragmenta^ Lips. 1826 ; and by C. and Th. Miillcr, 
 Fragm. Histor. Craec. Paris, 1841.^2. A Greek 
 grammarian, a disciple of Agathocles, and appa- 
 rently a contemporary of Aristarchus, wrote on the 
 Homeric poems. 
 
 Hellas, Hellenes. [Graecia.] 
 
 Helle ("EAAtj), daughter of Athamas and Ne- 
 
HELLEN. 
 
 phele, and sister of Phvixiis. When Phrixus was 
 to be sacrificed [Phrixus], Nephele rescued her 
 2 children, who rode away through the air upon 
 the ram with the golden fleece, the gift of Hermes; 
 but, between Sigeum and the Chersonesus, Helle 
 fell into the sea, which was thence called the sea 
 of Helle {Hellesponius). Her tomb was shown near 
 Pactya, on the Hellespont. 
 
 Hellen CEAAtji/), son of Deucalion and Pyrrha, 
 or of Zeus and Dorippe, husband of Orseis, and 
 father of Aeolus, Dorus, and Xuthus. He was 
 king of Phthia in Thessaly, and was succeeded 
 by his son Aeolus. He is the mythical ancestor of 
 all the Hellenes; from his 2 sons Aeolus and Donis 
 were descended the Acolians and Dorians ; and 
 from his 2 grandsons Achaeus and Ion, the sons of 
 Xuthus, the Achaeans and lonians. 
 
 Hellespontus {'EWtjo-itovtos : Straits of ilie 
 Dardanelles^ or o/Gallijxli, Turk. StambulDenghiz), 
 tlie long narrow strait connecting the Propontis 
 {Sea of Marmara') with the Aefrean Sea, and 
 through which the waters of the Black 8ea dis- 
 charge themselves into the Mediterranean in a 
 constant current. The length of the strait is about 
 .50 miles, and the width varies from 6 miles at the 
 iipper end to 2 at the lower, and in some places it 
 is only 1 mile wide, or even less. The narrowest 
 part is between the ancient cities of Sestus and 
 AuYDUS, where Xerxes made his bridge of boats, 
 [Xerxes] and where the legend related that 
 Leander swam across to visit Hero. [Leander.] 
 The name of the Hellespont (i.e. the5ea of Helle) 
 was derived from the story of Hello's being drowned 
 in it [Helle]. The Hellespont was the boundary 
 of Europe and Asia, dividing the Thracian Cher- 
 sonese in the former from the Troad and the terri- 
 tories of Abydus andLampsacus in the latter. The 
 district just mentioned, on the S. side of the Hel- 
 lespont, was also called '^\XT](nTovros^ its inha- 
 bitants 'EAATjfrTrtJz/rioi, and the cities on its coast 
 'EAATjo-TToi/Tiai Tr6\eis. ^ 2. Under the Roman 
 empire, Hellespontus was the name of a proconsular 
 province, composed of the Troad and the N. part of 
 Mysia, and having Cyzicus for its capital. 
 
 Helldmeniuii {'E\\6/j.gvov)^ a seaport town of 
 the Acarnanians on the island Leucaa. 
 
 Hellopia. [Ellopia.] 
 
 Helorua or Helonim (^ "EAoipos : 'EAwpfrTjs), 
 a town on the E. coast of Sicily, S. of Syracuse, at 
 the mouth of the river Helorus. There was a road 
 from Helorus to Syracuse {dShs 'EXwpivrj, Thuc. 
 vi. 70, vii. 80). 
 
 Helos {rh "EAos : 'EAeTor, 'EAeaTTjs). 1. A 
 town in Laconia, on the coast, in a marshy situa- 
 tion, whence its name {€Kos=:marsh). The town 
 was in ruins in the time of Pausanias. It was 
 commonly said that the Spartan slaves, called He- 
 lotes (EiAwTej), were originally the Achaean in- 
 habitants of this town, who were reduced by the 
 Dorian conquerors to slavery ; but this account of 
 the origin of the Helotes seems to have been merely 
 an invention, in consequence of the similarity of 
 their name to that of the town of Helos. (See Diet 
 of Antiq. art. Helotes.) ^2, A town or district of 
 Elis on the Alpheus. 
 
 Eelveconae, a people in German)', between the 
 Viadus and the Vistula, S. of the Ragii, and N. of 
 the Burgundiones, reckoned by Tacitus among the 
 Lipii. 
 
 Helvetii, a brave and powerful Celtic people, 
 who dwelt between M. Jurassus (J«m), the Lacus 
 
 HEPHAESTIA. 
 
 303 
 
 Lemnnmis (Lake of Genei^a)^ the Rhone, and the 
 Rhine as far as the Lacus Brigantinus (Luke of 
 Curmtance). They were thus bounded by tiie Se-- 
 quani on the W., by the Nantuates and Lepontii 
 in Cisalpine Gaul on the S., by the Rhaeti on the 
 E., and by the German nations on the N, beyond 
 the Rhine. Their country, called Affer Helve- 
 iiorum (but never Helvetia), thus corresponded to 
 the W. part of Switzerland. Their chief town was 
 AvENTicuM. They were divided into 4 jiagi or 
 cantons, of which the Pagus Tiyur'mus was the 
 most celebrated. We only know the name of one 
 of the 3 others, namely the Vicus Vtrrhigenus, or, 
 more correctly, Urbigenus. — The Helvetii are first 
 mentioned in the war with the Cimbri. In b. c. 
 107 the Tigurini defeated and killed the Roman 
 consul L. Cassius Longinus, on the lake of Geneva, 
 while another division of the Helvetii accompanied 
 the Cimbri and Teutones in their invasion of Gaul. 
 Subsequently the Helvetii invaded Italy along with 
 the Cimbri ; and they returned home in safet}', 
 after the defeat of the Cimbri by Marius and Ca- 
 tulus in 101. About 40 years afterwards, they 
 resolved, upon the advice of Orgetorlx, one of their 
 chiefs, to migrate from their country with their 
 wives and children, and seek a new home in the 
 more fertile plains of Gaul. In 58 they endea- 
 voured to carry their plan into execution, but they 
 were defeated by Caesar, and driven back into 
 their own territories. The Romans now planted 
 colonies and built fortresses in their country (No- 
 viodunum, Vindonissa, Aventicum), and the Hel- 
 vetii gradually adopted the customs and language 
 of their conquerors. They were severely punished 
 by the generals of Vitellius (a. d. 70), whom tliey 
 refused to recognise as emperor ; and after that 
 time they are rarely mentioned as a separate 
 people. — The Helvetii were included in Gallia 
 Lugdunensis, according to Strabo, but in Gallia 
 Belgica, according to Pliny : most modern writers 
 adopt Pliny''s statement. When Gaul was sub- 
 divided into a greater number of provinces under 
 the later emperors, the country of the Helvetii 
 formed, with that of the Sequani and the Ram-aci, 
 the province of Majcima Seqita7iorum. 
 
 Helvia, mother of the philosopher Seneca. 
 
 Helvi^us Priacus. [Priscus.] 
 
 Helvii, a people in Gaul, between the Rhone 
 and Mt, Cebenna, which separated them from the 
 Arverni, were for a long time subject to Massilia, 
 but afterwiirds belonged to the province of Gallia 
 Narbonensis. Their country produced good wine. 
 
 Helvius. 1. Blasio. [Blasio.] — 2. Cinna. 
 [CiNNA.] — 3. Mancla. [Mancia.] — 4. Perti- 
 aaz, [Pertinax.] 
 
 Hemeresia ('H^tpTjo-ia), the soothing goddess, 
 a surname of Artemis, under which she was wor- 
 shipped at the fountain Lusi (Aoucrof), in Arcadia, 
 
 Hemeroscopion. [Dianium, No. 2.] 
 
 Hemina, Cassius. [Cassius, No. 14.] 
 
 Heneti ('EfeTOi), an ancient people in Paphla- 
 gonia, dwelling on the river Parthenius, fought on 
 the side of Priam against the Greeks, but had dis- 
 appeared before the historical times. They were 
 regarded by many ancient writers as the ancestors 
 of the Veneti in Italy. [Venetl] 
 
 Heniochi {^Hvioxof), a people in Colchis, N. 
 of the Phasis, notorious as pirates. 
 
 Henna. [Enna.] 
 
 Hephaestia ('Hcpaio-Tta). 1. ('H{/)ai(rT(6iJs), a 
 town in the N.W. of the island of Lemnos. — 3. 
 
304 
 
 HEPHAESTIADES. 
 
 ('H^aKTTiSTjr -TeiSTjs), a deraus in Attica, belong- 
 ing to the tribe Acamantia, 
 
 Hephaestiades Insiilae. [Aeoliae.] 
 Hephaestion ('H'patffTmv). 1. Son of Amjii- 
 tor, a Macedonian of Pella, celebrated as the 
 friend of Alexander the Great, with whom he 
 had been brought up. Alexander called Hephaes- 
 tion his own private friend, but Crateras the 
 friend of the king. Hephacstion accompanied 
 Alexander to Asia, and was employed by the king 
 in many important commands. He died at Ecba- 
 tana, after an illness of only 7 days, b, c. 325. 
 Alexander^'s grief for his loss was passionate and 
 violent. A geneml mourning was ordered through- 
 out the empire, and a funeral pile and monument 
 erected to him at Babylon, at a cost of 10,000 ta- 
 lents. ^2. A Greek grammarian, who instructed 
 the emperor Verus in Greek, and accordingly lived 
 about A. D. 150. He was perhaps the author of a 
 Manual on Metres ('Eyx^'P'^ioi' ir^pX fxeTpuiv)^ 
 which has come down to us under the name of 
 Hephaestion. This work is a tolerably complete 
 manual of Greek metres, and forms the basis of all 
 our knowledge on that subject. Edited by Gais- 
 ford, Oxon. 1810. 
 
 Hephaestus CHcpaifftos)^ called Vulcanua by 
 the Romans, the god of fire. He was, according 
 to Homer, the son of Zeus and Hera. Later 
 traditions state that he had no father, and that 
 Hera gave birth to him independent of Zeus, as 
 she was jealous of Zeus havinr; given birth to 
 Athena independent of her. He was bom lame 
 and weak, and was in consequence so much dis- 
 liked by his mother, that she threw him down 
 from Olympus. The marine divinities, Thetis and 
 Eurynome, received him, and he dwelt with them 
 for 9 years in a grotto, beneath Oceanus, making 
 for them a variety of ornaments. He afterwards 
 returned to Olympus, though we are not told through 
 what means, and he appears in Homer as the 
 great artist of the gods of Olympus. Although he 
 had been cruelly treated by his mother, he always 
 showed her respect and kindness ; and on one 
 occasion took her part, when she was quarrelling 
 with Zeus, which ao much enraged the father of 
 the gods, that he seized Hephaestus by the leg, and 
 hurled him down from heaven. Hephaestus was 
 a whole day falling, but in the evening he alighted 
 in the island of Lemnos, where he was kindly re- 
 ceived by the Sintians. Later writers describe his 
 lameness as the consequence of this fall, while 
 Homer makes him lame from his birth. He again 
 returned to Olympus, and subsequently acted the 
 part of mediator between his parents. On that 
 occasion lie offered a cup of nectar to his mother 
 and the other gods, who burst out into immo- 
 demte laughter on seeing him busily hobbling 
 from one god to another. — Hephaestus appears 
 to have been originally the god of fire simply ; 
 but as fire is indispensable in working metals, he 
 was afterwards regarded as an artist. His palace 
 in Olympus was imperishable and shining like 
 stars. It contained his workshop, with the anvil 
 and 20 bellowti, which worked spontaneously at 
 his bidding. It was there that he made all his 
 beautiful and marvellous works, both for gods and 
 men. The ancient, poets abound in descriptions of 
 exquisite workmanship which had been manufac- 
 tured by the god. All the palaces in Olympus 
 were his workmanship. He made the armour of 
 Achilles ; the fatal necklace of Harmonia ; the 
 
 HERA. 
 
 fire-breathing bulls of Aetites, king of Colchis, 
 &c. In later accounts, the Cyclops are his work- 
 men and servants, and his workshop is no longer 
 in Olympus, but in some volcanic island. In the 
 Iliad the wife of Hephaestus is Chans : in Hesiod 
 Aglaia, the youngest of the Charites ; but in the 
 Odyssey, as well as in later accounts. Aphrodite 
 appears as his wife. Aphrodite proved faithless to 
 her husband, and was in love with Ares ; but 
 Helios disclosed their amours to Hephaestus, who 
 caught the guilty pair in an invisible net, and ex- 
 posed them to the laughter of the assembled gods. 
 — The favourite abode of Hephaestus on earth was 
 the island of Lemnos ; but other volcanic islands 
 also, such as Lipara, Hiera, Imbros, and Sicily, are 
 called his abodes or workshops. — Hephaestus, like 
 Athena, gave skill to mortal artists, and, conjointly 
 with her, he was believed to have taught men the 
 arts which embellish and adorn life. Hence at 
 Athens they had temples and festivals in common. 
 The epithets and surnames, by which Hephaestus 
 is designated by the poets, generally allude to his 
 skill in the plastic arts or to his lameness. The 
 Greeks frequently placed small dwarf-like statues 
 of the god near the hearth. During the best period 
 of Grecian art, he was represented as a vigorous 
 man with a beard, and is characterised by his ham- 
 mer or some other instrument, his oval cap, and 
 the chiton, which leaves the ri^ht shoulder and arm 
 uncovered. — The Roman Vulcanus was an old 
 Italian divinity. [Vulcanus.] 
 
 Heptanomia. [Aegyptus.] 
 
 Hera ("Hpa or'Hp??), called Jtino by the Ro- 
 mans. The Greek Hera, that is, Mistress^ was a 
 daughter of Cronos and Rhea, and sister and wife 
 of Zeus. Some call her the eldest daughter of 
 Cronos, but others give this title to Hestia. Ac- 
 cording to Homer she was brought up by Oceanus 
 and Tethys, and afterwards became the wife of 
 Zeus, without the knowledj^ of her parents. This 
 simple account is variously modified in other tra- 
 ditions. Being a daughter of Cronos, she, like his 
 other children, was swallowed by her father, but 
 afterwards released ; and, according to an Arcadian 
 tradition, she waa brought up by Temenus, the son 
 of Pelasgus. The Argives, on the other hand, re- 
 lated that she had been brought up by Euboea, 
 Prosymna, and Acraea, the 3 daughters of the river 
 Asterion. Several parts of Greece claimed the 
 honour of being her birthplace, and more espe- 
 cially Argos and Samos, which were the principal - 
 seats of her worship. Her marriage with Zeus 
 offered ample scope for poetical invention, and se- 
 veral places in Greece also claimed the honour of 
 having been the scene of the marriage, such as 
 Euboea, Samoa, Cnossus in Crete, and Mount 
 Thornax, in the S. of ArgoHs. Her marriage, 
 called the Saci'ed Marriage {Uphs 'ydfios)^ was 
 represented in many places where she was wor- 
 shipped. At her nuptials all the gods honoured 
 her with presents, and Ge presented to her a 
 tree with golden apples, which was watched by 
 the Hesperides, at the foot of the Hyperborean 
 Atlas. — In the Iliad Hera is treated by the 
 Olympian gods with the same reverence as her 
 husband. Zeus himself listens to her counsels, and 
 commimicates his secrets to her. She is, notwith- 
 standing, far inferior to him in power, and must 
 obey him unconditionally. She is not, like Zeus, 
 the queen of gods and men, but simply the wife of 
 the supreme god. The idea of her being the queen 
 
HEUACLEA. 
 
 of heaven, with regal wealth and powder, is of much 
 later date. Her character, as described by Homer, 
 is not of a very amiable kind ; and her jealousy, 
 obstinacy, and quarrelsome disposition, sometimes 
 make her husband tremble. Hence arise frequent 
 disputes between Hera and Zeus ; and on one oc- 
 casion Hera, in conjunction with Poseidon and 
 Athena, contemplated putting Zeus into chains, 
 Zeus, in such cases, not only threatens, but beats 
 her. Once he even hung her up in the clouds, 
 with her hands chained, and with two anvils sus- 
 pended from her feet ; and on another occasion, 
 when Hephaestus attempted to help her, Zeus 
 hurled him down from Olympus. — By Zeus she 
 ■was the mother of Ares, Hebe, and Hephaestus. — 
 Hera was, properly speaking, the only really married 
 goddess among the Olmpians, for the marriage of 
 Aphrodite with Hephaestus can scarcely be taken 
 into consideration. Hence, she is the goddess of 
 marriage and of the birth of children. Several 
 epithets and surnames, such as El\i[dvia, TaixTj\ia^ 
 2-vyla^ TeAeia, &c., contain allusions to this cha- 
 racter of the goddess, and the Hithyiae are de- 
 scribed as her daughters. — She is represented in 
 the Iliad riding in a chariot drawn by 2 horses, in 
 the harnessing and unharnessing of which she ie 
 assisted by Hebe and the Horae. Owing to the 
 judgment of Paris [Paris], she was hostile to the 
 Trojans, and in the Trojan war she accordingly 
 sided with the Greeks. She persecuted all the 
 children of Zeus by mortal mothers, and hence 
 appears as the enemy of Dionysus. Hercules, and 
 others. In the Argonautic expedition she assisted 
 Jason. It is impossible here to enumerate all the 
 events of mj'thical story in which Hera acts a part ; 
 and the reader must refer to tlie particular deities 
 or heroes with whose story she is connected. — 
 Hera was worshipped in many parts of Greece, but 
 more especially at Argos, in the neighbourhood of 
 which she had a splendid temple, on the road to 
 Mycenae. Her great festival at Argos is described 
 in the Did. of Ant. art. Heraca. She also had a 
 splendid temple in Sumos. — The ancients gave 
 several interpretations respecting the real s'gnifi- 
 -cance of Plera ; but we must in all probability re- 
 gard her as the great goddess of nature, who was 
 Avorshipped every where from the earliest 'times. 
 The worship of tiie Roman Juno is spoken of in 
 a separate article. [Juno.] Hera was usually re- 
 presented as a majestic woman of mature age, with 
 a beautiful fnreliead, large and widely opened eyes, 
 and with a grave expression commanding reverence. 
 Her hair was adorned with a crown or a diadem. 
 A veil frequently hangs down the back of her head, 
 to chai'acterise her as the bride of Zeus, and the 
 diadem, veil, sceptre, and peacock, are her ordinary 
 attributes. 
 
 Heraclea ('Hpt^KAeza : 'Hpa/f\ea)T7j5 ; Hera- 
 cleotes). I. In Europe. 1. H., in Lucania, on 
 the river Siris, founded by the Tarentines. During 
 the independency of the Greek states in the S. of 
 Italy, congresses were held in this town under the 
 presidency cf the Tarentines. It sunk into insig- 
 nificance under the Romans. — 2. InAcarnania on 
 the Ambracian gulf. — 3, In Pisatis Elis, in ruins 
 in the time of Strabo. — 4. The later name of Pe- 
 ■rinthus in Vhrace. [Perinthur.] — 6. H. Cac- 
 cabaria Porbaria, in Gallia Narbonensis on the 
 coast, a sea -port of the Massilians. — 6. H. Lyn- 
 cestis (Au'./KTjo'Tts), also called Pelagonia {Bitoglia 
 or Bitolia\ in Macedonia, on the Via Egnatiaj W. 
 
 HEIIACLEUM. 
 
 305 
 
 of the Erigon, the capital of one of the 4 districts 
 into which Macedonia was divided by the Romans. 
 —7. H. Kinoa {l<livwa : nr. Ton-e di Capo 
 Bianco Ru.), on the S. coast of Sicily, at the 
 mouth of the river Halj'cus, between Agrigentum 
 and Selinus. According to tradition it was founded 
 by Minos, when he pursued Daedalus to Sicily, 
 and it maj^ have been an ancient colony of the 
 Cretans. We know, however, that it was after- 
 wards colonised by the inhabitants of Selinus, and 
 that its original name was Minoa, which it con- 
 tinued to bear till about b. c. 500, when the town 
 was taken by the Lacedaemonians under Euryleon, 
 who changed its name into that of Heracha ; but 
 it continued to bear its ancient appellation as a 
 surname to distinguish it from other places of the 
 same name. It fell at an early period into the 
 hands of the Carthaginians, and remained in their 
 power till the conquest of Sicily hy the Romans, 
 who planted a colony there. ^ 8. H. Sintica 
 (SivTiKTy), in Macedonia, a town of the Sinti, on 
 the left bank of the Stiymon, founded by Amyn- 
 tas, brother of Philip. — 9. H. Trachiniae, in 
 Thessaly. See Trachis.— II. In Asia 1. H. Pon- 
 tica (*H. t) TiovTiK-}]^ or IltJi/TOu, or eV XlSvTtp : Ha- 
 rakli or EregU)^ a city on the S. shore of the Pontus 
 Euxinus, on the coast of Bithynia, in the territory 
 of the Mariandyni, was situated 20 stadia N. of the 
 river Lycus, upon a little river called Acheron or 
 Soonautes, and near the base of a peninsula called 
 Achemsia, and had a fine harbour. It was founded 
 about B. c. 550 by colonists from Megara and from 
 Tanagra i^ Boeotia (not, as Strabo says, from Mi- 
 letus). After various political struggles, it settled 
 down under a monarchical form of government. 
 It reached the height of its prosperity in the reign 
 of Darius Codomannus, when it had an extensive 
 commerce, and a territory reaching from the Par- 
 thenius to the Sanganus. It began to decline in 
 consequence of the rise of the kingdom of Bithjniia 
 and the foundation of Nicomedia, and the invasion 
 of Asia Minor by the Gauls ; and its ruin was 
 completed in the Mitiiridatic war, when the city 
 was taken and plundered, and partly destroyed, by 
 the Romans under Cotta. It was the native city 
 of Heuaclides Ponticus, and perhaps of the 
 painter Zeuxis. ^2. H. ad Latmiim ('H. Acir- 
 l^ov, or 7} vTTQ AoLTfio} z Ru. near the Lake o/Baffi\ 
 a town of Ionia, S.E. of Miletus, at the foot of Mt. 
 Latmus and upon the Sinus Latmicus ; formerly 
 called Latmus. Near it was a cave, with the 
 tomb of Endymion. — There was another city of 
 the same name in Caria, one in Lydia, 2 in Syria, 
 one in Media, and one in India, none of which 
 require special notice here. 
 
 Heracleopolis ('HpawAeouTroAts). 1. Parva (77 
 fj-tKpd\ also called Sethron, a city of Lower Egypt, 
 in the Nomos Sethroites, 22 Roman miles W. of 
 Pelusium. — 3, Magna (ij ^£70X7), also tJ Sew), 
 the capital of the fertile Nomos Heracleopolites or 
 Heracleotes, in the Heptanomis. or Middle Egypt ; 
 a chief seat of the worship of the ichneumon. 
 
 HeracleuDi ('HpdicAetov), the name of several 
 promontories and towns, of which none require 
 special notice except : 1. A town in Macedonia at 
 the mouth of the Apilas, near the frontiers of Thes- 
 saly.^2. The baibourofCnossusin Crete. — 3. A 
 town on the coast of the Delta of Egjpt, a little 
 W. of Canopus ; from which the Canopic mouth 
 of the Nile was often called also the Heracleotic 
 mouth, — 4. A place near Gindarua in the Syrian 
 
.^06 
 
 HERACLIANUS. 
 
 province of Cyrrhestice, where Ventidius, the legate 
 of M. Antony, gnined his great victory over the 
 Parthians under Pacorus, in b. c. 38. 
 
 Heraclianus {'Hpaic\eiav6s), one of the officers 
 of Honorius, put Stiliclio to death (a. d. 400), and 
 received, as the reward of that service, the govern- 
 ment of Africa. He rendered good service to Ho- 
 norius during the invasion of Italy by Alaric, and 
 the usurpation of Attalus. In 413 he revolted 
 against Honorius, and invaded Italy ; hut his en- 
 terprize failed, and on his return to Africa he was 
 put to death at Carthage. 
 
 Heraclidae ('Hpa;c^e75c[i), the descendants of 
 Hercules, who, in conjunction with the Dorians, 
 conquered Peloponnesus, It had been the will of 
 Zeus, so ran the legend, that Hercules should nile 
 over the country of the Perseids, at Mycenae and 
 Tiryiis. But through Hera''s cunning, Eiirystheus 
 had been put into the place of Hercules, who had 
 become the servant of the former. After the death 
 of Hercules, his claims devolved upon his sons and 
 descendants. At the time of his death, Hyllus, 
 the eldest of his 4 sons by Deianlra, was residing 
 with his brothers at the court of Ceyx at Trachis. 
 As Eurystheus demanded their surrender, and 
 Ceyx was unable to protect them, they fled to 
 various parts of Greece, until they were received 
 as suppliants at Athens, at the altar of Eleos 
 {Mercy). AccCi'ding to the Heraclidae of Euripides, 
 the sons of Hercules were first staying at Argos, 
 thence went to Trachis in Thessaly, and at length 
 came to Athens. Demophon, the sop of Theseus, 
 received them, and they settled in the Attic tetra- 
 polis. Eurystheus, to whom the Athenians refusf d 
 to surrender the fugitives, now marched against 
 the Athenians with a large armj', but was defeated 
 by the Athenians under lolaus, Theseus, and 
 Hyllus, and was slain with his sons. The battle 
 itself was celebrated in Attic story as the battle of 
 the Scironlan rock, on the coast of the Saronicgulf, 
 though Pindar places it in the neighbourhood of 
 Thebes. After the battle, the Ilcriiclidae entered 
 Peloponnesus, and maintained themselves there for 
 one year. This was their 1st invasion of Pelo- 
 ponnesus. But a plague, which spread over the 
 whole peninsula, compelled th^m to return to Attica, 
 where, for a time, they again settled in the Attic 
 tetrapolis. From thence they proceeded to Aegi- 
 mius, king of the Dorians, whom Heixules had 
 assisted in his war against the Lapithae, and who 
 had promised to preserve a 3rd of his territory for 
 the children of Hercules. [Aeglmius.] The Hera- 
 clidae were hospitably received by Aegimius^ and 
 Hyllus was adopted by tlie latter. After remain- 
 ing in Doris 3 years, Hyllus, with a band of Do- 
 rians, undertook an expedition against Atreus, who 
 had married a daughter of Eurystheus, and had 
 become king of Mycenae and Tiryns. Hyllus 
 marched across the Corinthian isthmus, and first 
 met Echemus of Tegea, who fought for the Pelo- 
 pidae, the principal opponents of the Ploraclidae. 
 Hyllus fell in single combat with Echemus, and, 
 according to an agreement which had been made 
 before the battle, the Heraclidae wore not to make 
 any further attempt upon Peloponnesus for the next 
 50 years. Thus ended their 2nd invasion. They 
 now retired to Tricorythus, where they were 
 allowed by the Athenians to take up their abode. 
 During the period which followed (10 years after 
 the death of Hyllus), the Trojan war took place ; 
 and 30 years after the Trojan war Cleodaeus, son 
 
 HERACLIDES. 
 
 of Hyllus, again invaded Peloponnesus, which was 
 the 3rd invasion. About 20 years later Aristoma- 
 chus, the son of Cleodaeus, undertook the 4th ex- 
 pedition ; but both heroes fell. Not quite 30 years 
 after Aristomachus (that is, about 80 years after 
 the destruction of Troy), the Heraclidae prepared 
 for their 5th and final attack. Temenus, Cres- 
 phontes, and Aristodemus, the sons of Aristoma^ 
 chufl, upon the advice of an oracle, built a fleet on 
 the Corinthian gulf ; but this fleet was destroyed, 
 because Hippotes, one of the Heraclidae, h»d killed 
 Camus, an Acarnanian soothsayer ; and Aristode- 
 mus was killed by a flash of lightning. An oracle 
 now ordered them to take a 3eyed man for their 
 commander. He was found in the person of Oxylus^ 
 the son of Andmemon, an Aetolian, but descended 
 from a family in Elis. The expedition now suc- 
 cessfully sailed from Naupactus towards Rhium in 
 Peloponnesus. Oxylus, keeping the invaders away 
 from Elis, led them through Arcadia. The Hera- 
 clidae and Dorians conquered Tisamenus, the son 
 of Orestes, who ruled over Argos, Mycenae, and 
 Sparta, After this they became masters of the 
 greater part of Peloponnesus, and then distributed 
 by lot the newly acquired possessions. Temenus 
 obtained Argos ; Procles and Eurystheus, the twin 
 sons of Aristodemus, Lacedaemon ; and CresphonteSy 
 Messenia. — Such are the traditions about the He- 
 raclidae and their conquest of Peloponnesus. They 
 are not purely mythical, but contain a genuine 
 historical substance, notwithstanding the various 
 contradictions in the accounts. They represent the 
 conquest of the Achaean population by Dorian in- 
 vaders, who henceforward appear as the ruling race 
 in the Peloponnesus. The conquered Achaeans be- 
 came partly the slaves and partly the subjects of 
 the Dorians. (See Diet, of Avf. art. Pcrioeci.) 
 
 Heraclides {'BpaKX^iB-ns). 1. A Syracusan, son 
 of Lj'simachus, one of the generals when Syracuse 
 was attacked by the Athenians, b. c. 415. — 2. A 
 Syracusan, who held the chief command of the 
 mercenary forces under the younger Dionysius. 
 Being suspected by Dionysius, he fled from Syra- 
 cuse, and afteru'ards took part with Dion in ex- 
 pelling Dionysius from Syracuse. After the ex- 
 pulsion of the tyrant, a powerful party at Syracuse 
 looked up to Heraclides as their leader, in conse- 
 quence of which Dion caused him to be assassi- 
 nated, 354. —3. Son of Agathocles, accompanied 
 his father to Africa, where he was put to death by 
 the soldiers, when they were deserted by Agatho- 
 cles, 307. — 4. Of Tarentum, one of the chief 
 counsellors of Philip V. king of Macedonia. — 5. Of 
 Byzantium, sent as ambassador by Antiochus the 
 Great to the 2 Scipios, 190.-6. One of the 3 
 ambassadors sent by Antiochus Epiphanes to the 
 Romans, 1G9. Heraclides was banished by De- 
 metrius Soter, the successor of Antiochus (162), 
 and in revenge gave his support to the imposture 
 of Alexander ^Balas."- 7. Siurnamed PonticuB, be- 
 cause he was born atHeraclea in Pontus. He was 
 a person of ctinsiderahle wealth, and migrated to 
 Alliens, where he became a pupil of Plato. He 
 paid attention also to the Pythagorean system, and. 
 afterwards attended the instructions of Speusippus, 
 and finally of Aristotle. He wrote a great number 
 of works upon philosophy, mathematics music, liis- 
 tory, politics, grammar, and poetry ; but almost all 
 these works are lost. There has come: down tons 
 a small work, under the name of Her-^dides, en- 
 titled Trefil nuMreiuyj of which the bi.gt editions 
 
HERACLITUS. 
 
 are by Kbler, Halle, 1804, and by Coraes, in his 
 edition of Aellan, Paris, 1805. Another extant 
 work, ' A.\Ky}yoplai 'OfirjpiKai, which also bears the 
 name of Heraclides, v,a.s certainly not written by 
 him. Diogenes Laertlus, in his life of Heraclides, 
 says that " Heraclides made tragedies, and put 
 the name of Thespis to them." This sentence has 
 given occasion to a learned disquisition by Bentley 
 {Phalaris, p. 239), to prove that the fragments at- 
 tributed to Thespis are really cited from these 
 counterfeit tragedies of Heraclides. tome childish 
 stories are told about Heraclides keeping a pet 
 serpent, and ordering one of his friends to conceal 
 his body after his death, and place the serpent on 
 the bed, that it might be supposed that he had 
 been taken to the company of the gods. It is also 
 said that he killed a man who had usurped the 
 tyranny in Heraclea, and there are other traditions 
 about him scarcely worth relating. ^8. An his- 
 torian, who lived in the reign of Ptolemy Philo- 
 pator(222 — 205), and wrote several works, quoted 
 by the grammarians. — 9. A physician of Taren- 
 tum, lived in the 3rd or 2nd century b. c, and 
 wrote some works on Materia Medica, and a com- 
 mentary on all the works in the Hippocratic Col- 
 lection. —10. A physician of Erythrae in Ionia, 
 was a pupil of Chryserraus, and a contemporary of 
 Strabo in the 1st century b. c. 
 
 Heraclitils {'HpdKKenos.) 1. Of Ephesus, a 
 philosopher generally considered as belonging to 
 the Ionian school, though he differed from their 
 principles in many respects. In liis youth he tra- 
 velled extensively, and after his return to Ephesus 
 the chief magistracy was offered him, which, how- 
 ever, he transferred to his brother. He appears 
 afterwards to have become a complete recluse, re- 
 jecting even the kindnesses oifered by Darius, and 
 at last retreating to the mountains, where he lived 
 on pot-herbs ; but, after some time, he was com- 
 pelled by the sickness consequent on such meagre 
 diet to return to Ephesus, where he died. He died 
 at the age of CO, and flourished about b. c. 513. — 
 Heraclitus wrote a, -work On N^aiure (Trepl (pvaews)^ 
 which contained his philosophical views. From 
 the obscurity of his style, he gained the title of the 
 Obscure (iTK0Teiv6s). He considered fire to be the 
 primary form of all matter ; but by fire he meant 
 only to describe a clear light fluid, " self-kindled 
 and self-extinguished," and therefore not differing 
 materially from the air of Anaximenes. ^2. An 
 Academic philosopher of Tyre, a friend of Antio- 
 chu9, and a pupil of Clitomachus and Philo. — 3. 
 The reputed author of a work, Tlcpl 'AttiVtwi', pub- 
 lished by Westermann, in his Mythographij Bruns- 
 vig. 1843. 
 
 Heraea ('Hpata : 'Hpaieus : nr. St, Joamies^ 
 Ru.), a town in Arcadia, on the right bank of ?he 
 Alpheus, near the borders of Elis. Its territory 
 was called Heraeatis ('HpamTts). 
 
 Heraei Montes {ra "Hpaia vp-r] : Monti Sori), 
 a range of mountains in Sicily, running from the 
 centre of the island S.E., and ending in the pro- 
 montory Pachynum, 
 
 Heraeum. [Argos, p. 77, a.] 
 
 Herbessus. ^ [Erbessus.] 
 
 Herbita ("E^fiira : 'Zp§iTa7oSj Herbitensis), a 
 town in Sicily, N. of Agyrium, in the mountains, 
 was a powerful place in early times under the ty- 
 rant Archonides, but afterwards declined in im- 
 portance. 
 
 Herculaueum, a town in Samnium, conquered 
 
 HERCULES. 
 
 307 
 
 by the consul Carvilius, b. t. 293 (Liv. x. 45), 
 must not be confounded with the more celebrated 
 town of this name mentioned below. 
 
 Herculaneum, Hcrculanium, Herculanum, 
 HercTilense Oppidum, Herculea Urbs {'Hpd- 
 k\€iou), an ancient city in Campania, near the 
 coast, between Neapolis and Pompeii, was ori- 
 ginally founded by the Oscans, was next in the 
 possession of the Tyrrhenians, and subsequently 
 was chiefly inhabited by Greeks, who appear to 
 have settled in the place from other cities of 
 Magna Graecia, and to have given it its name. It 
 was taken by the Romans in the Social war (b. c. 
 89, 88), and was colonised by them. In a. d. 63 
 a great part of it was destroyed by an earthquake ; 
 and in 79 it was overwhelmed, along with Pom- 
 peii and Stabiae, by the great eruption of Mt. Ve- 
 suvius. It was buried under showers of ashes and 
 streams of lava, from 70 to 100 feet under the 
 present surface of the ground. On its site stand 
 the modem Portici and part of the village of He- 
 sina : the Italian name of Ercolano does not indi- 
 cate any modem place, but only the part of Her- 
 culaneum that has been disinterred. The ancient 
 city was accidentally discovered by the sinking of 
 a well in 1720, since which time the excavations 
 have been carried on at different periods ; and 
 many works of art have been discovered, which 
 are deposited in the Royal Museum at Portici. It 
 has been found necessary to fill up again the exca- 
 vations which were made, in order to render Por- 
 tici and Resina secure, and therefore very little of 
 the ancient city is to be seen. The buildings that 
 have been discovered are a theatre capable of ac- 
 commodating about 10,000 spectators, the remains 
 of 2 temples, a large building, commonly designated 
 as B. forum civile^ 228 feet long and 132 broad, and 
 some private houses, the walls of which were 
 adorned with paintings, many of which, when dis- 
 covered, were in a state of admirable preservation. 
 There have been also found at Herculaueum many 
 MSS., written on rolls of papyrus ; but the diffi- 
 culty of unrolling and deciphering them was very- 
 great ; and the few which have been deciphered 
 are of little value, consisting of a treatise of Philo- 
 demus on music, and fragments of unimportant 
 works on philusophy. 
 
 Herciiles ('HpaKATjs), the most celebrated of all 
 the heroes of antiquity. His exploits were cele- 
 brated not only in all the countries round the 
 Mediterranean, but even in the most distant lands 
 of the ancient world. I. Greek legends. The 
 Greek traditions about Hercules appear in their 
 national purity down to the time of Herodotus- 
 But the poets of the time of Herodotus and of the 
 subsequent periods introduced considerable alter- 
 ations, which were probably derived from the East 
 or Egypt, for every nation possesses some tradi- 
 tions respecting heroes of superhuman strength 
 and power. Now while in the earliest Greek 
 legends Hercules is a purely human hero, a con- 
 queror of men and cities, he afterwards appears 
 as the subduer of monstrous animals, and is con- 
 nected in a variety of ways with astronomical 
 phaenomena. According to Homer, Hercules was 
 the son of Zeus by Alcmene of Thebes in Boeotia. 
 His stepfather was Amphitryon. Amphitryon was 
 the son of Alcaeus, the son of Perseus ; and Alc- 
 mene was a grand-daughter of Perseus. Hence 
 Hercules belonged to the family of Perseus. Zeus 
 visited Alcmene in the form of Amphiti-yon, while 
 
308 
 
 HERCULES. 
 
 the latter was absent wamng agfiinst the TaphiEins; 
 and he, pretending to be her husband, became by 
 her the father of Hercules. [For details, see Alc- 
 MENE, Amphitryon.] Ou the day on which 
 Hercules was to be born, Zeus boasted of his be- 
 coming the father of a hero who was to rule over 
 the race of Perseus. Hera prevailed upon him to 
 swear that the descendant of Perseus born that 
 day should be the ruler. Thereupon she hastened 
 to Argos, and there caused the wife of Sthenelus 
 to give birth to Eurystheus ; whereas, by keeping 
 away the Ilithyiae, she delayed the birth of 
 Hercules, and thus robbed him of the empire 
 which Zeus had destined for him. Zeus was en- 
 raged at the imposition practised upon him, but 
 could not violate his oath. Alcmene brought into 
 the world 2 boys, Hercules, the son of Zeus, and 
 Iphicles, the son of Amphitryon, who was one night 
 younger than Hercules. Nearly all the stories 
 about the childhood and youth of Hercules, down 
 to the time when he entered the service of Eury- 
 stheus, seem to be inventions of a later age. At 
 least in Homer and Hcsiod we are only told that 
 he grew strong in body and mind, that confiding 
 in his own powers he defied even the immortal 
 gods, and wounded Hera and Ares, and that under 
 the protection of Zeus and Athena he escaped the 
 dangers which Hera prepared for him. To these 
 simple accounts, various particulars are added in 
 later writers. As he lay in his cradle, Hera sent 
 2 serpents to destroy him, but the infant hero 
 strangled them with his own hands. As he grew 
 up, he was instructed by Amphitryon in driving a 
 chariot, by Autulycus in wrestling, by Eurytus in 
 archery, by Castor in fighting with heavy armour, 
 and by Linus in singing and playing the lyre. 
 Linus was killed by his pupil with the lyre, because 
 he had censured him; and Amphitryon, to prevent 
 similar occurrences, sent him to feed his cattle. In 
 this manner he spent his life till his 18th year. 
 His first great adventure happened while he was 
 still watching the oxen of his father. A huge lion, 
 which haunted Mt. Cithaeron, made great havoc 
 among the flocks of Amphitryon and Thespius (or 
 Thestius), king of Thespiae, Hercules promised 
 to deliver the country of the monster; and Thespius, 
 who had 50 daut,'hters, rewarded Plercules by 
 making him his guest so long as the chase lasted, 
 and by giving up his daughters to him, each for one 
 night. Hercules slew the linn, and henceforth 
 wore its skin as his ordinary garment, and its 
 mouth and head as his helmet. Others related that 
 the lion's skin of Hercules was taken from the 
 Nemean lion. On his return to Thebes, he met 
 the envoys of king Erginus of Orchomenos, who 
 were going to fetch the annual tribute of 100 
 oxen, which they had compelled the Thebans to 
 pay. Hercules cut off the noses and ears of the 
 envoys, and thus sent them back to Erginus. The 
 latter thereupon marched against Thebes; but 
 Hercules defeated and killed Erginus, and com- 
 pelled the Orchomenians to pav double the tribute 
 which they had formerly received from the Thebans. 
 In this battle against Erginus Hercules lost his 
 father Amphitryon, though the tragedians make 
 hira survive the campaign. Creon rewarded Her- 
 cules with the hand of his daughter, Megara, by 
 ■whom he became the father of several children. 
 The gods, on the other hand, made him presents 
 of arms : Hermes gave him a sword, Apollo a bow 
 and arrows, Hephaestus a golden coat of mail, and 
 
 HERCULES. 
 
 Athena a peplus. He cut for himself a club in 
 the neighbourhood of Nemea, while, according to 
 others, the club was of brass, and the gift of He- 
 phaestus. Soon afterwards Hercules was driven 
 mad by Hera, and in this state he killed his own 
 children by Megara and 2 of Iphicles. In his gritif 
 he sentenced himself to exile, and went to Thespius, 
 who purified him. Other traditions place this mad- 
 ness at a later time, and relate the circumstances 
 dilFcrentl}'. Pie then consulted the oracle of Delphi 
 as to where he should settle. The Pythia first 
 called him by the name of Hercules — for hitlierto 
 his name had been Alcides or Alcaeus, — and or- 
 dered him to live at Tiryns, and to serve Eurystheus 
 for the space of 12 years, after which he should 
 become immortal. Hercules accordingly went to 
 Tiryns, and did as he was bid by Eurystheus. — 
 The accounts of the 12 labours whicli Hercules 
 performed at the bidding of Eurystheus, are found 
 only in the later writers. The only one of the 12 
 labours mentioned by Homer is his descent into 
 the lower world to carry off Cerberus. We also 
 find in Homer the fight of Hercules with a sea- 
 monster; his expedition to Troy, to fetch the horses > 
 which Laomedon had refused him; and his war 
 against the Pylians, when he des'trnyed the whole 
 family of their king Nelcus, with the exception of 
 Nestor. Hesiod mentions several of the feats of 
 Hercules distinctly, but knows nothing of their 
 number 12. The selection of these 12 from the 
 great number of feats ascribed to Hercules is pro- 
 bably the work of the Alexandrines. They are 
 usually arranged in the following order. 1. The 
 fight loith ihp. Ncmean lion. The valley of Nemea, 
 between Clconae and Phlius, was inhabited by a 
 monstrous lion, the offspring of Typhon and 
 Echidna. Eurystheus ordered Hercules to bring 
 him the skin of this monster. After using in vain 
 his club and arrows against the lion, he strangled 
 the animal v/ith his own hands. He returned car- 
 rying the dead lion on his shoulders; but Eurystheus 
 was so frightened at the gigantic strength of the 
 hero, that he ordered him in future to deliver the 
 account of his exploits outside the town.^2. Fight 
 agaijLst the Lernea7i hydra. This monster, like the 
 lion, was the offspring of Typhon and Echidna, 
 and was brought up by Plera. It ravaged the 
 country of Lemae near Argos, and dwelt in a 
 swamp near the well of Amymone. It had 9 heads, 
 of which the middle one was immortal. Hercules 
 struck oflp its heads with his club ; but in the place 
 of the head he cut off, 2 new ones grew forth each 
 time. A gigantic crab also came to the assistance of 
 the hydra, and wounded Hercules. However, with 
 the assistance of his faithful servant lolaus. he 
 burned away the heads of the hydra, and buried the 
 ninth or immortal one under a huge rock. Having 
 thus conquered the monster, he poisoned his arrows 
 with its bile, whence the wounds inflicted by them 
 became incurable. Eurj'stheus declared the victory 
 unlawful, as Hercules had won it with the aid of 
 lolaug. — 3. Capture of the Arcadian stag. This 
 animal had golden antlers and brazen feet. It had 
 been dedicated to Artemis by the nymph Taygete, 
 because the goddess had saved her from the pursuit 
 of Zeus. Hercules was ordered to bring the animal 
 alive to Mycenae. He p^irsued it in vain for a 
 whole year ; at length he wounded it with an arrow, 
 caught it, and carried it away on bis shoulders. 
 While in Arcadia, he was met by Artemis, who 
 was angry with him for having outraged the animal 
 
HERCULES. 
 
 sacred to her ; tut he succeeded in soothing her 
 anger, and carried his prey to Mycenae. According 
 to stime statements^ he killed the stag. — 4. De- 
 sti'uction oftlui Erynianthian hoar. This animal, 
 which Hercules was ordered to bring alive to Eu- 
 rystheus, had descended from mount Erymanthus 
 into Psophis. . Hercules chased him through the 
 deep snoxv, and having thus worn him out, he 
 caught him in a net, and carried him to Mycenae. 
 Other traditions place the hunt of the Erynianthian 
 boar in Thessaly, and some even in Phr^'gia, It 
 must be observed that this and the subsequent 
 labours of Hercules are connected with certain sub- 
 ordinate labours, called Parerga {Uapepya), The 
 first of these parerga is the fight of Hercules with 
 the Centaurs. In his pursuit of the boar he came to 
 the centaur Pholus, who had received from Dio- 
 nysus a cask of excellent wine. Hercules opened 
 it, contrary to the wish of his host, and the delicious 
 fragrance attracted the other centaurs, who besieged 
 the grotto of Pholus. Hercules drove them away ; 
 they fled to the house of Chiron ; and Hercules, 
 eager in his pursuit, wounded Chiron, his old friend, 
 with one of his poisoned arrows ; in consequence of 
 which Chiron died. [Chiron.] Pholus likewise 
 was wounded by one of the arrows, which by ac- 
 cident fell on his foot and killed him. This fight 
 with the centaurs gave rise to the establishment of 
 mysteries, by which Deraeter intended to purify 
 the hero from the blood he had shed against his 
 own will."— 5. Cleansing of tJie stables of Aiujeas. 
 Eurystheus imposed upon Hercules the task of 
 cleansing in one day the stalls of Augeas, king of 
 Elis. Aiigeas had a herd of 3000 oxen, whose 
 stalls had not been cleansed for 30 years. Hercules, 
 without mentioning the command of Eurystheus, 
 went to Augeas, and offered to cleanse his stalls in 
 one day, if he would give him the 10th part of his 
 cattle. Augeas agreed to the terms; and Hercules 
 after taking Phyleus, the son of Augeas, as his 
 witness, led the rivers Alpheus and Peneus 
 through the stalls, which were thus cleansed in a 
 single day. But Augeas, who learned that Hercules 
 had undertaken the work by the command of Eu- 
 rystheus, refused to give him the reward. His son 
 PJiyleus then bore witness against his father, who 
 exiled him from Elis. Eurj-^stheus however declared 
 the exploit null and void, because Hercules liad 
 stipulated with Augeas for a reward for performing 
 it. At a later time Hercules invaded Elis, and 
 killed Augeas and his sons. After this he is said to 
 have founded theOl3'mpic games. ^6. Desirudion 
 of the Sir/mphalian birds. These voracious birds 
 had been brought up by Ares. They had brazen 
 claws, wings, and beaks, used their feathers as 
 arrows, and ate human flesh. They dwelt on a 
 lake near Stymphalus in Arcadia, from which 
 Hercules was ordered by Eurystheus to expel them. 
 When Hercules undertook the task, Athena pro- 
 vided him with a brazen rattle, by the noise of 
 which lie startled the birds ; and, as they attempted 
 to fly away, he killed them with his arrows. Ac- 
 cording to some accounts, he only drove the birds 
 away ; and they appeared again in the island of 
 Aretias, where they were found by the Argonauts. 
 — 7. Capture oftlie Cretan hull. According to some 
 this bull was the one which had carried Europa 
 across the sea. According to others, the bull had 
 been sent out of the sea by Poseidon, that Minos 
 might offer it in sacrifice. But Minos was so 
 charmed with the beauty of the animal, that he 
 
 HERCULES. 
 
 309 
 
 kept it, and sacrificed another in its stead. Poseidon 
 punished Minos, by driving the bull mad, and 
 causing it to commit great havoc in the island. 
 Hercules was ordered by Eurystheus to catch the 
 bull, and Minos willingly allowed him to do so. 
 Hercules accomplished the task, and brought the 
 bull home on his shoulders; but he then set the 
 animal free again. The bull now roamed through 
 Greece, and at last came to Marathon, where we 
 meetitagain in the stories of Theseus.^8. Capture 
 of ills mares of the Thraciun Diomedes. This Dio- 
 medes, king of the Bistones in Thrace, fed his 
 horses with human flesh. Eurystheus ordered 
 Hercules to bring these animals to Mycenae. With 
 a few companions, he seized the animals, and con- 
 ducted them to the sea coast. But here he was over- 
 taken by the Bistones. During the fight he entrusted 
 the mares to his friend Abderus, who was devoured 
 by them. Hercules defeated the Bistones, killed Dio- 
 medes whose body he threw before the mares, built 
 the town of Abdera in honour of his unfortunate 
 friend, and then returned to Mycenae, with the mares 
 which had become tame after eating the flesh of 
 their master. The mares were afterwards set free, 
 and destroyed on Mt. Olympus by wild beasts.— 
 9. Seizure of the cjirdle of the gueen of tite Amazons. 
 Hippolyte, the queen of the Amazons possessed a 
 girdle, which she had received from Ares. Admete, 
 the daughter of Eurystheus, wished to obtain this 
 girdle; and Hercules was therefore sent to fetch it. 
 He was accompanied by a number of volunteers, 
 and after various adventures in Europe and Asia, 
 he at length reached the coimtry of the Amazons. 
 Hippolyte at first received him kindly, and pro- 
 mised him her girdle ; but Plera having ex- 
 cited the Amazons against him, a contest ensued, 
 in which Hercules killed their queen. He then 
 took her girdle, and carried it with him. In this 
 expedition Hercules killed the 2 sons of Boreas, 
 Calais and Zetes ; and he also begot 3 sons by 
 Echidna, in the country of the liypei'boreans. On 
 his way home he landed in Troas, where he rescued 
 Hesione from the monster sent against her by Posei- 
 don ; in return for which service her father Laome- 
 don promised him the horses he had received from 
 Zeus as a compensation for Ganymedes, But, as 
 Laomedon did not keep his word, Hercules on 
 leaving threatened to make war against Troy. He 
 landed in Thrace, where he slew Sarpedon, and at 
 length returned through Macedonia to Pelopon- 
 nesus. —10. Capture of the oxen of Geryones in 
 Erythia. Geryones, the monster with 3 bodies, 
 lived in the fabulous island of Erythia (the red- 
 dish), so called because it lay under the rays of 
 the setting sun in the W. This island was ori- 
 ginally placed off the coast of Epirus, but was 
 afterwards identified either with Gades or the 
 Balearic islands, and was at all times believed to 
 be in the distant W. The oxen of Geryones were 
 guarded by the giant Eurytion and the two-headed 
 dog Ortlirus ; and Hercules was commanded bv 
 Eurystheus to fetch them. After traversing various 
 countries, he reached at length the frontiers of 
 Libya and Europe, where he erected 2 pillars 
 (Calpe and Abyla) on the 2 sides of the straits of 
 Gibraltar, which were hence called the pillars of 
 Hercules. Being annoyed by the heat of the sun, 
 Hercules shot at Helios, who so much admired his 
 boldness, that he presented him with a golden cup or 
 boat, in which lie sailed to Erythia. He there slew 
 Eurytion and liis dog, as well as Geryones, and sailed 
 
 X 3 
 
310 
 
 HERCULES. 
 
 with his booty to Tartessus, where he returned the 
 golden cup (boat) to Helios. On his wny home he 
 passed throuch Gaul, Italy, Illyricum and Tlirace, 
 and met with numerous adventures, which are 
 variously embellished by the poets. Many attempts 
 were made to deprive him of the oxen, but he at 
 length brought them in safety to Euryatheus, who 
 sacrificed them to Hera. These 10 labours were 
 performed by Hercules in the space of years and 
 1 month; but as Eurystheus declared 2 of them to 
 have been performed unlawfully, he commanded 
 him to accomplish '2 moxQ. '^'H. Fetchmg ihe golden 
 apples of the Hcspej-ides. This was particularly 
 difficult, since Hercules did not know where to find 
 them. They were the apples which Hera had 
 received at her wedding from Ge, and which she 
 had entrusted to the keeping of the Hesperides 
 and the dragon Ladon, on Mt. Atlas, in the country 
 of the Hyperboroens. [For details see Hespeh- 
 IDES.] After various adventures in Europe, Asia 
 and Africa, Hercules at length arrived at Mt. Atlas. 
 On the advice of Prometheus, he sent Atlas to 
 fetch the apples, and in the meantime bore the 
 weight of heaven for him. Atlas returned with the 
 apples, but refused to take the burden of heaven on 
 his shoulders again. Hercules, however, contrived 
 by a stratagem to get the apples, and hastened 
 away. On his return Eurystheus made him a 
 present of the apples; but Hercules dedicated them 
 to Athena, who restored them to their former place. 
 Some traditionsadd that Hercules killed the dragon 
 Ladon. —12. Bringwg Cerberus from iJie lower 
 world. This was the most difficult of the 12 labours 
 of Hercules. He descendt;d into Hades, near Tae- 
 narum in Laconia, accompanied by Hermes and 
 Athena. He delivered Theseus and Ascalaphus 
 from their torments. He obtained permission from 
 Pluto to carry Cerberus to the upper world, pro- 
 vided he could accomplish it without force of arms, 
 Hercules succeeded in seizing the monster and car- 
 rj'ing it fb the upper world ; and after he had shown 
 it to Eurystheus, he carried it back again to the 
 lower world. Some traditions connect the descent 
 of Hercules into the lower world with a contest 
 with Hades, as we see even in the Iliad (v. 3.97), 
 and more particularly'- in the Alcestis of Euripides 
 (24,846). — Besides these 12 labours, Hercules per- 
 fonned several other feats without being commanded 
 by Eurystheus. These feats were called Farerya 
 by the ancients. Several of them were interwoven 
 with the 12 labours and have been already de- 
 scribed : those which had no connection with the 
 12 labours are spoken of below. After Hercules 
 had performed the 12 labours, he was released from 
 the servitude of Eurystheus, and returned toThebes. 
 He there gave Megara in marriage to lolaiis ; and 
 he wished to gain in marriage for himself lole, the 
 daughter of Eurytus, king of Oechalia. Eurytus 
 promised his daughter to the m;in who should con- 
 quer him and his sons in shooting with the bow. 
 Hercules defeated them; but Eurytus and his sons, 
 with the exception of Iphitus, refused to give lole 
 to him, because lie had murdered his own children. 
 Soon afterwards the oxen of. Eurytus were carried 
 off, and it was suspected that Hercules was the 
 ofFendEr. Iphitus again defended Hercules, and 
 requested his assistance in searching after the oxen. 
 Hercules agreed ; but when the 2 had arrived at 
 Tiryns, Hercules, in a fit of madness, threw his 
 friend down from the wall, and killed hiin. Dei- 
 phobus of Amyclae purified Hercules from this 
 
 HERCULES. 
 
 murder, but he was, nevertheless, attacked by a 
 severe illness. Hercules then repaired to Delphi 
 to obtain a remedy, but the Pythia refused to an- 
 swer his questions. A struggle ensued between 
 Hercules and Apollo, and the combatants were not 
 separated till Zeus sent a flash of lightnhig between 
 them. The oracle now declared that he would be 
 restored to health, if he would serve 3 years for 
 wages, and surrender his earnings to Eurytus, as 
 an atonement for the murder of Iphitus. Thereupon 
 he became a servant to Omphale, queen of Lydia, 
 and widow of Tmolus. Later writers describe 
 Hercules as living effeminately during his resi- 
 dence with Oinphale : he span wool, it is said, 
 and sometimes put on the garments of a woman, 
 while Omphale wore his lion's skin. Accord- 
 ing to other accounts he nevertheless performed 
 several great feats during this time. He undertook 
 an e.xpedition to Colchis, which brought him into 
 connection with the Argonauts; he took part in the 
 Calydonian hunt, and met Theseus on his landing 
 from Troezene on the Corinthian isthmus. An ex- 
 pedition to India, which was mentioned in some 
 traditions, may likewise be inserted in this place. 
 — When the time of his servitude had expired, he 
 sailed against Troy, took the city, and killed Lao- 
 medon, its king. On his return from Troy, a stomi 
 drove him on the island of Cos, where he was at- 
 tacked by the Meropes ; but he defeated them and 
 killed their king, Eurypylus. It was about this 
 time that the gods sent for him in order to 
 fight against the Gigants. [Gigantes]. — Soon 
 after his return to Argos, he marched against 
 Augeas, as has been related above. He then 
 proceeded against Pylos, which he took, and killed 
 Periclymenus, a son of Neleus. He next advanced 
 against Lacedaemon, to punish the sons of Hippo- 
 coon, for having assisted Neleus and slain Oeonus, 
 the son of Licymnius. He took Lacedaemon, and 
 assigned the government of it to Tyndareus. On 
 his return to Tegea, he became, by Auge, the father 
 of Telephus [Auge]; and he then proceeded to 
 Calydon, where he obtained Deianira, the daughter 
 of Oeneus, for his wife, after fighting with Acheloug 
 for her. [Deianira; Aciielous.] After Hercules 
 had buen married to Deianira nearly 3 years, he 
 accidentally killed at a banquet in the house of 
 Oeneus, the boy Eunomus. In accordance with 
 the law Hercules went into exile, taking with him , 
 his wife Deianira. On their road they came to the 
 river Evenns, across which the centaur Nessus 
 carried travellers for a small sum of money. Her- 
 cules himself forded the river, but gave Deianira 
 to Nessus to carry across. Nessus attempted to 
 outrage her; Hercules heard her screaming, and 
 shot an arrow into the heart of Nessus. The dying 
 centaur called out to Deianira to take his blood 
 with her, as it was a sure means of preserving the 
 love of her husband. He then conquered the 
 Dryopcs, and assisted .-iegimius, king of the Dorians, 
 against the Lapithae. [Aegimius.] After this he 
 took up his abode at Trachis, whence he marched 
 against Eurytus of Oechalia. He took Oechalia, 
 killed Eurytus and his sons, and carried off his 
 daughtf-r lole as a prisoner. On his return home 
 he landed at Cenaeum, a promontory of Euboca, 
 erected an altar to Zeus, and sent his companion, 
 Lichas, to Triichis, in order to fetch him a white 
 garment, which he intended to use during the 
 sacrifice. D.ianira, afraid lest lole should supplant 
 her in the affections of her husband, steeped the 
 
HERCULES. 
 
 white garment he had demanded in the blood of 
 Nessiia. This blood had been poiEoned by the 
 arrow with which Hercules had shot Nessaa ; 
 and accordingly as soon as the garment become 
 warm on the body of Hercules, the poison pene- 
 trated into all his limbs, and caused him the 
 most excruciating agony. He seized Lichas by 
 . his feet, and threw him into the sea. He 
 wrenched oiF the garment, but it stuck to his flesh, 
 and with it he tore away whole pieces from his 
 body. In this state he was conveyed to Tracliis. 
 Deianira, on seeing what she had unwittingly done, 
 hung herself. Hercules commanded Hyllus, his 
 eldest son, by Deianira, to marry lole as soon as 
 he should arrive at the age of manhood. He then 
 ascended Mt. Oeta, raised a pile of wood, on which 
 he placed himself, and ordered it to be set on fire. 
 No one ventured to obey iiini, until at length Poeas 
 the shepherd, who passed by, was prevailed upon 
 to comply with the desire of the suffering hero. 
 When the pile was burning, a cloud came down 
 from heaven, and amid peals of thunder carried 
 liini to Olympus, where he was honoured with 
 immortality, became reconciled to Hera, and mar- 
 ried her daughter Hebe, by whom he became the 
 father of Alexiares and Anicetus. Immediately 
 after his apotheosis, his friends offered sacrifices to 
 him as a hero; and he was in course of time wor- 
 shipped throughout all Greece both as a god and 
 as a hero. His worship however prevailed more 
 extensively among the Dorians than among any 
 other of the Greek races. The sacrifices offered to 
 him consisted principally of bulls, boars, rams and 
 larabs.^The works of art in which Hercules was 
 represented were extremely numerous, and of the 
 greatest variety, for he was represented at all the 
 various stiiges of his life,from the cradle to his death. 
 But wliethcr he appears as a child, a youth, a strug- 
 gling hero, or as the immortal inhabitant of Olympus, 
 his character is always one of heroic strength and 
 energy. Specimens of every kind are still extant. 
 The finest representation of the hero that has come 
 down tons is the so-called Farnese Hercules, which 
 was executed by Glycon. The hero is resting, 
 leaning on his right arm, and his head reclining 
 on his left hand : the whole figure is a most 
 exquisite combination of peculiar softness with the 
 greatest strength. — II. Roman Traditions, The 
 worship of Hercules at Rome and in Italy is con- 
 nected by Roman writers, with the hero's expedition 
 to fetch the oxen of Geryones. They stated that 
 Hercules on his return visited Italy, where he 
 abolished human sacrifices among the Sabines, es- 
 tablished the worship of fire, and slew Cacus, a 
 robber, who had stolen his oxen. [Cacus.] The 
 aborigines, and especially Evander, honoured Her- 
 cules with divine worship; and Hercules in return 
 taught them the way in which he was to be wor- 
 shipped, and entrusted the care of his worship to 2 
 distinguished families, the Potitii and Pinarii. 
 [PiNARiA Gens.] The Fabia gens traced its 
 origin to Hercules ; and Fauna andAcca Laurentia 
 are called mistresses of Hercules. In this manner 
 the Romans connected their earliest legends with 
 Hercules. It should be observed that in the 
 Italian traditions the hero bore the name of Reca- 
 ranus, and this Recaranus was afterwards identified 
 with the Greek Hercules. He had "2 temples at 
 Rome. One was a small round temple of Hercules 
 Victor, or Hercules Triumphalis, between the river 
 and the Circus Maximus ; in front of which was 
 
 HERCYNIA. 
 
 3U 
 
 the ara maxima, on which, after a triumph, the 
 tenth of the booty was deposited for distribution 
 among the citizens. The 2nd temple stood near 
 the porta trigemina, and contained a bronze statue 
 and the altar on which Hercules himself was be- 
 lieved to have once offered a sacrifice. Here the 
 city praetor offered every year a young cow, which 
 was consumed by the people within the sanctuary. 
 At Rome Hercules was connected with the Muses, 
 whence he is called Musac/eies, and was represented 
 with a lyre, of which there is no trace in Greece. 
 —III. Traditions of other nations. The ancients 
 themselves expressly mention several heroes of the 
 name of Hercules, who occur among the principal 
 nations of the ancient world. 1. T^ie Egi/ptian 
 /-Jei-ciiles, whose Egyptian name was Som, or Dsom, 
 or Chon, or, according to Pausanias, Maceris, was 
 a son of Amon or Nilus. He was placed by the 
 Egyptians in the 2nd of the series of the evolutions 
 of their gods. — 2. The Cretan Hercules^ one of the 
 Idaean Dactyls, was believed to have founded the 
 temple of Zeus at Olympia, but to have come 
 originally from Egypt. He was worshipped with 
 funeral sacrifices, and was regarded as a magician, 
 like other ancient daemones of Crete. ^3. The 
 Indian Hercules, was called by the unintelligible 
 name Dorsanes {t.op(Tdvi)s). The later Greeks 
 believed that he was their own hero, w!io had 
 visited India ; and they related that in India he 
 became the father of many sons and daughters by 
 Pandaea, and the ancestral hero of the Indian kings. 
 — 4. The Plioenician Hercules, whom the Egyptians 
 considered to be more ancient than their own, was 
 worshipped in all the Phoenician colonies, such as 
 Carthage and Gades, down to the time of Con- 
 stantine, and it is said that children were sacrificed 
 to him. — 5. The Celtic and Gerniajiic Hercides is 
 said to have founded Alesia and Nemausus, and 
 to have become the father of the Celtic race. We 
 become acquainted with him in the accounts of the 
 expedition of the Greek Hercules against Geryones, 
 We must either suppose that the Greek Hercules 
 was identified with native heroes of those northern 
 countries, or that the notions about Hercules had 
 been introduced there from the E. 
 
 Hercules ('HpattATjs), a son of Alexander the 
 Great by Barsine, the widow of the Rhodian 
 Memnon. In B. c. 310 he was brought forward by 
 Polysperchon as a pretender to the Macedonian 
 throne ; but he was murdered by Polysperchon 
 himself in the following year, when the latter 
 became reconciled to Cassander. 
 
 Herculia Coltunnae. [Auyla ; Cat,pe.] 
 
 Herciilis Monoeci Portus. [Monoecus.] 
 
 HercuUs Portus. [Cosa.] 
 
 Herculis Promontorium {C. Sparlivenlo), the 
 most S.ly point of Italy in Bruttium. 
 
 HercMis Silva, a forest in Germany, sacred to 
 Hercules, E. of the Visurgis. 
 
 Hercynia Silva, Hercynina Saltus, Hercy- 
 niiim JugUJU, an extensive range of mountains in 
 Germany, covered with forests, is described by 
 Caesar {B. G. vi. 24) as 9 days' journey in breadth, 
 and more than GO days'" journey in length, extend- 
 ing E. from the territories of the Helvetii, Nemetes, 
 and Rauraci, parallel to the Danube, to the fron- 
 tiers of the Dacians. Under this general name 
 Caesar appears to have included all the mountains 
 and forests in the S. and centre of Germany, the 
 Black Forest, Odenwald^ ThilHngerwald, the Harz, 
 the Erzgebirge, the liieaengehirge, &c. As the Rot 
 
 X 4 
 
312 HERDONIA, 
 
 mans became better acquainted with Germany, the 
 name was confined to narrower limits. Pliny and 
 Tacitus use it to indicate the range of mountains 
 between the Thiiriiigerwald and the Carpathian 
 mountains The name is still preserved in tlie 
 modern Hcirz and Erz. 
 
 Herdonia (Herdoniensis : Ordona)^ a town in 
 Apulia, was destroyed by Hannibal, who removed 
 its inhabitants to Thurii and Metipontum ; it was 
 rebuilt by the Romans, but remained a place of no 
 importance. 
 
 Herdonius. 1. Tumiia, of Aricia in Latium, 
 endeavoured to rouse the Latins against Tarquimus 
 Superbus, and was in consequence falsely accused 
 by Tarquinius, and put to death. —2. Appius, 
 a Sabine chieftain, who, in b. c. 460, with a band 
 of outlaws and slaves, made himself master of the 
 capitol. On the 4th day from his entry the capitol 
 was re-taken, and Herdonius and nearly all his 
 followers were slain. 
 
 Herennia Gens, originally Samnite, and by the 
 Samnite invasion established in Campania, became 
 at a later period a plebeian house at Rome. The 
 Herennii were a family of rank in Ital3% and are 
 frequently mentioned in the time of the Samnite 
 and Punic wars. They were the hereditary patrons 
 of the Marii. 
 
 Hereimiua 1. Slodestinus. [Modestinus.] 
 — 2. Pontius. [Pontius.] — 3. Senecio. 
 [Senecio.] 
 
 Herillns ("HpjAAos), of Carthage, a Stoic phi- 
 losoplier, was the disciple of Zeno of Cittium. He 
 did not, however, confine himself to the opinions of 
 his master, but held some doctrines directly opposed 
 to them. He held that the chief good consisted in 
 knowledge (iiria-T-n/n}). This notion is often at- 
 tacked by Cicero. 
 
 Hermaeum, or, in Latin, Mercurii Promonto- 
 rilun ('Ep/,tai'a &.Kpa). 1. (Cape Bon, Arab. Ras 
 Addar\ the headland which forms the E. ex- 
 tremity of the Sinus Carthaginiensis, and the ex- 
 treme N.E. point of the Carthaginian territory (aft. 
 the province of Africa) opposite to Lilybaeum, the 
 space between the 2 being the shortest distance 
 betvv-een Sicily and Africa. —2. {Ras el Ashan). a 
 promontory on the coast of the Greater Syrtis, 50 
 stadia W. of Leptis. ■ — There were other promon- 
 tories of the name on the coast of Africa. 
 
 HermagoraB {^Zpp.ay6pas). 1. Of Temnos, a 
 distinguished Greek rhetorician of the time of Ci- 
 cero. He belonged to the Rhodian school of 
 oratory, but is known chiefly as a teacher of rhe- 
 toric. He devoted particular attention to what is 
 called the invention^ and made a peculiar division 
 of the parts of ;m oration, which differed from that 
 adopted by other rhetoricians. ~ 2. Surnamed Ca- 
 tion, a Greek rhetorician, taught rhetoric at Rome 
 in the time of Augustus, He was a disciple of 
 Thcndorus of Gadara. 
 
 Hennaphroditus ('E/j^cu/jpo'SiTos), son of Her- 
 mes and Aphrodite, and consequently great-grand- 
 son of Atlas, whence he is called Ailantiades or 
 Adanthis. (Ov. Met. iv. 3Gf)). He had inherited 
 the beauty of both his parents, and was brought 
 up by the nj'mphs of Mount Ida. In his 15th 
 year he went to Caria. In the neighbourhood of 
 Halicarnassus ho laid down by the fountain of Sal- 
 macis. The nymph of the fountain fell in love 
 with bim, and tried in vain to win his affections. 
 Once when he was bathing in t!ie fountain, she 
 embraced him, and prayed to the gods that she 
 
 HERMES. 
 
 might be united with him for ever. The gods 
 granted the request, and the bodies of the youth 
 and the n3''raph became united together, but re- 
 tained the characteristics of each sex. Ilermaphro- 
 ditus, on becoming aware of the change, prayed 
 that in future every one who batlied in the well 
 might be metamorphosed in the same maimer. 
 
 Hennarclius ["'E.pp.apxos). of Mytilene. a rhe- 
 torician, became afterwards a disciple of Epicurus, 
 who left to him his garden, and appointed him 
 his successor in his school, about b. c, 270. He 
 wrote several works, all of which are lost. 
 
 Hennas ('EpjuSs), a disciple of the Apostle- 
 Paul, and one of the apostolic fathers. He is sup- 
 posed to be the same person as the Hermas who 
 is mentioned in St. Paul's epistle to the Romans- 
 (xvi. 14). He wrote in Greek a work entitled 
 The Shepherd of Heiinas, of which a Latin trans- 
 lation is still extant. Its object is to instruct per- 
 sons in the duties of the Christian life. Edited 
 by CotL'lier in his Paires Apostol, Paris, 1672. 
 
 Hermes ('Ep,u^r, 'EpfiUas^ Dor. 'Ep^as), called 
 Mercurius by the Romans. The Greek Hermes was 
 a son of Zeus and Maia, the daughter of Atlas, and 
 born in a caveof iMt. Cj'llene in Arcadia, whence he 
 is caWiid Atlaidiades or Cyllenhts. A few hours after 
 his birth, he escaped from his cradle, went to Pierla, 
 and carried off some of the oxen of Apollo. In the- 
 Iliad and Odyssey this tradition is no^; mentioned, 
 though Henries is characterised as a cunning thief. 
 That he might not be discovered by the traces of 
 his footsteps, he put on sandals, and drove the oxen- 
 to Pylos, where he killed 2, and concealed the rest 
 in a cave- The skins of the slaughtered animals 
 were nailed to a rock ; and part of their flesh was 
 cooked and eaten, and the rest burnt. Thereupon 
 he returned to Cyllene, where he found a tortoise 
 at the entrance of his native cave. He took the ani- 
 mal's shell, drew strings across it, and thus in- 
 vented the lyre, on which he immediately played. 
 Apollo, by his prophetic power, had meantime dis- 
 covered the thief, and went to Cyllene to charge- 
 Hermes with the crime before his mother Maia„ 
 She showed to the god the child in its cradle ; but 
 Apollo carried the boy before Zeus, and demanded 
 back his oxen. Zeus commanded him to comply 
 with the demand of Apollo, but Hermes denied 
 that he had stolen the cattle. As, however, he 
 saw that his assertions were not believed, he con- 
 ducted Apollo to Pylos, and restored to him his 
 oxen ; but when Apollo heard the sounds of the 
 l)Te, he was so charmed that he allowed Hermes 
 to keep the animals. Hermes now invented the 
 syrinx, and after disclosing his inventions to Apollo, 
 the 2 gods concluded an intimate friendship with, 
 each other. Apollo presented his j'oung friend with: 
 his own golden shepherd's staff, and taught him the 
 art of prophesying by means of dice. Zeus made 
 him his own herald, and likewise the herald of ihe 
 gods of ti;e lower world. — The principal feature in 
 the traditions about Hennes consists in his being the 
 herald of the gods, and in this capacity he appears 
 even in the Homeric poems. His original charac- 
 ter of an ancient Pelasgian, or Arcadian divinity of 
 nature, gradually disappeared in the legends. As 
 the herald of the gods, he ia the god of eloquence^ 
 for the heralds are the public speakers in the as- 
 semblies and on other occasions. The gods espec- 
 ially employed liim as messenger, when eloquence 
 was required to attain the desired object. Hence 
 the tongties of sacrificial animals were offered to 
 
HERMES, 
 him. As heralds and messengers are usnally men 
 of prudence and circumspection, Hermes was also 
 the god of prudence ajid skill in all the relations 
 of social intercourse. These qualities were com- 
 bined with similar ones, such as cunning, both in 
 ■words and actions, and even fraud, perjury, and the 
 inclination to steal ; but acts of this kind were com- 
 mitted by Hermes always with a certain skill, 
 dexterity, and even gracefulness. — Being endowed 
 with this shrewdness and sagacity, he was regarded 
 as the author of a variety of inventions, and, besides 
 the lyre and syrinx, he is said to have invented the 
 alphabet, numbers, astronomy, music, the art of 
 fighting, gymnastics, the cultivation of the olive 
 tree, measures, weights, and many other things. 
 The powers which he possessed himself he con- 
 ferred upon those mortals and heroes who enjoyed 
 his favour ; and all who possessed them were 
 under his especial protection, or are called his sons. 
 He was employed by the gods, and more espe- 
 cially by Zeus, on a variety of occasions which are 
 recorded in ancient story. Thus he led Priam to 
 Achilles to fetch the body of Hector ; tied Ixion 
 to the wheel ; conducted Hera, Aphrodite, and 
 Athena to Paris ; fastened Prometheus to Mt. 
 Caucasus ; rescued Dionysus after his birth from 
 the flames, or received him from the hands of 
 Zeus to carry him to Athamas ; sold Hercules to 
 Omphale ; and was ordered by Zeus to carry olf 
 lo, who was metamorphosed into a cow, and guarded 
 by Argus, whom he slew. [Argus.] From this 
 murder he is very commonly called ^Apyei<p6vT7}s. 
 ■ — In the Trojan war Hermes was on the side of the 
 Greeks. His ministry to Zeus was not confined 
 to the offices of herald and messenger, but he was 
 also his charioteer and cupbearer. As dreams are 
 sent by Zeus, Hermes conducts them to man, and 
 hence he is also described as the god who had it 
 in his power to send refreshing sleep, or take it 
 away. Another important function of Hermes was 
 to conduct the shades of the dead from the upper 
 into the lower world, whence he is called ^vxo- 
 TTo^TTOf, veKpoirofiTr6s, rpuxayuyos, &c. — The idea 
 of his being the herald and messenger of the gods, 
 of his travelling from place to place and concluding 
 treaties, necessarily implied the notion that he was 
 the promoter of social intercourse and of commerce 
 among men. In this capacity he was regarded as 
 the maintiiner of peace, and as the god of roads, 
 who protected travellers, and punished those who 
 refused to assist travellers who had mistiiken their 
 ■way. Hence the Athenian generals, on setting out 
 on an expedition, offered sacrifices to Hermes, sur- 
 named Hegemonius, or Agetor ; and numerous 
 statues of the god were erected on roads, at doors 
 and gates, from which circumstance he derived a 
 variety of surnames and epithets. As the god of 
 commerce he was called Sie/j.-!ropos, ifiiroKaTus, ira- 
 MyKaTT-qKos^ KepSefnropos, hyopaios^ &c. As com- 
 merce is the source of wealth, he was also the god 
 of gain and riches, especially- of sudden and unex- 
 pected riches, such as are acquired by commerce. 
 As the giver of wealth and good luck (TrAouroStJ- 
 Tijs), he also presided over the game of dice. — 
 Hermes was believed to be the inventor of sacri- 
 fices. Hence he not only acts the part of a herald at 
 sacrifices, but is .also the protector of sacrificial 
 animals, and was believed in particular to increase 
 the fertility of sheep. For ithis reason lie was espe- 
 cially worshipped by shepherds, and is mentioned 
 in connection with Pan and tlie Nymphs. This 
 
 HERMIAS. 313 
 
 feature in the character of Hermes is a remnant of 
 the ancient Arcadian religion, in which he was the 
 fertilising god of the earth, who conferred his bless- 
 ings on man. — Hermes was likewise the patroa 
 of all the gymnastic games of the Greeks. Thist 
 idea seems to be of late origin, for in Homer no- 
 trace of it is found. Athens appears to have been 
 the first place in which he ■was worshipped in this 
 capacity. At a later time almost all gymnasia 
 were under his protection ; and the Greek artists 
 derived their ideal of the god fi:om the gymnasium^ 
 and represented him as a youth whose limbs were 
 beautifully and harmoniously developed by gym- 
 nastic exercises. — The most ancient seat of the 
 worship of Hermes is Arcadia, the land of his- 
 birth, where Lycaon, the son of Pelasgus, is said 
 to have built to him the first temple. From thenca 
 his worship was carried to Athens, and ultimately 
 spread through all Greece. The festivals cele- 
 brated in his honour were called Hermaea. {Diet, 
 of Ant, s.v.) His temples and stiitues {Did. of 
 Ant. s. V, Hermae) were extremely numerous in 
 Greece. Among the things sacred to him were 
 the palm tree, the tortoise, the number 4, and se- 
 veral kinds of fish ; and the sacrifices offered to 
 him consisted of incense, honey, cakes, pigs, and 
 especially lambs and young goats. — The principal 
 attributes of Hermes are : 1. A travelling hat with 
 a broad brim, which in later times was adorned 
 with 2 small wings. 2. The staff {pai^os or (t/ct)- 
 TTTpov), which he bore as a herald, and had re- 
 ceived from Apollo. In late works of art the white 
 ribbons which surrounded the herald's staff were 
 changed into 2 serpents. 3. The sandals (TreSiAo), 
 They were beautiful and golden, and carried the 
 god across land and sea with the rapidity of wind ; 
 at the ankles of the god they were provided with 
 wings, whence he is called irTTjvoTreSiAos-, OTalipes, 
 — The Roman MEncURias is spoken of separately, 
 
 Hermes Trismegistus ('Ep^^y Tpia-fiiyta-ro^), 
 the reputed author of a variety of works, some of 
 which are still extant. The Greek god Hermes 
 was identified with the Egyptian Thot, or Theut^ 
 as early as the time of Plato. The New Plato- 
 nists regarded the Egyptian Hermes as the source 
 of all knowledge and thought, or the \6yos em- 
 bodied, and hence called him Trismegistus. A 
 vast number of works on philosophy and religion, 
 written by the New Platonists, were ascribed to 
 this Hermes ; from whom it was pretended that 
 Pythagoras and Plato had derived all their know- 
 ledge. Most of these works were probably written 
 in the 4th century of our era. The most important 
 of them is entitled Poemander (from Trotfiijv, a 
 shepherd, pastor), apparently in imitation of the 
 Pastor of Hernias. [Hermas.] This work is 
 in the form of a dialogue. It treats of nature, the 
 creation of the world, the deity, his nature and 
 attributes, the human soul, knowledge, &c. 
 
 Hermesianax ('EpjUTjo-ia^a^), of Colophon, a 
 distinguished elegiac poet, lived in the time of 
 Alexander the Great. His chief work was an 
 elegiac poem, in 3 books, addressed to his mistress, 
 Leontium, whose name formed the title of the 
 poem. His fragments are edited by Rigler and 
 Axt, Colon. 1»28, and by Bailey, Lond. 1839. 
 
 Hermiaa or Hermias {'Epixeias or 'Epfiias). 1. 
 Tyrant of Atarneus and Assosin Mysia, celebrated 
 as the friend and patron of Aristotle. Aristotle 
 remained with Hermias 3 years, from B. c. 347 to 
 344, in the latter of which years Hermias was 
 
3U 
 
 HERMINIA. 
 
 seized by Mentor, the Greek general of the Persian 
 king, and sent as a captive to the Persian court, 
 where he was put to death. Aristotle married 
 Pythias, the adopted daughter of Herraias, and ce- 
 lebrated the praises of his benefactor in an ode 
 addressed to Virtue, whicli is still extant. -^ 2. A 
 Christian writer, who lived about a. d. 180, was 
 the author of an extant work, entitled Aicurup/ihs 
 Twv e^Q) <Pi\q<t6<PwVj in which the Greek philo- 
 sophers are held up to ridicule. Edited with Ta- 
 tianiis by Worth, Oxou. 1700. 
 
 Herminia Gens, a very ancient patrician house 
 at Rome, which appears in the first Etruscan war 
 with the republic, b. c. 506, and vanishes from 
 history in 448. T. Herminius was one of the 3 
 heroes who kept the Sublician bridge along with 
 Horatius Codes against the whole force of Porseiia. 
 Herminius Mens (Sierra de la Esirella), the 
 chief mountain in Lusitania, S. of the Durius, from 
 7000 to 8000 feet high, called in the middle ages 
 Hermeno or Armina. 
 
 Hermione ('EpiUhJpt?), the beautiful daughter of 
 Menelaus and Helena. She had been promised in 
 marringe to Orestes before the Trojan war; but 
 Menelaus after his return home married her to 
 Neoptolemus(Pyrrhus). Thereupon Orestes claimed 
 Hermione for himself; but Neoptolemus haughtily 
 refused to give her up. Orestes, in revenge, incited 
 the Delphians against him, and Neoptolemus was 
 slain. Hermione afterward;; married Orestes, whom 
 she had always loved, and bore him a son Tisamenus. 
 The history of Hermione is related with various 
 modifications. According to some Menelaus be- 
 trothed her at Troy to Neoptolemus ; but in the 
 meantime her grandfather, Tyndareiis, promised 
 her to Orestes, and actually gave her in marriage 
 to him, Neoptolemus, on his return, took possession 
 of her by force, but was slain soon after either at 
 Delphi or in his own home at Phchia. 
 
 Hermione i^'E.pi±i6vTi : "E.piJ.Loveiis ■ Kastri), a 
 town of Argolis, but originally independent of 
 Argos, was situated on a promontory on the E. 
 coast, and on a bay of the sea, which derived its 
 name from the town (Hermionicus Sinus). Its 
 territoiy was called Eermionis. It was originally 
 inhabited by the Dryopes ; and, in consequence of 
 its isolated position, it became a flourishing city at 
 an early period. It contained sever.d temples, and 
 among them a celebrated one of Demeter Chihonia. 
 At a later time it joined the Achaean League. 
 Hermioneg. [German i a.] 
 Hermippus ("Ep^uittttoj), 1. An Athenian poet 
 of the old comedy, vehemently attacked Pericles 
 and Aspasia. — 2. Of Smyrna, a distinguished 
 philosopher, was a disciple of Callimachus of Alex- 
 andria, and flourished about js. c. 200, He wrote 
 a great biographical work (Bi'ot), which is frequently 
 referred to by later writers. — 3. Of Berytus, a 
 grammarian, who flourished under Trajan and 
 Hadrian. 
 
 Hermisitun, a town in the Taiiric Ciiersonesus, 
 on the Cimmerian Bosporus. 
 
 Hennocratea {'EpixoKpdT'rjs)^ a S^'racusan of 
 rank, and an able stitesman and orator, was chosen 
 one of the Syi-acusan generals, B. c. 414, in order to 
 oppose the Athenians. He afterwards served under 
 Gylippus, when the latter took the command of 
 the Syracusan forces ; and after the destruction of 
 the Athenian armament he attempted to save the 
 lives of Nicias and Demosthenes, He then em- 
 ployed all his influence to induce his countrymen 
 
 HERMOGENIANUS. 
 
 to support with vigour the Lacedaemonians in the 
 war in Greece itself. He was with two colleagues 
 appointed to the command of a small fleet, which 
 the Syracusans sent to the assistance of the Lace- 
 daemonians. But during his absence from home, 
 he was banished by the Syracusans (410). Having 
 obtained support from the Persian satrap Pharna- 
 bazus, he returned to Sicily, and endeavoured to 
 effect his restoration to his native city by force of 
 arras, but was slain in an attack which he made 
 upon Syracuse in 407. 
 
 Hermodorua ('Ep/ji65copos). L Of Ephesus, a 
 person of distinction, was expelled by his fellow- 
 citizens, and is said to have gone to Rome, and to 
 have explained to the decemvirs the Greek laws, 
 and thus assisted them in drawing up the laws of 
 the ] 2 Tables, b. c. 451 . — 2. A disciple of Plato, 
 is said to have circulated the works of Plato, and 
 to have sold them in Sicily. He wrote a work on 
 Plato. ^ 3. Of Salamis, the architect of the temple 
 of Mars in the Flaminian Circus. 
 
 Hermogenes {'Zpfioydvrjs). 1. A son of Hippo- 
 nicus, and a brother of the wealthy Callias, is 
 introduced by Plato as one of the speakers in his 
 "Cratylus," where he maintanis that all the words 
 of a language were formed by an agreement of men 
 among themselves. ^2. A celebrated Greek rheto- 
 rician, was a native of Tarsus, and lived in the 
 reign of M, Aurelius, a. d, 161 — 180. At the age 
 of 15 his eloquence excited the admiration of M. 
 Aurelius. He was shortly afterwards appointed 
 public teacher of rhetoric, and at the age of 17 he 
 began his career as a writer ; but unfortunately 
 when he was 25, his mental powers gave way, and 
 he never recovered their full use, although he lived 
 to an advanced age. After his death his heart is 
 said to have been found covered with hair. His 
 works 5 in number, which are still extant, form 
 togetlier a complete system of rhetoric, and were 
 for a long time used in all the rhetorical schools as 
 manuals. They are ; 1. Tix'^V pT}T0piK7} Trepi tu/u 
 aT6.(T€c»iV. 2, ViepX eupetrews {De Inveniionc). 3. 
 nepi IBiuiv [De Formis Orutonis). 4. Ilepl /xe0o5oy 
 S€iv6Tr]TOS {De apto et solerti genei'e dicendi lile- 
 Ihodus). 5. Tlpcyvjxya.(Tixara^ An abridgment of 
 the latter work was made by Aphthonius, in con- 
 sequence of which the original fell into oblivion. 
 The works of Hennogenes are printed in Wake's 
 Wietor. Grace. '^Z. An architect of Alabanda, in 
 Caria who invented what was called the pseudo- 
 dipterus, that Is, a form of a temple, with apparently 
 two rows of colunms. His great object as an archi- 
 tect was to increase the taste for the Ionic form of 
 temples, in preference to Doric temples. 
 
 Hermogenes, M. Tigellius, a notorious de- 
 tractor of Horace, who calls him {Sat. i. 3. 129) 
 however optimus cantor et modulator. He was 
 opposed to Satires altogether, was a man without 
 talent, but yet had a foolish fancy for trj'ing his 
 hand at literature. It is conjectured that, under 
 the fictitious name of Pantolabus {Sat. i. 8. 1 1, ii. 
 1. 21.), Horace alludes to Hermogenes, for the 
 prosody of the 2 names is the same, so that one 
 may be substituted for the other. 
 
 Hermogenianus, the latest Roman jurist from 
 wiiom there is an extract in the Digest, lived in 
 the time of Constantino the Great. It is probable 
 that he was the compiler of the Codex Hermoge- 
 nianuB, but so many persons of the same name lived 
 nearly at the same time, that this cannot be affii-med 
 with certainty. 
 
HERMOLAUS. 
 Hermolaus ('Ep^oA.aoy), a Macedonian youth, 
 and a page of Alexander the Great. During a 
 hunting party in Bactria, b. c. 327, he slew a wild 
 boar, without waiting to allow Alexander the first 
 blow, whereupon the king ordered him to be flogged. 
 Incensed at this indignity, Hermolaus formed a 
 conspiracy against thtt king's life ; but the plot 
 was discovered, and Ilermolaus and his accom- 
 plices were stoned to death by tlie Macedonians. 
 
 Hermonassa. 1. A town of the Sindi at the 
 entrance of the Cimmerian Bosporus, founded by 
 the Mytiienaeans, called after Hermonassa, the 
 wife of the founder, who died during its foundation, 
 and left to her the sovereignty. ^ 2. A town on 
 the coast of Pontus, near Trapezus. 
 
 Hermonthis {"EpiMujvdis : Enneijt, Ru.), the 
 ■chief city of the Nomos Hermonthites, in Upper 
 Egypt, on the W. bank of the Nile, a little above 
 Thebes. 
 
 Hennopolis ('Epfj.6iro\is, "Ep/xov trShis). 1. 
 Parva (tj (j.ucpd : Danmnhour\ a city of Lower 
 Egj'pt, the capital of the Nomos of Alexandria, 
 stood upon the canal which connected the Canopic 
 branch of the Nile with the Lake Mareotis. — 2. 
 Magna (77 fxeydX-q; nr. Eshnounein^ Ru.), the 
 capital of the Nomos Hermopolites, in the Hepta- 
 nomis, or Middle Egypt, and one of the oldest 
 cities in the land, stood on the W". bank of the 
 Nile, a little below the confines of Upper Egypt. 
 At the boundary line itself was a military station, 
 or custom house, called *Epfio-rroAniK7] <pu\a.K7]^ for 
 collecting a toll on goods entering the Heptanomis. 
 Hermopolis was a chief seat of the worship of 
 Anubis (Cynocephalus) ; and it was the sacred 
 burial-place of the Ibis. 
 
 Hermotimus {'Ep/xdn^os). 1. A mathematician 
 of Colophon, was one of the immediate predecessors 
 of Euclid, and the discoverer of seveml geometrical 
 propositions. — 2. Of Clazomenae, an early Greek 
 philosopher of uncertain date, belonged to the Ionic 
 school. Some traditions represent him as a myste- 
 rious person, gifted with supernatural power, by 
 which his soul, apart from the body, wandered 
 from place to place, bringing tidings of distant 
 events in incredibly short spaces of time. At 
 length his enemies burned his body, in the absence 
 of the soul, which put an end to his wanderings. 
 
 Henmmdiiri, one of the most powerful nations 
 of Germany, belonged to the Suevic race, dwelt be- 
 tween the Main and the Danube, and were bounded 
 by the Sudeti mountains in the N., the Agri De- 
 cumates of the Romans in the W. and S,, the Na- 
 risci on the E., the Chemsci on the N.E., and 
 the Catti on the N.W. They were for a long 
 time tlie allies of the Romans ; but along with 
 the other German tribes they assisted the Mar- 
 comanni in the great war against tlie Romans in ' 
 the reign of M. Aurelius. After this time they are 
 rarely mentioned as a separate people, but are in- 
 cluded under the general name of Suevi. 
 
 Hermus {rh "Epfxos : "Ep^eios), a demus in 
 Attica, belonging to the tribe Acamantis, on the 
 road from Athens to Eleusis, 
 
 Hermus {"Ep/xos ; Ghiediz-Chai), a considerable 
 river of Asia Minor, rises in Mt. Dindymene (il/o- 
 rad-Dagh) in Phrygia ; flows through Lydia, 
 watering the plain N. of Sardis, which was hence 
 called "Ep/j.ou ireSiov ; passes by Magnesia and 
 Tennius ; and falls into the Gulf of Smyrna, be- 
 tween Smyrna and Phouaea. It formed the boun- 
 dai'y between AeoUa and Ionia. Its chief tribu- 
 
 HERODES. 
 
 315 
 
 taries were the Hyllus, Cogamus, Pactolug, and 
 Phrygnus. 
 
 Hernici, a people in Latium, belonged to the 
 Sabine race, and are said to have derived their 
 name from the Marsic (Sabine) word /i^n^a, "rock." 
 According to this etymology their name would 
 signify ■■' mountaineers." Tiiey inhabited the moun- 
 tains of the Apennines between the lake Fncinus 
 and the river Trerus, and were bounded on the N. 
 by the Marsi and Aequi, and on the S. by the 
 Volsci. Their chief town was Anagnia. They 
 were a brave and warlike people, and long offered 
 a formidable resistance to tlie Romans. The Romans 
 formed a league with them on equal terms in the 
 3rd consulship of Sp. Cassius, B.C. 486. They 
 were finally subdued by the Romans, 306. 
 Hero, [Leander.] 
 
 Hero CHpo^f). 1, The Elder, a celebrated ma- 
 thematician, was a native of Alexandria, and lived in 
 the reigns of the Ptolemies Philadelphus and Evei- 
 getes (b. c. 285 — 222.) He is celebrated on ac- 
 count of his mechanical inventions, of which one of 
 the best known is the common pneumatic experi- 
 ment, called Hero''s /ourUain^ in which a jet of 
 water is maintained by condensed air. We also 
 find in his works a description of a sleam engine^ 
 and of a double forcing pump used for a fire-engine. 
 The following works, of Hero are extant, though 
 not in a perfect form : — 1 . 'K^ipoSaKKiarpas ko.- 
 TaaK€ui] ical (Tv^iierpia^ de CQUstructione ei Mensura 
 Manubalislae. 2. BeAoTrottVa, on the manufacture 
 of darts. 3. YlvivfxariKa.^ or Spiriialia^ the most 
 celebrated of his works. 4. Ilepi avTOfiaToiroi-qTi- 
 icwv^ de A iitomatorum Faln'lca LihH duo. All 
 these works are publislied in the Matliematiai 
 Vcieres^ Paris, 1693.— 2. Tlie Younger, a mathe- 
 matician, is supposed to have lived under Heraclius 
 (a. D. GIO — 641). The principal extant works 
 assigned to him are : — 1. De Machijiis bellicis. 2. 
 Geodaesia, on practical geometry. 3. De Obsidione 
 repcllcnda. Published in the Maiheviatici Veteres. 
 Herodes I. ('HpciloT)?), commonly called Herod. 
 1. Surnamed the Great, king of the Jews, was the 
 second son of Antipater, and consequently of Idu- 
 maean origin. [Antipater, No. 3.] When his 
 father was appointed by Caesar procurator of Ju- 
 daea, in B. c. 47, Herod, though only 25 years of 
 age, obtained the government of Galilee. In 46 lie 
 obtained the government of Coele-Syria. After 
 the death of Caesar (44), Herod first supported 
 Cassius ; but upon the arrival of Antony in Syria, 
 in 41, he exerted himself to secure his favour, and 
 completely succeeded in his object. In 40 he went 
 to Rome, and obtained from Antony and Octavian 
 a decree of the senate, constituting him king of 
 Judaea. He supported Antony in the civil war 
 against Octavian ; but after the battle of Actium 
 (31) he was pardoned by Octavian and confirmed 
 in his kingdom. During the remainder of his reign 
 he cultivated with assiduity the friendship of Au- 
 gustus and his counsellor Agrippa, and enjoyed the 
 highest favour both of the one and the other. He 
 possessed a jealous temper and ungovernable pas- 
 sions. He put to death his beautiful wife Mari- 
 amne, whom he suspected without cause of adul- 
 tery, and with whom he was violently in love ; 
 and at a later period he also put to death his two 
 sons by Mariamne, Alexander and Aristobulus. 
 His government, though cruel and tyrannical, was 
 vigorous ; and lie was both feared and respected by 
 his subjects and the surrounding nations. He 
 
316 
 
 HERODIANUS. 
 
 especially loved to display his power and magnifi- 
 cence by costly and splendid public works. He 
 commenced rebuilding the temple of Jerusalem ; 
 he rebuilt the city of Samaria, and bestowed on it 
 the name of Sebaste ; while he converted a small 
 town on the sea-coast into a magnificent cit}-, to 
 Tvhich he gave the name of Caesarea. He adorned 
 'these new cities with temples, theatres, g3'mnasia, 
 and other buildings in the Greek style ; and he even 
 ventured to erect a theatre at Jerusalem itself, and 
 an amphitheatre without the walls, in which lie 
 exhibited combats of wild beasts and gladiators. 
 In the last year of his reign Jesus Christ was 
 born ; and it must have been on his deathbed that 
 lie ordered that massacre of the children at Bethle- 
 hem which is recorded by the Evangelist. (Matth. 
 ii. 16.) He died in the 37th year of his reign, 
 and the 70th of his age, B.C. 4.'^" — 2. Herodes 
 Antipas, son of Herod the Great, by Malthace, a 
 Samaritan, obtained the tetrarchy of Galilee and 
 Peraea, on his father's deatii, while the kingdom 
 of Judaea devolved on his elder brother Archelaus. 
 He married Herodias, the wife of his half-brother, 
 Herod Philip, she having, in defiance of the Jewish 
 law, divorced her first husband. He had been 
 previously married to a daughter of the Arabian 
 prince Aretas, who q^uitted him in disgust at this 
 new alliance. Aretas thereupon invaded the domi- 
 nions of Antipas, and defeated the army which 
 was opposed to him. In a. j>. 38, after the death 
 of Tiberius, Antipas went to Rome to solicit from 
 Caligula the title of king, which had just been be- 
 stowed upon his nephew, Herod Agrippa ; but 
 through the intrigues of Agrippa, who was high in 
 the favour of the Roman emperor, Antipas was 
 deprived of his dominions, and sent into exile 
 at Lyons (39); he was subsequently removed to 
 Spain, where he died. It was Herod Antipas who 
 imprisoned and put to death John the Baptist, who 
 had reproached him with his unlawful connexion 
 with Herodias. It was before him also that Christ 
 was sent by Pontius Pilate at Jerusalem, as be- 
 longing to his jurisdiction, on account of his sup- 
 posed Galilean origin. — 3. Herodes Agrippa. 
 [Agrippa.]— 4. Brother of Herod Agrippa I., 
 obtained the kingdom of Chalcis from Claudius at 
 the request of Agrippa, 41. After the death of 
 Agrippa (44), Claudius bestowed upon him the 
 superintendence of the temple at Jerusalem, toge- 
 ther with the right of appointing the high priests. 
 He died in 48, when his kingdom was bestowed 
 by Claudius upon his nephew, Herod Agrippa II. 
 — 5. Herodes Atticus, the rhetorician. [Atti- 
 cus.] 
 
 Herodianua ('tJpuBiavSs). 1, An historian, who 
 wrote in Greek a history of the Roman empire in 
 8 books, from the death of M. Aurclius to the 
 commencement of the reign of Gordianus III. 
 (a. d. 180—238). He himself informs us that the 
 events of this period had occurred in his own life- 
 time ; but beyond this we know nothing respecting 
 his life. He appears to have had Thucydides be- 
 fore him as a model, both for style and for tlie 
 general composition of his work, like him, intro- 
 ducing here and there speeches wholly or in part 
 imaginary. In spite of occasional inaccuracies in 
 chronology and geography, his narrative is in the 
 
 * The death of Herod took place in the same year 
 with the actual birth of Christ, .is is inentioiied above, 
 but it is well known that this ia to be placed 4 years 
 before the date in general use as the Christian era. 
 
 HERODOTUS. 
 
 main truthful and impartial. Edited by Irmisch, 
 Lips. 1789 — 1805, n vols., and by Bekker, Berlin, 
 1826.^2. Aelius Herodianns, one of the most 
 celebrated grammarians of antiquit}% was the son. 
 of Apolloniua Dyscolus [Apollonius, No. 4], and 
 was born at Alexandria. From that place he re- 
 moved to Rome, where he gained the favour of the 
 emperor M. Aureliu^, to whom he dedicated his 
 work on prosody. This work seems to have em- 
 braced not merely prosody, but most of those sub- 
 jects now included in the etymological portion of 
 grammar. The estimation in which he was held 
 by subsequent grammarians was very great. Pris- 
 cian styles him maximiLS auctor artis yrammaticae. 
 He was a very voluminous writer ; but none o-f 
 his works have come down to us complete, though, 
 several extracts from them are preserved by later 
 grammarians. 
 
 Herodicus ('Hpo'SiKos). 1. Of Babylon, a gram- 
 marian, was one of the immediate successors of 
 Crates of Mallus, and an opponent of the followers 
 of Aristarchus, against whom he wrote an epigram, 
 which is still extant and included in the Greek 
 Anthology. — 2. A celebrated physician of Selym- 
 bria in Thrace, lived in the 5th century B.C., and 
 was one of the tutors of Hippocrates. 
 
 Herodorus ('HpoSwpos),of Heraclea, in Pontus, 
 a contemporary of Hecataeus and Pherecydcs. about 
 B.C. 510, wrote a work on Hercules and his ex- 
 ploits. 
 
 Herodotus (^YipoZoTos). X. A Greek historian, 
 and the father of history, was born at Halicar- 
 nassus, a Doric colony in Caria, B.C. 484. He be- 
 longed to a noble family at Halicarnassus. He 
 was the son of Lyxes and Dryo ; and the epic poet 
 Panyasis was one of his relations. Herodotus left 
 his native city at an early age, in order to escape- 
 from the oppressive government of Lygdamis, the 
 tyrant of Halicarnassus, who put to death Panyasis. 
 He probabl}' settled at Samns for some time, and 
 there became acquainted with the Ionic dialect ; 
 but he spent many years in his extensive travels 
 in Europe, Asia, and Africa, of whicii we shall 
 speak presently. At a later time he returned to 
 Halicarnassus, and took a prominent part in expel- 
 ling Lygdamis from his native city. In the con- 
 tentions which followed the expulsion of the tyrant, 
 Herodotus was exposed to the hostile attacks of 
 one of the political parties, whereupon he again 
 left Halicarnassus, and settled at Thurii, in Ital}-, 
 where he died. Whether he accompanied the first 
 colonists to Thurii in 443, or followed them a few 
 years al^erwards, is a disputed point, and cannot 
 be detennined with certainty; though it appears 
 probable from a passage in his work that he was 
 at Athens at the commencement of the Peloponne- 
 sian war (431). It is also disputed where Hero- 
 dotus wrote his history. Lucian relates that Hero- 
 dotus read his work to the assembled Greeks at 
 Ulynipia, which was received with such universal 
 applause, that the 9 books of the work were in con- 
 sequence honoured with the names of the 9 muses. 
 Tlie same writer adds that the young Thucydides 
 was present at this recitation and was moved to 
 tears. But this celebrated stoiy, wliich rests upon 
 the authority of Lucian alone, must be rejected for 
 many reasons. Nor is there sufficient evidence in 
 ■favour of the tradition tliat Herodotus read his 
 work at the Panathenaea at Athens in 446 or 445, 
 and received from the Athenians a reward of 10 
 talents. It is fai- more probable that he wrote his 
 
HERODOTUS. 
 
 work at Thurii, when he was advanced in yetira ; 
 and it appears that he was engaged upon it, at 
 least in the way of revision, when he was 77 yesirs 
 of age, since he mentions the revolt of the Medes 
 agamst Durius Nothus, and the death of Amyrtaeus, 
 events which belong to the years 400 and 400. 
 Though the work of Herodotus was probably not 
 written till he was advanced in years, yet he was 
 collecting materials for it during a great part of his 
 life. It was apparently with this view that he 
 undertook liis extensive travels through Greece and 
 foreign countries ; and his work contains on almost 
 every page the results of liis personal observations 
 and inquiries. There was scarcel}' a town of any 
 importance in Greece Proper and on the coasts of 
 Asia Minor with which he was not perfectly fa- 
 miliar; and at many places in Greece, such as Sa- 
 mos, Athens, Corinth, and Thebes, he seems to 
 have staid some time. The sites of the great 
 battles between the Greeks and barbarians, as 
 Marathon, Thermopylae, Salamis, and Plataeae, 
 were well known to him ; and on Xerxes'* line 
 of march from the Hellespont to Athens, there 
 was probably not a place which he had not seen 
 with his own eyes. He also visited most of 
 the Greek islands, not only in the Aegean, but 
 even in the W, of Greece, such as Zacyntlius. 
 In the N. of Europe he visited Thrace and the 
 Scythian trities on tlie Black Sea. In Asia he 
 travelled through Asia Minor and Syria, and 
 visited tlie cities of Babylon, Ecbatana, and Susa. 
 He spent some time in Egypt, and travelled as 
 far S. as Elephantine. He saw with his own eyes 
 all the wonders of Egypt, and the accuracy of his 
 observations and descriptions still excites the asto- 
 nishment 01 travellers in that country. From 
 Egypt he appears to have made excursions to the 
 E. into Arabia, and to the W. into Libya, at 
 least as far as Gyrene, which was well known 
 to him, — The object of his work is to give an 
 account of the struggles between the Greeks and 
 Persians. He traces the enmity between Europe 
 and Asia to the n;ythical times. He passes 
 rapidly over the mythical ages to come to Croesus, 
 king of Lydia, who was known to have committed 
 acts of hostility against the Greeks. This induces 
 him to give a full history of Croesus and of the 
 kingdom of Lydia. The conquest of Lydia by the 
 Persians under Cyrus then leads him to relate the 
 rise of the Persian monarchy, and the subjugation 
 of Asia Minor and Babylon. The nations which 
 are mentioned in the course of this narrative are 
 again discussed more or less minutely. The history 
 of Carabyses and his expedition into Egypt induce 
 him to enter into the details of Egyptian history. 
 The expedition of Darius against the Scythians 
 causes him to speak of Scytliia and the N. of 
 Europe. In the meantime the revolt of the lonians 
 breaks out, which eventually brings the contest 
 between Persia and Greece to an end. An account 
 of this insurrection is followed by the history of the 
 invasion of Greece by the Persians ; and the his- 
 tory of the Persian war now runs in a regular 
 channel until the taking of Sestos by the Greeks, 
 E.G. 478, with which event his work concludes. 
 It will be seen from the preceding sketch that 
 the history is full of digressions and episodes ; 
 but those do not impair the unity of the work, for 
 one thread, as it were, runs through the whole, 
 and the episodes are only like branches of the 
 same tree. The structure of the work thus bears 
 
 HEROSTRATUS. 
 
 317 
 
 a strong resemblance to a grand epic pcem. 
 The whole work is pervaded by a deep religious 
 sentiment. Herodotus shows the most profound 
 reverence for everything which he conceives as 
 divine, and rarely ventures to express an opinion 
 on what he considers a sacred or religious mys- 
 tery, — 'In order to form a fair judgment of the 
 historical value of the work of Herodotus, we must 
 distinguish between those parts in which he speaks 
 from his own observations and those in which he 
 merely repeats what he was told by priests and 
 others. In the latter case he was imdoubtedly 
 often deceived ; but whenever he speaks from his 
 own observations, he is a real model of truthful- 
 ness and accuracy; and the more the countries 
 which he describes have been explored by modem 
 travellers, the more firmly has his authority been 
 established. Many things which used to be laughed 
 at as impossible or paradoxical are found now to be 
 stricily in accordance with truth. — The dialect in 
 which he wrote is the Ionic, intermixed with epic 
 or poetical expressions, and sometimes even with 
 Attic and Doric forms. The excellencies of his 
 style consist in its antique and epic colouring, its 
 transparent cleai-ncss, and the lively flow of the 
 narrative. But notwithstanding all the merits of 
 Herodotus, there were certiiin writers in antiquity 
 who attacked him, both in regard to the form and 
 the substance of his work ; and there is still extant 
 a work ascribed to Plutarch, Entitled " On the 
 Malignity of Herodotus," full of the most futile 
 accusations of every kind. The best editions of 
 Herodotus are by Schweighaiiser, Argentor. 1806, 
 often reprinted ; by Gaisford, Oxon. HJ24 ; and by 
 Bahr, Lips. 1830. — 2. A Greek physician, who 
 practised at Rome with great reputiition, about 
 
 A. D. 100. He wrote some medical works, which 
 are several times quoted b}' Galen. — 3. Also a 
 Greek physician, a native either of Tarsus or Phi- 
 ladelphia, taught Sextus Empiricus. 
 
 Heroopolis or Hero {'Hpcowy 7r6\is^ *iipco : 0. T. 
 Raamses or Ramcses ? : Ru. nr. Ahoit-Ktshidl), 
 the capital of the Numos Heroopolites or Arsinoites 
 in Lower Egypt, stood on the border of the Desert 
 E. of the Delta, upon the canal connecting the Nile 
 with the W. head, of the Red Sea, which was 
 called from it Sinus HeroopoHticus (wcJATroy 'H- 
 ptScou, 'HpcooTToKiTTis or -iTi.ffJv). The country 
 about it is supposed to be the Goshen of Scripture. 
 
 Herophilus {'Hp6(pi\os\ one of the most cele- 
 brated physicians of antiquity, was born at Chalce- 
 don in Bithynia, was a pupil of Praxagoras, and 
 lived at Alexandria, under the first Ptolemy, who 
 reigned B.C. 323 — 28j. Here he soon acquired 
 a great reputation, and was one of the founders 
 of the medical school in that city. He seems to 
 have given his chief attention to anatom}-- and phy- 
 siology, which he studied not merely from the dis- 
 section of animals, but also from that of human 
 bodies. He is even said to have carried his ardour 
 in his anatomical pursuits so far as to have dissected 
 criminals alive. He was the author of several me- 
 dical and anatomical works, of which nothing but 
 the titles and a few fragments remain. These have 
 been collected and published by Marx, De Hevo- 
 pltili Vita, &c. Getting. 1840. 
 
 Herostratus ('Hp^o-Tparos), an Ephesian, set 
 fire to the temple of Artemis at Ephesus, on the 
 Slime night that Alexander the Great was born, 
 
 B. c. 356. He was put to the torture, and confessed 
 that he had fired the temple to immortalise him- 
 
318 
 
 HERSE. 
 
 self. The Ephesians passed a decree condemning 
 his name to oblivion; but it has been, as might 
 have been expected, handed down by history. 
 
 Herse {"Epa-rj)^ daughter of Cecrops and sister 
 of Agraulos, was beloved by Hermes, by whom 
 she became the mother of Cephalus. Respecting 
 her- stort% see Agraulos. At Athens sacrifices 
 ■were offered to her, and the maidens who carried 
 the vessels containing the libation (epo"?;) were 
 called i^p'n<p6poi. 
 
 Herallia, the wife of Romulus, was the only 
 married woman carried off -by the Romans in the 
 rape of the Sabine maidens. As Romulus after 
 death became Quirinus, so Hersilia his wife be- 
 came a goddess, Hora or Horta. Some writers, 
 however, made Hersilia the wife of Hostus, grand- 
 father of Tulhis Hostilius. 
 
 Hertha (containing probably the same elements 
 as the words eaiih, erde), the goddess of the earth, 
 among the ancient Germans. 
 
 Heruli or Emli, a powerful German race, are 
 said to have come originally from Scandinavia, but 
 they appear on the shores of the Black Sea in the 
 reign of Gallienus (a. d. 262), when in conjunction 
 with the Goths, they invaded the Roman empire. 
 They were conquered by the Ostrogoths, and after- 
 wards formed part of the great array of Attila, with 
 which he invaded Gaul and Italy. After the death 
 of Attila (453) a portion of the Henill united 
 with other German tribes ; and under the com- 
 mand of Odoacer, who is said to have been an He- 
 rulian, they destroyed the Western Empire, 476. 
 Meantime the remainder of the nation formed a 
 powerful kingdom on the banks of the Theiss 
 and the Danube, which was eventually destroyed 
 by the Langobardi or Lombards. Some of the 
 Heruli were allowed by Anastasius to settle in 
 Pannonia, and they served with great distinction 
 in the armies of Justinian. 
 
 Hesiodus ('HtrioSos), one of the earliest Greek 
 poets, of whose personal history we possess little 
 authentic information. He is frequently mentioned 
 along with Homer; as Homer represents the Ionic 
 school of poetry in Asia Minor, so Hesiod re- 
 presents the Boeotian school of poetrj-, which 
 spread over Phocis and Euboea. The only points 
 of resemblance between the 2 schools consist in 
 their versification and dialect. In other respects 
 they entirely differ. The Homeric school takes 
 for its subjects the restless activity of the heroic 
 age, while the Hesiodic turns its attention to the 
 quiet pursuits of ordinarj' life, to the origin of the 
 world, the gods and heroes. Hesiod lived about 
 a century later than Humer, and is placed about 
 B. c. 735. We learn from his own poem on 
 WorJcs and Dai/s^ that he was bom in the village 
 of Ascra in Boeotia, whither his father had emi- 
 grated from the Aeolian Cyme in Asia Minor. 
 After the death of his fatlu-r, he was involved in 
 a dispute with his brother Perses about his small 
 patrimony, which was decided in favour of his 
 brother. He then emigrated to Orchomenos, 
 where he spent the remainder of his life. This 
 is all that can be said with certainty about the 
 life of Hesiod. Many of the stories related about 
 him refer to his school of poetry, and not to the 
 poet personally. In this light we may regard the 
 tradition, that Hesiod had a poetical contest with 
 Homer, which is said to have taken place at 
 Chalcis during the funeral solemnities of king 
 Amphidama?, or, according to others, at Aulis or 
 
 HESPERIDES. 
 
 Delos. The story of this contest gave rise to a 
 composition still extant under the title of 'Aytoi' 
 'OfxTipou Kal 'Hcn6^ov^ the work of a grammarian 
 who lived towards the end of the first century of 
 our era, in which the 2 poets are represented as 
 engaged in the contest, and answering one another. 
 The following works were attributed to Hesiod in 
 antiquity : — 1. "Epya or "Epya koI jjn^pai^ Opera 
 ei Dies, Works and Days. It is written in the most 
 homely style, with scarcely any poetical imagery 
 or ornament, and must be looked upon as the most 
 ancient specimen of didactic poetry. It contains 
 ethical, political, and economical precepts, the last 
 of which constitute the greater part of the work, 
 consisting of rules about choosing a wife, the edu- 
 cation of children, agriculture, commerce, and na- 
 vigation. It would further seem that 3 distinct 
 poems have been inserted in it ; viz. 1. The fable 
 of Prometheus and Pandora (47 — 105) ; 2. On 
 the ages of the world, which are designated by the 
 names of metals (109- — 201) ; and, 3. A descrip- 
 tisn of winter (504 — 558). 2. Bioyovia, a Thf.^ 
 ogony, was not considered by Hesiod's countrymen 
 to be a genuine production of the poet. This work 
 gives an account of the origin of the world and the 
 birth of the gods, explaining the whole order of 
 nature in a series of genealogies, for every part of 
 physical as well as moral nature there appears per- 
 sonified in the character of a distinct being. The 
 whole concludes with an account of some of the 
 most illustrious heroes. 3. 'Ho?ai or ^oiai fx^ydKai, 
 also called KaTokoyoi yvvaiKuu, Catalogue of' 
 Women. This work is lost. It contained accounts 
 of the women who had been beloved by the gods, 
 and had thus become the mothers of the heroes in 
 the various parts of Greece, from whom the ruling 
 families derived their origin. 4. 'Ao-ttIj 'H/?a- 
 KXe'oi/y, Shield of Hercules^ which is extant, pro- 
 bably formed part of the work last mentioned. It 
 contains a description of the shield of Hercules^ 
 and is an imitation of the Homeric description of 
 the shield of Achilles. The best edition of Hesiod 
 is by Gottling, Gotha and Erfuvt, 1 843, 2d ed. 
 
 Hesione ('Ho-tfJrij), daughter of Laomedon, king 
 of Troy, was chained by her father to a rock, in 
 order to be devoured by a sea-rnonster, that ho 
 might thus appease the anger of Apollo and 
 Poseidon. Hercules promised to save her, if 
 Laomedon would give him the horses which he 
 had received from Zeus as a compensation for 
 Ganymedes. Hercules killed the monster, but 
 Laomedon refused to keep his promise. There- 
 upon Hercules took Tro}', killed Laomedon, and 
 gave Hesione to his friend and companion Tc- 
 lamon, by whom she became the mother of Teucer, 
 Her brother Priam sent Antenor to claim her 
 back, and the refusal on the part of the Greeks is 
 mentioned as one of the causes of the Trojan war. 
 Hesperia ('Eo-Trepm), the Western land (from 
 eVTTepos, vesper), the name given by the Greek 
 poets to Italy, because it lay W. of Greece. In 
 imitation of them, the Roman poets gave the name 
 of Hesperia to Spain, which they sometimes called 
 ultima Hesperia {Hor. Carm. i. 36. 4) to distinguish 
 it from Ita4y, which they occasionally called Hes- 
 peria Magna (Virg. Aen. i. b^d). 
 
 Hesperides ('Eo-TrepfSey), the celebrated guar- 
 dians of the golden apples which Ge (Earth) gave to 
 Hera at her marriage with Zeus. Their parentage is 
 differently related. They are called the daughters 
 either of Night or Erebus, or of Phorcys and Geto, 
 
HESPERIDUM. 
 
 or of Atlas and Hesperis (whence their names 
 Atlantides or Hesperides), or of Hesperus, or of 
 Zeus and Themis, Some traditions mentioned 3 
 Hesperides, viz. Aegle, Arethusa, ani Htsperia ; 
 others 4, Aegle, Crytheia^ Hesiia^ and Arethusa; 
 and others again 7. The poets describe them 
 as possessing the power of sweet song. In the 
 earliest legends, these nymphs are described as 
 living on the river Oceanus, in the extreme W. ; 
 but the later attempts to fix the geographical 
 position of their gardens led poets and geogra- 
 phers to different parts of Libya, as the neigh- 
 bourhood of Cyrene, Mount Atlas, or the islands 
 on the W. coast of Libya, or even to the N. ex- 
 tremity of the earth, beyond the wind Boreas, 
 among the Hyperboreans. They were assisted in 
 watching the golden apples by the dragon Ladon. 
 It was one of the labours of Hercules to obtain 
 possession of these apples. (See p. 310, a.) 
 Hesperidnm Instilae. [Hesperium.] 
 Hesperis. [Berenice, No. 4, p. 120.] 
 Hesperium (^Etrtrepiov^ 'Etnrt'pou Kfpas ; C. 
 Verde or C. Roxo), a headland on the W. coast of 
 Africa, was one of the furthest points to which the 
 knowledge of the ancients extended along that 
 coast Near it was a bay called Sinus Hesperius ; 
 and a day's journey from it a group of islands called 
 Hesperidam Insulae, wrongly identified by some 
 with the Fortunatae Insulae ; they are either the 
 Cape de Verde islands, or, more probably, the Bis- 
 sagos, at the mouth of the Rio Grande. 
 
 Hesperus ("Ecnrepoy), the evening star, is called 
 hy Hesiod a son of Astraeus and Eos. He was 
 also regarded as the same as the morning star, 
 whence both Homer and Hesiod call him the 
 bringer of light [ku(r<p6pos). A later account 
 makes him a son of Atlas, who was fond of 
 astronomy, and who disappeared, after ascending 
 Mount Atlas to observe the stars. He was wor- 
 shipped with divine honours, and was regarded as 
 the fairest star in the heavens. The Romans desig- 
 nated him by the names Lucifer and Hesperus, to 
 characterise him as the morning or evening star. 
 
 Hestia {"Earia, Ion. 'Iotitj), called Vesta by 
 the Romans, the goddess of the hearth, or rather 
 of the fire burning on the hearth, was one of 
 the 12 great divinities of the Greeks. She was 
 a daughter of Cronus and Rhea, and, accord- 
 ing to common tradition, was the first-bom of 
 Rhea, and consequently the first of the children 
 swallowed by Cronus. She was a maiden di- 
 vinity, and when Apollo and Poseidon sued for 
 her hand, she swore by the head of Zeus to remain 
 a virgin for ever. As the liearth was looked upon 
 as the centre of domestic life, so Hestia was the 
 goddess of domestic life and the giver of all do- 
 mestic happiness ; as sucli she was believed to 
 dwell in the inner part of every house, and to 
 have invented the art of building houses. In this 
 respect she often appears together with Hemes, 
 who was likewise a deus peneindis. Being the 
 goddess of the sacred fire of the altar, Hestia had 
 a share in the sacrifices offered to all the gods. 
 Hence, when sacrifices were offered, she was in- 
 voked first, and the first part of tlie sacrifice was 
 presented to her. Solemn oaths were sworn by the 
 goddess of the hearth ; and the hearth itself was 
 the sacred asylum where suppliants implored the 
 protection of the inhabitants of the house. A town 
 or city is only an extended family, and therefore 
 had likewise its sacred hearth. Tliis public hearth 
 
 HIBERNIA. 319 
 
 usually existed in the prytaneum of a town, where 
 the goddess had her especial sanctuary (i&aAo/xos), 
 under the name of Pryiamiis {UpvTavlris)., with a 
 statue and the sacred hearth. There, as at a pri- 
 vate hearth, Hestia protected the suppliants. When 
 a colony was sent out, the emigrants took the fire 
 which was to burn on the hearth of their new 
 home from that of the mother town. If ever the 
 fire of her hearth became extinct, it was not allowed 
 to be lighted again with ordinary fire, but either 
 by fire produced by fi'iction, or by burning glasses 
 drawing fire from the sun. The mystical specu- 
 lations of later times took their origin from the 
 simple ideas of the ancients, and assumed a sacred 
 hearth not only in the centre of the earth, but even 
 in that of the universe, and confounded Hestia in 
 various ways with other divinities, such as Cybele, 
 Gaea, Demeter, Persephone, and Artemis. There 
 were but few special temples of Hestia in Greece, 
 since every prytaneum was in reality a sanctuary 
 of the goddess, and since a portion of the sacri- 
 fices, to whatever divinity they were offered, be- 
 longed to her. The worship of the Roman Vesta 
 is spoken of under Vesta. 
 
 Hestiaeotis ('Eo-tioiwtis) 1. The N.W. part of 
 Thessaly [Thessalia.] — 2. Or Histiaea, a dis- 
 trict in Euboea. [Euboea.] 
 
 Hesychius ('Ho'ux'os). 1. An Alexandrine 
 grammarian, under whose name a large Greek dic- 
 tionary has come down to us. Respecting his per- 
 sonal history nothing is known, but he probably 
 lived about A.n. 38U. The work is based, as the 
 writer himself tells us, upon the lexicon of Dioge- 
 nianus. Hesychius was probably a pagan ; the 
 Christian glosses and the references to Christian 
 writers in the work are interpolations by a later hand. 
 The work is one of great importance, not only on 
 account of its explaining the words of the Greek 
 language, but also from its containing much literary 
 and archaeological information, derived from earlier 
 grammarians and commentators, whose works are 
 lost. The arrangement of the work however is 
 very defective. The best edition is by Alberti, 
 completed after Alberti's death bv Ruhnken, Lugd. 
 Bat. 1746—176(5, 2 vols, fol. — 2. Of Miletus, 
 surnamed Illustris., from some office which he held, 
 lived about A.n. 540, and wrote : 1. An Onomas- 
 tic&ii^ or account of illustrious men, published \iy 
 Orelli, Lips. 1320. 2. A Ciironicon or synoptical 
 view of universal history, in 6 parts, from the reign 
 of Belus, the reputed founder of the Assyrian em- 
 pire, to the death of the Byzantine emperor, Anas- 
 tasius I., A. D. .518. The work itself is lost, but 
 an account of it is preserved by Photius. 
 
 Hetriculum, a town of the Bruttii. 
 
 Hibemia, also called leme, Ivema or Juvema 
 ('Upvri, Upvh vTJ<Tos, 'louepvla), the island of 
 Irekmd, appears to have derived its name from the 
 inhabitants of its S. coast, called Juverni {'loitpfoi) 
 by Ptolemy, but its original name was probably 
 licrffion or Vergion. It is mentioned by Caesar, 
 and is frequently spoken of by subsequent writers; 
 but the Romans never made any attempt to conquer 
 the island, though they obtained some knowledge of 
 it from the commercial intercourse which was carried 
 on between it and Britain. We have no account of 
 the island except from Ptolemy, who must have 
 derived his information from the statements of the 
 British merchants, who visited its coasts. Ptolemy 
 gives rather a long list of its promontories, rivers, 
 tribes and towns. 
 
520 HICESIA. 
 
 Hicesia. [Aeoliae Insulae.] 
 
 Hicetas {'liUras ov 'liter rji). 1. A SyracxisEin, 
 ■coiitemporfiry with the younger Dionysius and Ti- 
 nioleon. He Tvas at first a friend of Dion, after 
 "vvhose death (b. c. 353) his wife Arete, and his 
 sister Aristomache placed themselves under tlie 
 care of H ice tas ; but he was persuaded notwithstand- 
 ing to consent to their destruction. A few years later 
 he became tyrant of Leontini. He carried on war 
 against the younger Dionysius, whom he defeated, 
 and had made himself master of the whole city, 
 except the island citadel, when Timoleon landed in 
 Sicily, 344. Hicetas then opposed Timoleon and 
 called in the aid of the Carthaginians, but he was 
 defeated and put to death by Timoleon, 339 or 
 338.^2. Tyrant of Syracuse, during the interval 
 between the reign of Agathocles and that of Pyr- 
 rhus. He defeated Phintias, tyrant of Agrigentum, 
 and was himself defeated by the Carthaginians. 
 After a reign of 9 years (288 — '279), he was 
 expelled from Syracuse.— 3. Of Syracuse, one of 
 the earlier Pythagoreans. 
 
 Hiempsal. 1. Son of Micipsa, king of Nn- 
 midia, and grandson of Masinissa, was murdered 
 by Jugiu"tha, soon after the death of Micipsa, 
 B.C. 118.^2. King of Nnmidia, grandson or 
 great-grandson of Masinissa, and father of Juba, 
 appears to have received the sovereignty of part of 
 Nnmidia after the Jugurthine war. He was ex- 
 pelled from his kingdom by Cn. Domitius Aheno- 
 barbus, tlie leader of the Marian party in Africa, 
 but was restored by Pompey in 81. Hiempsal 
 wrote some works in the Punic language, which 
 are cited by Sallust (Jug. 17). 
 
 Hiera. 1. [Aeoliae.]. — 2. [Aegates.] 
 
 Hierapolis ('lepaTroAi^). 1. A city of Great 
 Phrygia, near the Maeander, celebrated for its hot 
 springs and its temple of Cybele. Like the neigh- 
 bouring cities of Colossae and Laodicea, it was an 
 early seat of Christianitj--, and it is mentioned in 
 St. Paul's Epistle to ilie Colossians (iv. 13). ^2. 
 Formerly Bambyce (Ba^guKij : Bambuch, or Mem- 
 hij),!i city in tlie N.E. of Syria, one of the chief 
 seats of the worship of Astarte. 
 
 Hierocles {'UponK^s). 1. A Greek rhetorician 
 of Alabanda in Caria, lived about B.C. 100, and 
 was distinguished, like his brother Menecles, by 
 the Asiatic style of oratory.^ 2. Governor of Bi- 
 thynia, and afterwards of Alexandria, is said to 
 have been one of the chief instigators of the perse- 
 cution of the Christians under Diocletian. He 
 wrote a work against the Christians, entitled 
 Aoyoi <pi\a\ri9ct9 irphs tovs XpKTTiavovs^ of which 
 we may form an idea from the account of Lactantius 
 and the refutation which Eusebius wrote against 
 it. We see from these writers that Hierocles 
 attacked the character of Jesus Christ and his 
 apostles, and put him on an equality with Apollo- 
 nius of Tyana.— 3. A New Platonist, who lived 
 nt Alexandria about the middle of the 5th century. 
 He wrote: 1. A commentary on the golden verses 
 of Pythagoras, in which he endeavom-s to give an 
 intelligible account of the philosophy of Pytha- 
 goras. Published by Needham, Cambridge, 1709 ; 
 and by Warren, London, 1742. 2. A work on 
 Providence, Fate, and the reconciliation of man's 
 free will with the divine government of the world, 
 in 7 books. The work is lost, but some extracts 
 from it preserved in Photius. 3. An ethical work 
 on justice, on reverence towards the gods, parents, 
 relations, &c., which bore the title Ta (pi\o(ro(t>o{i- 
 
 HIKRON. 
 
 /xeva. This work is also lost, but there are several 
 extracts from it in Stobaeus. The extant work, en- 
 titled 'AcTcm, a collection of ludicrous tales, is erro- 
 neously ascribed to Hierocles, the New Platonist, 
 The work is of no merit.^4. A Greek gramniiirian, 
 the author of an extant work, entitled 2,vu€!cS-r)/j.os^ 
 that is, The Travelling Companion, intended as a 
 handbook for travellers through the provinces of 
 the Eastern empire. It was perhaps written at the 
 beginning of the 6th century of our era. It con- 
 tains a list of 64 eparchiae or provinces of the East- 
 ern empire, and of 935 different towns, with brief 
 descriptions. Published by Wesseling, in Vcterum 
 Romanorum Itineraria^ Amsterdam, 1735. 
 
 Hieron (^Upav). 1. Tyrant of Syracuse (b. c. 
 478 — 467), was son of Dinomenes and brother of 
 Gelon, whom he succeeded in the sovereignty. In 
 the early part of his reign he became involved in 
 a war with Theron of Agrigentum, who had 
 espoused the cause of his brother Polyzelus, with 
 whom he had quarrelled. But Hieron afterwards 
 concluded a peace with Theron, and became recon- 
 ciled to his brother Polyzelus. After the death 
 of Theron, in 472, he carried on war against his 
 son Thrasydaeus, whom he defeated in a great 
 battle, and expelled from Agrigentum. But by far 
 the most important event of his reign was the great 
 victory which he obtained over the Etruscan fleet 
 near Cumae (474), and which appears to have 
 effectually broken the naval power of that nation. 
 Hieron died at Catana in the 1 2th year of his 
 reign, 467. His government was much more de- 
 spotic than that of his brother Gelon. He main- 
 tained a large guard of mercenary troops, and 
 employed numerous spies and informers. He was 
 however a liberal and enlightened patron of men of 
 letters ; and his court became the resort of .the 
 most distinguished poets and philosophers of the 
 da3^ Aeschylus, Pindar, and Bacchylides touk 
 up their abode with him, and we find him asso- 
 ciating in friendly intercourse with Xeiiophanes, 
 Epicharmus, and Simonides. His intimacy with 
 the latter was particularly celebrated, and has been 
 made tlie subject by Xenophon of an imaginary 
 dialogue, entitled the Hieron. His love of magnifi- 
 cence was especially displayed in the great contests 
 of the Grecian games, and his victories at Olympia 
 and Delphi have been immortalised by Pindar. — 
 2. King of Syracuse (e.g. 270—216), was the son 
 of Hierocles, a noble Syracusan, descended from 
 the great Gelon, but his mother was a female ser- 
 vant. When Pyrrhus left Sicily (275), Hieron, 
 who had distinguished himself in the wars of that 
 monarch, was declared general by the Syracusan 
 ai'my. He strengthened his power by marrj'ing 
 the daughter of Leptines, at that time the most 
 influential citizen at Syracuse ; and after his defeat 
 of the Mamertines, he was saluted by his fellow- 
 citizens with the title of king, 270, It was the 
 great object of Hieron to expel the Mamertines 
 from Sicily ; and accordingly when the Romans, 
 in 264, interposed in favour of that people, Hieron 
 concluded an alliance with the Carthaginians, and, 
 in conjunction with them, carried on war against 
 the Romans. But having been defeated by the 
 Romans, he concluded a peace with them in the 
 following year (263), in virtue of which he re- 
 tained possession of the whole S. E. of Sicily, and 
 the E. side of the island as ftir as Tauroraenium. 
 From this time till his death, a period of little less 
 than half a centuiy, Hieron continued the stedfast 
 
HIERONYMUS. 
 friend and ally of the Romans, a policy of whicli 
 his subjects as Tvell as himself reaped the benefits, 
 in the enjoyment of a state of uninterrupted tran- 
 quillity and prosperity. Even the heavy losses 
 which the Romans sustained in the lirst 3 years of 
 the 2nd Punic war did not shake his fidelity ; and 
 after their great defeats, he sent them large supplies 
 of com and auxiliary troops. He died in216atthe 
 age of 92. His government was mild and equitable ; 
 though he did not refuse the title of king, he 
 avoided all external display of the insignia of 
 royalty, and appeared in public in the garb of a 
 private citizen. The care he bestowed upon the 
 financial department of his administration is attested 
 by the laws regulating the tithes of corn and other 
 agricultural produce, which, under the name oiLeges 
 Hierotiicae, were retained by the Romans when 
 they reduced Sicily to a province. He adorned the 
 city of Syracuse with many public works. His 
 power and magnificence were celebrated by Theo- 
 critus in his 16th Idyll. Hieron had only one son, 
 Gelon, who died shortly before his father. He was 
 succeeded by his grandson, Hieronymua. 
 
 Hieronymtis {'Upuwiios). 1. Of Cardia, pro- 
 bably accompanied Alexander the Great to Asia, 
 and after the death of that monarch (b. c. 323) 
 served under his countryman Eumenes. In the last 
 battle between Eumenes and Antigonus (316) Hiero- 
 nymus fell into the hands of Antigonus, who 
 treated him with kindness, and to whose service he 
 henceforth attached himself. After the death of 
 Antigonus (301), Hieronymus continued to follow 
 the fortunes of his son Demetrius, and was ap- 
 pointed by the latter governor of Boeotia, after his 
 first conquest of Thebes, 292. He continued un- 
 shaken in bis attachment to Demetrius and to his 
 son, Antigonus Gonatus, after l)im. It appears 
 that he survived Pyrrhus, and died at the advanced 
 age of 104. Hieronymus wrote a history of the 
 events from the death of Alexander to that of 
 PjTrhus, if not later. This work has not come 
 down to us, but it is frequently cited by later 
 writers as one of the chief authorities for the history 
 of Alexander's successors. We are told that Hiero- 
 nymus displayed partiality to Antigonus and De- 
 metrius, and in consequence treated Pyrrhus and 
 Lysimachus with great injustice. ^2. King of 
 Syracuse, succeeded his grandfather, Hieron JI., 
 B.C. 216, at 15 years of age. He was persuaded 
 by the Carthaginian party to renounce the alliance 
 with the Romans, which his grandfather had main- 
 tained for so many years. He was assassinated 
 after a short reign of only 13 months.— 3. Of 
 Rhodes, commonly called a peripatetic, though 
 Cicero questions his right to the title, was a disciple 
 of Aristotle, and appears to have lived down to the 
 time of Ptolemy Philadelphus. He held the highest 
 good to consist in freedom from pain and trouble, 
 and denied that pleasure was to be sought for its 
 own sake.— 4. Commonly known as Saint Jerome, 
 one of the most celebrated of the Christian fathers, 
 was born at Stridon, a town upon the confines of 
 Dalmatia and Pannonia, about A. D. 340. His 
 father sent him to Rome for the prosecution of his 
 studies, where he devoted himself with great ardour 
 and success to the Greek and Latin languages, to 
 rhetoric and to the different branches of philo- 
 sophy enjoying the instructions of the most distin- 
 guishe'd preceptors of that era, among whom was 
 Aelius Donatus. [Donatus.] After completing 
 bis studies he went to Gaul, where he remained 
 
 HILARIUS. 
 
 321 
 
 some time, and subsequently travelled through 
 various countries in the E. At Antioch he was 
 attickcd by a dangerous malady, and on his re- 
 covery he resolved to withdraw from the world. 
 In 374 he retired to the desert of Chalcis, lying 
 between Antioch and the Euphrates, where he 
 passed 4 j'ears, adhering strictly to the most rigid 
 observances of monkish ascetism, but at the same 
 time pursuing the study of Hebrew. In 379 he 
 was ordained a presbyter at Antioch by Paulinus. 
 Soon after he went to Constantinople, where he lived 
 for 3 years, enjoying the instructions and friend- 
 ship of Gregory of Nazianzus. In 382 he accom- 
 panied Paulinus to Rome, where he formed a close 
 friendship with the Pope Damasus. He remained 
 at Rome 3 years, and there laboured in pro- 
 claiming the glory and merit of a contemplative 
 life and monastic discipline. He had many enthu- 
 siastic disciples among the Roman ladies, but the 
 influence which he exercised over them excited the 
 hatred of their relations, and exposed him to at- 
 tacks against his character. Accordingly he left 
 Rome in 385, having lost his patron Damasus in 
 the preceding year ; and accompanied by the rich 
 widow Paula, her daughter Eustochium, and a 
 number of devout maidens, he made a tour of the 
 Holy Land, and finally settled at Bethlehem, where 
 Paula erected 4 monasteries, 3 for nuns and 1 for 
 monks. Here he passed the remainder of his 
 life. He died A. D. 420. — Jerome wrote a great 
 number of works, most of which have come down 
 to us. Of these the most celebrated are his Com- 
 mentaries on the various books of the Scriptures. 
 He also translated into Latin the Old and New 
 Testaments : his translation is in substance the 
 Latin version of the Scriptures, known by the name 
 of the Vulgate. The translation of the Old Testa- 
 ment was made by Jerome directly from the He- 
 brew ; but the translation of the New Testament 
 was formed by him out of the old translations care- 
 fully corrected from the original Greek. Jerome 
 likewise translated from the Greek the Chronicle 
 of Eusebius, which he enlarged, chiefly in the de- 
 partment of Roman history, and brought down to 
 A.D. 378. Jerome was the most learned of the 
 Latin fathers. His profound knowledge of the 
 Latin, Greek, and Hebrew languages, his familiarity 
 with ancient history and philosophy, and his per- 
 sonal acquaintance with the manners and scenery 
 of the East, enabled him to throw much light upon 
 the Scriptures. In his controversial works he is 
 vehement and dogmatical. His language is exceed- 
 ingly pure, bearing ample testimony to the diligence 
 with which he must have studied the choicest 
 models. The best editions of the works of Jerome 
 are the Benedictine, Par. 5 vols. fol. 1693 — 1706, 
 
 and that by Vallarsi, Veron. 11 vols. fol. 1734 
 
 1742; reprinted Venet. 11 vols. 4to. 1766. 
 
 Hierosolyma. [Jeru.salkm.] 
 
 Hilarius. 1. A Christian writer, was born of 
 pagan parents at Poitiers. He afterwards became 
 a Christian, and was elected bishop of his native 
 place, A.D. 350. From this time he devoted all 
 his energies to check the progress of Arianism, 
 which was making rapid strides in Gaul. He be- 
 came so troublesome to the Arians, that they 
 induced the emperor Constantius in 356 to banish 
 him to Phrygia. He was allowed to return to Gaul 
 about 361, and died in his diocese in 368. Several 
 of his works have come down to us. They consist 
 chiefly of polemical treatises against the Arians 
 
322 HILLEVIONES. 
 
 and addresses to the emperor Constantius, The 
 best edition of his works is by CoQstant, Paris, 
 1603. forming one of the Benedictine series, and re- 
 printed by ScipioMaffeijVeron.. 1730. — 2. Bishop 
 of Aries, succeeded liis master Honoratus in that 
 diocese, a.d. 429, and died in 449. He wrote the 
 life of Honoratus and a few other works. 
 Hilleviones. [Germania, p. 282, a.] 
 Himera ('I/ie'pa) 1. ( Flume Saiso), one of the 
 principal rivers in the S. of Sicily, at one time the 
 boundary between the territories of the Carthagi- 
 nians and Syracusans, receives ne:ir Enna the water 
 of a salt spring, and hence has salt water as far as 
 its mouth. ^2. A smaller river in the N. of Sicily, 
 flows into the sea between the towns of Himera 
 and Thermae. ■— 3. {'liiepaios), a celebrated Greek 
 city on the N. coast of Sicily, W. of the mouth of 
 the river Himera [No. 2.], was founded by the 
 Cbalcidians of Zancle, B. c. 648, and afterwards 
 received Dorian settlers, so that the inhabitants 
 spoke a mixed dialect, partly Ionic (Chalcidian) 
 and partly Doric. About 560 Himera, being 
 threatened by its powerful neighbours, placed itself 
 under the protection of Phalaris, tyrant of Agri- 
 gentum, in whose power it appears to have re- 
 mained till his death. Atalatertime (500) we find 
 Himera governed by a tyrant Terillus, who was 
 expelled by Theron of Agrigentum. Terillus there- 
 upon applied for assistance to the Carthaginians, 
 ■who, anxious to extend tlieir influence in Sicily, 
 sent a powerful army into Sicily under the com- 
 mand of Hamilcar. The Carthaginians were de- 
 feated with great slaughter at Himera by the united 
 forces of Theron and Gelon of Syracuse on the same 
 day as the battle of Salamis was fought (480). 
 Himera was now governed by Thrasydaeus, the 
 son of Theron, in the name of his father ; but the 
 inhabitants having attempted to revolt, Theron put 
 to death or drove into exile a considerable part of 
 the population, and repeopled the city with settlers 
 from all quartei-s, but especially of Dorian origin. 
 After the death of Theron (4 72), Himera recovered 
 its independence, and for the next 60 years was 
 one of the most flourishing cities in Sicily. It as- 
 sisted Syracuse against the Athenians in 415. In 
 409 it was taken by Hannibal, the son of Gisgo, 
 ■who, to revenge the great defeat which the Car- 
 thaginians had suffered before this town, levelled 
 it to the ground and destroyed almost all the inha- 
 bitants. Hiraera was never rebuilt ; but on the 
 opposite bank of the river Himera, the Carthaginians 
 founded a new town, which, from a warm medicinal 
 spring in its neighbourhood, was called Tbtenriae 
 (&spfj.ai: ©ep/ttrr/s, Thermitanus ; Termini.) Here 
 the remains of the unfortunate inhabitants of Hi- 
 mera were allowed to settle. The Romans, who 
 highly prized the warm springs of Thermae, per- 
 mitted the town to retain its own constitution; and 
 Augustus made it a colony. — The poet Stesichonas 
 ■was born at the ancient Himera, and the tyrant 
 Agathocles at Thermae. 
 
 Himerius ('I^uepios), a celebrated Greek sophist, 
 was bom at Prusa in Bithynia, and studied at 
 Athens. He was subsequently appointed professor 
 of rhetoric at Athens, where he gave instruction to 
 Julian, afterwards emperor, ^nd the celebrated 
 Christian writers, Basil and Gregory Nazianzen. 
 In 362 the emperor .Julian invited him to his court 
 at Antioch, and made him his secretary. He re- 
 turned t^ Athens in 368, and there passed the 
 remainder of his life. Himerius was a pagan ; but 
 
 HIPPARCHUS. 
 
 he does not manifest in his writings any animosity 
 against the Christians. There were extant in the 
 time of Photius 71 orations by Himerius; but of 
 these only 24 have come down to us complete. 
 Edited by "Wernsdorf, Gottingen, 1790. 
 
 Himilco {'l/xi\Kwv). X. A Carthaginian, -who 
 conducted a voyage of discovery from Gades to- 
 wards the N., along the W. shores of Europe, at 
 the same time that Hanno undertook his voyage to 
 theS. along the coast of Africa. [Hanno, No. 10.] 
 Himilco represented that his further progress was 
 prevented by the stagnant nature of the sea, 
 loaded with sea weed, and by the absence of wind. 
 His voyage is said to have lasted 4 months, but it 
 is impossible to judge how far it was extended. 
 Perhaps it was intentionally wrapt in obscurity by 
 the commercial jealousy of the Carthaginians. ^ 2. 
 Son of Hanno, commanded, together with Hannibal, 
 son of Gisco [Hannibal, No. 1.], a Carthaginian 
 army in Sicily, and laid siege to Agrigentum, b. c. 
 406. Hannibal died before Agrigentum of a pes- 
 tilence, wiiich broke out in the camp ; and Himilco, 
 now left sole general, succeeded in taking the place, 
 after a siege of nearly 8 months. At a later period 
 he carried on war against Dionysius of Syracuse. 
 In 395 he defeated Dionysius, and laid siege to 
 Syracuse ; but, while pressing the siege of the city, 
 a pestilence carried off a great number of his men. 
 In this weakened condition, Himilco was attacked 
 and defeated by Dionysius, and was obliged to 
 purchase his safety by an ignominious capitulation. 
 Such was his grief and disappointment at this 
 termination to the campaign, that, on his return 
 to Carthage, he put an end to his life by vo- 
 luntary abstinence. ^3. The Carthaginian com- 
 mander at Lilybaeum, which he defended with 
 skill and bravery, when it was attacked by the 
 Romans, 250.— 4. Commander of the Carthaginian 
 forces in Sicily during a part of the 2nd Punic 
 war, 214 — 212. — 5. Surnamed Phamaeas, com- 
 mander of the Carthaginian caviilry in the 3rd 
 Punic war. He deserted to the Romans, by 
 whom he was liberally rewarded. 
 
 Hippana (to "iTnrava)^ a town in the N, of 
 Sicily near Panorraus. 
 
 Hipparchia ('linrapx^^), wife of Crates the 
 Cynic. [For details, see Crates, No. 3.] 
 
 Hipparchus Clinrapxos). 1. Son of Pisistratus. 
 [PisiSTRATiDAE.] — 2. A celebrated Greek astro- 
 nomer, was a native of Nicaea in Bithynia, and 
 flourished b. c. 160 — 145. He resided both at 
 Rhodes and Alexandria. He was the true father 
 of astronomy, which he raised to that rank among 
 the applications of arithmetic and geometry which 
 it has always since preserved. He was the first 
 who gave and demonstrated the means of solving 
 all triangles, rectilinear and spherical. He con- 
 structed a table of chords, of which he made the 
 same sort of use as we make of our sines. He 
 made more observations than his predecessors, and 
 understood them better. He invented the plani- 
 sphere, or the mode of representing the starry 
 heavens upon a plane, and of producing the solu- 
 tions of problems of spherical astronomy. He is 
 also the father of true geography, by his happy 
 idea of marking the position of spots on the earth, 
 as was done with the stars, by circles drawn from 
 the pole perpendicularly to the equator; that is, 
 by latitudes and longitudes. His method of eclipses 
 was the only one by which differences of meridians 
 could be determined. Tiie catalogue which Hip- 
 
HIPPARINUS. 
 
 parclms constructed of the stars is preserved in the 
 Almagest of Ptolemy. Hipparchus wrote nume- 
 rous works, which are all lost with the exception 
 of his commentary on the phenomena of Aratus. 
 
 Hipparinus {'linrap'ipos), 1. A Syracusan, 
 father of Dion and Arlstoraache, supported the 
 elder Dionyslus, v/ho married his daughter Aristo- 
 mache. — 2. Son of Dion, and grandson of the pre- 
 ceding, threw himself from the roof of a house, and 
 was killed on tlie spot, when his father attempted, 
 hy restraint, to cure liim of the dissolute habits 
 which he had acquired wliile under the power of 
 Dionysius. ~ 3. Son of the elder Dionysius by 
 Aristoraache, daughter of No. 1, succeeded Cal- 
 lippus in the tyranny of Syracuse, b. c. 352. He 
 was assajisinated, after reigning only 2 years. 
 
 Hipparis {'lirirafiis: Camanna), a liver in the S. 
 of Sicily, which flows into tlie sea near Camarina. 
 
 Hippasus (*'l7nra(ros), of Metapontum or Croton, 
 in Italy, one of the elder Pythagoreans, held the 
 element of fire to be the cause of all things. In 
 consequence of his making known the sphere, 
 consisting of 12 pentagons, which was regarded 
 by the Pythagoreans as a secret, he is said to 
 have perished in the sea as an impious man. 
 
 Hippia and HippiUS (Jlinria and "Ijririos, or 
 "iTTTretos), in Latin Etjuester sLiid. Equestris^ surnames 
 of several divinities, as of Hera and Athena, of 
 Poseidon and of Ares ; and at Kome also of Fortuna 
 and Venus. 
 
 Hippias ('iTTTrias). 1. Son of Pisistratus. [Pi- 
 siSTRATiDAE.] ^2. The Sophist, was a native of 
 Elis, and the contemporary of Socrates. His fel- 
 low-citizens availed themselves of his abilities in 
 political matters, and sent him on a diplomatic mission 
 to Sparta. But lie was in eveiy respect like the 
 other sophists of the time. He travelled through 
 Greece for the purpose of acquiring wealth and ce- 
 lebrity, by teaching and public speaking. His cha- 
 racter as a sophist, his vanity, and his boastful ar- 
 rogance, are well described in the 2 dialogues of 
 Plato, Ilippiasmajoraxid Hippias minor. Though 
 his knowledge was superficial, yet it appears that he 
 had paid attention not onl}"- to rhetorical, philosophi- 
 cal, and political studies, but also to poetry, music, 
 mathematics, painting and sculpture ; and he must 
 even have acquired some practical skill in the me- 
 chanical arts, as he used to boast of wearing on his 
 body nothing that he had not made with his own 
 hands, such as his seal-ring, his cloak, and shoes. 
 He possessed great facility in extempore speaking ; 
 and once his vanity led him to declare that he 
 would travel to Olympia, and there deliver before 
 the assembled Greeks an oration on any subject 
 that might be proposed to him. 
 
 Hippo ('IttttcJi'), in Africa. 1. E. Eegius ('I. 
 ffaa-ikiKos : nr. Bonah^ Ru.), a city on the coast of 
 Numidia, W. of the mouth of the Rubricatus ; 
 once a royal residence, and afterwards celebrated 
 as the bishopric of St. Augustine. — 2. H. Diarrhy- 
 tus or Zaritus ('I. didp^vros : Bizerta), a city on 
 the N. coast of the Carthaginian territory (Zeugi- 
 tana) W. of Utica, at the mouth of the Sinus 
 HipponensIs.^S. A town of the Carpetani in 
 Hispania Tarraconensis, S. of Toletum. 
 
 Hippocentauri [Centauri.] 
 
 HippOCOCn {'iTTTroKocny), son of Oebalus and 
 Batea. After his father's death, he expelled his 
 brother Tyndareus, in order to secure the kingdom 
 to himself; but Hercules led Tyndareus back, and 
 alew Hippocoon and his sons. Ovid {Met. viii. 
 
 HIPPOCRATES. 
 
 323 
 
 314) mentions the sons of Hippocoon among the 
 Calydonian hunters. 
 
 Hippocrates {'iTnroKpdrrjs). 1, Father of Pi- 
 sistratus, the tyrant of Athens. — 2. An Athenian, 
 son of Megacles, was brotlier of Clisthenes, the legis- 
 lator, and grandfather, through his daughter Aga- 
 riste, of the illustrious Pericles. ^ 3, An Athenian, 
 son of Xanthippus and brother of Pericles. He 
 had 3 sons who, as well as their father, are alluded 
 to by Aristophanes, as men of a mean capacity, and 
 devoid of education. -^4. An Athenian, son of 
 Ariphron, commanded the Athenians, b. c. 424, 
 when he was defeated and slain by the Boeo- 
 tians at the battle of Delium.^5. A Lacedae- 
 monian, served under Mindanis on the Asiatic 
 coast in 410, and after the defeat of Mindams at 
 Cyzicus, became commander of the fleet. — 6. A 
 Sicilian, succeeded his brother Oleander, as tyrant 
 of Gela, 498. His reign was prosperous ; and he 
 extended his power over several other cities of 
 Sicily. He died in 491, while besieging Hybla,— 
 7. A Sicilian, brother of Epicydes. ^ 8. The 
 most celebrated physician of antiquity. He was 
 born in the island of Cos about b. c. 460. He be- 
 longed to the family of the Asclepiadae, and was 
 the son of Heraclides, who was also a physician. 
 His mother's name was Phaenarete, who was said 
 to be descended from Hercules. He was instructed 
 in medical science by his father and by Herodicus, 
 and he is said to have been also a pupil of Gorgias 
 of Leontini. He wrote, taught, and practised his 
 profession at home ; travelled in different parts of 
 the continent of Greece ; and died at Larissa in 
 Thessaly, about 357, at the age of 104. He had 
 2 sons, Thessalus and Dracon, and a son-in-law. 
 Poly bus, all of whom followed the same profession, 
 and who are supposed to have been the authors of 
 some of the works in the Hippocratic collection. 
 These are the only certain facts which we know re- 
 specting the life of Hippocrates ; but to these later 
 writers have added a large collection of stories, 
 many of which are clearly fabulous. Thus he is 
 said to have stopped the plague at Athens by burn- 
 ing fires throughout the city, by suspending chaplets 
 of flowers, and by the use of an antidote. It is 
 also related that Artaxerxes Lorigimanus, king of 
 Persia, invited Hippocrates to come to his as- 
 sistance during a time of pestilence, but that Hip- 
 pocrates refused his request, on the ground of his 
 being the enemy of his country. — The writings 
 which have come down to us under the name of 
 Hippocrates were composed by several different 
 persons, and are of very different merit. They are 
 more than (jO in number, but of these only a few 
 are certainly genuine. They are: — 1. Ufjoypw- 
 (TTiKov^ PraenoHones or Prognosiicon. 2. 'A<|>o- 
 pia-fxai^ Aphonsmi. 3. 'ETriSTj^iwi' BigA/a, De Mor- 
 his PopulaHhus {or Epidemioruin). 4. Ilepi Aiof- 
 T7JS 'O^e'wr, De Ratione Victus in Morhis Acutis^ 
 or De Diaeia Acutorum, 5. Ilepl 'Aepw;/, *T5a- 
 Twc, TSiTtav, De Acre, Aqiiis, et Locis. 6. Ilepl 
 Tojy eV Ke(pa\ij Tpufidnav^ De Capitis Vulnenbus. 
 Some of the other works were perhaps written bv 
 Hippocrates ; but the great majority of thera werV 
 composed by his disciples and followers, many of 
 whom bore the name of Hippocrates. The ancient 
 physicians wrote numerous commentaries on the 
 works in the Hippocratic collection. Of these the 
 moat valuable are the commentaries of Galen.— Hip- 
 pocrates divided the causes of disease into 2 prin- 
 cipal classes ; the one comnrehpTiflirKT thp inflii»Ti/.ii 
 
324 
 
 HTPPOCRENE. 
 
 of seasons, climates, water, situation, &c., and the 
 otlier the influence offuod, exercise, &c. He con- 
 sidered that while heat and cold, moisture and 
 dryness, succeeded one another througliout the 
 j'ear, the human body underwent certain analogous 
 changes, which influenced the diseases of the period. 
 He supposed that the 4 fluids or humours of the 
 body (blood, phlegm, yellow bile, and black bile) 
 were the primary seat of disease ; that health was 
 the result of the due combination (or crasis) of 
 these, and that, when this crasis was disturbed, 
 disease was the consequence ; that, in the course 
 of a disorder that was proceeding favourably, these 
 humours imderwent a certain change in quality (or 
 coction)^ which was the sign of returning health, as 
 preparing the way for the expulsion of the morbid 
 matter, or crisis ; and that these crises had a ten- 
 dency to occur at certain stated periods, which 
 were hence called "critical days." — Hippocrates 
 was evidently a person who not only liad had 
 great experience, but who also knew how to turn 
 it to the best account ; and the number of moral 
 reflections and apophthegms that we meet with 
 in his writings, some of which (as, for example, 
 " Life is short, and Art is long ") have acquired a 
 sort of proverbial notoriety, show him to have 
 been a profound thinker. His works are written 
 in the Ionic dialect, and the style is so concise as 
 to be sometimes extremely obscure. — The best 
 edition of his works is by Littr^, Paris, 1839, seq., 
 with a French translation. 
 
 Hippocrene ('iTrn-ofcpTjcT?), the " Fountain of 
 the Horse,*" called by Persius Fons CabalUnus^ was 
 a fountain in Mt. Helicon in Boeotia, sacred to the 
 Muses, said to have been produced by the horse 
 Pegasus striking the ground with his feet. 
 
 Hippodamia ('iTTTroSajueia). L Daughter of 
 Oenomaus, king of Pisa in Elis. For details see 
 Oenomaus and Pelops. — 2. Wife of Pirithous, 
 at whose nuptials took place the celebrated battle 
 between the Centaurs and Lapithae. For details 
 see Pirithous. — 3. See Briseis. 
 
 Hippodamus {^iTnTo^a^ios)^ a distinguished 
 Greek architect, a native of Miletus, and the son 
 of Euryphon or Eurycoon. His fame rests on his 
 construction, not of single buildings, but of whole 
 cities. His first great work was the town of Pi- 
 raeus, which he built under the auspices of Pericles. 
 When the Athenians founded their colony of 
 Thurii (b. c. 443), Hippodamus went out with the 
 colonists, and was the architect of the new city. 
 Hence he is often called a Thurian. He after- 
 wards built Rhodes (408—407). 
 
 Hippoloclms ('ijnrf^Aoxoj), son of Bellero- 
 phontes and Philonoe or Anticlea, and father of 
 Glaucus, the Lycian prince. 
 
 Hippolyte ('iTriroXuTT?). 1. Daughter of Ares 
 and Otrera, was queen of the Amazons, and sister 
 of Antiope and Melanippe. She wore a girdle 
 given to her by her father ; and when Hercules 
 came to fetch this girdle, she was slain by Hercules. 
 [See p. 309, b,] According to another tradition, 
 Hippolyte, with an army of Amazons, marched 
 into Attica, to take vengeance on Theseus for hav- 
 ing carried ofl^ Antiope ; but being conquered by 
 Theseus, she fled to Megara, where she died of 
 grief, and was buried. In some accounts Hippolyte, 
 and not Antiope, is said to have been married to 
 Theseus, ^ 2. Or Astydamia, wife of Acastus, 
 fell in love with Peleus. See Acastup. 
 
 Hippolytus ('iTTTTtiAuTos). 1. Son of Theseus 
 
 HIPPONAX. 
 
 by Hippolyte, queen of the Amazons, or her sister 
 Antiope. Theseus afterwards married Phaedra, 
 who fell in love with Hippolytus ; but as her 
 offers were rejected by her step-son, she accused 
 him to his father of having attempted her dishonour. 
 Theseus thereupon cursed his son, and requested 
 his father (Aegeus or Poseidon) to destroy him. 
 Accordingly, as Hippolytus was riding in his 
 chariot along the sea-coast, Poseidon sent forth a 
 bull from the water. The horses were frightened, 
 upset the chariot, and dragged Hippolytus along 
 the ground till he was dead. Theseus afterwards 
 learned the innocence of his son, and Phaedra, in 
 despair, made away with herself. Artemis induced 
 Aesculapius to restore Hippolytus to life again ; 
 and, according to Italian traditions, Artemis (Diana) 
 placed him, under the name of Virbius, under the 
 protection of the nymph Egeria, in the grove of 
 Aricia, in Latium, where he was honoured with 
 divine worship. Horace, following the more an- 
 cient tradition, says that Diana could not restore 
 Hippolytus to life {Carm. iv. 7. 25). ^ 2. An early- 
 ecclesiastical writer of considerable eminence, but 
 whose real history is very uncertain. He appears 
 to have lived early in the 3rd century ; and is said 
 to have suffered martyrdom under Alexander Se- 
 verus, being dro\vned in a ditch or pit full of water. 
 Others suppose that he perished in the Decian per- 
 secution. He is said to have been a disciple of 
 Irenaeus and a teacher of Origen. — His works, 
 which are written in Greek, are edited by Fa- 
 bricius, Hamb. 1716—1718, 2 vols. fol. 
 
 Hippomedon ('linrofj.4dtuv), son of Aristomachus, 
 or, according to Sophocles, of Talaus, was one of 
 the Seven against Thebes, where he was slain 
 during the siege by Hj-perbius or Ismarus. 
 
 HippSmenes {'lTnrofj.4vi]s). 1. Son of Mega- 
 reus, and great-grandson of Poseidon, conquered 
 Atalanta in the foot-race. For details see Ata- 
 LANTA, No. 2.-2. A descendant of Codrus, the 
 4th and last of the decennial archons. Incensed 
 at the barbarous punishment which he inflicted on 
 his daughter, the Attic nobles deposed him. 
 
 Hippon ("Ittttwi'), of Rhegium, a philosopher of 
 uncertain date, belonging to the Ionian school. He 
 was accused of Atheism, and so got the surname of 
 the Melian, as agreeing in sentiment with Diago- 
 ras. He held water and fire to be the principles 
 of all things, the latter springing from the former, 
 and developing itself by generating the universe. 
 
 Hipponax ('iTTTrciro^). Of Ephesus, son of 
 Pytheus and Protis, was, after Archilochus and 
 Simonides, the 3rd of the Iambic poets of Greece. 
 He flourished b. c. 54 6 — 520. He was distinguished 
 for his love of liberty, and having been expelled 
 from his native city by the tyrants, he took up his 
 abode at Clazomenae, for which reason he is some- 
 times called a Clazomenian. In person, Hipponax 
 was little, thin, and ugly, but very strong. The 2 
 brothers Bupalus and Athenis, who were sculptors 
 of Chios, made statues of Hipponax, in which they 
 caricatured his natural ugliness ; and he in return 
 directed all the power of his satirical poetry 
 against them, and especially against Bupalus. 
 (Hor. Fpod. vi. 14.) Later writers add that the 
 sculptors hanged themselves in despair. Hipponax 
 was celebrated in antiquity for the severity of his 
 satires. He severely chastised the effeminate lux- 
 ury of his Ionian brethren ; he did not spare his 
 own parents ; and he ventured even to ridicule 
 the gods. — In his satires he introduced a spondee 
 
HIPPONICUS- 
 
 or a trochee in the last foot, instead of an iamhua. 
 This change made the verse irregular in its rhythm, 
 and gave it a sort of halting movement, whence it 
 was called the Choliambus (xwAiajufftSs, Uime iam- 
 bic), or Iambus Scazon {(rKd(wv, limping). He 
 also wrote a parody on the Iliad. He may be said 
 to occupy a middle place between Archilochus and 
 Aristophanes. He is as bitter, but not so earnest, 
 as the former, while in lightness and jocoseness he 
 more resembles the latter. The fragments of Hip- 
 ponax are edited by Welcker, Getting. 1817, 8vo, 
 and by Bergk, in the Poctae Lyrici Graeci. 
 
 Hipponicus. [Callias and Hipponicus.] 
 
 Hipponium. [Vibo.] 
 
 Hipponous. [Bellerophon.] 
 
 Hippotades ('iTTTroTaSTjy), son of Hippotes, that 
 is, Aeolus. [Aeolus, No. 2.] Hince the Aeoliae 
 Insulae are called Hippotadac rcgaum. (Ov. Met. 
 xiv. 06.) 
 
 Hippotes ('lTr7r(jTT7s). 1. Father of Aeolus. 
 [Aeolu.s, No. 2.]— 2. Son of Phylas by a 
 daughter of lolaus, great-grandson of Hercules, and 
 father of Aletes. Wlien the Heraclidae invaded 
 Peloponnesus, Hippotes killed the seer Camus. 
 The army in consequence began to suffer very se- 
 verel}', and Hippotes by the command of an oracle 
 was banished for 10 years. 
 
 Hippothoon (^lir-KodSuv)^ an Attic hero, son of 
 Poseidon and Alope, the daughter of Cercyon. 
 He had a heroum at Athens ; and one of the Attic 
 phylae, or tribes, was called after him Hippothoontis. 
 
 Hippothous {'lTnr6Boos). 1. Son of Cercyon, 
 and father of Aepytus, succeeded Agapenor as 
 king in Arcadia. ^ 2. Son of Lethus, grandson of 
 Tcutamus, and brother of Pylaeus, led a band of 
 Pelasgians from Larissa to the assistance of the 
 Trojans. He was slain by the Telaraonian Ajax. 
 
 Hirpini, a Samnite people, whose name is said 
 to come from the Sabine word hirpus, " a wolf," 
 dwelt in the S. of Saranium between Apulia, 
 Lucania and Campania. Their chief town was 
 Aeculanum. 
 
 A. Hirtius, belonged to a plebeian family, which 
 came probably from Ferentinum in the teiritory of 
 the Hernici. He was the personal and political 
 friend of Caesar the dictator. In b. c. 58 he was 
 Caesar's legatus in Gaul, and during the Civil War 
 his name constantly appears in Cicero's correspon- 
 dence. He was one of the 10 praetors nominated 
 by Caesar for 46, and during Caesar's absence in 
 Africa he lived principally at liis Tusculan estate, 
 which was contiguous to Cicero's villa. Though 
 politically opposed, they were on friendly terms, and 
 Cicero gave Hirtius lessons in oratory. In 44 Hirtius 
 received Belgic Gaul for his province, but he go- 
 verned it by deputy, and attended Caesar at Rome, 
 who nominated him and Vibiua Pansa, consuls for 
 43. After Caesar's assassination (44) Hirtius first 
 joined Antony, but being disgusted by the despotic 
 arrogance of the latter, he retired to Puteoli, where 
 he renewed his intercourse with Cicero. Later in 
 the year he resided at his Tusculan villa, where he 
 was attacked by a dangerous illness, from which he 
 never perfectly recovered. On the 1st of January, 
 43, Hirtius and Pansa entered on their consulship, 
 according to Caesar's arrangement. The 2 consuls 
 were sent along with Octavian, against Antony, 
 who was besieging Dec. Brutus at Mutina. Pansa 
 was defeated by Antony, and died of a wound which 
 he had received in the battle. Hirtius retrieved this 
 disaster by defeating Antony, but he also fell on the 
 
 HISPANIA. 
 
 325 
 
 27th of April, in leading an assault on the besieger's 
 camp. Octavian sent the bodies of the slain consuls 
 to Rome, where they were received with extraor- 
 dinary honours, and publicly buried in the Field of 
 Mars. To Octavian their removal from the scene 
 was so timely, that he was accused by many of 
 murdering them. Hirtius divides with Oppius the 
 claim to the authorship of the 8th book of the 
 Gallic war, as well as that of the Alexandrian, 
 African, and Spanish, It is not impossible that he 
 wrote the 3 first, but he certainly did not write 
 the Spanish war, 
 
 Hirtuleius, a distinguished general of Sertorius 
 in Spain. In b. c. 78 he was routed and slain near 
 Italica in Baetica by Metellus. 
 
 Hispalis, more rarely Hispal {Se.viUe)^ a town 
 of the Turdetani in Hispania Baetica, founded bv 
 the Phoenicians, was situated on the left bank of 
 the Baetis, and was in reality a seaport, for, 
 although 500 stadia from the sea, the river is na- 
 vigable for the hirgest vessels up to the town. 
 Under the Romans Hispalis was the 3rd town in 
 the province, Corduba and Gades being the 2 first. 
 It was patronised by Caesar, because Corduba had 
 espoused the side of Pompey. He made it a Roman 
 colony, under the name at' Julia Komula or Romu- 
 lensis^ and a conventus juridlcus or town of assize. 
 Under the Goths and Vandals Hispalis was the 
 chief town in the S. of Spain, and under the Arabs 
 was the capital of a separate kingdom. 
 
 Hispania or Iberia ('IcTTraWo, 'iSripia : Hispa- 
 nus, Iberus: Spain), a peninsula in the S.W. of 
 Europe, is connected with the land only on the N,E., 
 where the Pyrenees form its boundary, and is sur- 
 rounded on all other sides by the sea, on the E. and 
 S. by the Mediterranean, on the W. by the Atlan- 
 tic, and on the N. by the Cantabrian sea. The 
 Greeks and Romans had no accurate knowledge of 
 the country till the time of the Roman invasion in 
 the 2nd Punic war. It wa? first mentioned by 
 Hecataeus (about b. c. 500) under the name of 
 Iberia ; but this name originally indicated only the 
 E. coast : the W. coast beyond the pillars of Her- 
 cules was called Tariessis {Taprrjffcris) ; and the 
 interior of the country Celtica (^ K€\tikt)). At a 
 later time the Greeks applied the name of Iberia, 
 which is usually derived from the river Iberus, to 
 the whole country. The name Hispania^ by which 
 the Romans call the countrj-, first occurs at the 
 time of the Roman invasion. It is usually derived 
 from the Punic word Spaii^ " a rabbit," on account 
 of the great number of rabbits which the Carthagi- 
 nians found in the Peninsula ; but others suppose 
 the name to be of native origin, and to be the same 
 as the Basque Ezpaiia, an edge or border. The 
 poets also called it I/eaperia, or, to distinguish it 
 from Italy, Hcsperia Ultima. Spain is a very moun- 
 tainous country. The principal mountains are, in 
 the N.E. the Pyrenees [Pyrenaeus M.], and in 
 the centre of the country the Idubeda, which 
 runs parallel with the Pyrenees from the land of 
 the Cantabri to the Mediterranean, and the Ohos- 
 PEi>A or Ortospeda, which begins in the centre 
 of the Idubeda, runs S.W. throughout Spain, and 
 terminates at Cnlpe. The rivers of Spain- are nu- 
 merous. The 6 most important are the Iberus 
 {Ebro), Baetis (Guadalqiiiver)^ and A nas {Gua- 
 diana), in the E. and S. ; and the Tagus, Dv- 
 Rius (Douro), and Mimvs (Minho), in theW. 
 Spain was considered by the ancients very fertile, but 
 more especially the S. part of the country. Raptira 
 
32() 
 
 HISPANIA. 
 
 and Lusitinia, which were also praised for their 
 splendid climate. The central and N. parts of the 
 country were less productive, and the climate in 
 these districts was very cold in winter. In the S. 
 there were numerous flocks of excellent sheep, the 
 wool of which was very celebrated in foreign 
 countries. The Spanish horses and asses were 
 also much valued in antiquity ; and on the coast 
 there was abundance of fish. The country pro- 
 duced a great quantity of com, oil, wine, flax, figs, 
 and other fruits. But the principal riches of the 
 country consisted in its mineral prodactions, of 
 which the greatest quantity was found in Turdc- 
 tania. Gold was found in abundance in various 
 parts of the country ; and there were many silvrr 
 mines, of which the most celebrated were near 
 Carthago Nova, Ilipa, Sisapon, and Castulo. Tlie 
 precious stones, copper, lead, tin, and other metals, 
 were also found in more or less abundance, — The 
 most ancient inhabitants of Spain were the Iberi, 
 who, as a separate people, must be distinguished 
 from the Iberi, a collective name of all the inha- 
 bitants of Spain. The Iberi dwelt on both sides 
 of the Pyrenees, and were found in the S. of Gaul, 
 as far as the Rhone. Celts afterwards crossed the 
 Pyrenees, and became mingled with the Iberi, 
 "whence arose the mixed race of the Celtiberi, who 
 dwelt chiefly in the high table land in the centre 
 of the country. [Celtiberi.] But besides this 
 mixed race of the Celtiberi, there were also several 
 tribes, both of Iberians and Celts, who were never 
 united with one another. The unmixed Iberians, 
 from whom the modem Basques are descended, 
 dwelt chiefly in the Pyrenees and on the coasts, 
 and their most distinguished tribes were the Astu- 
 RES, Cantabri, Vaccaei, &c. The unmixed 
 Celts dwelt chiefly on the river Anas, and in the 
 N.W. comer of the country or Gallaecia. Besides 
 these inhabitants, there were Phoenician and Car- 
 thaginian settlements on the coasts, of which the 
 most important were Gades and Carthago 
 Novo ; there were likewise Greek colonies, such 
 as Emportae and Saguntum ; and lastly the 
 conquest of the country by the Romans introduced 
 many Romans among the inhabitants, whose cus- 
 toms, civilisation, and language, gradually spread 
 over the whole peninsula, and effaced the national 
 characteristics of the ancient population. The 
 spread of the Latin language in Spain seems to 
 have been facilitated by the schools, established 
 by Sertorius, in which both the language and lite- 
 rature of Greece and Rome were taught. Under 
 the empire some of the most distinguished Latin 
 writers were natives of Spain, such as the 2 Se- 
 necas, Lucan, Martial, Quintilian, Silius Italicus, 
 Pomponius Mela, Prudentius, and others. The 
 ancient inhabitants of Spain were a proud, brave, 
 and warlike race ; easily excited and ready to take 
 oifence ; inveterate robbers ; moderate in the use 
 of food and wine ; fond of song and of the dance ; 
 lovers of their liberty, and ready at all times to 
 sacrifice their lives rather than submit to a foreign 
 master. The Cantabri and the inhabitants of the 
 mountains in the N. were the fiercest and most 
 uncivilised of all the tribes ; the Vaccaei and the 
 Turdetani were the most civilised ; and the latter 
 people were not only acquainted with the alphabet, 
 but possessed a literature which contained records of 
 their history, poems, and collections of laws com- 
 posed in verse. — The history of Spain begins with 
 the invasion of the country by the Carthaginian.^, 
 
 HISPANIA. 
 
 B. c. 238 ; for up to that time hardly any thing was 
 known of Spain except the existence of 2 powerful 
 commercial states in the W., Tartessi;s and Ga- 
 des. After the 1st Punic war Hamilcar, the son of 
 Hannibal, formed the plan of conquering Spain, in 
 order to obtain for the Carthaginians possessions 
 which might indemnify them for the loss of Sicily 
 and Sardinia. Under his command (238 — 229), 
 and that of his son-in-law and successor, Hasdru- 
 bal (228 — 221), the Carthaginians conquered the 
 greater part of the S.E. of the peninsula as far as 
 the Iberns ; and Hasdrubal founded the important 
 city of Carthago Nova. These successes of the 
 Carthaginians excited the jealousy of the Romans ; 
 and a treaty was made hetween the 2 nations about 
 228, by which the Carthaginians bound them- 
 selves not to cross the Iberus. The town of Sa- 
 guntum, althoxigh on the W. side of the river, was 
 under the protection of the Romans ; and the cap- 
 ture of this town by Hannibal in 219, was the 
 immediate cause of the 2nd Punic war. In the 
 course of this war the Romans drove the Cartha- 
 ginians out of the peninsula, and became masters 
 of their possessions in the S. of the country. But 
 many tribes in the centre of the country, which 
 had been only nominally subject to Carthage, 
 still retained their virtual independence ; and 
 the tribes in the N. and N. W. of the country 
 had been hitherto quite unknown both to the Car- 
 thaginians and Romans. There now arose a long 
 and bloody struggle between the Romans and the 
 various tribes in Spain, and it was nearly 2 cen- 
 turies before the Romans succeeded in subduing 
 entirely the whole of the peninsula. The Celti- 
 berians were conquered by the elder Cato (195), 
 and Tib. Gracchus, the father of the 2 tribunes 
 (179). The Lusitanians, who long resisted the 
 Romans under their brave leader Viriathus, were 
 obliged to submit, about the year 137, to D. Brutus, 
 who penetrated as far as Gallaecia ; but it was 
 not till Numantia was taken by Scipio Africanus 
 the younger, in 133, that the Romans obtained 
 the undisputed sovereignty over the various tribes 
 in the centre of the country, and of the Lusitanians 
 to the S. of the Tagus. Julius Caesar, after his 
 praetorship, subdued the Lusitanians N. of the 
 Tagus (60). The Cantabri, Astures, and other 
 tribes in the mountains of the N., were finally sub- 
 jugated by Augustus and his generals. The whole 
 peninsula was now subject to the Romans ; and 
 Augustus founded in it several colonies, and caused 
 excellent roads to be made throughout the country. 
 The Romans had, as early as the end of the 
 2nd Panic war, divided Spain into 2 provinces, se- 
 parated from one another by the Iberus, and called 
 Hispania Citerior and Hispania Ulterior, the former 
 being to the E., and the latter to the W. of the 
 river. In consequence of there being 2 provinces, we 
 frequently find the country called Hispaniac. The 
 provinces were governed by 2 proconsuls or 2 pro- 
 praetors, the latter of whom also frequently bore 
 the title of proconsuls. Augustus made a new di- 
 vision of the country, and formed 3 provinces Tar- 
 raconensis^ Baetica^ and Lusitunia. The province 
 Tiirraconeims^ which derived its name from Tar- 
 raco, the capital of the province, was by far the 
 largest of the 3, and comprehended the whole of 
 the N., W., and centre of the peninsula. The pro- 
 vince Baetica, which derived its name from the 
 river Baetis, was separated from Lusitania on the 
 N. and W. by the river Anas, and from Tarraco- 
 
HISPELLUM. 
 
 nensis on the E. by a line drawn from tlie river 
 Anas to the promontory Charidemus in the Medi- 
 terranean. The province Lusitania^ which corre- 
 sponded very nearly in extent to the modern Por- 
 tugal, was separated from Tarraconensis on the N. 
 by the river I)uriu3, from Baetica on the E. by 
 the Anas, and from Tarraconensis on the E. by a. 
 line drawn from the Durius to the Anas, between 
 the territories of the Vettones and Carpetani. Au- 
 gustus made Baetica a senatorial province, but re- 
 served the government of the 2 others for the 
 Caesar ; so that the former was governed by a 
 proconsul appointed by the senate, and the latter 
 by imperial legati. In Baetica, Corbuda or His- 
 palis was the seat of government ; in Tarraconensis 
 Tarracn ; and in Lusitania Augusta Emerita. On 
 the reorganisation of the empire by Constantino, 
 Spain, together with Gaul and Britain, was under 
 the general administration of the Praefectus Prae- 
 iorio Galliac, one of whose 3 vicarii had the go- 
 vernment of Spain, and usually resided at Hispalis. 
 At the same time the country was divided into 7 
 provinces : Baetica^ Lusitania, Gallaecia^ Turrn- 
 conmsisj CciHhaginicnsis, Baleares, and Mauritania 
 Tinigitana in Africa (which was then reckoned 
 part of Spain). The capitals of these 7 provinces 
 were respectively Hispalis^ Augtisia Emerita, Bra- 
 cava, Caesaraugusta, Carthago Nova, Palma, and 
 Tingis. In a. d. 409 the Vandals and Suevi, to- 
 gether with othor barbarians, invaded Spain, and 
 obtained possession of the greater part of the 
 country. In 414 the Visigoths, as allies of the 
 Roman empire, attacked the Vandals, and in the 
 course of 4 years (414 — 418) compelled a great 
 part of the peninsula to submit again to the Ro- 
 mans. In 4*29 the Vandals left Spain, and crossed 
 over into Africa under their king Genseric ; after 
 which time the Suevi established a powerful king- 
 dom in the S, of the peninsula. Soon afterwards 
 the Visigoths again invaded Spain, and after many 
 years' struggle, succeeded in conquering the whole 
 peninsula, which they kept for themselves, and 
 continued the masters of the country for 2 cen- 
 turies, till they were in their turn conquered by 
 the Arabs, a. d. 712. 
 
 Hispellum, (Hispellas, -atis : Hispellensis : Spd- 
 lo), a town in Urabria, and a Roman colony, with 
 the name of Colonia Julia Hispellum. 
 
 Histiaea. [Hestiaeotis.] 
 
 Histiaeus {'la-TiaTus), tyrant of Miletus, was 
 left with the other lonians to guard the bridge of 
 boats over tlie Danube, when Darius invaded 
 Scythia (b, c, 513). He opposed the proposal of 
 Miltiades, the Athenian, to destroy the bridge, and 
 leave the Persians to their fate, and was in conse- 
 quence rewarded by Darius with the rule of My- 
 tilene, and with a district in Thrace, where he built 
 a town called Myrcinus, apparently with a view of 
 establishing an independent kingdom. This excited 
 the suspicions of Darius, who invited Histiaeus to 
 Susa, where he treated him kindly, but prohibited 
 him from returning. Tired of the restraint in which 
 he was kept, he induced his kinsman Ariatagoras 
 to persuade the lonians to revolt, hoping that a re- 
 volution in Ionia might lead to his release. His de- 
 sign succeeded. Darius allowed Histiaeus to depart 
 (496) on his engaging to reduce Ionia. The revolt 
 however was nearly put down when Histiaeus 
 reached the coast. Here Histiaeus threw oil' tlie 
 mask, and after raising a small fleet carried on war 
 aeainst the Persians for 2 years, and obtained pos- 
 
 HOMERUS. 
 
 327 
 
 session of Chios. In 494 he made a descent upon 
 the Ionian coast, but was defeated and taken pri- 
 soner by Harpagus. Artaphernes, the satrap of 
 Ionia, caused him to bo put to death by impale- 
 ment, and sent his head to the king. 
 
 Histonium (Histoniensis : Vasio (TAinmone), 
 a town of the Frentani on the coast, and subse- 
 quently a Roman colony. 
 
 Homeritae (^Ofx-qpl-rai), a people of Arabia 
 Felix, who migrated from the interior to the S. 
 part of the W. coast, and established themselves 
 in the territory of the Sabaei (in EL Yemen), 
 where they founded a kingdom, which lasted more 
 than S centuries. 
 
 Homerns {"Ofnjpos). 1. The great epic poet of 
 Greece. His poems formed the basis of Greek 
 literature. Every Greek who had received a liberal 
 education was perfectly well acquainted with them 
 from his childhood, and had lenrnt them by heart 
 at school ; but nobody could stiite any thing certain, 
 about their author. His date and birthplace were 
 equally matters of dispute. Seven cities claimed 
 Homer as their countryman (Smyrna, Rhodus, Co- 
 lophon, Salamis, Chios, Argos, Athenae) ; but the 
 claims of Smyrna and Chios are the most plausible, ■ 
 and between these 2 we have to decide. It is 
 supposed by the best modern writers that Homer 
 was an Ionian^ who settled at Smyrna, at the time 
 when the Achaeans and Aeolians formed the chief 
 part of the population. "VVe can thus explain how 
 Homer became so well acquainted with the tradi- 
 tions of the Trojan war, which had been waged by 
 Achaeans and Aeolians, but in which the lonians 
 had not taken part. We know that the lonians 
 were subsequently driven out of Smyrna; and it 
 is further supposed either that Homer himself 
 fled to Chios, or his descendants or disciples 
 settled there, and formed the famous family of 
 Homerids. According to this account the time 
 of Homer would be a few generations after the 
 Ionian migration. But with the exception of 
 the simple fact of his being an Asiatic Greek, all 
 other particulars respecting his life are purely fa- 
 bulous. The common tradition related that he 
 was the son of Maeon (hence called Maeonides 
 vtdes), and that in his old age he was blind and 
 poor. Homer was universally regarded by the 
 ancients as the author of the 2 great poems of the 
 Iliad and the Odyssey. "Other poems were also 
 attributed to Homer, the genuineness of which was 
 disputed by some ; but the Iliad and Odyssey 
 were ascribed to him by the concurrent voice of 
 antiquity. Such continued to be the prevalent be- 
 lief in modern times, till 179n, when F. A. Wolf 
 wrote his famous Prolegomena, in which he en- 
 deavoured to show that the Iliad and Odvssey were 
 not two complete poems, but small, separate, inde- 
 pendent epic snngs, celebrating single exploits of 
 the heroes, and that these lays were for the first 
 time written dnv.n and united, as the Iliad and 
 Odyssey, by Pisistratus, the tyrant of Athens. This 
 opinion gave rise to a long and animated controversy 
 respecting the origin of the Homeric poems, which 
 is not yet setth-d, and which probably never will 
 be. The following, however, may be regarded as 
 the most probable conclusion. An abundance of 
 heroic lays preserved the tales of the Trojan war. 
 Europe must necessarily have been the country 
 where these songs originated, both because the vic- 
 torious heroes dwelt in Europe, and because so many 
 traces in the poems still point to these regions. 
 
328 
 
 HOMERUS. 
 
 These heroic lays were brought to Asia Minor by 
 the Greek cDloiiies, which left the mother-country 
 about 3 agea after the Trojan war. These uncon- 
 nected songs were, for the first time, united by a 
 great genius, called Homer, and he was the one 
 individual wlio conceived in his mind the lofty idea 
 of that poetical unity which we must acknowledge 
 and admire in the Iliad and Odyssey. But as 
 writing was not known, or at least little practised, 
 in the age in which Homer lived, it naturally fol- 
 lowed that in such long works many interpolations 
 were introduced, and that they gradually became 
 more and more dismembered, and thus returned 
 into their original state of separate independent 
 songs. They were preserved by the rhapsodists, 
 who were minstrels, and who sung lays at the ban- 
 quets of the great and at public festivals. A class 
 of rhapsodists at Chios, the Horaerids, who called 
 themselves the descendants of the poet, made it their 
 especial business to sing the lays of the Iliad and 
 Odyssey, and to transmit them to their disciples by 
 oral teaching, and not by writing. These rhapso- 
 dists preserved the knowledge of the unity of the 
 Homeric poems ; and this knowledge was never 
 entirely lost, although the public recitation of the 
 poems became more and more fragmentary, and the 
 time at festivals and musical contests formerly oc- 
 cupied by epic rhapsodists exclusively, was en- 
 croached upon by the rising lyrical performances. 
 Solon directed the attention of his countrymen 
 towards the unity of the Homeric poems ; but the 
 unanimous voice of antiquity ascribed to Pisistratus 
 the merit of having collected the disjointed poems 
 of Homer, and of having first committed them to 
 Tvriting. From the time of Pisistratus, the Greeks 
 had a written Homer, a regular text, which was 
 the source and foundation of all subsequent editions. 
 — We have already stated that the ancients attri- 
 buted many other poems to Homer besides the Iliad 
 and the Odyssey ; but the claims of none of these to 
 this honoiu- can stand investigation. The hymns, 
 which still bear the name of Homer, probably owe 
 their origin to the rhapsodists. They exhibit such 
 a diversity of language and poetical tone, that in 
 all probability they contain fragments from every 
 century from the time of Homer to the Persian 
 war. The BatraclioviyomacUa^ the Battle of the 
 Frogs and Mice, an extant poem, and the Margiies^ 
 a poem which is lost, .tnd which ridiculed a man 
 who was said to know many things and who knew 
 all badly, were both frequently ascribed by the 
 ancients to Homer, but were clearly of later origin. 
 ■ — The Odyssey was evidently composed after the 
 Iliad ; and many writers maintain that they are 
 the works of 2 different authors. But it has been 
 observed in reply that there is rot a greater dif- 
 ference in the 2 poems than we often find in the 
 productions of the same man in the prime of life 
 and in old age ; and the chief cause of difference 
 in the 2 poems is owing to the difference of the 
 subject. — We must add a few words on the lite- 
 rary history of the Iliad and Odyssey. From the 
 time of Pisistratus to the establishment of the 
 Alexandrine school, we read of 2 new editions 
 (Siopewtreis) of the text, one made by the poet An- 
 timachus, and the other by Aristotle, which Alex- 
 ander the Great used to carry about with him in a 
 splendid ca-e {vdpQ-r]^) on all his expeditions. But 
 it was not till the foundation of the Alexandrine 
 school, that the Greeks possessed a really critical 
 edition of Homer. Zcnodotus was the first who 
 
 HONORIUS. 
 
 directed his attention to the study and criticism of 
 Homer. He was followed by Aristophanes and 
 Aristarchus ; and the edition of Homer by the 
 latter has been the basis of the text to the present 
 day. Aristarchus was the prince of grammarians, 
 and did more for the text and interpretation of 
 Homer than any other critic in modern times. He 
 was opposed to Crates of Mallus, the founder of 
 the Pergamene schoolof grammar. [Ahistarchus ; 
 Crates.] In the time of Augustus the great 
 compiler, Didymus, wrote comprehensive commen- 
 taries on Homer, copying mostly the works of pre- 
 ceding Alexandrine grammarians, which had swollen 
 to an enormous extent. Under Tiberius, Apollo- 
 nius Sophista lived, whose lexicon Homericum is 
 very valuable (ed. Bekker, 1833). The most va- 
 luable scholia on the Iliad are those which were 
 published by Villoison from a MS. of the 10th cen- 
 tury in the library of St. Mark at Venice, 1788, 
 fol. These scholia were reprinted with additions, 
 edited by I. Bekker, Berlin, 1825, 2 vols. 4to. 
 The most valuable scholia to the Odyssey are 
 those published by Buttmann, Berl. 1821. The 
 extensive commentary of Eustathius contains much 
 valuable information from sources which are now 
 lost. [Eustathius, No. 3.] The best critical 
 editions of Homer are by Wolf, Lips. 1804, seq. ; 
 by Bothe, Lips. 1832, seq. ; and by Bekker, Ber- 
 lin, 1843. There is a very good edition of the 
 Iliad by Spitzner, Gotha, 1832, seq. ; and a va- 
 luable commentary on the Odyssey by Nitzsch, 
 Hannov. 1825, seq.— 2. A grammarian and tragic 
 poet of Byzantium, in the time of Ptolemy Phila- 
 delphus (about b. c. 280), was the son of ihe gram- 
 marian Andromachus and the poetess Myro. He 
 was one of the 7 poets who formed the tragic Pleiad. 
 
 Homole ('O/xiJAtj). 1. A lofty mountain in 
 Thessaly, near Tempe, with a sanctuar}' of Pan. — 
 3. Or Homolium {'Oi^6\iov : 'O/xaXieus : La- 
 mimi), a town in Magnesia in Thessaly, at the 
 foot of Mt. Ossa) near the Peneue. 
 
 Honor or Honos, the personification of honour 
 at Rome, Marcellus had vowed a temple, which 
 was to belong to Honor and Virtus in common ; 
 but as the pontiffs refused to consecrate one temple 
 to 2 divinities, he built 2 temples, one of Honor 
 and the other of Virtus, close together. C. Marius 
 also built a temple to Honor, after his victory over 
 the Cimbri and Teutones. There was also an altar 
 of Honor outside the Colline gate, which was more 
 ancient than either of the temples. Honor is re- 
 presented on coins as a male figure in armour, and 
 standinjT on a globe, or with the cornucopia In his 
 left and a spear in his right hand. 
 
 Honoria. [Grata.] 
 
 Honorius, Flavius, -Roman emperor of the 
 West, A. D. 395—423, was the 2nd son of Theodo- 
 sius the Great, and was born 384. On the death of 
 Theodosius, in 395, Honorius succeeded peaceably 
 to the sovereignty of the West, which he had re- 
 ct'ived from his father in the preceding year ; while 
 his elder brother Arcadlus obtained possession of the 
 East. During the minority of Honorius, the govern- 
 ment was entirely in the hands of the able and 
 energetic Stilicho, whose daughter Maria the young 
 emperor married. Stilicho for a time defended Italy 
 against the attacks of the Visigoths under Alaric 
 (402,403), and the ravages of other barbarians 
 under Radagaisus ; but after Honorius had put to 
 death Stilicho, on a charge of treason (400), Alaric 
 agiiin invaded Italy, and took and plundered Rome 
 
HORAE. 
 
 (410). Honorius meantime lived an ingldrious 
 life at Ravenna, where he continued to reside till 
 his death, in 423. 
 
 Horae (^Clpai)^ originally the goddesses of the 
 order of nature and of the seasons, but in later 
 times the goddesses of order in general and of 
 justice. In Homer, who neither mentions their 
 parents nor their number, they are the Olympian 
 divinities of the weather and the ministers of 
 Zeus. In this capacity they guard the doors of 
 Olympus, and promote the fertility of the earth, 
 by the various kinds of weather which they give 
 to mortals. As the weather, generally speaking, 
 is regulated according to the seasons, tiiey are fur- 
 ther described as the goddesses of the eeastms. 
 The course of the seasons is symbolically described 
 as the dance of the Horae. At Athens 2 Horae, 
 Thalio (the Hora of spring) and Carpo (the Hora 
 of autumn), were worshipped from very early 
 times. The Hora of spring accompanied Perse- 
 phone every year on her ascent from the lower 
 world ; and the expression of "■ The chamber of 
 the Horae opens" is equivalent to " The spring is 
 coming." The attributes of spring — flowers, fra- 
 grance, and graceful freshness — are accordingly 
 transferred to the Horae. Thus they adorned 
 Aphrodite as she rose from the sea, and made a 
 garland of flowers for Pandora, Hence they bear 
 a resemblance to and are mentioned along with 
 the Charites, and both are frequently confounded 
 or identified. As they were conceived to pro- 
 mote the prosperity of every thing that grows, 
 they appear also as the protectresses of youth and 
 newly-born gods. Even in early times ethical 
 notions were attached to the Horae ; and the in- 
 fluence which these goddesses originally exercised 
 on nature was subsequently transferred to human 
 life in particular. Hesiod describes them as giving 
 to a state good laws, justice, and peace ; he calls 
 them the daughters of Zeus and Themis, and gives 
 them the significant names of Eunomki, Dice^ and 
 Irene. The number of the Horae is different in 
 the different writers, though the most ancient num- 
 ber seems to have been 2, as at Athens ; but after- 
 wards their common number was 3, like that of 
 the Moerae and Charites, In works of art the 
 Horae were represented as blooming maidens, 
 carrying the different products of the seasons. 
 
 Horapollo {'0.paTr6Wwi/)^ the name prefixed to 
 an extant work on hieroglyphics, which purports tn 
 be a Greek translation, made by one Philippus 
 from the Egyptian. The writer was a native of 
 Egypt, and probably lived about the beginning of 
 the fith centur)'. The best edition is by Leemans, 
 Amsterdam, 1835. 
 
 Horatia Gens, one of the most ancient patrician 
 gentes at Rome. 3 brothers of this race fought 
 with the Curiatii, 3 brothers from Alba, to deter- 
 mine whether Rome or Alba was to exercise the 
 supremacy. The battle was long undecided. 2 
 of the Horatii fell ; but the 3 Curiatii, though 
 alive, were severely wounded. Seeing this, the 
 surviving Horatiua, who was still unhurt, pretended 
 to fly, and vanquished his wounded opponents, by 
 encountering them severally. He returned in tri- 
 umph, bearing his threefold spoils. As he ap- 
 proached the Capene gate his sister Horatia met 
 him, and recognised on hia shoulders the mantle 
 of one of the Curiatii, her betrothed lover. Her 
 importunate grief drew on her the wrath of Hora- 
 tius, who stiibbed her, exclaiming "so perish ever}- 
 
 HORATIUS. 
 
 329 
 
 Roman woman who bewails a foe.'* For this 
 murder he was adjudged by the duumviri to be 
 scourged with covered head, and hanged on the 
 accursed tree. Horatius appealed to his peers, the 
 burghers or populus; and his father pronounced 
 him guiltless, or he would have punished him by 
 the paternal power. The populus acquitted Ho- 
 ratius, but prescribed a form of punishment. With 
 veiled head, led by his father, Horatius passed 
 under a yoke or gibbet — Hgillum soroHum^ *' sis- 
 ter's gibbet." 
 
 Horatius Codes. [Cocles.] 
 
 Q. Horatius Flaccus, the poet, was born De- 
 cember ilth, B.C. (J5, at Venusia in Apulia. His 
 father was a libertinus or freedman. He had 
 received his manumission before the birth of the 
 poet, who was of ingenuous birth, but who did not 
 altogether escape the taunt, which adhered to 
 persons even of remote servile origin. His fathers 
 occupation was that of collector (coactor\ either 
 of the indirect taxes farmed by the publicans, 
 or at sales by auction. With the profits of 
 his office he had purchased a small farm in the 
 neighbourhood of Venusia, wlicre the poet was 
 born. The father, either in his parental fond- 
 ness for his only son, or discerning some hopeful 
 promise in the boy, determined to devote his whole 
 time and fortune to tiie education of the future 
 poet. Though by no means rich, he declined to 
 send the j-oung Horace to the common school, kept 
 in Venusia by one Flavins, to which the cliildren 
 of the rural aristocracy resorted. Probably about 
 his 12th year, his father carried him to Rome, 
 to receive the usual education of a knighfs or 
 senator's son. He frequented the best schools in 
 the capital. One of these was kept by Orbilius, 
 a retired military man, whose flogging propensities 
 have been immortalised by his pupil. {Epist. ii. 
 1. 71.) The names of his other teachers are not re- 
 corded by the poet. He was instructed in ihe Greek 
 and Latin languages : the poets were the usual 
 school books. Homer in the Greek, and the old 
 tragic writer, Livius Andronicus, in the Latin. In 
 his 18th year Horace proceeded to Athens, in 
 order to continue his studies at that seat of learn- 
 ing. He seems chiefly to have attached himself 
 to the opinions which he heard in the Academus, 
 though later in life he inclined to those of Epicurus. 
 When Brutus came to Athens after the death of 
 Caesar, Horace joined his army, and received at 
 once the rank of a military tribune, and the com- 
 mand of a legion. He was present at the battle of 
 Philippi, and shared in the flight of the republican 
 army. In one of his poems he playfully alludes to 
 his flight, and throwing away his shield. (Carm. ii. 
 7. 9.) He now resolved to devote himself to more 
 peaceful pursuits, and having obtained his pardon, 
 he ventured at once to return to Rome. He had 
 lost all his hopes in life ; his paternal estate had 
 been swept away in the general forfeiture ; but he 
 was enabled, however, to obtain sufficient money 
 to purchase a clerkship in the quaestor's office ; 
 and on the profits of that place he managed to live 
 with the utmost frugality. Meantime some of his 
 poems attracted the notice of Varius and Vir(ril,who 
 introduced him to Maecenas (e, c. 39). Horace 
 soon became the friend of Maecenas, and this 
 friendship quickly ripened into intimacy. In a 
 year or two after the commencement of their friend- 
 ship (37), Horace accompanied his patron on that 
 journey to Brundusium, so agreeably described in 
 
330 
 
 HORATIUS. 
 
 the 5th Satire of the Ist book. About the year 
 34 Maecenas bestowed upon the poet a Sabine 
 farm, sufficient to maintain him in ease, comfort, 
 and CTen in content (satis beatus miicis Sab{nis\ 
 during the rest of his life. The situation of this 
 Sfibine fann was in the valley of Ustica, within 
 view of the mountain Lncretilis, and near the Di- 
 gentia, about 15 miles from Tibur (Tivoli). A 
 site exactly answering to the villa of Horace, 
 and on which were found ruins of buildings, has 
 been discovered in modem times. Besides this 
 estate, his admiration of the beautiful scenery in 
 the neighbourhood of Tibur inclined him either 
 to hire or to purchase a small cottage in that ro- 
 mantic town ; and all the later years of his life 
 ■were passed between these two country residences 
 and Rome, He continued to live on the most 
 intimate terms with Maecenas ; and this intimate 
 friendship natm-ally introduced Horace to the notice 
 of the other great men of his period, and at 
 length to Augustus himself, who bestowed upon 
 the poet substantial marks of his favour. Horace 
 died on November 17th, b. c. 8, aged nearly 57. 
 His death was so sudden, that he had not time to 
 make his will ; but he left the administration 
 of his affairs to Augustus, whom he instituted 
 as his heir. He was buried on the slope of the 
 Esquiline Hill, close to his friend and patron 
 Maecenas, who had died before him in the same 
 year. — Horace has described his own person. 
 He was of short stature, with dark eyes and dark 
 hair, but early tinged with grey. In his youth he 
 was tolerably robust, but suffered from a complaint 
 in his eyes. In more advanced life he grew fat, 
 and Augustus jested about his protuberant belly. 
 His health was not always good, and he seems to 
 have inclined to be a valetudinarian. Wlien 
 5'oung he was irascible in temper, but easily 
 placable. In dress he was rather careless. His 
 habits, even after he became richer, were generally 
 frugal and abstemious ; though on occasions, both 
 in youth and maturer age, he seems to have in- 
 dulged in conviviality. He liked choice wine, and 
 in the society of friends scrupled not to enjoy the 
 luxuries of his time. He was never married. — 
 The philosophy of Horace was that of a man of 
 the world. He playfully alludes to his Epicurean- 
 ism, but it was practical rather than speculative 
 Epicureanism. His mind, indeed, was not in the 
 least speculative. Common life wisdom was his 
 study, and to this he brought a quickness of ob- 
 aervation and a sterling common sense, which have 
 made his works the delight of practical men. — 
 The Odes of Horace want the higher inspirations 
 of l3Tic verse. His amatory verses are exquisitely 
 graceful, but they have no strong ardour, no deep 
 tenderness, nor even much of light and joyous 
 gaiety. But as works of refined art, of the most 
 skilful felicities of language and of measure, of 
 translucent expression, and of agreeable images, 
 embodied in words which imprint themselves in- 
 delibly on the memory, they are unrivalled. Ac- 
 cording to Quintilian, Horace was almost the only 
 Roman lyric poet worth reading. — In the Satires 
 of Horace there is none of the lofty moral indig- 
 nation, the fierce vehemence of invective, which 
 characterised the later satirists. It is the folly 
 rather than the wickedness of vice, which he 
 touches with such playful skill. Nothing can sur- 
 pass the keenness of his observation, or his ease of 
 expression : it is the finest comedy of manners, in 
 
 HORTENSiaS. 
 
 a descriptive instead of a dramatic form. — In the 
 Epodes there is bitterness provoked, it should 
 seem, by some personal hatred, or sense of injury, 
 and the ambition of imitating Axchilochus ; but in 
 these he seems to have exhausted all the ma- 
 lignity and violence of his temper. — But the 
 Epistles are the most perfect of the Horatian 
 poetr}', the poetry of manners and society, the 
 beauty of which consists in a kind of ideality of 
 common sense and practical wisdom. The Epistles 
 of Horace are with the Poem of Lucretius, the 
 Georgics of Virgil, and perhaps the Satires of 
 Juvenal, the most perfect and most original form 
 of Roman verse. The title of the Art of Poetry 
 for the Epistle to the Pisos is as old as Quintilian, 
 but it is now agreed that it was not intended for a 
 complete theory of the poetic art. It is conjec- 
 tured with great probability that it was intended 
 to dissuade one of the younger Pisos from devoting 
 himself to poetry, for which he had little genius, 
 or at least to suggest the difficulties of attaining to 
 perfection. — The chronology of the Horatian poems 
 is of great importance, as illustrating the life, the 
 times, and the writings of the poet There has 
 been great dispute upon this subject, but the fol- 
 lowing view appears the most probable. The 
 1st book of Satires, which was the first publi- 
 cation, appeared about b. c. 35, in the 30th year of 
 Horace. — The 2nd book of Satires was published 
 about 33, in the 32nd year of Horace. — The Epodes 
 appeared about 31, in the 34th year of Horace. — 
 The 3 first books of the Odes were published about 
 2-i or 23 in the 4 1st or 42nd year of Horace. — 
 The Ist book of the Epistles was published about 
 20 or 19 in the 45th or 46th year of Horace. — 
 The Carmen Seculare appeared in 17 in the 48th 
 year of Horace. — The 4th book of the Odes was 
 published in 14 or 13 in his 5 Ist or 52nd year. — 
 The dates of the 2nd book of Epistles, and of the 
 Ars Poeiica, are admitted to be uncertain, though 
 both appeared before the poet's death, b. c. 8. 
 One of the best editions of Horace is by Orelli, 
 Turici, 1843. 
 
 Hordeonius Flaccua. [Flaccus.] 
 
 Honnisdas. [Sassanidae.] 
 
 Horta or Hortanum (Hortanus : Orte), a to\vn 
 in Etruria, at the junction of the Nar and the 
 Tiber, so called from the Etruscan goddess Horta, 
 ^vliose temple at Rome always remained open. 
 
 Hortensius. 1. Q,, the orator, was bom in 
 B. c. 114, eight years before Cicero. At the early 
 age of 19 he spoke with great applause in the 
 forum, and at once rose to eminence as an advocate. 
 He served two campaigns in the Social war (90, 
 89). In the civil wars he joined Sulla, and was 
 afterwards a constant supporter of the aristocratical 
 party. His chief professional labours were in de- 
 fending men of this party, when accused of mal- 
 administration and extortion in their provinces, or 
 of bribery and the like in canvassing for public 
 honours. He had no rival in the forum, till he 
 encountered Cicero, and he long exercised an un- 
 disputed sway over the courts of justice. In 81 
 he was quaestor ; in 75 aedile ; in 72 praetor ; 
 and in 69 consul with Q. Caecilius Metellus. — 
 It was in the year before his consulship that the 
 prosecution of Verres commenced. Hortensius was 
 the advocate of Verres, and attempted to put off 
 the trial till the next year, when he would be able 
 to exercise all the consular authority in favour of 
 his client. But Cicero, who accused Verres, baffled 
 
HORTENSIUS. 
 all the schemes of Hortensiiis ; and the issue of 
 this contest was to dethrone Hortensius from the 
 seat which had been already tottering, and to 
 establish his rival, the despised provincial of Arpi- 
 num, as the first orator and advocate of the Roman 
 fonim. After his consulship, Hortensius took a 
 leading part in supporting the optimates against the 
 rising power of Pompe3^ He opposed tiie Gabinian 
 law, which invested Pompey with absolute power 
 on the Mediterranean, in order to put down the 
 pirates of Cilicia (67) ; and the Manilian, by which 
 the conduct of the war against Mithridates was 
 transferred from Lncullus to Pompey {G6). Cicero 
 in his consulship (63) deserted the popular party, 
 with whom he had hitherto acted, and became one 
 of the supporters of the optimates. Thns Hor- 
 tensius no longer appears as his rival. We first 
 find them pleading together for C, Rabirius, for 
 L. Muraena, and for P. Sulla. After the coalition 
 of Pompey with Caesar and Crassus in 60, Hor- 
 tensius drew back from public life, and confined 
 himself to his advocate's duties. He died in 50. 
 The eloquence of Hortensius was of the florid or 
 (as it was termed) " Asiatic " style, fitter for hear- 
 ing than for reading. His voice was soft and mu- 
 sical, his memory so ready and retentive, that he 
 is said to have been able to come out of a sale- 
 room and repeat the auction-list backwards. His 
 action was very elaborate, so that sneerers called 
 him Dionysia — the name of a well-known dancer 
 of the day ; and the pains he bestowed in arranging 
 the folds of his toga have been recorded by ancient 
 writers. But in all this there must have been a 
 real grace and dignity, for we read that Aesopus 
 and Roscius, the tragedians, used to follow him 
 into the forum to take a lesson in their own art. 
 He possessed immense wealth, and was keenly 
 alive to all the enjoyments which wealth can give. 
 He had several villas, the most splendid of which 
 was the one near Laurentum. Here he laid up 
 such a stock of wine, that he left 10,000 casks of 
 Chian to his heir. Here he had a park full of all 
 sorts of animals ; and it was customary, during his 
 sumptuous dinners, for a slave, dressed like Orpheus, 
 to issue from the woods with these creatures fol- 
 lowing the sound of his cithara. At his villa at 
 Bauli he had immense fish-ponds, into which the 
 sea came : the fish were so tame that they would 
 feed from his hand ; and he was so fond of them, 
 that he is said to have wept for the death of a 
 favourite muraena. He was also very curious in 
 trees : he is said to have fed them with wine, and 
 we read that he once begged Cicero to change places 
 in speaking, that he might perform this office for 
 a favourite plane-tree at the proper time. It is a 
 characteristic trait, that he came forward from his 
 retirement {55} to oppose the sumptuary law of 
 Pompey and Crassus, and spoke so eloquently and 
 wittilv as to procure its rejection. He was the 
 first person at Rome who brought peacocks to 
 table. —2. Q., surnaraed Hortalus, son of the 
 precedin/r, by Lutatia, the daughter of Catulus. 
 In youth he lived a low and profligate life, and 
 appears to have been at last cast off by his father. 
 On the brL^aking out of the civil war in 49, he 
 joined Caesar, and fought on his side in Italy and 
 Greece. In 44 he held the province of Macedonia, 
 and Brutus was to succeed him. After Caesar's 
 assassination, M. Antony gnve the province to his 
 brother Caius. Brutus, however, hud already 
 taken possession, with the assistance of Hortensius. 
 
 HYACINTHUS. 331 
 
 When the proscription took place, Hortensius was 
 in the list ; and in revenge he ordered C. Antoniug, 
 who had been taken prisoner, to be put to death. 
 After the battle of Philippi, he was executed on 
 the grave of his victim. 
 
 Horus {^npos), the Egyptian god of the sun, 
 whose worship was also established in Greece, and 
 afterwards at Rome. He was compared with the 
 Greek Apollo, and identified with Harpocrates, the 
 last-bom and weakly son of Osiris. Both were 
 represented as youths, and with the same attri- 
 butes and symbols. He was believed to have been 
 born with his finger on his mouth, as indicative of 
 secrecy and mystery. In the earlier period of his 
 worship at Rome he seems to have been particu- 
 larly regarded as the god of quiet life and silence. 
 
 Hostilia {Ostiglia)^ a small town in Gallia Cis- 
 alpina, on the Po, and on the road from Mutina to 
 Verona ; the birthplace of Cornelius Nepos. 
 
 HostUius Hancinus. [Mancinus.] 
 
 Hostilius Tullus. [TuLLUs Hostilius.] 
 
 Hostius, the author of a poem on the Istrian 
 war (B.C. 178), which is quoted by the gram- 
 marians. He was probably a contemporary of 
 Julius Caesar. 
 
 Htmneric, king of the Vandals in Africa, a. d. 
 477 — 484, was the son of Genseric, whom he 
 succeeded. His reign was chiefly marked by his 
 savage persecution of the Catholics. 
 
 Hunni (OStroi), an Asiatic race, who dwelt 
 for some centuries in the plains of Tartary, and 
 were formidable to the Chinese empire, long be- 
 fore they were kno\vn to the Romans. It was to 
 repel the inroads of the Huns that the Chinese 
 built their celebrated wall, 1500 miles in length. 
 A portion of the nation afterwards migrated W., 
 conquered the Alani, a warlike race between the 
 Volga and the Tanais, and then crossed into Eu- 
 rope about A. D. -575. The appearance of these 
 new barbarians excited the greatest terror, both 
 among the Romans and Germans. They are de- 
 scribed by the Greek and Roman historians as 
 hideous and repulsive beings, resembling apes, with 
 broad shoulders, flat noses, and small black eyes 
 deeply buried in their head ; while their manners 
 and habits were savage to the last degree. They 
 destroyed the powerful monarchy of the Ostrogoths, 
 who were obliged to retire before them, and were 
 allowed by Valens to settle in Thrace, a. d. 376. 
 The Huns now frequently ravaged the Roman domi- 
 nions. They were joined by many other barbarian 
 nations, and under their king Attila (a. d. 434 — 
 453), they devastated the fairest portions of the 
 empire, both in the E. and the W. [Attila.] 
 On the death of Attila, the various nations which 
 composed his army, dispersed, and his sons were 
 unable to resist the arms of the Ostrogoths. In a 
 few years after the death of Attila, the empire 
 of the Huns was completely destroyed. The 
 remains of the nation became incorporated with 
 other barbarians, and never appear again as a se- 
 parate people. 
 
 Hyacinthus {''taKiveos^. 1. Son of the Spartan 
 king Amyclfis and Diomede, or of Pierus and Clio, 
 or of Ocbalus or Eurotas. He was a youth of ex- 
 traordinary beauty, and was beloved by Apollo and 
 Zephyrus. He returned the love of Apollo ; and 
 as he was once playing at quoit with the god, 
 Zephyrus, out of jealousy, drove the quoit of Apollo 
 with such violence against the head of the youth, 
 tiiat he fpll down dead. From the blood of Hya- 
 
33-2 
 
 HYADES. 
 
 cinthus lliere sprang the flower of the same name 
 (hyacinth), on the leaves of which appeared the 
 exclamation of woe AI, AI, or the letter T, being 
 the initial of 'TaKtvdos. According to other tra- 
 ditions, the hyacinth sprang from the blood of 
 Ajax. Hyacintlius was worshipped at Amyclae as 
 a hero, .and a great festival, Hyacinthia, was cele- 
 brated in his hunour. {Did. of Antiq. s.u.)^2. A 
 Lacedaemonian, who is said to have gone to Athens, 
 and to have sacrificed his daughters for the purpose 
 of deliveiin'^ the city from a famine and plague, 
 under which it was suffering during the war with 
 Minos. His daughters were known in the Attic 
 legends by the name of the Hyacmthidcs., which 
 they derived from their father. Some traditions 
 make them the daughters of Erechtheus, and relate 
 that they received their name frnra the village of 
 Hyacinthus, where they were sacrificed at the time 
 when Athens was attacked by theEleusinians and 
 Thracians, or Thebans, 
 
 Hyades ('TaSes), that is, the Rainy, the name 
 of nymphs, whose parentage, number and names 
 are described in various ways by the ancients. 
 Their parents were Atlas and Aethra, or Atlas and 
 Pleione, or Hyas and Boeotla : others c:ill their 
 fatherOceanus,Melisseus,CadniiIus, or Erechtheus. 
 Their number differs in various legends ; hut their 
 most common number is 7, as they appear in the 
 constellation which bears their name, viz.. Am- 
 brosia, Eudora^ Pedih, Coronis, Polyxo, Phyto, and 
 Tiiijcne or Dione. They were entrusted by Zeus 
 with the care of his infant son Dionysus, and were 
 afterwards placed by Zeus among the stars. The 
 story which made them the daughters of Atlas 
 relates that their number was 12 or 15, and that 
 at first 5 of them were placed among the stars as 
 Hyades, and the 7 (or 10) others afterwards under 
 the name of Pleiades, to reward them for the sis- 
 terly love they had evinced after the death of their 
 brother Hyas, who had been killed in Libya by a 
 wild beast. Their name, Hyades, is derived by 
 the ancients from their father, Hyas, or from H3'es, 
 a mystic surname of Dionysus ; or according to 
 others, from their position in the heavens, where 
 they formed a figure resembling the Greek letter 
 T. The Romans, who derived it from ur, a pig, 
 translated the name by Suculae. The most natural 
 derivation is from Oeic, to rain, as the constellation 
 of the Hyades, when rising simultaneously with 
 the sun, announced rainy weather. Hence Horace 
 speaks of the irislcs Hyades {Carm, i. 3. 14). 
 
 Hyampea, [Parnassus.] 
 
 Hyampblis {'TdiJ.iroKis : "Tafitro\lT7]s^^ a town 
 in Phocis, E. of the Cephissua, near Cleonac, was 
 founded by the Hyantes, when they were driven 
 out of Boeotia by the Cadmeans ; was destroyed 
 by Xerxes ; afterwards rebuilt ; and again de- 
 stroj-ed by Philip and the Amphlctyons. — Cleonae, 
 from its vicinity to Hyampolis, is called by Xeno- 
 phon (/'fell. vi. 4. § "2) "TayL-no\iruv rh Trpodcrretov. 
 — Strabo speaks of 2 towns of the name of Hyam- 
 polis in Phocis ; but it is doubtful whether his 
 statement is coirect. 
 
 Hyantes ("Taj/rey), the ancient inhabitants of 
 Boeotia, from which country they were expelled 
 by the Cadmeans. Part of the Hyantes emigrated 
 to Phocis [Hyampolis]. and part to Aetolia. The 
 poets u^e the adjective HyuJilius as equivalent to 
 Boeotian. 
 
 Hyas ("Tecs), the name of the father and the 
 brotiier of the Hyades. The fatlier was married to 
 
 HYDRUNTUM. 
 
 Boeotia, and was looked upon as the ancestor of 
 the ancient Hyantes. His son, the brother of the 
 Hyades, was killed in Libya by a serpent, a boar, 
 or a lion. 
 
 Hybla (*'T§X7/ : 'T^Aaroy, Hyblensis), 3 towns 
 in Sicily. 1. Major {r} fid^uu or fJ.eyd\Tj\ on the 
 S. slope of Mt Aetna and on the river Symaethus, 
 was originally a town of the Siculi. — 2. Minor 
 {t} fxiKpd)^ afterwards called Megara. [Megara.] 
 — 3. Heraea, in the S. of the island, on the road 
 from Syracuse to Agrigentum. — It is doubtful 
 from which of these 3 places the Hyblaean honey 
 came, so frequently mentioned by the poets. 
 
 Hybreas ('Tf^peas), of Mylasa in Caria, a cele- 
 brated orator, contemporary with the triumvir 
 Antnnius. 
 
 Hyccara (ra "T/cHapo : 'tKKapGvs : Muro di 
 Carini)^ a town of the Sicani on the N. coast of 
 Sicily, W. of Panormus, said to have derived its 
 name from the sea fish ukkcci. It was taken by the 
 Athenians, and plundered, and its inhabitants sold 
 as slaves, B.C. 41.5. Among the captives was ihe 
 beautiful Timandra, the mistress of Alcibiades 
 and the mother of Lais. 
 
 Hydalmes ('TSapj/Tjs), one of the 7 Persians 
 who conspired against the Magi in b. c. 521. 
 
 Hydaspes ('TSciJTrTis : Jelum)., the N.most of 
 the 5 great tributaries of the Indus, which, with 
 the Indus itself, water the great plain of N. 
 India, which Is bounded on the N. by the Hima- 
 laya range, and which is now called the Punjab^ 
 i. e. 5 rivers. The Hydaspes falls into the Ace- 
 sines {Chenab)., which also receives, from the S., 
 first the Hydraotes (Ravee), and then the Hy- 
 phasis (Beeas^ and lower down, Gharra), which 
 has previously received, on the S. side, the Hesi- 
 drus or Zaradrus (Suilej or Hesudru) ; and the 
 Acesines Itself falls into the Indus. These 5 rivers 
 all rise on the S.W. side of the Emodl M. {Hima- 
 laya)., except the SulleJ., which, like the Indus, 
 rises on the N. E. side of the range. They became 
 known to the Greeks by Alexander's campaign 
 in India: his great victory over Porus (b. c. 327) 
 was gained on the left side of the Hydaspes, near, 
 or perhaps upon, the scene of the recent battle of 
 ChiUianwallah ; and the Hyphasis formed the 
 limit of his progress. The epithet " fabulosus," 
 which Horace applies to the Hydaspes {Cann. i. 
 22. 7) refers to the marvellous stories current among 
 the Romans, who knew next to nothing about 
 India; and the '"'' Medus Hydaspes" of Virgil 
 {Georg. iv. 211) is merely an example of the 
 vagueness with which the Roman writers, especially 
 the poets, refer to the countries beyond the E. 
 limit of the empire. 
 
 Hydra. [Hercules, p. 300, b.] 
 
 Hydraotes ('YS/jawTT7s, Strab. 'Tapwris: Ravee), 
 a river of India, falling into the Acesines. [Hy- 
 daspes.] 
 
 Hydrea ('T5pea : "tdpidTr]s : Hydra), a small 
 island In the gulf of Hermione off Argolis, cf no 
 importance in antiquity, but the inhabitants of 
 which in modern times played a distinguished pait 
 in the war of Greek independence, and are some 
 of the best sailors in Greece. 
 
 Hydruntum or Hydriis ('TSpoDy: Hydruntl- 
 nus : Otrajtto), one of the most ancient towns of 
 Calahria, situated on theS.E. coast, with a good 
 harbour, and near a mountiiln Plydrus, was in later 
 times a municlpium. Persons frequently crossed 
 over to Eplius Irom this port. 
 
HYETTUS. 
 
 Hyettua ('Tr}TT6s : 'T'^TTioy), a small town in 
 Boeotia on the lake Copais, and near the frontiers 
 of Locris. 
 
 Hygiea {'tyieia), also called Hygea or Hygia, 
 tlie goddess of health, and a daughter of Aescu- 
 lapius; though some traditions make her the wife 
 of the latter. She was usually worshipped in the 
 temples of Aesculapius, as at Argos, where the 2 
 divinities had a celebrated sanctuary, at Athens, at 
 Corinth, &c. At Rome there was a statue of her 
 in the temple of Concordia. In works of art she is 
 represented as a virgin dressed in a long robe, and 
 feeding a serpent from a cup. — Although she was 
 originally the goddess of physical health, she is 
 sometimes conceived as the giver or protectress of 
 mental health, that is, she appears as vyUia (pp^vwv 
 ( Aeschyl. £«m. 522), and was thus identified with 
 Athena, sumamed Hygiea. 
 
 Hyginus. 1. C. Julius, a Roman grammarian, was 
 a native of Spain, and lived at Rome in the time of 
 Augustus, whose freedman he was. He wrote several 
 works, all of which have perished. — 2. Hyginus 
 Grouiaticus, so called from gruma^ an instrument 
 used by the Agrimensorea. He lived in the time of 
 Trajan, and wrote works on land surveying and 
 castrametation, of which considerable fragments are 
 extant.— 3. Hyginus, the author of 2 extant works; 
 1. Fahidarum Liber^ a series of short mythological 
 legends, with an introductory genealogy of divini- 
 ties. Although the larger portion of these narratives 
 has been copied from obvious sources, they occa- 
 sionally present the tales under new forms or with 
 new circumstances. 2. Poeticon Asironomicon 
 Libri I V* We know nothing of the author of these 
 2 works. He is sometimes identified with C. Julius 
 Hyginus, the freedman of Augustus, but he must 
 have lived at a much later period. Both works are 
 included in the Mytkogra'phi Laiini of Muncker, 
 Amst. 1681, and of Van Staveren, Lug. Bat. 1/42. 
 
 Hylaea (*TAai?7, Herod. ), a district in Scythia, 
 covered with wood, is the peninsula adjacent to 
 Taurica on the N.W., between the rivers Bory- 
 sthenes and Hypacyris. 
 
 Hylaeus ('TAaros), that is, the Woodman, the 
 name of an Arcadian centaur, who was slain by 
 Atalante, when he pursued her. According to 
 some legends, Hylaeus fell in the fight against the 
 Lapithae, and others again said that he was one 
 of the centaurs slain by Hercules, 
 
 Hylas ("TAay), son of Theodamas, king of the 
 Dryopes, by the nymph Menodice ; or, according 
 to others, son of Hercules, Euphemus, or Ceyx. 
 He was beloved by Hercules, whom he accom- 
 panied in the expedition of the Argonauts, On 
 the coast of Mysia, Hylas went on shore to draw 
 water from a fountain ; but his beauty excited the 
 love of the Naiads, who drew him do^vn into the 
 water, and he was never seen again. Hercules 
 endeavoured in vain to find him ; and when he 
 shouted out to the youth, the voice of Hylas was 
 heard from the bottom of the well only like a faint 
 echo, whence some say that he was actually meta- 
 morphosed into an echo. While Hercules was 
 engaged in seeking his favourite, the Argonauts 
 sailed away, leaving him and his companion, Poly- 
 phemus, behind. 
 
 Hyle {""^^Vj also^TXai), a small town in Boeo- 
 tia, situated on the Hylice, which was called after 
 this town, and into which the river Ismenus flows. 
 
 Hylias, a river in Bruttium, separating the ter- 
 ritories of Sybaris and Croton. 
 
 HYPANIS. 
 
 333 
 
 Hylice (17 "T\iK^ \i/j.vn), a lake in Boeotia, S. 
 of the lake Copais. See Hvj-e. 
 
 Hylicus {"TAi/cos, "TAAiKos), a small river in 
 Argolis, near Troezen. 
 
 Hyllus {"TWos)^ son of Hercules by Deianira. 
 For details see Heraclidae. 
 
 Hyllus ("TAAoy ; Demirji)^ a river of Lydia, 
 falling into the Hermus on its N. side. 
 
 Hymen or Hymenaeus {"TfXTjv or 'Tfxevaios), 
 the god of marriage, was conceived as a handsome 
 youth, and invoked in the hymeneal or bridal song. 
 The names originally designated the bridal song 
 itself, which was subsequently personified. He is 
 described as the son of Apollo and a Muse, either 
 Calliope, Urania, or Terpsichore. Otliers describe 
 him only as the favourite of Apollo or Thamyris, 
 and call him a son of Magnes and Calliope, or of 
 Dionysus and Aphrodite. The ancient traditions, 
 instead of regarding the god as a personification of 
 the hymeneal song, speak of him as originally a 
 mortal, respecting whom various legends were 
 related. The Attic legends described him as a 
 youth of such delicate beauty, that he might be 
 taken for a girl. He fell in love with a maiden, 
 who refused to listen to him ; but in tlie disguise 
 of a girl he followed her to Eleusis to the festival 
 of Demeter. The maidens, together with Hyme- 
 naeus, were carried off by robbers into a distant 
 and desolate country. On their landing, the robbers 
 laid down to sleep, and were killed by Hymenaeus, 
 who now returned to Athens, requesting the citi- 
 zens to give him his beloved in marriage, if he re- 
 stored to them the maidens who had been carried 
 off by the robbers. His request was granted, and 
 his marriage was extremely happy. For this reason 
 he was invoked in tJie hymeneal songs. According 
 to others he was a youth, who was killed by the 
 fall of his house on his wedding-day, whence he 
 was afterwards invoked in bridal songs, in order 
 to be propitiated. Some related that at the wedding 
 of Dionysus and Ariadne he sang the bridal hymn, 
 but lost his voice. He is represented in works of 
 art as a youth, but taller and with a more serious 
 expression than Eros, and carr}'ing in his hand a 
 bridal torch. 
 
 Hymettus ('TjUtittoj), a mountain in Attica, 
 celebrated for its marble {Hymetiiae trabes, Hor. 
 Carm. ii. 18. 3), and more especially for its honey. 
 It is about 3 miles S. of Athens, and forms the 
 commencement of the range of mountains which 
 runs S. through Attica. It is now called Tdovuni^ 
 and by the Franks Monte Matto : the part of the 
 mountain near the promontory Zoster, which was 
 called in ancient times Anhydrus [6 "AruSpoj, sc. 
 'TAtT/TTiJs), or the Dry Hymettus, is now called 
 jMavi'ovuni. 
 
 Hypacyris, Hypacaris, orPacaris {Kanilshak)^ 
 a river in European Sarmatia, which flows through 
 the country of the nomad Scythians, and falls into 
 the Sinus Carcinites in the Euxine sea. 
 
 Hypaea. [Stoechades.] 
 
 H3rpaepa {"riraitra : Tapaya), a city of Lydia, 
 on the S. slope of Mt. Tmolus, near the N. bank 
 of the Caister. 
 
 Hypana {'TTravn: to "r-irava: 'Tnavevs), a town 
 in Triphylian Elis, belonging to the Pentapolis. 
 _ Hypanis (5o/7), a river in European Sarmatia, 
 rises, according to Herodotus, in a lake, flows pa- 
 rallel to the Borysthenes, has at first sweet, then 
 bitter water, and falls into the Euxine sea W. of 
 the Borysthenes. 
 
334 
 
 HYPATA. 
 
 Hypata (to "Tirara, rj "tirar-q : 'TiraraTo?, 'Tvra- 
 revs : Neopatra, Turk. Batrajik\ a town of the 
 Aenianes in Thessaly, S. of the Spercheus, belonged 
 in later times to the Aetolian league. The inha- 
 bitants of this town were notorious for witchcraft. 
 
 Hypatxa ('TTraria), daughter of Theon, by 
 whom slie was instructed in philosophy and ma- 
 thematics. She soon made such immense progress 
 in these branches of knowledge, that she is said 
 to have presided over the Neoplatonic school of 
 Plotinns at Alexandria, where she expounded the 
 principles of his system to a numerous auditory. 
 She appears to have been most graceful, modest, 
 and beautiful, but nevertheless to have been a 
 victim to slander and falsehood. She was accused 
 of too much familiarity with Orestes, prefect of 
 Alexandria, and the charge spread among the 
 clergy, who took up the notion that she interrupted 
 the friendship of Orestes with their archbishop, 
 Cyril. In consequence of this, a number of them 
 seized her in the street, and dragged her into one of 
 the churches, where they tore her to pieces, a. d. 415. 
 
 Hypatodorus i^t-nar6^wpos)^ a statuary of 
 Thebes, flourished B.C. 37'2. 
 
 Hyperbolus CTTr4pSo\os), an Athenian dema- 
 gogue in the Peloponnesian war, was of servile 
 origin, and was frequently satirized by Aristophanes 
 and the other comic poets. In order to get rid 
 either of Nicias or Alcibiades, Hyperbolus called 
 for the exercise of the ostracism. But the parties 
 endangered combined to defeat him, and the vote 
 of exile fell on Hyperbolus himself: an application 
 of that dignified punishment by which it was 
 thought to have been so debased that the use of it 
 was never recurred to. Some years afterwards he 
 was murdered by the oligarchs at Samoa, B.C. 411. 
 
 Hyperborei or -ei {'TirepSopioi, 'TirepSopeioi)^ 
 a fabulous people, the earliest mention of whom 
 seems to have been in the sacred legends connected 
 with the worship of Apollo, both at Delos and at 
 Delphi. In the earliest Greek conception of the 
 Hyperboreans, as embodied by the poets, they were 
 a blessed people, living beyond ike N'. tuind {imep- 
 Sopeoi^ fr. vTT^p and Bopecw), and therefore not ex- 
 posed to its cold blasts, in a land of perpetual sun- 
 shine, which produced abundant fruits, on which 
 the people lived, abstaining from animal food. In 
 innocence and peace, free from disease and toil and 
 care, ignorant of violence and war, they spent a 
 long and happy life, in the due and cheerful ob- 
 servance of the worship of Apollo, who visited tlieir 
 country soon after his birth, and spent a whole 
 year among them, dancing and singing, before he 
 returned to Delphi. The poets related further 
 how the sun only rose once a year and set once a 
 year, upon the Hyperboreans, whose year was thus 
 divided, at the equinoxes, into a 6 months' day and 
 a 6 months' night, and they were therefore said to 
 sow in the morning, to reap at noon, to gather 
 their fruits in the evening, and to store them up 
 at night: how, too, their natural life lasted 1000 
 vears, but if any of them was satiated with its 
 unbroken enjoyment, he threw himself, crowned 
 and anointed, from a sacred rock into the sea. The 
 Delian legends told of oflterings sent to Apollo by 
 the Hyperboreans, first by the hands of virgins 
 named Arge and Opis (or Hecaerge), and then by 
 Laodice and Hyperoche, escorted by 5 men called 
 Perpherees ; and lastly, as their messengers did 
 not return, they sent the off'erings pa<;ked in wheat- 
 straw, and the sacred package was forwarded from 
 
 HYPHASIS. 
 
 people to people till it reached Delos. If these 
 legends are based on any geographical relations at 
 all, the most probable explanation is that which 
 regards them as pointing to regions N. of Greece 
 (the N. part of Thessaly especially) as the chief 
 original seat of the worship of Apollo. Naturally 
 enough, as the geographical knowledge of the Greeks 
 extended, they moved back the Hyperboreans 
 further and further into the unknown parts of the 
 earth ; and, of those who sought to fix their pre- 
 cise locality, some placed them in the extreme W. 
 of Europe, near the Pyrenaean mountains and the 
 supposed sources of the Ister, and thus they came 
 to be identified with the Celtae ; while others 
 placed them in the extreme N. of Europe, on the 
 shores of the Hyperboreus Oceanus, beyond the 
 fabulous Grypes and Arimaspi, who themselves 
 lived beyond the Scythians. The latter opinion at 
 length prevailed ; and then, the religious aspect of 
 the fable being gradually lost sight of, the term 
 Hyperborean came to mean only most northerly^ as 
 when Virgil and Horace speak of the "'Hyper- 
 boreae orae '^ and " H3'perborei campi." The 
 fable of the Hyperboreans may probably be re- 
 garded as one of the forms in which the tradition 
 of an original period of innocence, happiness, and 
 immortality, existed among the nations of the 
 ancient world, 
 
 Hyperborei Montes was originally the mythical 
 name of an imaginary range of mountains in the 
 N. of the earth [Hyperborei], and was after- 
 wards applied by the geographers to various chains, 
 as, for example, the Caucasus, the Rhipaei Montes, 
 and others. 
 
 Hyperldes ('TTrepctSTjs or 'TTrepiSrjs), one of 
 the 10 Attic orators, was the son of Glaucippus, 
 and belonged to the Attic demus of CoUytus. He 
 was a pupil of Plato in philosophy, and of Demos- 
 thenes in oratory. He was a friend of Demosthenes, 
 and with him and Lycurgus was at the head of 
 the anti-Macedonian party. He is first mentioned 
 about B. c. 358, when he and his son equipped 2 
 triremes at their own expense in order to serve 
 against Euboea, and from this time to his death 
 he continued a stedfast friend to the patriotic cause. 
 After the death of Alexander (3'23) Hyperides took 
 an active part in organising that confederacy of the 
 Greeks against Antipater, which produced the 
 Lamian war. Upon the defeat of the confederates 
 at the battle of Crannon in the following year 
 (322), Hyperides fled to Aegina, where he was 
 slain by the emissaries of Antipater. The number 
 of orations attributed to Hyperides was 77 ; but 
 none of them have come down to us. His oratory 
 was graceful and powerful, holding a middle place 
 between that of Lysias and Demosthenes. 
 
 Hyperion ('TTrepioji/), a Titan, son of Uranus 
 and Ge, and maiTied to his sister Thia, or Eury- 
 phaessa, by whom he became the father of Helios, 
 Selene, and Eos. Homer uses the name as a pa- 
 tronymic of Helios, so that it is equivalent to 
 Hyperio7iion or Hyperionides ; and Homer''s example 
 is imitated also by other poets. [Helios.] 
 
 Hypermnestra {'rn^puvfjo-Tpa). 1. Daughter 
 of Thestius and Kurythemis, wife of Oicles, and 
 mother of Amphiaraus. — 2. One of the daughters 
 of Danaus and wife of Lyiiceus. [Dana us ; 
 
 LVNCEUS.] 
 
 Hypliasis or Hypaais or Hypanis ("Yc^ao-ts, 
 "TTrao-is, "Tirauis: Becas, and Gharra), a river of 
 India. [Hvdaspes.J 
 
HYPIUS. 
 
 HypiuB ("TTnos), a river and mountain in Bi- 
 th3'nia. 
 
 Hypsas ("Tif/tw), 2 rivers on the S. coast of 
 Sicily, one between Selinus and Thermae Selinuntiae 
 (now Belici) and the other near Agrigentum (now 
 Fiume drago). 
 
 Hypseus ( 'Ti|/eus), son of Peneus and Creusa, 
 was king of the Lapithae, and father of Cyrene. 
 
 Hypsicles {"t^nOJqs)^ of Alexandria, a Greek 
 mathematician, who is usually said to have lived 
 about A. D. 160, but who ought not to he placed 
 earlier than a. d. 550. The only work of his 
 extant, is entitled Ilepl ttjs tSiv ^taZiwv ava<popas, 
 published with the Optics of Heliodorus at Paris, 
 J 567. He is supposed however to have added the 
 I4th and 15th books to the Elements of Euclid. 
 
 Hypsipyle ('Ti^tTruAij), daughter of Thoas, king 
 of Lemnoa. When the Lemnian women killed all 
 the men in the island, because they had taken 
 some female Thraclan slaves to their beds, Hypsi- 
 pyle saved her father. [Thoas.] She then became 
 queen of Lemnos ; and when the Argonauts landed 
 there shortly afterwards, she bore twin sons to Jason, 
 Euneus and Nebrophonus, also called Deiphilus or 
 Thoas. The Lemnian women subsequently dis- 
 covered that Thoas was alive, whereupon they com- 
 pelled Hypsipyle to quit the island. On her flight 
 she was taken prisoner by pirates and sold to the 
 Nemean king Lycurgus, who entrusted to her care 
 his son Archemorus or Opheltes. [Archemorus.] 
 
 H3rpsu3 ('Tt^oCy, -ovvTos)j a town in Arcadia, 
 on a mountain of the same name. 
 
 Hyrcania {'TpKavla : "fpKdvios, Hyrcanus: Afa- 
 zanderan)^ a province of the ancient Persian Em- 
 pire, on the S. and S.E. shores of the Caspian or 
 Hyrcanian Sea, and separated by mountains on the 
 W., S., and E., from Media, Parthia, and Mar- 
 giana. Its valleys were very fertile ; and it flou- 
 rished most under the Parthians, whose kings 
 often resided in it during the summer. 
 
 Hyrcanum or -ium Mare. [Caspitjm Mare.] 
 
 Hyrcanus ('Tp/covcfs}, 1. Joannes, prince and 
 high-priest of the Jews, was the son and successor 
 of Simon Maccabaeus, the restorer of the inde- 
 pendence of Judaea. He succeeded to his father's 
 power B.C. 135. He was at first engaged in war 
 with AntiochuB VII. Sidetes, who invaded Judaea, 
 and laid siege to Jerasalem. In 133 he concluded 
 a peace with Antiochus, on the condition of paying 
 an annual tribute. Owing to the civil wars in 
 Syria between the several claimants to the throne, 
 the power of Hyrcanus steadily increased ; and at 
 length he took Samaria, and razed it to the ground 
 (109), notwithstanding the army which Antiochus 
 IX. Cyzicenus had sent to the assistance of the city. 
 Hyrcanus died in 106. Although he did not 
 assume the title of kmg, he may be regarded as 
 the founder of the monarchy of Judaea, which 
 continui d in his family till the accession of Herod. 
 ^ 2. High-priest and king of the Jews, was the 
 eldest son of Alexander Jannaeus, and his wife, 
 Alexandra. On the death of Alexander (78) the 
 royal authority devolved upon Alexandra, who ap- 
 pointed Hyrcanus to the high-priesthood. Alex- 
 andra reigned 9 years ; and upon her death in 69, 
 Hyrcanus succeeded to the sovereignty, but was 
 quickly attacked by his younger brother Aristobu- 
 lus, who possessed more energy and ambition than 
 Hyrcanus. In the following year (68) Hyrcanus 
 was driven ff^.iU the throne, and took refuge with 
 Aretas, king of Arabia Petraea. That monarch 
 
 HYSTASPES. 335 
 
 assembled an army, with which he invaded Judaea 
 in order to restore Hyrcanus. He defeated Aris- 
 tobidus, and blockaded him in the temple of Jeru- 
 salem. Aristnbulus, however, gained over by 
 bribes and promises Pompey''8 lieutenant, M. 
 Scaurus, who had arrived at Damascus, and who 
 now ordered Aretas and Hyrcanus to withdraw 
 from Judaea (64). The next year Pompey him- 
 self arrived in Syria: he reversed the decision of 
 Scaurus, carried away Aristobulug as a prisoner to 
 Rome, and reinstated Hyrcanus in the liigh-priest- 
 hood, with the authority, though not the name, of 
 royalty. Hyrcanus, however, did not long enjoy 
 his newly recovered sovereignty in quiet. Alex- 
 ander, the son of Aristobulus, and subsequently 
 Aristobulus himself, escaped from Rome, and ex- 
 cited dangerous revolts, which were onl}'- quelled 
 by the assistance of the Romans. Tiie real 
 government was now in the able hands of Antipater, 
 the father of Herod, who rendered such important 
 services to Caesar during the Alexandrian war (47), 
 that Caesar made him procurator of Judaea, leaving 
 to Hyrcanus the title of high-priest. Although 
 Antipater was poisoned by the contrivance of 
 Hyrcanus (43), the latter was a man of such feeble 
 character, that he allowed Herod to take vengeance 
 nn the murderer of his father, and to succeed to his 
 father''s power and influence. The Parthians, on 
 their invasion of Syria, carried awa}"- Hyrcanus as 
 prisoner ( 40). He was treated with much liberality 
 by the Parthian king, and allowed to live in perfect 
 freedom at Babylon. Here he remained for some 
 j'ears ; but having at length received an invitation 
 from Herod, who had meanwhile established him- 
 self on the throne of Judaea, he returned to Jeru- 
 salem, with the consent of the Parthian king. He 
 was treated with respect by Herod till the battle 
 of Actium ; when Herod, fearing lest Augustus 
 might place Hyrcanus on the throne, accused him 
 of a treasonable correspondence with the king of 
 Arabia, and on this pretext put him to death (30). 
 
 Hyria ('Tpi'a : 'Tpieii^, 'TpidrT]s). 1. A town 
 in Boeotia near Tanagra, was in the earliest times 
 a place of importance, but afterwards sunk into in- 
 significance. —2. A town in Apulia. [Uria.] 
 
 Hyrieus ('Tpteus), son of Poseidon and Alcyone, 
 king of Hyria in Boeotia, husband of Clonia, and 
 father of Nycteus, Lycus, and Orion. Respecting 
 his treasures see Agamedes. 
 
 Hyrmina {"Tp/j.(vTj), a town in Elis, mentioned 
 by Homer, but of which all trace had disappeared 
 in the time of Strabo. Near it was the promon- 
 tory Hyrmina or Hormina (C. Chiarenza). 
 
 Hyrmino {'^py-ivq)^ daughter of Neleus, or 
 Nycteus, wife of Phorbas, and mother of Actor. 
 
 Hyrtacus ("T/ixaKos), a Trojan, to whom Priara 
 gave his first wife Arisba, when he married He- 
 cuba. Homer makes him the father of Asius, 
 hence called Hyrtaddes. — In Virgil Nisus and 
 Hippocoon are also represented as sons of Hyrtacus. 
 
 Hysiae ('To-iaf). 1. ('TtrictTTjs), a town in Ar- 
 golis, S. of Argos, destroyed by the Spartans in the 
 Peloponnesian war. — 2. ('Ttrieus), a town in 
 Boeotia, E. of Plataeae, called by Herodotus (v. 
 74) a demus of Attica, but probably belonging to 
 Plataeae. 
 
 Hystaspes ('To-Tao-Trijj ; in Persian, Goshtasp, 
 Gustasp, Histasp, or Wistasp). 1. Son of A r sanies, 
 and father of Darius I., was a member of the Per- 
 sian royal house of the Achaemenidae. He was 
 satrap of Persis under Cambyses, and probably 
 
336 
 
 lACCHUS. 
 
 under Cynis also. ^2. Son of Da.riu3 T. and 
 Atoss.i, commanded the Bactriana and Sacae in 
 the army of his brother Xerxes. 
 
 Iacch.us (^laKxos)^ the solemn name of Bacchus 
 in the Eleusinian mysteries, whose name was de- 
 rived from the boisterous song, called lacchus. In 
 these mysteries lacchus was regarded as the son of 
 Zeus and Demeter, and was distinguished from 
 theTheban Bacchus (Dionysus), the son of Zeus and 
 Semele. In some traditions lacchus is even called 
 a son of Bacchus, but in others the 2 are identified. 
 On the 6th day of the Eleusinian festival (the 20th of 
 Boedromion) the statue of lacchus was carried from 
 the temple of Demeter across the Thriasian plain 
 to Eleusis, accompanied by a numerous and riotous 
 procession of the initiated, who sang the lacchus, 
 carried mystic baskets, and danced to the sound of 
 cymbals and trumpets. 
 
 ladera or lader (ladertlnus : Old Zara\ a 
 town on the coast of Illyricum, with a good harbour, 
 and a Roman colony under the name of " Colonia 
 Claudia Augusta Felix." 
 
 lalemus (^laAe^ios), a similar personification to 
 that of Linus, and hence called a son of Apollo and 
 Calliope, and the inventor of the song lalemus, 
 which was a kind of dirge, and is only mentioned 
 as sung on most melancholy occasions. 
 
 lalmeniLS ('laA/iei/ojJ, son of Ares and Asty- 
 oche. and brother of Ascalaphus, was a native of 
 the Boeotian Orchomenos. He was one of the Ar- 
 gonauts and a suitor of Helena. After the de- 
 struction of Troy, he wandered about with the 
 Orchomenians, and founded colonies in Colchis. 
 
 lalysus (laAytros), one of the 3 very ancient 
 Dorian cities in the island of Rhodes, and one of 
 the 6 original members of the Dorian Hexapolis 
 [Doris], stood on the N.W. coast of the island, 
 about 60 stadia S.W. of Rhodes. It is said to 
 have derived its name from the mythical lalysus, 
 son of Cercaphus, and grandson of Helios. 
 
 lambe ('laju^Tj), a Thraci.in woman, daughter 
 of Pan and Echo, and a slave of Metaninu When 
 Demeter, in search of her daughter, arrived in 
 Attica, and visited the house of Metanira, lambe 
 cheered the mournful goddess by her jokes. 
 
 Iamblich.us ('lo^ffAixo^). !• A Syrian who 
 lived in the time of the emperor Trajan, wrote a 
 romance in the Greek language, entitled Bahylonica, 
 The work itself is lost, but an epitome of it is pre- 
 served by Photius. — 2. A celebrated Neo-PIa- 
 tonic philosopher, was bom at Chalcis in Coele- 
 Syria. He resided in Syria during the greater 
 part of his life, and died in the reign of Constantine 
 the Great, probably before A. d. 333. He was in- 
 ferior in judgment and learning to the earlier Neo- 
 Platonists, Plotinus and Porphyry ; and he intro- 
 duced into his system many of the superstitions and 
 mysteries of the E., by means of which he endea- 
 Toured to check the progress of Christianity. The 
 extant works of lamblichus are : I. Tlfpi Tivday6- 
 pov aip4(T€w'i^ on the philosophy of Pythagoras. It 
 was intended as a preparation for the study of 
 Plato, and consisted originally of 10 books, of 
 which 5 only are extant. 1. The Ist book contains 
 an account of the life of Pythagoras, and though 
 compiled without care, it is yet of value, as the 
 other works, from which it is taken, are lost. 
 
 lARBAo. 
 
 Edited by Kuster, Amsterd. 1707 ; and by Kless, 
 ling. Lips. 1015. 2. UpoTpeirriKoi \6yoi eis (pi^o- 
 (To^iaf^ forms a sort of introduction to the study 
 of Plato. Edited by Kiessling, Lips. 1813, 8vo. 
 3. Ilepi KotVT}s fiaBTjfiaTtKTJs 4iriffT7}fX7is, contains 
 many fragments of the works of early Pythagoreans. 
 Edited by Fries, Copenhagen, 17.90. 4. Ile/Ji ttJj 
 NiKOfxdxov aptdfj.7}TiK7Js elaayuryT]?. Edited by 
 Tennulius, Deventer and Amheim, 1668. 5. Ta 
 ^eoKoyovfieva t^s apid/ji-qTiKTis, Edited by Ast, 
 Lips. 1817. — II. ITepl fiv(rr7}piuVy written to prove 
 the divine origin of the Egyptian and Chaldaean 
 theology. Edited by Gale, Oxon. 1678. lambli- 
 chus wrote other works which are lost. — 3. A 
 later Neo-Platonic philosopher of Apamea, a con- 
 temporary of the emperor Julian and of Libanius. 
 
 lanudae. [Iamus.] 
 
 lanuila ('lajureio ; 'la/xfia: *lafiveiT'ij^ : 0. T. 
 Jabneel, Jabneh : Ilmeh or Gabneh), a consider- 
 able city of Palestine, between Diospolis and 
 Azotus, near the coast, with a good harbour, was 
 taken by King Uzziah from the Philistines. 
 Pompey united it to the province of Syria. After 
 the destruction of Jerusalem it became the seat of 
 the Sanhedrim, and of a celebrated school of Jewish 
 learning. 
 
 Iamus (*'lojLioj), son of Apollo and Evadne, re- 
 ceived the art of prophecy from his father, and was 
 regarded as the ancestor of the famous family of 
 seers, the lamidae at Olj-mpia. 
 
 lanira ('lafcipa), one of the Nereids. 
 
 lantte (*Ia»'07j). 1. Daughter of Oceanus and 
 Tethys, and one of the playmates of Persephone. 
 •^ 2. Daughter of Telestes of Crete, beloved by 
 Iphis. 
 
 lapetns ('laTreTtJs), one of the Titans, son of 
 Uranus and Ge, married Asia or Clymene, the 
 daughter of his brother Oceanus, and became by 
 her the father of Atlas, Prometheus, Epimetheus, 
 and Menoetius. He was imprisoned with Cronus 
 in Tartarus, Being the father of Prometheus, he 
 was regarded by the Greeks as the ancestor of the 
 human race. His descendants, Prometheus, Atlas, 
 and othera, are often designated by the patronymics 
 lapetidae (es), lapetionidae (es), and the feminine 
 lapeiionis. 
 
 lapydes ('laTruScr or 'IdiroSes), a warlike and 
 barbarous people in the N. of Illyricum, between 
 the rivers Arsia and Tedanius, were a mixed race, 
 partly lUyrian and partly Celtic, who tattooed 
 their bodies. They were subdued by Augustus. 
 Their country was called lapydita. 
 
 lapyg^a ('loTru'yto : 'la-n-uyer), the name given 
 by the Greeks to the S. of Apulia, from Tarentum 
 and Brundusium to the From. lapygium (C 
 Leuca) ; though it is sometimes applied to the 
 whole of Apulia. [Apulia.] The name is de- 
 rived from the mythical lapyx. 
 
 lapyx (*IaTu|). 3, Son of Lycaon and brother 
 of Daunius and Peucetius, who went as leaders of 
 a colony to Italy. According to others, he was a 
 Cretan, and a brother af Icadius, or a son of 
 Daedalus and a Cretan woman, from whom the 
 Cretans who migrated to Italy derived the name 
 of Iapyges.^2. The W.N.W. wind, blowing 
 off the coast of lapygia (Apulia), in the S. of 
 Italy, and consequently favourable to persons 
 crossing over to Greece. It was the same as the 
 apy4(TTris of the Greeks. 
 
 larbas or Hiarbas, king of the Gaetulians, and 
 son of Jupiter Ammon by a Libyan nymph, sued 
 
lARDANES. 
 
 in vain for the hand of Dido in marriage. For 
 details see Dido. 
 
 lardanes {'lapbdvrjs)^ a king of Lydia, and 
 father of Omphale, who is hence called lardanis. 
 
 lardanes or lardauus ('lapScicTjs, 'IdpSavos). 
 1. (Jardan), a river in Elis. ^2. A river in the 
 N. of Crete, which flowed near the town Cydonia. 
 
 laaion or lasius {'laaiwy, 'ldo-(os), son of Zeus 
 and Electra, the daughter of Atlas, or son of 
 Corythus and Electra. At the wedding of his 
 sister Harmonia, Demeter fell in love with him, 
 and in a thrice-ploughed field {rpliroXos) she be- 
 came by him the mother of Pluton or Plutus in 
 Crete ; Zeus in consequence killed lasion with a 
 flash of lightning. Others represent him as living 
 to an advanced age as the husband of Demeter. 
 In some traditions lasion and his brother Dardanus 
 are said to have carried the palladium to Sarao- 
 thrace, and there to have been instructed in the 
 mysteries of Demeter by Zeus. Others relate that 
 lasion, being inspired by Demeter and Cora (Pro- 
 serpina), travelled about in Sicily and many other 
 countries, and everywhere taught the people the 
 mysteries of Demeter. 
 
 lasis, i. e. Atalante, the daughter of lasius. 
 
 laso ('latrw), i. e. Recovery, a daughter of 
 Aesculapius, or Amphiaraus, and sister of Hygiea, 
 was worshipped as the goddess of recovery. 
 
 lassius or lassicus Sinus ('lao-iKbs kSxttos: 
 Gulf of Mandeliyeh)^ a large gulf on the W. coast 
 of Caria, between the peninsulae of Miletus and 
 Myndus ; named after the city of lassus, and called 
 Bargylieticus Sinus (hu^ryvXairiKhs K6KTros) from 
 another city which stood upon it, namely, Bargylia. 
 
 lassns or lasus ("lotrtroy, "Xacos : 'lao-eus : 
 Asyn-Kalessi^ Ru.), a city oi Caria, on the lassius 
 Sinus, founded by Argives and further colonised 
 by Milesians. 
 
 lasus (^latTos). 1. An Arcadian, son of Lycur- 
 gus and Cleophile or Eurynome, brother of An- 
 caeus, husband of Clymene, the daughter of Mi- 
 nyaa, and father of Atalante. He is likewise 
 called lasius and lasion. — 2, Father of Amphion, 
 and king of the Minyana. 
 
 lazyges ('Ia^u7€s^), a powerful Sarmatian people, 
 who originally dwelt on the coast of the Pontus 
 Euxinas and the Palus Maeotis, but in the reign 
 of Claudius settled near the Quadi in Dacia, in the 
 country bounded by the Danube, the Theiss, and 
 the Sarmatian mountains. They are generally 
 called Sarmatae lazyges or simply Sarmatae, but 
 Ptolemy gives them the name oi lazyges Metanastae^ 
 on account of their migration. The lazyges were 
 in close alliance with the Quadi, along with whom 
 they frequently attacked the Roman dominions, 
 especially Moesia and Pannonia. In the Sth cen- 
 tury they were conquered by the Goths. 
 
 Iberia {'l€r}pia : S. part of Georgia), a country 
 of Asia, in the centre of the isthmus between the 
 Black and Caspian Seas, was bounded on the N. 
 by the Caucasus, on the W. by Colchis, on the E. 
 by Albania, and on the S. by Armenia. It was 
 surrounded on every side by mountains, through 
 which there were only 4 passes. Sheltered by 
 these mountains and watered by the Cyrus (Kour) 
 and its upper tributaries, it was famed for a fertility 
 of whicli its modern name (from Veu^pyos) remains 
 a witness. Its inhabitants, Iberes {"lirtpes) or 
 Iberi, were, and are still, among the most perfect 
 specimens of the Caucasian race. The ancients 
 believed them to be of the -same family as the 
 
 ICARIUS. 
 
 337 
 
 Assyrians and Medes, whom they were thought to 
 resemble in their customs. They were more civi- 
 lised than their neighbours in Colchis and Albania, 
 and were divided into 4 castes: 1. the nobles, from 
 whom 2 kings were chosen ; 2. the priests, who 
 were also the magistrates ; 3. the soldiers and hus- 
 bandmen; 4. the slaves, who performed all public 
 and mechanical work. The chief emploj'raent of 
 the Iberians was agriculture. The Romans first 
 became acquainted with the country through the 
 expedition of Pompey, in b. c. 65 ; and under 
 Trajan it was subjected to Rome. In the 5th 
 century it was conquered by the Persian king. 
 Sapor. — No connection can be traced between the 
 Iberians of Asia and those of Spain. 
 
 Iberus ("I^iipos or "l^t^p : Ehro), the principal 
 river in the N.E. of Spain, rises among the moun- 
 tains of the Cantabri near Juliobriga, flows S.E. 
 through a great plain between the Pyrenees and 
 the M. Idubeda, and falls into the Mediterranean, 
 near Dertosa, after forming a Delta. 
 
 Ibycus ("ISuKos), a Greek lyric poet, was a 
 native of Rhegiura, and spent the best part of his 
 life at Samos, at the court of Polycrates, about 
 B.C. 540. It is related that travelling through a 
 desert place near Corinth, he was murdered by 
 robbers, but before he died he called upon a flock 
 of cranes that happened to fly over him to avenge 
 his death. Soon afterwards, when the people of 
 Corinth were assembled in the theatre, the cranes 
 appeared; and one of the murderers, who happened 
 1.0 be present, cried out involuntarily, " Behold the 
 avengers of Ibycus : " and thus were the authors 
 of the crime detected. The phrase at ISvkov yi- 
 pafOL passed into a proverb. The poetry of Ibycus 
 was chiefly erotic, and partook largely of the im- 
 petuosity of his character. In his dialect tliere was 
 a mixture of the Doric and Aeolic. In antiquity 
 there were 7 books of his lyric poems, of which 
 only a few fragments now remain. 
 
 Icaria or Icarius QlKapia, 'Jhdpios: 'I/capieyy), 
 a mountain and a demus in Attjca, belonging to 
 the tribe Aegeis, where Dionysus is said to have 
 taught Icarius the cultivation of the vine. 
 
 Icarius {'iKdpios), also called Icarus or Ica- 
 rlon. 1, An Athenian, who lived in the reign of 
 Pandion, and hospitably received Dionysus on his 
 arrival in Attica. The god in return taught him 
 the cultivation of the vine. Icarius made a pre- 
 sent of some wine to peasants, who became intoxi- 
 cated by it, and thinking that they were poisoned 
 by Icarius, slew him, and threw his body into a 
 well, or buried, it under a tree. His daughter Eri- 
 gone, after a long search, found his grave, to which 
 she was conducted by his faithful dog Maera. 
 From grief she hung herself on the tree under 
 which he was buried. Zeus or Dionysus placed 
 her and Icarius among the stars, making Erigone 
 the Virgin^ Icarius Bootes or Arcturus, and Maera 
 Procyon or the little dog. Hence the latter is 
 called Icarius canis. The god then punished the 
 ungrateful Athenians with madness, in which 
 condition the Athenian maidens hung themselves 
 as Erigone had done. The Athenians propitiated 
 Icarius and Erigone by the institution of the festi- 
 val of the Aeora, (See Diet, of Antiq. s. v.) — 2. 
 A Lacedaemonian, son of Perieres and Gorgo- 
 phone, and brother of Tyndareus. Others called him 
 grandson of Perieres, and son of Oebalus. When 
 Icarius and Tyndareus were expelled from Lace- 
 daemon by their half-brother Hippocoon, Icariua 
 
338 ICARUS. 
 
 went to Acaninnia, and there became the father of 
 Penelope, and of several other children. He 
 afterwards returned to Laccdaemon. Since there 
 were many suitors for the hand of Penelope, he 
 promised to give her to the hero wlio should con- 
 quer in a foot-race. Ulysses won the prize, and 
 was betrothed to Penelope. Icarius tried to per- 
 suade his daughter to remain with him, and not 
 accompany Ulysses to Ithaca. Ulysses allowed 
 her to do ns she pleased, whereupon she covered 
 her face with her veil to hide her blushes, and thus 
 intimated that she would follow her husband. 
 Icarius then desisted from farther entreaties, and 
 erected a statue of Modesty on the spot. 
 
 Icarus ("l/capo?), son of Daedalus. [Daedalus.] 
 
 Icarus orlcaria Cl/capoy, 'iKapia: Nikuruc)^ an 
 island of the Aeij^an Sea ; one of the Sporades ; 
 W. of Samos; called also DoHche (SoXtx'n, i-e. lonff 
 island). Its common name, and that of the sur- 
 rounding sea, Icarium Mare, were derived from the 
 myth of Icarus. It was first colonised by the 
 Milesians, but afterwards belonged to the Samians, 
 who fed their herds on its rich pastures. 
 
 Iccius, a friend of Horace, who addressed to 
 him an ode {Carm. i. 29), and an epistle {^Ep. i. 
 12). The ode was written in b. c. 25, when Iccius 
 was preparing to join Aelliis Gallus in his expedi- 
 tion to Arabia. The epistle was composed about 
 10 years afterwards, when Iccius had Ijecome Vip- 
 sanius Agrippa's steward in Sicily. In both poems 
 Horace reprehends pointedly, but delicately, in 
 Iccius an inordinate desire for wealth. 
 
 Iceai, called Simeni (2i/xepoi) by Ptolemy, a 
 numerous and powerful people in Britain, who 
 dwelt N. of the Trinobantes, in the modem counties 
 of Suffolk and Norfolk. Their revolt from the 
 Romans, under their heroic queen Boadicea, is ce- 
 lebrated in history. [Boadicea.] Their chief 
 town was Venta Icenorum (Caister), about 3 
 miles from Norwich. 
 
 Ichnae ("'ix^ai: 'Ix^ct'os). 1. A town in 
 Bottiaea in Macedonia, near the mouth of the 
 Axius. ^2. A town in Phthiotis in Thessaly, ce- 
 lebrated for its worship of Themis, who was hence 
 surnamed Ichnaea. 
 
 Ichuae or Ischnae ("Ix^'cti, "lixxva-i)^ a Greek 
 city in the N. of Mesopotamia, founded by the 
 Macedonians, was the scene of the first battle be- 
 tween Crassus and the Parthians, in which the 
 former gained the victory. According to Appian, 
 the Parthians soon after defeated the Romans near 
 the same spot. 
 
 Ichthyophagi Clx^^otpayoi^ i. e. Fish-eaters)^ 
 was a vague descriptive name given b}'' the ancients 
 to various peoples on the coasts of Asia and Africa, 
 of whom they knew but little. Thus we find 
 Ichthyophagi: 1. in the extreme S. E. of Asia, in 
 the countrj' of the Sinae : 2. on the coast of Ge- 
 DRO.siA : 3. on the N.E. coast of Arabia Felix: 4. 
 in Africa, on the coast of the Red Sea, above 
 Egypt : 5. on the W. coast of Africa. 
 
 Icilius. 1. Sp., was one of the 3 envoys sent 
 by the plebeians, after their secession to the Sacred 
 Mount, to treat with the senate, B. c. 494. He 
 was thrice elected tribune of the plebs, namely, in 
 492,481, and 471. — 2. L., a man of great energy 
 and eloquence, was tribune of the plebs, 456, when 
 he claimed for tht^ tribunes the right of convoking 
 the senate, and also carried the important law for 
 the assignment of the Aventine {dc Areniino pub/i- 
 cando) to the plebs. In the following year (455), 
 
 IDAS, 
 he was again elected tribune. He was one of the 
 chief leaders in the outbreak against the decem- 
 virs, 449. Virginia had been betrothed to him, 
 and he boldly defended her cause before App. 
 Claudius ; and when at length she fell by her 
 father's hand, Icilius hurried to the army which 
 was carrying on the war against the Sabines, and 
 prevailed upon them to desert the government. 
 
 Icomuui CIk6piov : ^Ikovuvs ; Ko?iii/eJi)^ the 
 capital of Lycaoni;!, in Asia Minor, wa.s, when 
 visited by St. Paul, a flourishing city, with a 
 mixed population of Jews and Greeks : under the 
 later emperors, a colony ; and in the middle ages, 
 one of the greatest cities of Asia Minor, and im- 
 portant in the history of the crusades. 
 
 Xctinus ('iKTicos), a contemporary of Pericles, 
 was the architect of two of the most celebrated 
 of the Greek temples, namely, the great temple of 
 Athene, in the acropolis of Athens, called the Par- 
 thenon, and the temple of Apollo Epicurius, near 
 Phigalia in Arcadia. Callicrates was associated 
 with Ictinus in building the Parthenon. 
 
 Ida ("1577, Dor, "ISa). ]. (Ida, or Kas-Dagh), a 
 moimtain range of Mysia, in Asia Minnr, which 
 formed the >5. boundar^'^ oftheTroad; extending from 
 Lectum Pr. in the S. W. corner of the Troad, E.- 
 wards along the N. side of the Gulf of Adramyttium, 
 and further E. into the centre of Mysia. Its highest 
 summits were Cotylus on the N. and Gargara on 
 thr S. ; the latter is about 5000 feet high, and is 
 often capped with snow. Lower down, the slopes 
 of the mountain are well-wooded ; and lower still, 
 they form fertile fields and valleys. The sources 
 of the Scamander and the Aesepus, besides other 
 rivers and numerous brooks, are on Ida. The 
 mountain is celebrated in mythology, as the scene 
 of the rape of Ganjinede, whom Ovid {Fast. ii. 
 145) calls Idaeus pver and of the judgment of 
 Paris, who is called Idcieus Judex by Ovid (Fast 
 vi. 44), and Idaeus pastor by CJcero (ad Alt. i. 
 18). In Homer, too, its summit is the place 
 from which the gods watch the battles in the plain 
 of Troy. Ida was also an ancient seat of the 
 worship of Cybele, who obtained from it the name 
 of Idaea Mater. 2. (I'silorati), a mountain in the 
 centre of Crete, belonging to the mountain range 
 wliich runs through the whole length of the island. 
 Mt. Ida is said to be 7(374 feet above the level of 
 the sea. It was closely connected with tlie wor- 
 ship of Zeus, who is said to have been brought up 
 in a cave in this mountain. 
 
 Idaea Mater. [Ida.] 
 
 Idaei Dactyli. [Dactvll] 
 
 Idalium ('iSaAiof), a town in Cj-prus, sacred 
 to Venus, who hence bore the surname Idnlia. 
 
 Idas (*'l5a5), son of Aphareus and Arene, the 
 daughter of Oebalus, brother of Lynceus, husband 
 of Marpessa, and father of Cleopatra or Alcyone. 
 From the name of their father, Idas and Lynceus 
 are called Apharetidae or Apharldue. Apollo was 
 in love with Marpessa, the daughter of Evenus, 
 but Idas carried her oif in a winged chariot which 
 Poseidon had given him. Evenus could not over- 
 take Idas, but Apollo found him in Mesy^T^ne, and 
 took the maiden fiom him. The lovers fought for 
 her possession, but Zeus separated theni. and left 
 the decision with Marpessa, who chose Idas, from 
 fear lest Apollo should desert her if she grew old. 
 T.he Apharetidae also took part in the Calydonian 
 hunt, and m the expedition of the Argonauts. But 
 the most celebrated part of their story is their 
 
IDISTAVISUS. 
 battle with the Dioscuri, Castor and Pollux, which 
 is related elsewhere [p. *228, b.]. 
 
 Idistavisus Campus, a plain in German)'' near 
 the Weser, probably in the neighbourhood of the 
 Porta "VVestphalica, between Rintebi ami Hausbercjc. 
 memorable for the victory of Germanicus over the 
 Cherusci, a. d. 16. 
 
 Idmon C'lSju.wi/), son of Apollo and Asteria, or 
 Gyrene, was a soothsayer, and accompanied the 
 Argonauts, although he knew beforehand that 
 death awaited him. He was killed in/ the countr}' 
 of the Mariandj'nians by a boar or a serpent ; or, 
 according to others, he died there of a disease. 
 
 Idomeneus {'lSo(j.ev€vs). 1. Son of the Cretan 
 Deucalion, and grandson of Minos and Pasiphae, 
 was king of Crete. He is sometimes called Lyctius 
 or Cnossius^ from the Cretan towns of Lyctus and 
 Cnossua. He was one of the suitors of Helen; and 
 in conjunction with Meriones, the son of his half- 
 brother Molus, he led the Cretans in 80 ships 
 against Troy. He was one of the bravest heroes in 
 the Trojan war, and distinguished himself espe- 
 cially in the battle near tiie ships. According to 
 Homer, Idomeneus returned home in safety after 
 the fall of Troy. Later traditions relate that once 
 in a storm he vowed to sacrifice to Poseidon what- 
 ever he should first meet on his landing, if the god 
 would grant him a safe return. This was his own 
 son, whom he accordingly sacrificed. As Crete 
 was thereupon visited by a plague, the Cretans 
 expelled Idomeneus. He went to Italy, where he 
 settled in Calabria, and built a temple to Athena. 
 From thence he is said to have migrated again to 
 Colophon, on the coast of Asia. His tomb, how- 
 ever, was shown at Cnosus, where he and Meriones 
 were worshipped as heroes. — 2. Of Lampsacus, a 
 friend and disciple of Epicurus, flourished about 
 B. c. 310 — 270. He wrote several philosophical 
 and historical works, all of which are lost. The 
 latter were chiefly devoted to an account of the 
 private life of the distinguished men of Greece. 
 
 Idothea (Et5o0ea), daughter of Proteus, taught 
 Menelaus how he might secure her father, iind 
 compel him to declare in what manner he might 
 reach home in safety. 
 
 Idxieus or Hidriexis ('iSpteuy, 'iSpieiJs), king of 
 Caria, 2nd son of Hecatomnus, succeeded to the 
 throne on the death of Artemisia, the widow of his 
 brother Maussolus, in b, c. 351. He died in 344, 
 leaving the kingdom to his sister Ada, whom he 
 had married. 
 
 Idubeda (SicTi-a de Oca and Lorenzo)^ a range 
 of mountains in Spain, begins among the Cantabri, 
 forms the S. boundary of the plain of the Ebro, 
 and runs S.E. to the Mediterranean. 
 
 Idumaea ('iSof^aia), is the Greek form of the 
 scriptural name Edom, biit the terms are not pre- 
 cisely equivalent. In the 0. T., and in the time 
 before the Babylonish captivity of the Jews, Edom 
 is the district of Mt. Seir, that is, the mountainous 
 region extending N. and S. from the Dead Sea to 
 the E. head of the Red Sea, peopled by the de- 
 scendants of Esau, and added by David to the 
 Israelitish monarchy. The decline of the kingdom 
 of Judaea, and at last its extinction by Nebuchad- 
 nezzar, enabled theEdomitea to extend their power 
 to the N.W. over the S. part of Judaea as far as 
 Hebron, while their original territory was taken 
 possession of by the Nabathaean Arabs. Thus the 
 Idumaea of the later Jewish, and of the Rimian, 
 history is the S. part of Judaea, and a small portion 
 
 ILERACONES. 339 
 
 of the N. of Arabia Petraea, extending N-W. and 
 S. E. from the Mediterranean to the W. side of 
 Mt. Seir. Under the Maccabees, the Idumaeans 
 were again subjected to Judaea (b. c. 129), and 
 governed, under them, by prefects {(TTpaTTjyoi)^ 
 who were very probably descended from the old 
 princes of Edom; but the internal dissensions in 
 the Asmonaean family led at last to the establish- 
 ment of an Iduniaean dynasty on the Jewish 
 throne. [Antipatek, Nos. 3, 4; Herodes.] The 
 Roman writers of the Augustan age and later use 
 Idumaea Eind Judaea as equivalent terras. Soon 
 after the destruction of Jerusalem the name of 
 Idumaea disappears from history, and is merged in 
 that of Arabia. Both the old Edomites and the 
 later Idumaeans were a commercial people, and 
 carried on a great part of the traffic between the 
 East and the shores of the Mediterranean. 
 
 Idyia ('iSura), daughter of Oceanus and Tethys, 
 and wife of the Colchian king Aeetes. 
 
 lerne. [Hibernia.] 
 
 letae ('lerai : '1€t7i/qs: Jaio)^ a town in the 
 interior of Sicily, on a mountain of the same name, 
 S W. of Macella. 
 
 IgiJjum {Gifflio), a small island off the Etruscan 
 coast, opposite Cosa. 
 
 Ignatius {'lyvdrios), one of the Apostolical 
 Fathers, was a hearer of the Apostle John, and 
 succeeded Evodius as bishop of Antioch in a.d. 69. 
 He was condemned to death by Trajan at Antioch, 
 and was taken to Rome, where he was thrown to 
 the wild beasts in the amphitheatre. The date of 
 his martyrdom is uncertain. Some place it in 107, 
 but others as late as 1 1 6. On his way from Antioch 
 to Rome, Ignatius wrote several epistles in Greek 
 to various churches. There are extant at present 
 IS epistles ascribed to Ignatius, but of these only 
 7 are considered to be genuine ; and even these 7 
 are much interpolated. The ancient Syriac version 
 of some of these epistles, which has been recently 
 discovered, is free from many of the interpolations 
 found in the present Greek text, and was evi- 
 dently executed when the Greek text was in a 
 state of greater purity than it is at present. The 
 Greek text has been published in the Patres Apos- 
 iolici by Cotelerius, Amsterd. 1724, and by Jacob- 
 son, Oxon. 1838 ; and the Syriac version, accompa- 
 nied with the Greek text, by Cureton, Lond. 1849. 
 
 Iguvium (Iguvinus, Iguvinas, -atis ; Gvhhio or 
 Eiiguhio), an important town in Umbria, on the 
 S. slope of the Apennines. On a mountain in the 
 neighbourfiood of this town was a celebrated temple 
 of Jupiter, in the ruins of which were discovered, 4 
 centuries ago, 7 brazen tables, covered with Um- 
 brian inscriptions, and which are still preserved at 
 Gubbio. These tables, frequently called the Eu~ 
 guhian Tables^ contain more than 1000 Umbrian 
 words, and are of great importance for a knowledge 
 of the ancient languages of Italy. They are ex- 
 plained byGrotefend,/??tf/zmereto Linguae Umbricae^ 
 &c., Hannov. 1835, seq., and by Lepsius, Inscrip- 
 tiones Umbricae et Oscae, Lips. 1841, 
 
 Ilaira ("lA-deipa), daughter of Leucippua and 
 Philodice, and sister of Phoebe. The 2 sisters are 
 frequently mentioned by the poets under the name 
 of Leucippidae. Both were carried off by the 
 Dioscuri, and Ilaira became the wife of Castor. 
 
 Heracones, Hercaonenses, orlUurgavonenses, 
 a people in HispaniaTarraconensis on the W. coast 
 between the Iberus and M. Idubeda. Their chief 
 town was Dertosa. 
 
 z 2 
 
840 
 
 ILERDA. 
 
 Ilerda (Lerida), a town of the Ilerggtes in 
 Hispania Tarraconensis, situated on a height above 
 the river Sicoris {Segre\ which was here crossed 
 by a stone bridge. It was afterwards a Roman 
 colony, but in the time of Ausonius had ceased to 
 "be a place of importance. It was here that Afra- 
 niu9 and Petreius, the legates of Pompey, were 
 defeated by Caesar (b. c. 49). 
 
 Hergetes, a people in Hispania Tarraconensis, 
 between the Iberus and the Pyrenees, 
 
 nia or EUea Silvia. [Romulus.] 
 
 Hici or mice {Elche)^ a town of the Contestani 
 on the E. coast of Hispania Tarraconensis, on the 
 road from Carth.igo Nova to Valentia, was a co- 
 lonia immunis. The modern ElcJte lies at a greater 
 distance from the coast than the ancient town. 
 
 Hienses, an ancient people in Sardinia. 
 
 Iliona ('lAi<Jj'7j), daughter of Priam and Hecuba, 
 wife of Polymnestor or Polyraestor, king of the 
 Thracian Chersonesus, to whom she bore a son 
 Deipylus. At the beginning of the Trojan war 
 her brother Polydonis was intrusted to her care, 
 and she brought him up as her own son. For de- 
 tails see PoLYDORUS, Iliona was the name of one 
 of the tragedies of Pacuvius. (Hor. Sat. ii. 3. 61.) 
 
 nioneus (^Wiovevs)^ a son of Niobe, whom 
 Apollo would have liked to save, because he was 
 praying ; but the arrow was no longer under the 
 control of the god. [Niobe.] 
 
 nJpa (Pennajhr), a town in Hispania Baetica, 
 on the right bank of the Baetis, which was navi- 
 gable to this place with small vessels. 
 
 lUssus {'l\i(r(r6sy more rarely EiAKrctJs), a 
 small river in Attica, rises on the N. slope of Mt. 
 Hjnuettug, receives the brook Eridanua near the 
 Lyceum outside the walls of Athens, then flows 
 through the E. side of Athens, and loses itself in 
 the marshes in the Athenian plain. The Ilissus 
 is now usually dry, as its waters are drawn off to 
 supply the city. 
 
 lUthyia (El\€idvia), also called Elithyia, Ile- 
 thyia, or Eleutho, the goddess of birth, who came 
 to the assistance of women in labour. When she 
 ■was kindly disposed, she furthered the birth ; but 
 ■when she was angry, she protracted the labour. 
 In the Iliad the Ilithyiae (in the plural) are called 
 the daughters of Hera. But in the Odyssey and 
 Hesiod, and in the later poets in general, there is 
 only one goddess of this name, liithyia was the 
 servant of Hera, and was employed by the latter 
 to retard the birth of Hercules. [Hercules.] — 
 The worship of liithyia appears to have been first 
 established among the Dorians in Crete, where she 
 was believed to have been bom in a cave in the 
 territory of Cnossus, From thence her ■worship 
 spread over Delos and Attica. According to a 
 Delian tradition liithyia was not bom in Crete, 
 but had come to Delos from the Hyperboreans, for 
 the purpose of assisting Leto, In an ancient hymn 
 attributed to Olen, which was sung in Delos, 
 liithyia was called the mother of Eros (Love). It 
 is probable that liithyia was originally a goddess 
 of the moon, and hence became identified with 
 Artemis or Diana. The moon was supposed to 
 exercise great influence over growth in general, 
 and consequently over that of children. 
 
 nium. [Troas.] 
 
 Illiberils ClWiSfpis}. 1. (Tech), called Ticliis 
 or Tedium by the Romans, a river in Gallia Narbo- 
 nensis in the territory of the Sardoneg, rises in the 
 Pyrenees and falls, after a short course, into the 
 
 ILLYRICUM. 
 
 Mare Gallicum. — 2, (Elne), a town of the Sa^^- 
 tones, on the above-mentioned river, at the foot of 
 the Pyrenees, was originally a place of importance, 
 but afterwards sunk into insignificance. It was 
 restored by Constantine, who changed its name 
 into Helena, whence the modem Elne, 
 
 lUitxirgis or Illiturgri (Andujar), an important 
 town of the Turduli in Hispania Tarraconensis, si- 
 tuated on a steep rock near the Baetis, and on the 
 road from Corduba to Caatulo ; it was destroyed by 
 Sciplo B.C. 210, but was rebuilt, and received the 
 name of Forum Julium. 
 
 Ulyricum or lUyris, more rarely Illyria (rh 
 'IWvpiKdvy 'lAAupis, ^IWvpia), included, in its 
 widest signification, all the land W. of Macedonia 
 and E, of Italy and Rhaetia, extending S. as far 
 as Epims, and N. as far as the valleys of the Savus 
 and Dravus, and the junction of these rivers with 
 the Danube. This wide extent of country was 
 inhabited'by numerous Illyrian tribes, all of whom 
 were more or less barbarous. They were probably 
 of the same origin as the Thracians, but some 
 Celts were mingled with them. The country was 
 divided into 2 parts : 1. lUyris Barbara or Ko- 
 mana, the Roman province of Illyrictiin, extended 
 along the Adriatic sea from Italy (Istria), from 
 which it was separated by the Arsia, to the river 
 Drilo, and was bounded on the E, by Macedonia 
 and Moesia Superior, from which it was separated 
 by the Drinus, and on the N. by Pannonia, from 
 which it was separated by the Dravus. It thus 
 comprehended a part of the modem Croatia, the 
 whole of Dalmatia, almost the whole of Bosnia, 
 and a part of Albania. It was divided in ancient 
 times into 3 districts, according to the tribes by 
 which it was inhabited : — lapydia, the interior 
 of the country on the N., from the Arsia to the 
 Tedanius [Iapydes] ; Libumia, along the coast 
 from the Arsia to the Titius [Liburni] ; and 
 Dalmatia, S. of Libumia, along the coast from the 
 Titius to the Drilo. [Dai-matia.] The Libur- 
 nians submitted at an early time to the Romans ; 
 but it was not till after the conquest of the Dal- 
 matians in the reign of Augustus, that the entire 
 country was organised as a Roman province. From 
 this time the Illyrians, and especially the Dalma- 
 tians, formed an important part of the Roman 
 legions. — 2. Ulyris Graeca, or Illyria proper, 
 also called Epirus Nova, extended from the Drilo, 
 along the Adriatic, to the Ceraunian mountains, 
 which separated it from Epirus proper: it was 
 bounded on the E. by Macedonia. It thus era- 
 braced the greater part of the modern Albania. It 
 was a mountainous country, but possessed some 
 fertile land on the coast. Its principal rivers were 
 the Aous, Apsus, Genusus, and Panyasus. In 
 the interior was an important lake, the Lychnitis. 
 On the coast there were the Greek colonies of 
 Epidamnus, afterwards DYRRHACHruM,aud Apol- 
 LONiA. It was at these places that the celebrated 
 Via Egnatia commenced, which ran through Ma- 
 cedonia to Byzantium. The country was inha- 
 bited by various tribes, Atintanes, Taulantii, 
 Parthini, Dassaretab, &c. In early times 
 they were troublesome and dangerous neighbours 
 to the Macedonian kings. They were subdued 
 by Philip, the father of Alexander the Great, 
 who defeated and slew in battle their king Bar- 
 dylis, B. c. 359. After the death of Alexander 
 the Great, most of the Illyrian tribes recovered their 
 independence. At a later time the injury which 
 
ILUS. 
 
 the Roman trade suffered from their piracies brought 
 against them the anns of the republic. The forces 
 of their queen Teuta were easily defeated by the 
 Romans, and she was obliged to purchase peace by 
 the surrender of part of her dominions and the 
 payment of an annual tribute, 229. The 2nd 
 lUyrian war was finished by the Romans with the 
 same ease. It was commenced by Demetrius of 
 Pharos, who was guardian of Pineus, the son of 
 Agron, but he was conquered by the consul Aemi- 
 lius Paulus, 219. Pineus was succeeded byPleu- 
 ratus, who cultivated friendly relations with the 
 Romans. His son Gentius formed an alliance with 
 Perseus, king of Macedonia, against Rome ; bnt 
 he was conquered by the praetor L. Anicius, in the 
 same year as Perseus, 168 ; whereupon llljTia, as 
 well as Macedonia, became subject to Rome. — In 
 the new division of the empire under Constantine, 
 lUyricum formed one of the great provinces of the 
 empire. It was divided into Illyricum Occiden- 
 tale, which included Illyricum proper, Pannonia, 
 and Noricum,and Illyricum Orientale, which com- 
 prehended Dacia, Mo.esia, Macedonia, and Thrace. 
 
 Ilus ("IXos). L Son of Dardanus by Batea, the 
 daughter of Teucer. Ilus died without issue, and 
 left his kingdom to his brother, Erichthonius. — 
 2. Son of Tros and Callirhoe, grandson of Erich- 
 thonius, and great-grandson of Dardanus ; whence 
 he is called Dardanides. He wa3 the father of Lao- 
 medon and the grandfather of Priam. He was 
 believed to be the founder of Ilion, which was also 
 called Troy, after his father. Zeus gave him the 
 palladium, a statue of 3 cubits high, with its feet 
 close together, holding a spear in its right hand, 
 and a distaff in its left, and promised that as long 
 as it remained in Troy, the city should be safe. 
 The tomb of Ilus was shown in the neighbourhood 
 of Troy. ^ 3. Son of Mermerus, and grandson of 
 Jason and Medea. He lived at Ephyra, between 
 Elis and Olympia ; and when Ulysses came to him 
 to fetch the poison for his arrows, Ilus refused it, 
 from fear of the vengeance of the gods. 
 
 Hva. [Aethalia.] 
 
 Hvates, a people in Liguria, S. of the Po, in 
 the modern Montferrat. 
 
 Imachara (Imacharensis : Maccard), a town in 
 Sicily, in the Heraean mountains. 
 
 Imaus (ri "l/xaoy Spos), the name of a great 
 mountain range of Asia, is one of those terms 
 which the ancient geographers appear to have used 
 indefinitely, for want of exact knowledge. In its 
 mo5t definite application, it appears to mean the 
 W. part of the Himalaya, between the Paropamisus 
 and the Emodi Montes ; but when it is applied to 
 some great chain, extending much further to the 
 N. and dividing Scythia into 2 parts, Scythia intra 
 Imaum and Scythia extra Imaum, it must either be 
 understood to mean the Moussour or Altai moun- 
 tains, or else some imaginary range, which cannot 
 be identified with any actually existing mountains. 
 
 Imbrasus ("I^S/jairox), a river in the island of 
 Samos, forraeriy called Partheniua, flowing into 
 the sea not far from the city of Samos. The cele- 
 brated temple of Hera {"Hpaiov) stood near it, 
 and it gave the epithet of Imbrasia both to Hera 
 and to Artemis. 
 
 Imbros {"IfiSpo^ '."If^Spios : Emhro or Imhrus), 
 an island in the N. of the Aegean sea, near the 
 Thraciun Chersonesus, about 18 miles S. E. of Sa- 
 mothrace, and about 22 N. E. of Lemnos. It is 
 about 25 miles in circumference, and is hilly, but 
 
 INDIA. 
 
 341 
 
 contains many fertile valleys. Imbroa, like the 
 neighbouring island of Samothrace, was in ancient 
 times one of the chief seats of the worship of the 
 Cabiri and Hermes. There was a town of the 
 same name on the E. of the island, of which there 
 are still some ruins. 
 
 Inachia {'lyaxis), a surname of lo, the daughter 
 of Inachus. The goddess Isia is also called Inaehis, 
 because she was identified with lo ; and some- 
 times Tnackis is used as synonymous with an Argive 
 or Greek woman. — Inackides in the same way 
 was used as a name of Epaphus, a grandson of 
 Inachus, and also of Perseus, because he was bom 
 at Areos, the city of Inachus. 
 
 Inachus (li/axor), son of Oceanus and Tethys, 
 and father of Phoroneus and Aegialeus, to whom 
 others add lo, Argos Panoptes, and Phegeus or Pe- 
 geus. He was the first king and the most ancient 
 hero of Argos, whence the country is frequently 
 called the land of Inachus ; and he is said to have 
 given his name to the river Inachus. The ancients 
 made several attempts to explain the stories about 
 Inachus : sometimes they looked upon him as a 
 native of Argos, who, after the flood of Deucalion, 
 led the Argives from the mountains into the plains ; 
 and sometimes they regarded him as the leader of 
 an Egyptian or Libyan colony, which settled on 
 the banks of the Inachus. 
 
 Inachus {"Ivaxos). 1. (Baniiza), the chief river 
 in Argolis, rises in the mountain Lyrceus on the 
 borders of Arcadia, flows in a S.E.-ly direction, 
 receives near Argos the Charadrus, and falls into 
 the Sinus Argolicus S. of Argos. ^ 2. A river in 
 Acamania, which rises in Mt. Lacmon in the range 
 of Pindus, and falls into the Achelous. 
 
 Inarime. [Aenaria.] 
 
 Inaros (^Ivdpws, occasionally "Icapos), son of 
 Psammitichus, a chief of some Libyan tiibes to the 
 W. of Egypt, commenced hostilities against the 
 Persians, which ended in a revolt of the whole of 
 Egypt, B.C. 461. In 460 Inaros called in the 
 Athenians, who, with a fleet of 200 galleys, were 
 then off Cyprus : the ships sailed up to Memphis, 
 and, occupying two parts of the town, besieged the 
 third- In the same year Inaros defeated the Per- 
 sians in a great battle, in which Achaemenes, the 
 brother of the king Artaxeries, was slain. But a 
 new army, under a new commander, Megabyzus, 
 was more successful. The Egyptians and their 
 allies were defeated ; and Inaros was taken by 
 treachery and crucified, 455. 
 
 India {tj 'IrSia : 'IrSos, Indus), was a name used 
 by the Greeks and Romans, much as the modem 
 term East Indies, to describe the whole of the S.E. 
 part of Asia, to the E.,S. and S.E. of the great 
 ranges of mountains now called the SoUman and 
 Himalaya Mountains, including the 2 peninsulas 
 of Hindustan, and of Durmah, Cochin-China^ Siam^ 
 and Malacca, and also the islands of the Indian 
 Ardiipela^o. There is ample evidence that com- 
 mercial intercourse was carried on, from a very 
 early time, between the W. coast of Hinditdan 
 and the W. parts of Asia, by the way of the 
 Persian Gulf, the Euphrates, and across the Syrian 
 Desert to Phoenicia, and also by way of the Red 
 Sea and Idumaea, both to Eg}-pt and to Phoenicia ; 
 and so on from Phoenicia to Asia Minor and 
 Europe. The direct acquaintance of the western 
 nations with India dates from the reign of Darius, 
 the son of Hystaspes, who added to the Persian 
 empire a part of its N.W. regions, perhaps only as 
 
542 
 
 INDIBILiy. 
 
 far as the Indus, certainly not beyond the limits of 
 the Punjab; and the slight knowledge of the 
 country thus obtained by the Persians was con- 
 veyed to the Greeks through the inquiries of tra- 
 vellers, especially Herodotus, and afterwards by 
 those Greeks who resided for some time in the 
 Persian empire, such as Ctesias, who wrote a 
 special work on India {'lyBiKci). The expedition 
 of Alexander into India first brought the Greeks 
 into actual contact with the country ; but the con- 
 quests of Alexander only extended within Scinde, 
 and the Pzin;'ti&, as far as the river Hyphasis, down 
 whicli he sailed into the Indus, and down the 
 Indus to the sea. The Greek king of Syria, 
 Seleucus Nicator, crossed the Hyphasis, and made 
 war with the Prasii, a people dwelling on the 
 banks of the upper Ganges, to whom be afterwards 
 sent ambassadors, named Megastiienes and Daima- 
 chus, who lived for several years at Palibothra, the 
 capital of the Prasii, and had thus the opportunity 
 of obtaining much information respecting the parts 
 of India about the Ganges. Megasthenes com- 
 posed a work on India, which appears to have 
 been the chief source of all the accurate infonna- 
 tion contained in the works of later writers. After 
 the death of Seleucus Nicator, b. c. 281, the direct 
 intercourse of the western nations with India, ex- 
 cept in the way of commerce, ceased almost en- 
 tirely ; and whatever new information the later 
 writers obtained was often very erroneous. Mean- 
 while, the foundation of Alexandria had created an 
 extensive commerce between India and the West, 
 by way of the Indian Ocean, the Red Sea, and 
 Egypt, which made the Greeks better acquainted 
 with the W, coast of the peninsula, and extended 
 their knowledge further into the eastern seas ; but 
 the information they thus obtained of the countries 
 beyond Cape Comonn was extremely vague and 
 scanty. Another channel of infoi-mation, however, 
 was opened, during this period, by the establish- 
 ment of the Greek kingdom of Bactria, to which a 
 considerable part of N. India appears to have been 
 subject. The later geographers made two great 
 divisions of India, which are separated by the 
 Ganges, and are called India intra Gangem, and 
 India extra Gangem, the former including the 
 peninsula of Hiiulusiari, the latter the Burmese 
 peninsula. They were acquainted with the di- 
 vision of the people of Hindustan into castes, of 
 which thay eaumerate 7. It is not necessary, for 
 the object of this work, to mention the other parti- 
 culars which they relate concerning India and its 
 people. 
 
 Indibilis and Mandonius, 2 brothers, and chiefs 
 of the Spanish tribe of the Ilergetes, who played 
 an important part in the war between the Romans 
 and Carthaginians in Spain during the 2nd Punic 
 war. For some years they were faithful allies of 
 the Carthaginians; but in consequence of the gene- 
 rous treatment which the wife of Mandonius and 
 the daughters of Indibilis received from P. Scipio, 
 when they fell into his hands, the 2 brothers de- 
 serted the Carthaginian cause, and joined Scipio in 
 209 with all the forces of their nation. But in 
 206 the illness and reported death of Scipio gave 
 them hopes of shaking off the yoke of Rome, and 
 they excited a general revolt not only among their 
 own subjects, but the neighbouring Celtiberian 
 tribes also. They were defeated by Scipio, and 
 upon suing for forgiveness were pardoned. But 
 Tvhen Scipio left Spain in the next year (205), they 
 
 INFERI. 
 
 again revolted. The Roman generals whom Scipio 
 had left in Spain forthwith marched against thera ; 
 Indibilis was slain in battle, and Mandonius was 
 taken soon afterwards and put to death. 
 
 Indieetae or Indigetes, a people in the N.E. 
 corner of Hispania Tari-aconensis, close upon the 
 Pyrenees. Their chief town was Emporium. 
 
 Indicus Oceanus. [Erythraeum Mare.] 
 
 Indigetes, the name of those indigenous gods 
 and heroes at Rome, who once lived on earth as 
 mortals, and were worshipped after their death as 
 gods, such as Janus, Picus, Faunus, Aeneas, Evan- 
 der, Hercules, Latinus, Romulus, and others. Thus 
 Aeneas, after his disappearrince on the banks of the 
 Nuraicus, became a deus Indiges^ pater Indiges^ or 
 Jupiter Indiges ; and in like manner Romulus be- 
 came Quirinus^ and Latinus Jupiter Latiaris. The 
 Indigetes are frequently mentioned together with 
 the Lares and Penates ; and many writers connect 
 the Indigetes with those divinities to whom a share 
 in the fomidation of the Latin and Roman state is 
 ascribed, such as Mars, Venus, Vesta, &c. 
 
 Indus or Sindus ('IvStis : Indus, Sind)^ a great 
 river of India, rises in the table land of Thibet, N. 
 of the Himalaya mountains, flows nearly parallel 
 to the great bend of that chain on its N. side, till 
 it breaks througb the chain a little E. of Aitock, 
 in the N.W. corner of the Punjab, and then flows 
 S W. through the great plain of the Punjab^ into 
 the Erythraeum Mare {Indian Ocean), which it 
 enters by several mouths, 2 according to the earlier 
 Greek writers, 6 according to the later. Its chief 
 tributaries are the Cophen {Cahul), which enters it 
 from the N.W. at Aitock^ and the Acesines on the 
 E. side. [Hyphasis.] Like the Nile, the Indus 
 overflows its banks, but with a much less fertilising 
 result, as the country about its lower course is for 
 the most part a sandy desert, and the deposit it 
 brings down is much less rich than that of the 
 Nile. The eiToneous notions of the early Greeks 
 respecting the connection between the S.E. parts 
 of the continents of Africa and Asia, led to a con- 
 fusion between the Indus and the Nile ; but this 
 and other mistakes were corrected by the voyage 
 of Alexander''8 fleet down the Hyphasis and the 
 Indus. The ancient name of India was derived 
 from the native name of the Indus {Sind). 
 
 Indus ('IrSos : Dollomon-Chai), a considerable 
 river of Asia Minor, rising in the S.W. of Phrygia, 
 and flowing through the district of Cibyratis and 
 the S. E. corner of Caria into the Mediterranean, 
 opposite to Rhodes. 
 
 Indutiomarus, or Induciomarus, one of the 
 leading chiefs of the Treviri in Gaul. As he was 
 opposed to the Romans, Caesar induced the leading 
 men of the nation to side with Cingetorix, the son- 
 in-law but rival of Indutiomarus, b. 0. 54. Indu- 
 tiomarus in consequence took up arms against the 
 Romans, but was defeated and slain by Labienus. 
 
 Inessa, [Aetna, No. 2.] 
 
 Inferi, the gods of the Nether World, in contra- 
 distinction from the Superi, orthe gods of heaven. 
 In Greek the In/eri are called ol Kdru^ ot x^^^^oi^ 
 01 uirh yaXav, ol ei/fp06, or ol inr€Vfp6e ^eoi ; and 
 the Superi, ol ii/w, viraroL and ovpdvioi. But 
 the word I?i/eri is also frequently used to desig- 
 nate the dead, in contradistinction from those living 
 upo?i the earth ; so that apud inferos is equivalent 
 to "in Hades," or "in the lower world." The 
 Inferi therefore comprise all the inhabitants of the 
 lower world, the gods, viz. Hades or Pluto, his 
 
INFERUM. 
 
 ■wife Persephone (Proserpina), the Erinnyes or 
 Furies, and others, as well as the souls of departed 
 men. The gods of the lower world are treated of 
 in separate articles. 
 
 Inferum Mare. [Etruria.] 
 
 Ingaevdnes. [Germanic, pp. 281, b., 282, a.] 
 
 Ingauni, a people in Liguria on the coast, whose 
 chief town was Albium Ingaunum. 
 
 Ingenuus, one of the Thirty Tyrants, was 
 governor of Pannonia when Valerian set out upon 
 his campaign against the Persians a. d. 258. He 
 assumed the purple in his province, but was defeated 
 and slain by Gallienus. 
 
 IiLO ('li'w), daughter of Cadmus and Harmoiiia, 
 and wife of Athamas. For details see Athamas. 
 
 InouB, a name both of Melicertes and of Pa- 
 laemon, because they were the sons of Ino. 
 
 Insubres, a Gallic people, who crossed the Alps 
 and settled in Gallia Transpadana in the N. of 
 Italy. Their chief town was Mediolanum. Next 
 to the Boii, they were the most powerful and war- 
 like of the Gallic tribes in Cisalpine Gaul. They 
 were conquered by the Romans, shortly before the 
 commencement of the 2nd Punic war. 
 
 Intaplienies {^Ivratpepi/T}?)^ one of the 7 con- 
 spirators against the 2 Magi in Persia, B.c. 522. 
 He was afterwards put to death by Darius. 
 
 Intemelii, a people in Liguria on the coast, 
 whose chief town was Albium Intemelium. 
 
 Interamna (Interamnas), the name of several 
 towns in Italy, so called from their lying between 
 2 streams. — 1. (7er«i), an ancient municipium in 
 Umbria, situated on the Nar, and surrounded by a 
 canal flowing into this river, whence its inhabitants 
 were called Interamnales Nartes. It was the birth- 
 place of the historian Tacitus, as well as of the 
 emperor of the same name. — 2. A town in Latium 
 on the Via Latina, and at the junction of the 
 Casinus with the Liris, whence its inhabitants 
 are called Interamnaies Lirinates. It was made a 
 Roman colony, B. c. 312, but subsequently sunk 
 into insignificance. 
 
 Intercatia, an important town of the Vaccaei in 
 Hispania Tarraconensis, on the road from Asturica 
 to Caesaraugusta. 
 
 Intercisa or Petra Pertusa, a town in Umbria, 
 80 called because a road was here cut through the 
 rocks by order of Vespasian. An ancient inscription 
 on the spot still commemorates this work. 
 
 Intemum Mare, the MedUerranean Sea^ ex- 
 tended on the W. from the Straits of Hercules, 
 which separated it from the Atlantic, to the coasts 
 of Syria and Asia Minor on the E. In the N.E. 
 it was usually supposed to terminate at the Helles- 
 pont. From the Straits of Hercules to the furthest 
 shores of Syria it is 2000 miles in length ; and, 
 including the islands, it occupies an area of 734,000 
 square miles. It was called by the Romans Mare 
 Intemum or Intesiinum; by the Greeks t] iffia 
 ^dAarra or r] ivrhs hdXarra^ or, more fully, ?} 
 ivrhs 'UpaKKelttJV ffrtikuv ^aKuTTa, and by He- 
 rodotus T^Se TJ bd\aTTa; and from its washing the 
 coasts both of Greece and Italy, it was also called 
 both by Greeks and Romans Our Sea {-q Ti^erepa 
 SctAaTTa, Tj Kttfl* lifias haKarra^ Mare Noslrum). 
 The term Mare Mcdilerraneum is not used by the 
 best classical writers, and occurs first in Solinus. 
 Most of the ancients believed that the Mediter- 
 ranean received its waters from the Atlantic, and 
 poured them through the Hellespont and the Pro- 
 pontis into the E'lxine; but others, on the contrary, 
 
 lOLAUS. 343 
 
 uiaiiitniiied that the waters came from the Euxine 
 into the Mediterranean. The ebb and flow of the 
 tide ore perceptible in only a few parts of the 
 Mediterranean, such as in the Syrtes on the coast 
 of Africa, in the Adriatic, &c. The different partu 
 of the Mediterranean are called by different names, 
 which are spoken of in separate articles. See 
 Mare Tyrrhenum or Inferum, Adria or M. 
 AnRiATicuM or M. Superum, M. Siculum, M. 
 Aegaeu.m, &c. 
 
 Intonsus, the Unshorn, a surname of Apollo 
 and Bacchus, in allusion to the eternal youth of 
 these gods, since the Greek youths allowed their 
 hair to grow until th( y attained manhood. 
 
 Inui Castruju. [Castrum, No. 1.] 
 
 iHycum {''ifVKov or -os : 'Icu/civos : Calda Bel- 
 lota?)^ a small town in the S. of Sicilj', not far 
 from Selinus, on the river Hypsas. 
 
 lo (*Iw), daughter of Inachus, the first kmg of 
 Argos. or, according to others, of lasus or Piren. 
 Zeus loved lo, but on account of Hera's jealousy, 
 he metamorphosed her into a white heifer. The 
 goddess, who was aware of the change, ob- 
 tained the heifer from Zeus, and placed her under 
 the care of Argus Panoptes ; but Zeus sent Hermes 
 to slay Argus and deliver lo. [Argus.] Hera 
 tlien tormented lo with a gad-fly, and drove her 
 in a state of phrenzj* from land to land over the 
 whole earth, until at length she found rest on the 
 banks of the Nile. Here she recovered her ori- 
 ginal form, and bore a son to Zeus, called Epaphus. 
 [Epai'hus.] This is the common story, which 
 appears to be very ancient, since Homer constantlj- 
 gives the epithet of Argiphontes (the slayer of 
 Argus) to Hermes. The wanderings of lo were 
 very celebrated in antiquity, and were extended 
 and embellished with the increase of geographical 
 knowledge. Of these there is a full account in the 
 Prometheus of Aeschylus. The Bosporus is said 
 to have derived its name from her swimming across 
 it. According to some traditions lo married Tele- 
 gonus, king of Egypt, and was afterwards identi- 
 fied with Isis. — The legend of lo is difficult to 
 explain. It appears that lo was identical with the 
 moon ; which is probably signified by her being 
 represented as a woman, with the horns of a heifer. 
 Her connection with Egj'pt seems to be an invention 
 of later times, and was probably suggested by the 
 resemblance which was found to exist between the 
 Argive lo and the Egyptian Isis. 
 
 tobates, king of Lj^cia. [Bellerophon.] 
 
 lol. [Caesarea, No. 4.] 
 . loIaezLses. [Iolahs.] 
 
 loiaus {'ItJXaos), sou of Iphicles and Autorae- 
 dusa. Iphicles was the half-brother of Hercules, 
 and lolaus was the faithful companion and cha- 
 riot&er of the hero. [Hercules.] He assisted 
 Hercules in slaying the Lernaean Hydra. After 
 Hercules had instituted the Olympic games, lolaus 
 won the victory with the horses of his master. 
 Hercules sent him to Sardinia at the head of his 
 sons whom he had by the daughters of Thespius. 
 He introduced civilisution among the inhabitants of 
 that island, and was worshipped by them. From 
 Sardinia he went to Sicil}', and then returned to 
 Hercules shortly before the death of the latter. 
 After the death of the hero, lolaus was the first 
 who offered sacrifices to him as a demigod. Accord- 
 ing to Pausanias, lolaus died in Sardinia, whereas, 
 according to others, he was buried in the tomb of 
 his grandfather, Amphitryon. His descendants in 
 
 7. I 
 
344 
 
 lOLCUS. 
 
 Sardinia were called *Io\aery and lolaenses. [Sar- 
 dinia.] loiaus after his death obtained permission 
 from the gods of the Nether World to come to the 
 assistance of the children of Hercules. He slew 
 Eurystheus, and then returned to the shades. 
 
 lolcus {'lw\K6sy Ep. 'loctfAKfJy, Dor. 'IoXkSs \ 
 'l(»>\Kios)^ an ancient town in Magnesia in Thessaly 
 at the top of the Pagasaean gulf, 7 stadia from the 
 sea. It is said to have been founded by the 
 mythical Cretheus, and to have been colonised by 
 Miny.ins from Orchomenus. It was celebrated in 
 mythology as the residence of Pelias and Jason, 
 and as the place from which the Argonauts sailed 
 in quest of the golden fleece. At a later time it 
 fell into decay, and its inhabitants were removed 
 to the neighbouring town of Demetrias, which was 
 founded by Demetrius Poliorcetes. 
 
 lolo (*IoA.Tj), daughter of Eurytus of Oechalia, 
 was beloved by Hercules. For details see p. 310. 
 After the death of Hercules, she married his son 
 Hyllus. 
 
 lollas or lolatis (^UWas or 'l6\aos). 1. Son of 
 Antipater, and brother of Cassander, king of Ma- 
 cedonia. He was cup-bearer to Alexander at the 
 period of his last illness. Those writers who adopt 
 the idea of the king having been poisoned, repre- 
 sent lollas as the person who actually administered 
 the fatal djranght. — 2. Of Bithynia, a writer on 
 materia medica, flourished in the 3rd century b. c. 
 
 Ion ("Iwi/). 1. The fabulous ancestor of the 
 lonians, is described as the son of Apollo by Creusa, 
 the daughter of Erectheus and wife of Xuthus. 
 The most celebrated story about Ion ia the one 
 which forms the subject of the Io7i of Euripides. 
 Apollo had visited Creusa in a cave below the 
 Propylaea, at Athens ; and when she gave birth to 
 a son, she exposed him in the same cave. The 
 god, however, had the child conveyed to Delphi, 
 where he was educated by a priestess. Some time 
 afterwards Xuthus and Creusa came to consult the 
 oracle about the means of obtaining an heir. They 
 received for answer that the first human being 
 which Xuthus met on leaving the temple should be 
 his son, Xuthus met Ion, and acknowledged him 
 as hh son ; but Creusa, imagining him to be a son 
 of her husband by a former mistress, caused a cup 
 to be presented to the youth, which was filled with 
 the poisonous blood of a dragon. However, her 
 object was discovered, for as Ion, before drinking, 
 poured out a libation to the gods, a pigeon which 
 drank of it died on the spot. Creusa thereupon 
 fled to the altar of the god. Ion dragged her 
 away, and was on the point of killing her, when a 
 priestess interfered, explained the mystery, and 
 showed that Ion was the son of Creusa. Mother 
 and son thus became reconciled, but Xuthus was 
 not let into the secret. — Among the inhabitants of 
 the Aegialus, L e. the N. coast of Peloponnesus, who 
 were lonians, there was another tradition current. 
 Xuthus, when expelled from Thessaly, came to the 
 Aegialus. After his death Ion was on the point 
 of marching against the Aegialeans, when their 
 king Selinus gave him his daughter Helice in mar- 
 riage. On the death of Selinus, Ion succeeded to 
 the throne, and thus the Aegialeans received the 
 name of lonians, and the town of Helice was built 
 in honour of lun's wife. — Other traditions repre- 
 sent Ion as king of Athens between the reigns of 
 Erechtheus and Cecrops ; for it is said that his 
 assistance was called in by the Athenians in their 
 war with the Eleusinians, that he conquered Eu- I 
 
 IONIA. 
 
 molpus, and then became king of Athens, He 
 there became the father of 4 sons, Geleon, Aegicores, 
 Argades, and Hoples, whose names were given to 
 the 4 Athenian classes. After his death he was 
 buried at Potamua. —2. Of Chios, son of Ortho- 
 menes, was a celebrated tragic poet. He went 
 to Athens when young, and there enjoyed the 
 society of Aeschylus and Cimon. The number of 
 his tragedies is variously stated at 12, 30, and 40. 
 We have the titles and a few fragments of II. 
 Ion also wrote other kinds of poetry, and prose 
 works both in history and philosophy. — 3. Of 
 Ephesus, a rhapsodist in the time of Socrates, 
 from whom one of Plato's dialogues is named. 
 
 I5nia {^Iwvia: "luves) and lonis (Rom. poet.), 
 a district on the W. coast of Asia Minor, so called 
 from the Ionian Greeks who colonized it at a time 
 earlier than any distinct historical records. The 
 mythical account of " the great Ionic migration" 
 relates that in consequence of the disputes between 
 the sons of Codrus, king of Athens, about the 
 succession to his government, his younger sons, 
 Neleus and Androclus, resolved to seek a new 
 home beyond the Aegean Sea. Attica was at the 
 time overpeopled by numerous exiles, whom the 
 great revolution, known as *'the return of the 
 Pleraclidae," had driven out of their own states, 
 the chief of whom were the lonians who had 
 been expelled from Peloponnesus by the Dorian 
 invaders. A large portion of this superfluous po- 
 pulation went forth as Athenian colonists, under 
 the leadership of Androclus and Neleus, and of 
 other chieftains of other races, and settled on that 
 part of the W. shores of Asia Minor which formed 
 the coast of Lydia and part of Caria, and also in 
 the adjacent islands of Chios and Samos, and in 
 the Cyclades. The mythical chronology places 
 this great movement 140 years after the Trojan 
 war, or 60 years after the return of the Heraclidae, 
 that is in B.C. 1060 or 1044, according to the 
 2 chief dates imagined for the Trojan war. Pass- 
 ing from mythology to history, the earliest au- 
 thentic records show us the existence of 12 great 
 cities on the above-named coast, claiming to be 
 (though some of them only partially) of Ionic 
 origin, and all tmited into one confederacy^ similar 
 to that of the 1 2 ancient Ionian cities on the N, 
 coast of the Peloponnesus. The district they pos- 
 sessed formed a narrow strip of coast, extending 
 between, and somewhat beyond, the mouths of the 
 rivers Maeander, on the S., and Hermus, on the N. 
 The names of the 12 cities, going from S. to N., 
 were Miletus, Myus, Priene, Samos (city and 
 island), Ephesus, Colophon, Lebedus, Teos, 
 Erythhae, Chios (city and island), Clazo- 
 MENAE, and Phocaea ; the first 3 on the coast 
 of Caria, the rest on that of Lydia : the city of 
 Smyrna, which lay within this district, but was of 
 Aeolic origin, was afterwards (about b. c. 700) 
 added to the Ionian confederacy. The common 
 sanctuary of the league was the Panionium (ira*/- 
 iciviov), a sanctuary of Poseidon Heliconius, on 
 the N. side of the promontory of Mycale, opposite 
 to Samos ; and here was held the great na- 
 tional assembly (Travijyvpts) of the confederacy, 
 called Panionia (Trariopta; see Diet. o/Antig. s.v.). 
 It is very important to observe that the inhabitants 
 of these cities were very far from being exclusively 
 and purely of Ionian descent. The traditions of 
 the original colonization and the accounts of the 
 historians agree in representing them as peopled 
 
IONIA. 
 
 by a great mixture, not only of Hellenic races, but 
 also of these with the earlier inhabitants, such as 
 Carians, Leleges, Lydians, Cretans, and Pelas- 
 gians J their dialects, Herodotus expressly tells us, 
 were very diiferent, and nearly all of them were 
 founded on the sites of pre-existing native settle- 
 ments. The religious rites, also, which the Greeks 
 of Ionia observed, in addition to their national 
 worship of Poseidon, were borrowed in part from 
 the native peoples ; such were the worship of Apollo 
 Didymaeus at Branchidae near Miletus, of Arte- 
 mis at Ephesus, and of Apollo Clarius at Colophon. 
 All these facts point to the conclusion, that the 
 Greek colonization of this coast was effected, not 
 by one, but by successive emigrations from dif- 
 ferent states, but chiefly of the Ionic race. The 
 central position of this district, its excellent har- 
 bours, and the fertility of its plains, watered by 
 the Maeander, the Cayster, and the Hermus, com- 
 bined with the energetic character of the Ionian 
 race to confer a high degree of prosperity upon 
 these cities ; and it was not long before they began 
 to send forth colonies to many places on the shores 
 of the Mediterranean and the Euxiue, and even to 
 Greece itselt During the rise of the Lydian 
 empire, the cities of Ionia preserved their inde- 
 pendence until the reign of Croesus, who subdued 
 those on the mainland, but relinquished his design 
 of attacking the islands. When Cyrus had over- 
 thrown Croesus, he sent his general Harpagus to 
 complete the conquest of the Ionic Greeks, B. c. 
 545. Under the Persian rule, they retained their 
 political organization, subject to the government of 
 the Persian satraps, and of tyrants who were set 
 up in single cities, but they were required to 
 render tribute and military service to the king. 
 In B. c. 500 they revolted from Darius Hystaspis, 
 under the leadership of Histiaeus, the former 
 tyrant of Miletus, and his brother-in-law Arista- 
 GORAS, and supported by aid from the Athenians. 
 The Ionian army advanced as far as Sardis, which 
 they took and burnt, but they were driven back 
 to the coast, and defeated near Ephesus B, c. 499. 
 The reconquest of Ionia by the Persians was com- 
 pleted by the taking of Miletus, in 496, and the 
 lonians were compelled to furnish ships, and to 
 serve as soldiers, in the 2 expeditions against 
 Greece. After the defeat of Xerxes, the Greeks 
 carried the war to the coasts of Asia, and 
 effected the liberation of Ionia by the victories 
 of Mycale (479), and of the Eurymedon (469). 
 In 387 the peace of Antalcidas restored Ionia 
 to Persia j and after the Macedonian conquest, 
 it formed part, successively, of the kingdom of 
 Pergamus, and of the Roman province of Asia. 
 For the history of the several cities, see the re- 
 spective articles. In no country inhabited by the 
 Hellenic race, except at Athens, were the refine- 
 ments of civilisation, the arts, and literature, more 
 highly cultivated than in Ionia. The restless 
 energy and free spirit of the Ionic race, the riches 
 gained by commerce, and the neighbourhood of 
 the great seats of Asiatic civilisation, combined to 
 advance with rapidity the intellectual progress and 
 the social development of its people ; but these 
 same influences, unchecked by the rigid discipline 
 of the Doric race, or the simple earnestness of the 
 Aeolic, imbued their social life with luxury and 
 licence, and invested their works of genius with 
 the hues of enchanting beauty at the expense 
 of severe good taste and earnest purpose. Out of 
 
 IPHICLES. 
 
 345 
 
 the long list of the authors and artists of Ionia, we 
 may mention Mimnermus of Colophon, the first 
 poet of the amatory elegy ; Anacreon of Teos, who 
 sang of love and wine to the music of the lyre ; 
 Thales of Miletus, Anaxagoras of Clazomenae, and 
 several other early philosophers ; the early annalists, 
 Cadmus, Dionysius, and Hecataeus, all of Miletus ; 
 and, in the fine arts, besides being the home of 
 that exquisitely beautiful order of architecture, the 
 Ionic, and possessing many of the most magnificent 
 temples in the world, Ionia was the native country 
 of that refined school of painting, which boasted 
 the names of Zeuxis, Apelles, and Parrhasius. The 
 most flourishing period in the history of Ionia is 
 that during which it was subject to Persia ; but its 
 prosperity lasted till the decline of the Roman 
 empire, under which its cities were among the 
 chief resorts of the celebrated teachers of rhetoric 
 and philosophy. The important place which some 
 of the chief cities of Ionia occupy in the early his- 
 tory of Christianity, is attested by the Jcls of the 
 Apostles, and the epistles of St. Paul to the 
 Ephesians, and of St. John to the 7 churches of 
 Asia. 
 
 Ionium Hare (*ItJwos ir(Ji/Tor, *l6viov -jreXayos, 
 'loyir} 3aA.aTTa, 'Idytos ir6pos), a part of the Medi- 
 terranean Sea between Italy and Greece, was S. of 
 the Adriatic, and began on the W. at Hydruntum 
 in Calabria, and on the E. at Oricus in Epirus, or 
 at the Ceraunian mountains. In more ancient times 
 the Adriatic was called 'Idvtos /xvxhs or 'l6vios k6\- 
 iros; while at a later time the Ionium Mare itself 
 was included in the Adriatic In its widest signi- 
 fication the Ionium Mare included the Mare Sicu- 
 lum, Creiicum and Icarium. Its name was usually 
 derived by the ancients from the wanderings of lo, 
 but it was more probably so called from the Ionian 
 colonies, which settled in Cephallenia and the 
 other islands oif the W. coasts of Greece. 
 
 lopbon ('loi^wi'), son of Sophocles, by Nico- 
 strate, was a distinguished tragic poet. He brought 
 out tragedies during the life of his father, and was 
 still flourishing in B. c. 405, the year in whicb 
 Aristophanes brought out the Frogs. For the 
 celebrated story of his undutiful charge against his 
 father, see Sophocles. 
 
 Iphias ("Ii^iiis), i. e. Evadne, a daughter of 
 Iphis, and wife of Capaneus. 
 
 Iphicles or Iphiclus ('IcfuKAiir, 'IfixKos or 
 'I0iitA€us). 1. Son of Amphitryon and Alcmene 
 of Thebes, was one night younger than his half- 
 brother Hercules. He was first married to Auto- 
 medusa, the daughter of Alcathous, by whom he 
 became the father of lolaus, and afterwards to the 
 youngest daughter of Creon. He accompanied 
 Hercules on several of his expeditions, and also 
 took part in the Calydonian hunt. He fell in battle 
 against the sons of Hippocoon, or, according to 
 another account, was wounded in the battle against 
 the Molionidae, and was carried to Pheneus, where 
 he died. — 2. Son of Thestius by Laophonte or 
 Deidamia or Eurythemis or Leucippe. He took 
 part in the Calydonian hunt and the expedition 
 of the Argonauts. — 3. Son of Phylacus, and 
 grandson of Deion and Clymene, or son of Cephalus 
 and Clymene, the daughter of Minyas. He was 
 married to Diomedia or Astyoche, and was the 
 father of Podarces and Protesilaus. He was also 
 one of the Argonauts ; and he possessed large herds 
 of oxen, which he gave to the seer Melarapus. He 
 was also celebrated for his swiftness in running. 
 
346 
 
 IPHICRATES. 
 
 Iplucratea (^IcpiKpdrTjs), the famous Athenian 
 general, was the sou of a shoemaker. He distin- 
 guished himself at an early age by his gallantry in 
 battle ; and in b. c. 394, when he was only 25 
 years of age, he was appointed by the Athenians 
 to the command of the forces which they sent to 
 the aid of the Boeotians after the battle of Coronea. 
 In 393 he commanded the Athenian forces at 
 Corinth, and at the same time introduced an 
 important improvement in military tactics — the 
 formation of a body of targeteers (7r€A.TairTcii) pos- 
 sessing, to a certain extent, the advantages of 
 heavy and light-armed forces. This he effected 
 by substituting a small target for the heavy shield, 
 adopting a longer sword and spear, and replacing 
 the old coat of mail by a linen corslet. At the 
 head of his targeteers he defeated and nearly de- 
 stroyed a Spartan Mora in the following year (392), 
 an exploit which became ver)' celebrated throughout 
 Greece. In the same year he was succeeded in the 
 command at Corinth by Chabrias. In 389 he was 
 sent to the Hellespont to oppose Anaxibius, who 
 was defeated by him and slain in the following year. 
 On the peace of Antalcidas, in 387, Iphicratea 
 went to Thrace to assist Seuthes, king of the 
 Odrysae, but he soon afterwards formed an alliance 
 with Cotys, who gave him his daughter in mar- 
 riage. In 377 Iphicrates was sent by the Athenians, 
 with the command of a mercenary force, to assist 
 Phamabazus, in reducing Egypt to subjection ; but 
 the expedition failed through a misunderstanding 
 between Iphicrates and Phamabazus. In 373 
 Iphicrates was sent to Corcyra, in conjunction with 
 Callistratus and Chabrias, in the command of an 
 Athenian force, and he remained in the Ionian sea 
 till the peace of 371 put an end to hostilities. 
 About 367, he was sent against Amphipolis, and 
 after carrying on the war against this place for 3 
 years, was superseded by Timotheus. Shortly 
 afterwards, he assisted his father-in-law Cotys, in 
 his war against Athens for the possession of the 
 Thracian Chersonesus. But his conduct in this 
 matter was passed over by the Athenians. After 
 the death of Chabrias (357) Iphicrates, Timotheus, 
 and Menestheus were joined with Chares as com- 
 manders in the Social War, and were prosecuted 
 by their imscrupulous colleague, because they had 
 refused to risk an engagement in a storm. Iphi- 
 crates was acquitted. From the period of his trial 
 he seems to have lived quietly at Athens. He 
 died before 348. Iphicrates has been commended 
 for his combined prudence and energy as a general. 
 The worst words, he said, that a commander could 
 ntter were, " 1 should not have expected it." His 
 services were highly valued by the Athenians, and 
 were rewarded by them with almost unprecedented 
 honoors. 
 
 Iphigenia {''Itplyeyeid), according to the most 
 common tradition, a daughter of Agamemnon and 
 Clytaemneatra, but according to others, a daughter 
 of Theseus and Helena, and brought up by Cly- 
 teemnestra as a foster-child, Agamemnon had 
 once killed a stag in the grove of Artemis ; or he 
 had boasted that the goddess haiself could not hit 
 better; or he had vowed in the year in which 
 Iphigenia was bom to sacrifice the most beautiful 
 production of that year, but had afterwards neg- 
 lected to fulfil his vow. One of these circumstances 
 is said to have been the cause of the calm which 
 detained the Greek fleet in Aulia, when the Greeks 
 wanted to sail against- Troy. The seer Calchas 
 
 IPHIS, 
 
 declared that the sacrifice of Iphigenia was the 
 only means of propitiating Artemis. Agamemnon 
 was obliged to yield, and Iphigenia was brought 
 to Chalcis under the pretext of being married to 
 Achilles. When Iphigenia was on the point of 
 being sacrificed, Artemis carried her in a cloud to 
 Tauris, where she became the priestess of the god- 
 dess, and a stag was substituted for her by Artemis. 
 While Iphigenia was serving Artemis as priestess 
 in Tauris, her brother Orestes and his friend 
 Pylades came to Tauris to carrj' off the image 
 of the goddess at this place, which was believed to 
 have fallen from heaven. As strangers they were 
 to be sacrificed in the temple of Artemis ; but 
 Iphigenia recognised her brother, and fled with 
 him and the statue of the goddess. In the mean- 
 time Electra, another sister of Orestes, had heard 
 that he had been sacrificed in Tauris by the 
 priestess of Artemis. At Delphi she met Iphi- 
 genia, whom she supposed had murdered Orestes. 
 She therefore resolved to deprive Iphigenia of her 
 sight, but was prevented by the interference of 
 Orestes ; and a scene of recognition took place. 
 All now returned to Mycenae ; but Iphigenia 
 carried the statue of Artemis to the Attic town of 
 Brauron near Marathon. She there died as 
 priestess of the goddess. — As a daughter of Theseus 
 Iphigenia was connected with the heroic families 
 of Attica, and after her death the veils and most 
 costly garments which had been worn by women who 
 had died in childbirth were dedicated to her. Ac- 
 cording to some traditions Iphigenia never died but 
 was changed by Artemis into Hecate, or was en- 
 dowed by the goddess with immortality and eternal 
 youth, and under the name of Orilochia became 
 the wife of Achilles in the island of Leuce. — The 
 Lacedaemonians mamtamed that the image of Ar- 
 temis, which Iphigenia and Orestes had carried 
 away from Tauris, was preserved in Sparta and not 
 in Attica, and was worshipped in the former place 
 under the name of Artemis Orthia. Both in Attica 
 and in Sparta human sacrifices were offered to 
 Iphigenia in eariy times. In place of these human 
 sacrifices the Spartan youths were afterwards 
 scourged at the festival of Artemis Orthia. It ap- 
 pears probable that Iphigenia was originally the 
 same as Artemis herself. 
 
 Iphimedia or Iphimede ('I^t/xeSeio, 'I^i^eS?;), 
 daughter of Triops, and wife of Aloeus. Being in 
 love with Poseidon, she often walked on the sea- 
 shore, and collected its waters in her lap, whence she 
 became, by Poseidon, the mother of the Aloldae, 
 Otus and Ephialtes. While Iphimedia and her 
 daughter, Pancratis, were celebrating the orgies of 
 Dionysus on Mount Drius, they were carried off by 
 Thracian pirates to Naxos or Strongyle ; but they 
 were delivered by the Aloldae. 
 
 IpMs ('l<p(s). 1. Son of Alector^ and father of 
 Eteoclus and Evadne, the wife of Capaneus, was 
 king of Argos. He advised Polynices to give the 
 celebrated necklace of Harmonia to Eriphyle, that 
 she might persuade her husband Amphiaraus to 
 take part in the expedition against Thebes. He 
 lost his two children, and therefore left his kingdom 
 to Sthenelus, son of Capaneus. — 2. Son of Sthe- 
 nelus, and brother of Eurystheus, was one of the 
 Argonauts who fell in the battle with Aeetes. — 3. 
 A youth in love with Anaxarete. [Anaxakete.] 
 — 4. Daughter of Ligdus and Telethusa, of Phaes- 
 tus in Crete. She was brought up as a boy, on the 
 advice of Isis, because her father, previous to her 
 
IPHITUS. 
 
 "birth, had ordered the child to be killed, if it should 
 be a girl. When Iphis had grown up, and was 
 to be betrothed to lanthe, she was metamorphosed 
 by Isis into a youth. 
 
 Iphitus ("l^iTos). L Sonof Eurytusof Oechaiia, 
 one of the Argonauts, was afterwards killed by 
 Hercules. (For details, see p. 310, a.) — 2. Son 
 of Naubolus, and father of Schedius, Epistrophiis, 
 and Eurynome, in Pliocis, likewise one of the 
 Argonauts."— 3. Son of Haemon, or Praxonides, 
 or Iphitus, king of Elis, restored the Olympic 
 games, and instituted the cessation of all war 
 during their celebration, B.C. 8B4. 
 
 Ipsus C'li/zos), a small town in Great Phiygia, 
 celebrated in history as the scene of the decisive 
 battle which closed the great contest between the 
 generals of Alexander for the succession to his 
 empire, and in which Antigonus was defeated and 
 slain, B.C. 301. [Antigonus.] The site is un- 
 known, but it appears to have been about the centre 
 of Phrygia, not far from Synnada. 
 
 Ira (E?pa, 'Ipa), a mountain fortress in Messenia, 
 memorable as the place where Aristomenes defended 
 himself for 11 years against the Spartans. Its 
 capture by the Spartans in b. c. 668 put an end to 
 the 2nd Messenian war. It is doubtful whether it 
 is the same as Ira (//. ix. 150), one of the 7 cities, 
 which. Agamemnon promised to Achilles. 
 
 Irenaeus (ElpTjvalos)^ one of the early Christian 
 fathers, was probably bom at Smyrna between 
 A.D. 120 and 140. In his early youth he heard 
 Polycarp. He afterwards went to Gaul, and in 
 177 succeeded Pothinus as bishop of Lyon. He 
 made many converts from heathenism, and was 
 most active in opposing the Gnostics, especially the 
 Valentinians. He seems to have lived till about 
 the end of the 2nd century. The only work of 
 Irenaeus now extant, Adversus Maereses, is in- 
 tended to refute the Gnostics. The original Greek 
 is lost, with the exception of a few fragments, but 
 the work exists in a barbarous, but ancient Latin 
 version- Edited by Grabe, Oxon. 1702. 
 
 Irene {Elp-^vn\ called Pax by the Romans, 
 the goddess of peace, was, according to Hesiod, a 
 daughter of Zeus and Themis, and one of the 
 Horae. [Horae.] After the victory of Timotheus 
 over the Lacedaemonians, altars were erected to her 
 at Athens at the public expense. Her statue at 
 Athens stood hy the side of that of Amphiaraus, 
 carrying in its arms Plutus, the god of wealth, 
 and another stood near that of Hestia in the Pry- 
 taneum. At Rome, where peace was also wor- 
 shipped as a goddess, she had a magnificent temple, 
 which was built by the emperor Vespasian. Pax is 
 represented on coins as a youthful female, holding 
 in her left arm a cornucopia, and in her right hand 
 an olive branch or the staff of Mercury. Sometimes 
 she appears in the act of burning a pile of arms, or 
 carrying corn-ears in her hand or upon her head. 
 
 Iris f Ip«), daughter of Thaumas (whence she 
 is called T/uiumaniias) and of Electra, and sister 
 of the Harpies. In the Iliad she appears as 
 the messenger of the gpds, especially of Zeus and 
 Hera. In the Odyssey, Hermes is the messenger 
 of the gods, and Iris is never mentioned. Iris 
 appears to have been originally the personification 
 of the rainbow, for this brilliant phenomenon in 
 the skies, which vanishes as quickly as it appears, 
 was regarded as the swift messenger of the gods. 
 Some poets describe Iris as the rainbow itself, but 
 other writers represent the rainbow as only the 
 
 ISANDER. 
 
 347 
 
 road on which Iris travels, and which therefore 
 appears whenever the goddess wauts it, and va- 
 nishes when it is no longer needed. In the earlier 
 poets, Iris appears as a virgin goddt^ss ; but in the 
 later, she is the wife of Zephyrus, and the mother 
 of Eros. Iris is represented in works of art dressed 
 in a long and wide tunic, over which hangs a 
 light upper garment, with wings attached to her 
 shoulders, carrying the herald's staff in her left 
 hand, and sometimes also holding a pitcher. 
 
 Iris {"Ipis: YesMl-Ii'mak), a. considerable river 
 of Asia Minor, rises on the N. side of the N.most 
 range of the Anti-Taurns, in the S. nf Pontus, and 
 flows first W. past Comana Pontica, then N. to 
 Amasia, where it turns to the E. to Eupatoria 
 (Megalopolis), where it receives the Lycus, and 
 then flows N. through the territory of Themiscyra 
 into the Sinus Amisenus. Xenophon states its 
 breadth at 3 plethra. 
 
 Irus ('lpos).'L Son of Actor, and father of 
 Eurydamus and Eurytion. He purified Peleus, 
 when the latter had murdered his brother ; but 
 during the chase of the Calydonian boar, Peleus 
 unintentionally killed Eurytion, the son of Irua. 
 Peleus endeavoured to soothe him by offering him 
 his flocks ; but Irus would not accept them, and at 
 the command oF an oracle, Peleus allowed them to 
 run wherever they pleased. A wolf devoured the 
 sheep, but was thereupon changed into a stone, 
 which was shown, in later times, on the frontier 
 between Locris and Phocis. — 2. The well-known 
 beggar of Ithaca. His real name was Arnaeus, 
 but he was called Irus because he was the mes- 
 senger of the suitors of Penelope. He was slain 
 by Ulysses. 
 
 Is {*ls : Hit), a city in the S. of Mesopotamia, 
 8 days' journey from Babylon, on the W. bank of 
 the Euphrates, and upon a little river of the same 
 name. In its neighbourhood were the springs of 
 asphaltus, from which was obtained the bitumen 
 that was used, instead of mortar, in the walls of 
 Babylon. 
 
 Isaens {'la-aios). 1. One of the 1 Attic orators, 
 was bom at Chalcis, and came to Athens at an 
 early age. He was instructed in oratory by Lysias 
 and Isocrates. He was afterwards engaged in 
 writing judicial orations for others, and established 
 a rhetorical school at Athena, in which Demosthenes 
 is said to have been his pupil. It is further said that 
 Isaeus composed for Demosthenes the speeches 
 against his guardians, or at least assisted him in 
 the composition. We have no particulars of bis 
 life. He lived between b. c. 420 and 348. Isaeus. 
 is said to have written 64 orations, but of these 
 only 11 are extant. They all relate to questions 
 of inheritance, and afford considerable informa- 
 tion respecting this branch of the Attic law. The 
 style of Isaeus is clear and concise, and at the 
 same time vigorous and powerful. His orations 
 are contained in the collections of the Greek 
 orators, [Demosthenes.] There is a ijood se- 
 parate edition by Schomann, Greit'swald, 1831. 
 ^2. A sophist and rhetorician, a native of Assyria, 
 taught at Rome in the time of the younger Pliny. 
 
 Isagoras (laaySpas), the leader of the oli- 
 garchical party at Athens, in opposition to Clis- 
 thenes, B. c. 510. He was expelled from Athens 
 by the popular party, although supported by Cleo- 
 menes and the Spartans. 
 
 laander ("lo-arSpos), son of Bellerophon, killed 
 by Areg in the fight with the Solymi. 
 
348 
 
 ISARA. 
 
 Isara (/sere"), a river in Gallia Narbonensis, de- 
 scends from the Graian Alps, flows W. with a rapid 
 stream, and flows into the Rhone N. of Valentia. 
 At its junction with the Rhone Fabius Aemilianus 
 defeated the Allobroges and Arvemi, b. c. 121 . 
 
 Isauria (tJ 'la-avpia, 7; *l(ravpiK7})^ a district of 
 Asia Minor, on the N. side of the Taurus, between 
 Pisidia and Cilicia, of which, the ancients knew 
 little beyond the troublesome fact, that its inha- 
 bitants, the Isauri Cltravpoi) were daring robbers, 
 whose incursions into the surrounding districts re- 
 ceived only a temporary check from the victory 
 over them, which gained for L. Servilius the sur- 
 name of Isauricus (b.c. 75). Their chief city was 
 called Isaura. 
 
 Isca. L {Acniiinster or Bridport or Exeter\ the 
 capital of the Damnonii or Dumnonii in the S.W. 
 of Britain. — 2. (Caer Leoriy at the mouth of the 
 Usk), a town of the Silures in Britain, and the head 
 quarters of the Legio II. There are many Roman 
 remains at Caer Leon. The word Leon is a cor- 
 ruption of Legio : Caer is the old Celtic name. 
 
 Ischys. [Aesculapius.] 
 
 Isidorus (JlffiSwpos). 1. Of Aegae, a Greek 
 poet of uncertain age, S of whose epigrams are 
 contained in the Greek Anthology.— 2. Of Charax, 
 a geographical writer, who probably lived under 
 the early Roman emperors. His work, '2Ta9/j.o\ 
 UapdiKol^ is printed in the edition of the minor 
 geographers, by Hudson, Oxon. 1703. — 3. Of 
 Gaza, a Neo-Platonic philosopher, the friend of 
 Proclus and Marinus, whom he succeeded as chief 
 of the school. — 4. Of Pelusium, a Christian exe- 
 getical writer, a native of Alexandria, who spent 
 his life in a monastery near Pelusium, of which he 
 was the abbot. He died about a. d. 450. As 
 many as 2013 of his letters are extant. They are 
 almost all expositions of Scripture. Published at 
 Paris, 1638. — 5. Bishop of Hispalis (Seville) in 
 Spain, from a. d. 600 to 636, one of the most 
 learned men of his age, and an ardent cultivator of 
 ancient literature. A great number of his works 
 is still extant, but by far the most important of 
 them is his Originum s. Etymologiarum Libri XX. 
 This work is an Encyclopaedia of Arts and Sciences, 
 and treats of all subjects in literature, science, and 
 religion, which were studied at that time. It was 
 much used in the middle ages. Published in the 
 Corpus Grammaticorum Veierum, Lindemann, Lips. 
 1833. A complete collection of the works of 
 Isidorus was published by Arevali, Rom., 1797 — 
 1803, 7 vols. 4to. — 6. Of Miletus, the elder and 
 younger, were eminent architects in the reign of 
 Justinian. 
 
 Isigonus ('Ifriyo^os), a Greek writer, of un- 
 certain date, but who lived before the time of 
 Pliny, wrote a work entitled "ATrtffTa, a few frag- 
 ments of which are extant. Published in Wester- 
 mHTin''s Paradoxoffraphiy Brunswick, 1839. 
 
 Isionda ('Icidv^ai ^laiovBevs, Isiondensis), a 
 city of Pisidia in Asia Minor, E. of the district of 
 Cibyr.i, and 5 Roman miles N.W. of Termessua. 
 Mr. Fellows lately discovered considerable ruins 
 12 miles from Perge, which he supposes to be 
 those of Isionda. 
 
 lais ('l(Tis), one of the principal Egyptian divi- 
 nities. The ideas entertained about her underwent 
 very great changes in antiquity. She is described 
 as the wife of Osiris and the mother of Horus. 
 As Osiris, the god of the Nile, taught the people 
 the use of the plough, so Isis invented the culti- | 
 
 ISMENUS. 
 
 vation of wheat and barley, which were carried 
 about in the processions at her festival. She waa 
 the goddess of the earth, which the Egyptians 
 called their mother : whence she and Osiris were 
 the only divinities that were worshipped by all the 
 Egyptians. This simple and primitive notion of 
 the Egyptians was modified at an early period 
 through the influence of the East, with which 
 Egypt came into contact, and at a later time 
 through the influence of the Greeks. Thus Osiris 
 and Isis came gradually to be considered as divi- 
 nities of the sun and the moon. The Egyptian 
 priests represented that the principal religious in- 
 stitutions of Greece came from Egypt ; and after 
 the time of Herodotus, this belief became esta- 
 blished among the learned men in Greece. Hence 
 Isis was identified with Demeter, and Osiris with 
 Dionysus, and the sufferings of Isis were accord- 
 ingly modified to harmonise with the mythus of 
 the unfortunate Demeter. As Isis was the goddess 
 of the moon, she was also identified with lo. [lo.] 
 — The worship of Isis prevailed extensively in 
 Greece. It was introduced into Rome in the time 
 of Sulla ; and though the senate made many at- 
 tempts to suppress her worship, and ordered her 
 temples to be destroyed, yet the new religious ritea 
 took deep root at Rome, and became very popular. 
 In B. c. 43 the triumvirs courted the popular 
 favour by building a new temple of Isis and 
 Serapis. Augustus forbade any temples to be 
 erected to Isis in the city ; but this command was 
 afterwards disregarded ; and under the early Ro- 
 man emperors the worship of Isis and Serapis 
 became firmly established. The most important 
 temple of Isis at Rome stood in the Campus 
 Martius, whence she was called Isis Campensis. 
 The priests and servants of the goddess wore linen 
 garments, whence she herself is called liniffera. 
 Those initiated in her mysteries wore in the public 
 processions masks representing the heads of dogs. 
 In works of art Isis appears in figure and coun- 
 tenance like Hera: she wears a long tunic, and 
 her upper garment is fastened on her breast by a 
 knot : her head is crowned with a lotus flower, 
 and her right hand holds the sistrum. Her son 
 Horus is often represented with her as a fine naked 
 boy, holding the fore-finger on the mouth, with a 
 lotus flower on his head, and a cornucopia in his 
 left hand. The German goddess Isis mentioned by 
 Tacitus is probably the same as Hertha. 
 
 Ismarus ("icrfiapos : 'Itrjuapios), a town in 
 Thrace, near Maronea, situated on a mountain of 
 the same name, which produced excellent wine. It 
 is mentioned in the Odyssey as a town of the 
 Cicones. Near it was the lake Ism^ris ('Iff/iapiy). 
 The poets frequently use the adjective Ismarius as 
 equivalent to Thracian. Thus Ovid calls Tereus, 
 king of Thrace, Ismarius tyrannus {Am. ii. 6. 7), 
 and Polymnestor, king of Thrace, Ismarius reji 
 {Met xiii. 530). 
 
 Ismene {'Iit/j.'^vtj). 1. Daughter of Asopua, 
 wife of Argus, and mother of lasus and lo. 
 ^2. Daughter of Oedipus and Jocasta, and sister 
 of Antitjone. 
 
 Ismenus ('Itr/^^ros), a small river in Boeotia, 
 which rises in Mt. Cithaeron, flows through 
 Thebes, and falls into the lake Hvlica. The brook 
 Dirce, so celebrated in Theban story, flowed into 
 the Ismenus. From this river Apollo was called 
 Tsmenins. His temple, the hmenium^ at which 
 the festival of the Daphnephoria was celebrated, 
 
ISOCRATES. 
 
 was situated outside the city. The river is said to 
 have been originally called Ladon, and to have de- 
 rived its subsequent name from lamenus, a son of 
 Asopus and Metope. According to other traditions, 
 Ismenua was a son of Amphion and Niobe, who 
 when struck by the arrow of Apollo leaped into a 
 river near Thebes, which was hence called Ismenus. 
 
 Isocrates (*IcroKpaT7?y), one of the 10 Attic 
 orators, was the son of Theodorus, and was born 
 at Athens B.C. 436. Theodorus was a man of 
 ■wealth, and educated his son with the greatest 
 care. Among his teachers were Tisias, Gorgias, 
 Prodicus, and also Socrates. Since Isocrates was 
 naturally timid, and of a weakly constitution, be 
 did not come forward as a public speaker himself, 
 but devoted himself to giving instruction in oratory, 
 and writing orations for others. He first taught 
 rhetoric in Chios, and afterwards at Athens. At 
 the latter place he met with great success, and 
 gradually acquired a large fortune by his pro- 
 fession. He had 100 pupils, every one of whom 
 paid him 1000 drachmae. He also derived a large 
 income from the orations which he wrote for others ; 
 thus, he received 20 talents for the speech which 
 he composed for Nicocles, king of Cyprus. Al- 
 though Isocrates took no part in public affairs, he 
 was an ardent lover of his ccAintry; and, accord- 
 ingly, when the battle of Chaeronea had destroyed 
 the last hopes of freedom, he put an end to his 
 life, B.C. 338, at the age of 98. — The school of 
 Isocrates exercised the greatest influence upon the 
 development of public oratory at Athens. No 
 other rhetorician had so many disciples of celebrity. 
 The language of Isocrates forms a great contrast 
 ■with the natural simplicity of Lysiaa, as well as 
 with the sublime power of Demosthenes. His 
 style is artificial. The carefully-rounded periods, 
 and the frequent application of figurative expres- 
 sions, are features which remind us of the sophists. 
 The immense care he bestowed upon the compo- 
 sition of his orations may be inferred from the 
 statement, that he was engaged for 10, or, accord- 
 ing to others, 15 years, upon his Panegyric ora- 
 tion alone. There were* in antiquity 60 orations 
 which went under the name of Isocrates, but they 
 were not all recognised as genuine. Only 21 have 
 come down to us. Of these 8 were written for the 
 courts ; all the others are political discourses, 
 intended to be read by a large public. The most 
 celebrated is his Panegyric oration, in which he 
 shows what services Athens had rendered to 
 Greece in every period of her history, and contends 
 that she, and not Sparta, deserves the supremacy 
 in Greece. The orations are printed in the col- 
 lections of the Greek orators. The best separate 
 edition is by Baiter and Sauppe, Turici, 1839. 
 
 Issa {"la'tra), daughter of Macareua of Lesbos, 
 and beloved by Apollo, from whom the Lesbian 
 town of Issa is said to have received its name. 
 
 Issa (Issaeus : Lissa)^ a small island in the 
 Adriatic sea, with a town of the same name, off 
 the coast of Dalmatia, was colonized at an early 
 period by Greeks. It was inhabited by a hardy 
 race of sailors, whose barks (/emfii Is3aei) were 
 much prized. The Isaaei placed themselves under 
 the protection of the Romans, when they were 
 attacked by the Illyrian queen, Teuta, _b. c. 229 ; 
 and their town is spoken of as a place of importance 
 in Caesar's time. 
 
 Issedoaes (^ItrinjStJi/es), a Scythian tribe, in 
 Scythia extra Imaum, the E.most people with 
 
 ITALIA. 
 
 349 
 
 whom the Greeks of the time of Herodotus had 
 any intercourse. Their country was in Great Tar- 
 tary^ near the Massagetae, whom they resembled 
 in their manners. They are represented as ex- 
 tending as far as the borders of Serica. 
 
 Issicus Sinus {& 'laaiKhs K6\Tros: Gulf of 
 Iskenderoon)^ the deep gulf at the N.E. comer of 
 the Mediterranean, between Cilicia and Syria, 
 named after the town of Issus. The width is 
 about 8 miles. The coast is much altered since 
 ancient times. 
 
 IssorXa ('Ico-w/jfa), a surname of Artemis, de- 
 rived from Mt. Issorion, in Laconia, on which she 
 had a sanctuary. 
 
 Issus ('Itro-dy, also 'Ifftrof, Xen.: ^\<t<tcuos), a city 
 in the S.E. extremity of Cilicia, near the head of 
 the Issicus Sinus, and at the N. foot of the pass of 
 M. Amanus called the Syrian Gates ; memorable for 
 the great battle in which Alexander defeated 
 Darius Codomannus (b. c. 333), which was fought 
 in a narrow valley near the town. It was at that 
 time large and flourishing, but its importance was 
 much diminished by the foundation of Alexandria 
 in its neighbourhood. Its exact site is doubtful. 
 
 Istaevones. [Germania, pp. 281, b, 282, a.] 
 
 Ister, [Danubios.] 
 
 Ister, a Greek historian, was at first a slave of 
 Callimachus, and afterwards his friend, and ac- 
 cordingly lived in the reign of Ptolemy Evergetes 
 (b, c. 247 — 222). He wrote a large number of 
 works, the most important of which was an Ait/ds, 
 or history of Attica, His fragments are published 
 by C. and Th. MUIIer, Fragmenia Histor. Graec. 
 
 Istria or Histria, a peninsula at the N. ex- 
 tremity of the Adriatic, between the Sinus Ter- 
 gestinus on the W. and the Sinus Flanaticua on 
 the E. It was separated from Venetia on the N.W. 
 by the river Timavus, and from Illyricum on the 
 E. by the river Arsia. Its inhabitants, the Istri 
 or Histri, were a warlike Illyrian race, who carried 
 on several wars with the Romans, till their final 
 subjugation by the consul C? Claudius Pulcher, 
 B.C. 177. Their chief towns were Tergeste and 
 PoLA, Istria "was originally reckoned part of 
 Illyricum, but from the time of Augustus it formed 
 one of the divisions of Upper Italy. In consequence 
 of its name it was believed at one time that a 
 branch of the river Ister (Danube) flowed into the 
 Adriatic. 
 
 Istropolis, Istros or Istria {''ljTp6Tro\is, "la-- 
 Tpos, 'IffrplTj, Herod, ii. 33 : Istere), a town in 
 Lower Moesia, not far from the mouth of the 
 Danube, and at a little distance from the coast, 
 was a colony from Miletus. 
 
 Italia ('lTa\(o), signified, from the time of 
 Augustus, the country which we call Itali/. It 
 was bounded on the W. by the Mare Ligusticum 
 and Tyrrhenum, Tuscum or Inferum ; on the S. 
 by the Mare Siculum or Ausonium ; on the E.«by 
 the Mare Adriaticum or Superum : and on the N. 
 by the Alps, which sweep round it in a semicircle, 
 the river Varus {Var, Varo) separating it on the 
 N.W. from Transalpine Gaul, and the river Arsia 
 (Arsa) on the N.E. from Illyricum. The name 
 Italia, however, was originally used to indicate a 
 much more limited extent of country. Most of 
 the ancients, according to their usual custom, derived 
 the name from an ancient king Italus ; but others, 
 still more absurdly, connected it with the old 
 Italian word Italus (in Oscan, viilu or vitehi), an 
 , ox, because the country was rich in oxen ! But 
 
350 
 
 ITALIA. 
 
 there can be no doubt that Italia^ or Vitalia^ as it 
 was also called, was the land of the Italic Vitali^ 
 Vitelli, or VitulU an ancient race, who are better 
 known under the name of Siculi. This race was 
 widely spread over the S. hall' of the peninsula, 
 and may be said to have been bounded on the N. 
 by a line drawn from Mt. Garganus on the E. to 
 Terracina on the "W. The Greeks were ignorant 
 of this wide extent of the name. According to 
 thera Italia was originally only the S.most part of 
 what was afterwards called Bruttiuin, and was 
 bounded on the N. by a line drawn from the La- 
 metic to the Scylletic gulf. They afterwards ex- 
 tended the name to signify the whole country S. 
 of Posidonia on the W. and Tarentum on the E. 
 After the Romans had conquered Tarentum and 
 the S. part of the peninsula, about b. c. 272, the 
 name Italia had a still further extension given to 
 it. It then signified the whole country subject to 
 the Romans, from the Sicilian straits as far N. as 
 the Amus and the Rubico. The country N. of 
 these rivers continued to be called Gallia Cisalpina 
 and Liguria down to the end of the republic. 
 Augustus was the first who extended the name 
 of Italia, so as to comprehend the whole of the 
 basin of the Po and the S. part of the Alps, 
 from the Maritime Alps to Pola in Istria, both 
 inclusive. In the later times of the empire, when 
 Maximian had transferred the imperial residence 
 to Milan, the name Italia was again used in a 
 narrower compass. As it had originally signified 
 only the S. of the country, so now it was restricted 
 to the N.. comprising the 5 provinces of Aemilia, 
 Liguria, Flaminia, Venetia, and Istria. — Besides 
 Italia, the country was called by various other 
 names, especially by the poets. These were Hes- 
 peria, a name which the Greeks gave to it, because 
 it lay to the W. of Greece, or Hesperia Magna, 
 to distinguish it from Spain [Hespekia], and Sa- 
 tumia, because Saturn was said to have once 
 reigned in Latium. The names of separate parts 
 of Italy were also applied by the poets to the 
 whole country. Thus it was called Oenotria, 
 originally the land of the Oenotri, in the countrj' 
 afterwards called Bruttium and Lucania : Auso- 
 nia, or Opica, or Opicia, originally the land of 
 the Ausones or Ausonii, Opici or Osci, on the W. 
 coast, in the country afterwards called Campania : 
 Tyrrhenia, properly the land of the Tyrrheni, also 
 on the W. coast, N. of Ausonia or Opica, and more 
 especially in the country afterwards called Etruria: 
 lapygia, properly the land of the lapyges on the 
 E. coast, in the country afterwards called Calabria: 
 and Ombrica, the land of the Umbri on the E. 
 coast, alongside of Etruria. — Italy was never in- 
 habited by one single race. It contained a great 
 number of different races, who had migrated into 
 the country at a very early period. The most 
 aneient inhabitants were Pelasgians or Oenotrians, 
 a branch of the same great race who originally in- 
 habited Gn-ece and the coasts of Asia Minor. 
 They were also called Aborigines and Siculi, who, 
 as we have already seen, were the same as the 
 Vitali or Itaii. At the time when Roman history 
 begins, Italy was inhabited by the; following races. 
 From the mouth of tlie Tiber, between its right 
 bank and tfie sea, dwelt the Etruscans, who ex- 
 tended as tar N. as the Alps. Alongside of these, 
 between the left bank of the Tiber and the Adria- 
 tic, dwelt the Umbrians. To the S. of the Etrus- 
 cans were the Sacrani, Casci, or Prisci, Oscan tribes, 
 
 ITALIA. 
 
 who had been driven out of the mountains by the 
 Sabines, had overcome the Pelasgian tribes of the 
 Siculi, Aborigines, or Latins, and, uniting with 
 these conquered people, had formed the people 
 called Prisci Latini, subsequently simply Latini. 
 S. of these again, as far as the river Laus, were 
 the Opici, who were also called Ausones or Au- 
 runci, and to whom the Volsci, Sidicini, Saticuli, 
 and Aequi, also belonged. The S. of the peninsula 
 was inhabited by the Oenotrians, who were sub- 
 sequently driven into the interior by the numerous 
 Greek colonies founded along the coasts. S. of 
 the Umbrians, extending as far as Mt. Garganus, 
 dwelt the various Sabellian or Sabine tribes, the 
 Sabines proper, the Peligni, Marsi, Marrucini, 
 Vestini, and Hemici. from which tribes the war- 
 like race of the Samnites subsequently sprung. 
 From Mt. Garganus to the S. E. extremit}-- of the 
 peninsula, the country was inhabited by the Dau- 
 nians or Apulians, Peiicetii, Messapii, and Sallen- 
 tini. An account of these people is given in se- 
 parate articles. They were all eventually subdued 
 by the Romans, v/ho became the masters of the 
 whole of the peninsula. At the time of Augustus 
 the following were the chief divisions of Itnly, an 
 account of which is also given in separate articles ; 
 
 I. Upper Italy, which extended from the Alps to 
 the rivers Macra on the W. and Rubico on the E. 
 It comprehended, 1. Liguria. 2. Gallia Cis- 
 alpina. 3. Venetia, includingCar?2za. 4. Istria. 
 
 II, Central Italy, sometimes called Italia Pro- 
 pria (a term not used by the ancients), to distin- 
 guish it from Gallia Cisalpina or Upper Italy, and 
 Magna Graecia or Lower Italy, extended from the 
 rivers Macra on the W. and Rubico on the E., to 
 the rivers Silarus on the W. and Frento on the 
 E. It comprehended, 1. Etruria. "2. Umbria. 
 3. Picenujm. 4. Samkium, including the country 
 of the Sabini, Vestini, Marrucini, Marsi, Peiigni, 
 &c. 5. Latium. 6. Campania. III. Lower 
 Italy, or Magna Graecia, included the remaining 
 part of the peninsula, S. of the rivers Silarus and 
 Frento. It comprehended, 1. Apulia, including 
 Calabria. 2. Lucania. 3. Bruttium. — Au- 
 gustus divided Italy into the following II Re- 
 giones. 1. Latium and Campania. 2, The land 
 of the Hirpini, Apulia and Calabria. 3. Lucania 
 and Brnttium, 4. The land of the Frentani, Mar- 
 rucini, Peligni, Marsi, Vestini, and Sabini. together 
 with Samniura. 5. Picemim. 6. Umbria and the 
 district of Ariminum, in what was formerly called 
 Gallia Cisalpina. 7. Etruria, 8. Gallia Cispa- 
 dana, 9. Lignria. 10. The E. part of Gallia 
 Transpadana. Venetia, Camia, and Istria. 1 1. The 
 W. part of Gallia Transpadana. — The leading 
 features of the physical geography of Italy are so 
 well described by a modem writer, that we cannot 
 do better than quote his words. " The mere plan- 
 geography of Italy gives us its shape and the posi- 
 tion of its towns ; to thu^se it may add a semicircle 
 of mountains round the N. boundary, to represent 
 the Alps ; and another long line stretching down 
 the middle of the country, to represent the Apen- 
 nines. But let us carry this on a little further, 
 and give life and harmony to what is at present at 
 once lifeless and confused. Observe, in the first 
 place, how the Apennine line, beginning from the 
 S. extremity of the Alps, runs across Italy to the 
 very edge of the Adriatic, and thus separates na- 
 turally the Italy proper of the Romans from Cis- 
 alpine Gaul. Observe again, how the Alps, after 
 
ITALICA. 
 
 running N. and S. where they divide Italy from 
 France, turn then away to the E.ward, running 
 almost parallel to the Apennines, till they too touch 
 the head of the Adriatic, on the confines of Istria. 
 Thus between these 2 lines of mountains there is 
 enclosed one great basin or plain ; enclosed on 3 
 sides by mountains, open only on the E, to the sea. 
 Observe how widely it spreads itself out, and then 
 see how well it is watered. One great river (the 
 Po) flows tiirough it in its whole extent ; and this 
 is fed by streams almost unnumbered, descending 
 towards it on either side, from the Alps on one 
 side, and from the Apennines on the other. Then, 
 descending into Italy proper, we find the com- 
 plexity of its geography quite in accordance with 
 its manifold political divisions. It is not one simple 
 central ridge of mountains, having a broad belt of 
 level country on either side between it and the 
 sea ; nor yet is it a chain rising immediately from 
 the sea on one side, like the Andes in S. America, 
 and leaving room therefore on the other side for 
 wide plains of table land, and for rivers with, a 
 sufficient length of course to become at last great 
 and navigable. It is a back-bone, thickly set with 
 spines of unequal length, some of them running 
 out at regular distances parallel to each other, but 
 others twisted so strangely that they often run for 
 a long way parallel to the back-bone, or main ridge, 
 and interlace with one another in a maze almost 
 inextricable. And, as if to complete the disorder, 
 in those spots where the spines of the Apennines, 
 being twisted round, run parallel to the sea and to 
 their own central chain, and thus leave an interval 
 of plain between their bases and the Mediterranean, 
 volcanic agency has broken up the space thus left 
 with other and distinct groups of hills of its own 
 creation, as in the case of Vesuvius and of the 
 Alban hills near Rome. Speaking generally, then, 
 Italy is made up of an infinite multitude of valleys 
 pent in between high and steep hills, each forming 
 a country to itself, and cut off by natural barriers 
 from the others. Its several parts are isolated by 
 nature, and no art of man can thoroughly unite 
 them. Hence arises the romantic character of 
 Italian scenery : the constant combination of a 
 mountain outline, and all the wild features of a 
 mountain countrj', with the wild vegetation of a 
 southern climate in the valleys." More minute 
 details respecting the physical features of the dif- 
 ferent parts of Italy are given in the articles on the 
 separate provinces into which it is divided. 
 
 Italica. 1. [Sevilla la vieja nr. Santipo-nce), a 
 municipium in Hispania Baetica, on the W. bank 
 of the Baetis, N. W. of Hispalis, was founded by 
 Scipio Africanus in the 2nd Punic war, who settled 
 here some of his veterans. It was the birthplace 
 of the emperors Trajan and Hadrian. — 2. The 
 name given to Corfinium by the Italian Socii 
 during their war with Rome. [Corfinium.] 
 
 Italicus, Silius. [SiLitJS.] 
 
 Italus {'lra\6s), an ancient king of the Pelas- 
 gians, Siculians, or Oenotrians, from whom Italy 
 was believed to have derived its name. Some call 
 him a son of Telegonus by Penelope. 
 
 Itanus {"iravos), a town on the E. coast of 
 Crete, near a promontory of the same name, founded 
 by the Phoenicians. 
 
 Ithaca ClddicT] : JdaKyjctos : Thiald)^ a small 
 island in the Ionian Sea, celebrated as the birth- 
 place of Ulysses, lies off the coast of Epirus, and is 
 separated from Cephalonia by a channel about 3 or 
 
 ITURAEA. 
 
 351 
 
 4 miles wide. The island is about 12 miles long, 
 and 4 in its greatest breadth. It is divided into 2 
 parts, which are connected by a narrow isthmua, 
 not more than half a mile across. In each of these 
 parts there is a mountain -ridge of considerable 
 height ; the one in tlie N. called NeHtum (Niy- 
 ptrov^ now Anoi)^ and the one in the S. Neium 
 [liiiiov^ now Stefano). The city of Ithaca, tlie 
 residence of Ulysses, was situated on a precipitous, 
 conical hill, now called Aeto^ or ""eagle's cliff," 
 occupying the whole breadth of the isthmus men- 
 tioned above. The acropolis, or castle of Ulysses, 
 crowned the extreme summit of the mountain, and 
 is described by a modern traveller as "about as 
 bleak and dreary a spot as can well be imagined 
 for a princely residence." Hence Cicero {de Orat, 
 i. 44) describes it, in asperrimis saorulis tanquam 
 nidulus affia'a. It is at the foot of Mt. Neium, and 
 is hence described by Telemachus as " Under- 
 Ne'ium " ('I0afC779 'TiroVTjioi;, Horn. Od, iii, 81). 
 The walls of the ancient city are in many places 
 well preserved. — Ithaca is now one of the 7 Io- 
 nian islands under the protection of Great Britain. 
 
 Ithome {'Wdi/XT}' 'ldo>!xi}rT}<;, ^Ww/xaios). 1. A 
 strong fortress in Messenia, situated on a mountain 
 of the same name, which afterwards foimed the 
 citadel of the town of Messene. On the summit 
 of the mountain stood the ancient temple of Zeus, 
 who was hence surnamed Ithomeias {'l6u/j.7}T7iSy 
 Dor. "Idofidras). Ithome was taken by the Spar- 
 tans, B. c. 7*33, at the end of the last Messenian 
 war, after an heroic defence by Aristodemus, and 
 again in 455, at the end of the 3rd Messenian 
 war, — 2. A mountain fortress in Pelasgiotis, in 
 Thessaly, near Metropolis, also called Thome, 
 
 Itius Portus, a harbour of the Morini, on the 
 N. coast of Gaul, from which Caesar set sail for 
 Britain. The position of this harbour is much 
 disputed. It used to be identified with Gesoria- 
 cum, or Boulogne^ but it is now usually supposed 
 to be some harbour neai- Calais, probably Vissant^ 
 or Wiisand- 
 
 Iton. [Itonia.] 
 
 Itonia, Itonias, orltonis ('Irajj/ia, 'Ircavids, or 
 "Irwvis), a surname of Athena, derived from the 
 town of Iton, in the S. of Phthiotis in Thessaly. 
 The goddess there had a celebrated sanctuary and 
 festivals, and hence is called Incola Itoni. From 
 Iton her worship spread into Boeotia and the 
 country about lake Copais, where the Pamboeotia 
 was celebrated, in the neighbourhood of a temple 
 and grove of Athena. According to another tra- 
 dition, Athena received the surname of Itonia 
 from Ttonus, a king or priest. 
 
 Itncci ('Itiikktj, App.), a town in Hispania 
 Baetica, in the district of Hispalis, and a Roman 
 colony under the name of Virtus Julia. 
 
 ItHna {Solway Frith), an aestuary on the "W". 
 coast of Britain, between England and Scotland. 
 
 Ituraea, Ityraea {'Irovpala : 'iToifpaToi, Ituraei, 
 Ityraei : El-Jeidur)^ a district on the N.E. borders 
 of Palestine, bounded on the N. by the plain of 
 Damascus, on the W. by the mountain-chain {Jebel- 
 Heish), which forms the E. margin of the valley 
 of the Jordan, on the S.W. and S. by Gaulanitis, 
 and on the E. by Auranitis and Trachonitis. It 
 occupied a part of the elevated plain into which 
 Mt. Hermon sinks down on the S.E., and was in- 
 habited by an Arabian people, of warlike and 
 predatory habits, which they exercised upon the 
 caravans from Arabia to Damascus, whose great 
 
352 
 
 ITYS. 
 
 road lay through their countrj'. In the wars be- 
 tween the Syrians and Israelites, they are found 
 acting as allies of the kings of Damascus. They 
 are scarcely heard of again till b, c. 105, when 
 they were conquered by the Asraonaean king of 
 Judah, Aristobulus, who compelled them to profess 
 Judaism, Restored to independence by the de- 
 cline of the Asmonaean house, they seized the 
 opportunity offered, on the other side, by the 
 weakness of the kings of Syria, to press their pre- 
 datory incursions into Coele-Syria, and even be- 
 yond Lebanon, to Byblos, Botrys, and other cities 
 on the coast of Phoenice. Pompey reduced them 
 again to order, and many of their warriors entered 
 the Roman army, in which they became celebrated 
 for their skill in horsemanship and archery. They 
 were not, however, reduced to complete subjection 
 to Rome until after the civil wars. Augustus 
 gave Ituraea, which had been hitherto ruled by 
 its native princes, to the family of Herod. During 
 the ministry of our Saviour, it was governed by 
 Philip, the brother of Herod Antipas, as tetrarch. 
 Upon Pliilip's death, in a. d. 37, it was united to 
 the Roman province of Syria, from which it was 
 presently again separated, aud assigned partly to 
 Herod Agrippa I., and partly to Soaemus, the 
 prince of Emesa. In a. d. 50, it was finally re- 
 united by Claudius to the Roman province of 
 Syria, and there are inscriptions which prove that 
 the Ituraeans continued to serve with distinction 
 in the Roman armies. There were no cities or 
 large towns in the country, a fact easily explained 
 by the unsettled character of the people, who lived 
 in the Arab fashion, in unwalled villages and tents, 
 and even, according to some statements, in the na- 
 tural caves with which the country abounds. 
 
 Itys. [Tereus.] 
 
 Ililia {'louKis: 'IovktriT7]s^*lov\i€vs\ the chief 
 town in Ceos ; the birthplace of Simonides. [Ceos.] 
 
 lulus. 1, Son of Aeneas, usually called Asca- 
 nius. [AscANius.] — 2. Eldest son of Ascanius, 
 who claimed the government of Latium, but was 
 obliged to give it up to his brother Silvius. 
 
 Ixion ('I^twf), son of Phlegyas, or of Antion 
 and Perimela, or of Pasion, or of Ares. According 
 to the common tradition, his mother was Dia, a 
 daughter of Deioneus. He was king of the La- 
 pithae or Phlegyes, and the father of Pirithous. 
 When Deioneus demanded of Ixion the bridal 
 gifts he had promised, Ixion treacherously invited 
 him to a banquet, and then contrived to make him 
 fall into a pit filled with fire. As no one purified 
 Ixion of this treacherous murder, Zeus took pity 
 upon him, purified him, carried him to heaven, and 
 caused him to sit do^vn at his table. But Ixion 
 was ungrateful to the father of the gods, and at- 
 tempted to win the love of Hera. Zeus thereupon 
 created a phantom resembling Hera, and by it 
 Ixion became the father of a Centaur. [Centaurl] 
 Ixion was fearfully punished for his impious ingra- 
 titude. His hands and feet were chained by 
 Hermes to a wheel, which is said to have rolled 
 perpetually in the air or in the lower world. He 
 is further said to have been scourged, and compelled 
 to exclaim, ""■ Benefactors should be honoured." 
 
 Ixionides, i,e. Pirithous, the son of Ixion. — 
 The Centaurs are also caWed Ixionidae. 
 
 IxiU3 ("Uios), a surname of Apollo, derived 
 from a district of the island of Rhodes which was 
 called Ixiae or Ixia. 
 
 lynx C^vy^), daughter of Peitho and Pan, or 
 
 JASON. 
 
 of Echo. She endeavoured to charm Zeus, or 
 make him fall in love with lo ; but she was meta- 
 morphosed by Hera into the bird called lynx. 
 
 J. 
 
 Jaccetani, a people in Hispania Tarraconensis 
 between the Pyrenees and the Iberus. 
 
 Jana. [Janus.] 
 
 JaniciUiim. [Roma.] 
 
 Janus and Jana, a pair of ancient Latin di- 
 vinities, who were worshipped as the sun and 
 moon. The names Janus and JaTia are only other 
 forms of Dianiis and Diana, which words contain 
 the same root as dies, day. Janus was worshipped 
 both by the Etruscans and Romans, and occupied 
 an important place in the Roman religion. He 
 presided over the beginning of everj'thing, and was 
 therefore always invoked first in every under- 
 taking, even before Jupiter. He opened the year 
 and the seasons, and hence the first month of the 
 year was called after him. He was the porter of 
 heaven, and therefore bore the surnames Patulcus 
 or Patulcius, the " opener," and Chisius or Clu~ 
 sivius, the "shutter." In this capacity he is re- 
 presented with a key in his left hand, and a staif 
 or sceptre in his right. On earth also he was the 
 guardian deity of gates, and hence is commonly 
 represented with 2 heads, because every door looks 
 2 ways, {t/anus bifrons.) He is sometimes repre- 
 sented with 4 heads {Janus quadrifrons^, because 
 he presided over the 4 seasons. Most of the attri- 
 butes of this god, which are very numerous, are 
 connected with his being the god who opens and 
 shuts ; and this latter idea probably has reference 
 to his original character as the god of the sun, in 
 connection with the alternations of day and night. 
 At Rome, Numa is said to have dedicated to 
 Janus the covered passage bearing his name, which 
 was opened in times of war, and closed in times 
 of peace. This passage is commonl}', but erro- 
 neously, called a temple. It stood close by the fo- 
 nim. It appears to have been left open in war, to 
 indicate symbolically that the god had gone out to 
 assist the Roman warriors, and to have been shut in 
 time of peace that the god, the safeguard of the 
 city, might not escape. A temple of Janus was 
 built by C. Duilius in the time of the first Punic 
 war : it was restored by Augustus, and dedicated 
 by Tiberius. On new year's day, which was the 
 principal festival of the god, people gave presents 
 to one another, consisting of sweetmeats and cop- 
 per coins, showing on one side the double head of 
 Janus and on the other a ship. The general name 
 for these presents was strenae. The sacrifices 
 offered to Janus consisted of cakes (called janual), 
 barley, incense, and wine. 
 
 JasoE {^Ida-wv). L The celebrated leader of the 
 Argonauts, was a son of Aeson and Polymede or 
 Alcimede, and belonged to the family of the Aeo- 
 lidae, at lolcus in Thessaly. Cretheus, who had 
 founded lolcus, was succeeded by his son Aeson; 
 but the latter was deprived of the kingdom by his 
 half-brother Pelias, who attempted to take the life of 
 the infant Juson. He was saved by his friends, who 
 pretended that he was dead, and intrusted him to 
 the care of the centaur Chiron. Pelias wns now 
 warned by an oracle to be on his guard against the 
 one-sandaXed man. When Jason had grown up, 
 he came to claim the throne. As he entered the 
 
JASON. 
 
 mArket-place, Peliaa, perceiving he had only ore 
 sandal, asked him who he was ; whereupon Jason 
 declared his name, and demanded the kingdom. 
 Pelias consented to surrender it to him, but per- 
 suaded him to remove the curse which rested on 
 the family of the Aeolidac, by fetching the golden 
 fleece, and soothing the spirit of Phrixns. An- 
 other tradition related that Pelias, once upon a 
 time, invited all his subjects to a sacrifice, which 
 he intended to offer to Poseidon. Jason came 
 with the rest, hut, on his jonrney to lolcus, he lost 
 one of his sandals in crossing the river Anaurus. 
 Pelias, remembering the oracle about the one-san- 
 daled man, asked Jason what he would do if lie 
 were told by an oracle tliat he should be killed by 
 one of his subjects? Jason, on the suggestion 
 of Hera, who hated Pelias, answered, that he 
 would send him to fetch the golden fleece. Pelias 
 accordingly ordered Jason to fetch the golden 
 fleece, wliich was in the possession of king Aeetes 
 ill Colchis, and was guarded by an ever-watchful 
 di-agon. Jason willingly undertook the enterprize, 
 and set sail in the ship Argo, accompanied by the 
 chief heroes of Greece. He obtained the fleece 
 with the assistance of Medea, whom he made his 
 wife, and along with whom he returned to lolcus. 
 The history of his e.^ploits on this memorable en- 
 terprize, and his adventures on his return home, 
 are related elsewhere. [AiiGONAtJTAE.] On his 
 arrival at lolcus, Jason, according to one account, 
 found his aged father Aeson still alive, and Medea 
 made him young again ; but according to the nu)re 
 common tnidition, Aeson had been slain by Pelias, 
 during the absence of Jason, who accordingly called 
 npon Medea to take vengeance on Pelias. Medea 
 thereupon persuaded the daughters of Pelias to cut 
 their father to pieces and boil him, in order to re- 
 store hiui to youth and vigour, as she had before 
 changed a ram into a lamb, by boiling the body in 
 a cauldron. But Pelias was never restored to life, 
 and his son Acastus expelled Jason and Medea 
 from loclug. They then went to Corinth, where 
 they lived happily for several years, until Jason 
 deserted Medea, in order to many Glauce or 
 Creusa, daughter of Creon, the king of the country. 
 Medea fearfully revenged this insult. She sent 
 Glauco a poisoned garment, which burnt her to 
 death when she put it on. Creon likewise perished 
 in the flames. Medea also killed her children by 
 Jason, viz. Mermerus and Pheres, and then fled to 
 Athens in a chariot drawn by winged dragons. 
 Later writers represent Jason as becoming in the 
 end reconciled to Medea, returning with her to 
 Colchis, and there restoring Aeetes to his kingdom, 
 of wliich he had been deprived. The death of 
 Jason is related ditferently. According to some, 
 he made away with himself from grief, according 
 to others, he was crushed by the poop of the ship 
 Argo, which fell upon him as he was lying under 
 it. — 2. Tyrant of Pherae and Tagus of Thessaly 
 (Did. of Antiq. art. Tagus\ was probably the son 
 of Lycophron, who established a tyranny on the 
 ruins of aristocracy at Pherae. Pie succeeded his 
 father as tyrant of Pherae soon after B. c, 395, and 
 in a few years extended his power over almost the 
 whole of Thessaly. Pharsalus was the only city in 
 Thessaly which maintained its independence under 
 the government of Polydamas ; but even this place 
 submitted to him in 375. In the following year 
 (374) he was elected Tagus or generalissimo of 
 Thessaly. His power was strengthened by the 
 
 JERUSALEM. 353 
 
 weakness of the other Greek states, and by the 
 exhausting contest in which Thebes and Sparta, 
 were engaged. He was now in a position which 
 held out to him every prospect of becoming master 
 of Greece ; but when at the height of his power, 
 he was assassinated at a public audience, 370. — 
 Jason had an insatiable appetite for power, which he 
 sought to gratify by any and every means. With 
 the chief men in the several states of Greece, as 
 e. g. with Timotlieus and Pelopidas, he cultivated 
 friendly relations. He is represented as having all 
 the qualifications of a great general and diplo- 
 matist — as active, temperate, prudent, capable of 
 enduring much fatigue, and skilful in concealing 
 his own designs and penetrating those of his ene- 
 mies. He was an admirer of the rhetoric of Gor- 
 gias ; and Isocrates was one of his friends. ^ 3. Of 
 Argos, an liistorian, lived under Hadrian, and 
 wrote a work on Greece in 4 books, 
 
 JavolenuB Priscus, an eminent Roman jurist, 
 was born about the commencement of the reign of 
 Vespasian (a. d. 79), and was one of the council of 
 Antoninus Pius. He was a pupil of Caelius Sabi- 
 nns, and a leader of the SabinJan or Cassian school. 
 [See p. 144, b,] There are 206 extracts from 
 Javoleiuis in the Digest. 
 
 Jaxartes (^la^dprrqs : Syi% Sj/derla, or Syliomi), 
 a great river of Central Asia, about which the 
 ancient accnxmts are very different and confused. 
 It rises in the Coraedi Montes {Moussour)^ and 
 flows N.Vy. into the &« of Aral : the ancients 
 supposed it to full into tlie N. side of the Caspian, 
 not distinguifihing between the 2 seas. It divided 
 Sogdiana from Scythia, On its banks dwelt a 
 Scythian tribe called Jaxartae. 
 
 Jericlio or Hiericlius {'Upix^-, 'lepixovs : Er- 
 liiha 9 Ru.), a city of the Canaanites, in a plain 
 on the "VV". side of the Jordan near its mouth, was 
 destroyed by Joshua, rebuilt in tlie time of the 
 Judges, and formed an important frontier fortress 
 of Judaea. It was again destroyed b}' Vespasian, 
 rebuilt under Hadrian, and finally destroyed during 
 the crusades. 
 
 Jerom. [Hieiionvmus.] 
 
 JerHsaleni or Hierosolyma ('lepot/o-aAT;^, 'le- 
 poa-u\uf.i.a: 'l€poao\vfxiT7}s : Jerusalem^ Anib, El- 
 Kuds., i. e. the Holy Clty\ the capit:il of Palestine, 
 in Asia. At the time of the Israelitish conquest 
 of Canaan, imder Joshua, Jerusalem, then called 
 Jebus, was the chief city of the Jebusites, a Ca- 
 naanitish tribe, who were not entirely driven out 
 from it till B. c. 1050, when David took the city, 
 and made it the capital of the kingdom of Israel. 
 It was also established as the permanent centre of 
 the Jewish religion, by the erection of the temple 
 by Solomon, After the division of the kingdom, 
 under Rehoboam, it remained the capital of the 
 kingdom of Judah, until it was entirely destroyed, 
 and its inhabitants were carried into captivity by 
 Nebuchadnezzar, king of Babylon, B.C. 5fi8. In 
 B. c. b'6Q^ the Jewish exiles, having been permitted 
 by Cyrus to retum, began to rebuild the city and 
 temple ; and the work was completed in about 24 
 years. In b. c. 31^2, Jerusalem quietly submitted 
 to Alexander. During the wars which followed 
 his death, the city was taken by Ptolemy, the son 
 of Lagus (b. c. 320), and remained subject to the 
 Greek kings of Egypt, till the conquest of Palestine 
 by Antiochus III. the Great, king of Syrio, B.C. 
 198, Up to this time the Jews had been allowed 
 the free enjoyment of their religion and their own 
 
354 
 
 JOCASTE. 
 
 internal government, and Antioclius confirmed them 
 in these privileges ; but tlie altered government of 
 his son, Antiochus IV. Epiphanes, provoked a re- 
 bellion, whieh was at first put down when An- 
 tiochus took Jerusalem and polluted the temple 
 (li.c. 170) ; but the religions persecution which 
 ensued drove the people to despair, and led to a 
 new revolt under the Maccabees, by whom Jeni- 
 salom was retaken, and the temple purified in b. c. 
 lfJ3 [M.ACCABAEi], In B.C. 133, Jerusalem was 
 retaken by Antiochus VII. Sidetes, and its forti- 
 fications dismantled, but its government was left 
 in the hands of the Maccabee, John Hyrcanus, 
 who took advantage of the death of Antiochus 
 in Parthia (b. c. 128) to recover his lull power. 
 His son Aristobnlus assumed the title of king of 
 Judaea, and Jerusalem continued to be the capital of 
 the kingdom till B. c. G3, when it was taken by Pom- 
 pey, and the temple was again profaned. For the 
 events winch followed, see Hyrcanus, Heuodes, 
 and Palaestina. In a. d. 70, the rebellion of 
 the Jews against the Romans was put down, and 
 Jerusalem was taken by Titus, after a siege of se- 
 veral months, duiing which the inhabitants en- 
 dured the utmost horrors ; the survivors were all 
 put to the sword or sold as slaves, and the city 
 and temple were utterly razed to the ground. In 
 consequence of a new revolt of the Jews, the em- 
 peror Hadrian resolved to destroy nil vestiges of 
 their national and religious peculiarities ; and, as 
 one means to this end, he established a new 
 Roman colony, ou the ground wiiere Jerusalem 
 had stood, by the name of Aelia Capitolina, and 
 built a temple of Jupiter CapitoUnus, on the site 
 of the temple of Jehovah, a. d. 135. The esta^ 
 blishment of Christianity as the religion of the 
 Roman empire restored to Jerusalem its sacred 
 character, and led to the erection of several 
 churches ; but the various changes which have 
 taken place in it, since its conquest by the Arabs 
 under Omar io a, d. 63o, have left very few ves- 
 tiges even of the Roman city. Jerusalem stands 
 due W. of the head of the Dead Sea, at the dis- 
 tance of about "20 miles (in a straight line) and 
 about 35 miles from the Mediterranean, on an 
 elevated platform, divided, by a series of valleys, 
 from hills which surround it on every side. This 
 platform has a general slope from "VV. to E. its 
 highest point being the summit of Mt. Zion, in 
 the S. W. corner of the city on which stood 
 the original " city of David." The S. E. part- 
 of the phitform is occupied by the hill called 
 Moriah, on wlilch the temple stood, and the E. 
 part by tlic hill called Acra ; but these two 
 fiuinmits are now hardly distinguishable from the 
 general surface of the platform, probably on ac- 
 count of the gradual filling up of the valleys be- 
 tween. The lieight of j\[t. Zion is 2.535 feet above 
 the level of the Mediterranean, and about 300 
 feet above the valley below. The extent of the 
 platform is 5400 feet from N. to S.,,aud 1100 feet 
 iVoni E. to W. 
 
 Jocaste ('loKcto'TT;), called Epicaste in Homer, 
 daugiiter of Menoeceus, and wife of the Theban 
 king Laius, by whom she became the mother of 
 Oedipus. She afterwards married Oedipus, not 
 knowing that he was her son ; and when she dis- 
 covered the crime she had unwittingly connnitted, 
 she put an end to her life. For detiiils see Oedipus. 
 
 Joppe, Joppa ('iSiTirr) : O. T. Jjipho: JuJ/'a), 
 a very ancient maritime city of Palestine, and, 
 
 JOSEPHUS. 
 
 before the building of Cacsarea, the only sea port 
 of tlie whole country, and therefore called by 
 Strabo the port of Jerusalem, lay just S. of the 
 boundary between .Tudaea and Samaria, S.W. of 
 Antipatris, and N.W, of Jerusalem. 
 
 Jordanes ('lopoavrjs-, 'IfJpSat-os: Jordan^ Avcib. 
 Esh-Sheriuh el-Kebir^ or el-Urdun)^ has its source 
 at the S. foot of M. Hcrmon (the S.most part of 
 An ti- Li banns), near Paneas (aft. Caesarea Plii- 
 lippi), whence it flows S. into the little lake Se- 
 mechonitis, and thence into the Sea of Galilee 
 (Lake of Tiberias), and thence through a narrow 
 plain, depressed below the level of the surrounding 
 country into the lake Asphaltitcs {Dead S'ta)^ 
 where it is finally lost. [Pai.aestina.] Its course, 
 from the lake Semcchonitis to the Dead Sea, is 
 about GO miles ; the depression through which it 
 runs consists, first, of a sandy \alley, from 5 to 10 
 miles broad, within which is a lower valley, in 
 width about half a mile, and, for the most part, 
 beautifully clothed with grass and trees ; and, in 
 some places, there is still a lower valley within 
 this. The average width of the river itself is 
 calculated at 30 yards, and its average depth at 9 
 feet. It is fordable in many places in summer, 
 but in spring it becomes nmch deeper, and often 
 overflows its banks. Its bed is considerably below 
 the level of the Mediterranean, 
 
 Joraandes, or Jordanes, an historian, lived in 
 the time of Justinian, or in the 6th centuiy of 
 our era. He was a Goth by birth ; was secretary 
 to the king of the Alanl, adopted the Christian reli- 
 gion, took orders, and was made a bishop in It;ily. 
 There is not sufficient evidence for the common 
 statement that he was bishop of Ravenna. He 
 wrote 2 historical works in the Latin langiiage. 
 1. De Getarum {GoOtoruia) Ongine ct liebns C/fs- 
 iis, containing the history of the Goths, from the 
 earliest times down to their subjugation by Belisa- 
 rius in 541. The work is abridged from the lost 
 history of the Goths by Cassiodorus, to whicli Jor- 
 nandes added various particulars ; but it is com- 
 piled without judgment, and is characterised by 
 partiality to the Goths. 2. De Ri-ijnoninL cic Tein- 
 porum Successiojie, a short compendium of history 
 from the creation down to the victory obtauied by 
 Narses, iu od'2, over king Thcodatus. It is only 
 valuable for some accounts of the barbarous nations 
 of the North, and the countries which they inha- 
 bited. Edited by Lindenbrog, Hamburg, 1611. 
 
 Josephiis, riaviua, the Jewish historian, was 
 born at Jerusalem, a. d. 37. On his mother's side 
 he was descended from the Asmonaean princes, 
 while from his father, Matthias, he inherited the 
 priestly office. He enjoyed an excellent education ; 
 and at the age of 26 he went to Rome to plead the 
 cause of some Jewish priests whom Felix, the 
 procurator of Judaea, had sent thither as prisoners. 
 After a narrow escape from death by shipwreck, 
 he safely landed at Puteoli ; and being introduced 
 to Poppaea, he not only effected the release of his 
 friends, but received great presents from the em- 
 press. On his return to Jerusalem he found his 
 countrymen eagerly bent on a revolt from Rome, 
 from which he used his best endeavours to dis- 
 suade them ; but failing in this, he professed to 
 enter into the popular designs. He was chosen 
 one of the generals of the Jews, and was sent to 
 manage affairs in Galilee. When Vespasian and 
 his army entered Galilee, Josephus threw himself 
 into lotapatn, which he defended for 47 days. 
 
JOSEPHUS. 
 
 "When the place was taken, the life of Josephus 
 was spared by Vespasian through the intercession 
 of Titus. Josepliiis thereupon assumed the cha- 
 racter of a propiiet, and predicted to Vespasian 
 that the empire should one day be his and his son's. 
 Vespasian treated him with respect, but did not 
 release him from captivity, till he was proclaimed 
 emperor nearly 3 years afterwards (a. d. 70), Jo- 
 sephus was present with Titus at the siege of Je- 
 rusalem, and afterwards accompanied him to Rome. 
 He received the freedom of the city from Vespa- 
 sian, who assiijncd him, as a residence, a house 
 formerly occupied by liiraself, and treated him ho- 
 nourably to the end of his reign. The same favour 
 was extended to him by Titus and Domitian as 
 well. He assumed the name of Flavius, as a de- 
 pendant of the Flavian family. Ills time at Rome 
 appears to have been employed mainly in tlie com- 
 position of his works. He died abont 100. — The 
 works of Josephus are written in Greek. They 
 are : — i. The HUtort/ of the Jewish War (Ilepi 
 Tov *Ioi;5ot/ct)0 7ro\4fxov ■i) 'lovSaXicijs Icrropias ircpl 
 oAwirews), in 7 books, published about a. d. 75. 
 Josephus first wrote it in Hebrew, and then trans- 
 lated it into Greek. It commences with the cap- 
 ture of Jerusalem by Antiochus Epiphanes in b. c. 
 1 70, runs rapidly over the events before Josephus'a 
 own time, and gives a detailed account of the fatal 
 war with Rome. — 2. 77ie Jeicish Antiquities ('lou- 
 ^oIkt} apxato\oyia), in 20 books, completed about 
 A. D. 9;{, and addressed to Epaphroditus. The 
 title as well as the number of books may have been 
 suggested by the 'Pw^ai'/c^ a.px<^^o\o'yia of Dion}'- 
 sius of Halicarnassus. It gives an account of 
 Jewish History from the creation of the world to 
 A. D. 66, the r2th year of Nero, in which the Jews 
 were goaded to rebellion by Gessius Florus. In 
 this work Josephus seeks to accommodate the Jewish 
 religion to heathen tastes and prejudices. Thus he 
 speaks of Moses and his law in a tone which might 
 be adopted by any disbeliever in his divine lega- 
 tion. He says that Abraham went into Egypt 
 (Gen. xii.), intending to adopt the Egyptian views 
 of religion, should he find them better than his own. 
 He speaks doubtfully of the preservation of Jonah 
 by the whale. He intimates a doubt of there 
 having been any miracle in the passage of the Red 
 Sea, and compares it with the passage of Alexander 
 the Great along the shore of the sea of Pamphylia. 
 He intei"prets Exod. xxii. 20, as if it conveyed a 
 command to respect the idols of the heathen. Many 
 similar instances might be quoted from his work. 
 — 3. His own life^ in one book. This is an ap- 
 pendage to the Archaeologia, and is addressed to 
 the same Epaphroditus. It was not written earlier 
 than A. D. 97, since Agrippa II, is mentioned in it 
 as no longer living. — 4. A treatise on thp. Antiquity 
 of t/ie Jews, or Against Apion^ in 2 books, also 
 addressed to Epaphroditus. It is in answer to 
 such as impugned the antiquity of the Jewish 
 nation, on the ground of the silence of Greek 
 writers respecting it. [Apion.J The treatise ex- 
 hibits extensive acquaintance with Greek literature 
 and philosophy. — 5. E(y MaicicaSaious ^ irepl 
 avTOicpdropos Ao-ytUjUoi/, in 1 book. Its genuine- 
 ness is doubtful It is a declamatory account of 
 the martyrdom of Eleazar (an aged priest), and of 
 7 youths and their mother, in the persecution under 
 Antiochus Epiphanes. The best editions of Jo- 
 sephus are by Hudson, Oxon, 1720 ; and by Ha- 
 vercamp, Amst, 1726, 
 
 JUGURTHA. 
 
 355 
 
 Jovianus, Flavius Claudius, was elected em- 
 peror by the soldiers, in June A. D. 363, after the 
 death of Julian [Julianus], whom he had accom- 
 panied in his campaigii against the Persians. In 
 order to effect his retreat in i^afeiy, Jovian surren- 
 dered to tlie Persians the Roman conquests beyond 
 the Tigris, and several fortresses in Mesopotamia. 
 He died suddenly at a small town on the frontiers of 
 Bithynia and GalatJa, February 17th, 364, after a 
 reign of little more th;m 7 months. Jovian was a 
 Christian ; but he protected the heathens. 
 
 Juba {'l6€as). 1. King of Nuinidia, was son 
 of Hiempsal, who was re-established on the throne 
 by Pompey. On the breaking out of the civil war 
 between Caesar and Pompey, he actively espoused 
 the cause of the latter; and, accordingly, when 
 Caesar sent Curio into Africa (n. c. 4.9), he sup- 
 ported the Pompeian general Attius Varus with a 
 large body of troops. Curio was defeated by their 
 united forces, and fell in the battle. In 46 Juba 
 fought along with Scipio against Caesar himself, 
 and was present at the decisive battle of Thapais. 
 After this defeat he wandered about for some time, 
 and then put an end to his own life. — 2. King of 
 Mauretania, son of tlie preceding, was a mere child 
 at his father's death (46), was carried a prisoner 
 to Rome by Caesar, and compelled to grace the 
 conqueror's triumph. He was brought up in Italy, 
 where he received an excellent education, and 
 applied himself with such diligence to study, that 
 he turned out one of the most learned men of his 
 day. After the death of Antony (30), Augustus 
 conferred upon Juba his paternal kingdom of Nu- 
 midia, and at the same time gave liim in marriage 
 Cleopatra, otherwise called Selene, the daughter 
 of Antony and Cleopatra. At a subsequent period 
 (25), Augustus gave hiin Mauretania in exchange 
 for Numidia, which was reduced to a Roman pro- 
 vince, lie continued to reign in Mauretania till 
 his death, which happened about a. d. 19. He 
 was beloved by his subjects, among whom lie 
 endeavoured to introduce the elements of Greek 
 and Roman civilisation ; and, after his death, they 
 even paid him divine honours. — Juba wrote a 
 great number of works in almost every branch of 
 literature. They are all lost, with the exception 
 of a few fragments. They appear to have been all 
 written in Greek. The most important of them 
 were: — 1. ^ History of Africa (Ai^ujca), in 
 whicii he made use of Punic authorities. — 2. On 
 the Assyrians, — 3. A History of Ardhia. — A, A 
 Roman History {'Vojixaiic^ laTopla). — 5. BeaTpiic)] 
 IffTopia^ a general treatise on all matters connected 
 with the stage. — 6. Uepl ypacpiKTJs^ or irepl ^w- 
 ypd(pav, seems to have been a general histnrv of 
 painting. He also wrote some treatises on botany 
 and on grammatical subjects. 
 
 Judaea, Judaei. [Palaestina.] 
 
 Juguutki, a Gei-man people, sometimes de- 
 scribed as a Gothic, and sometimes as an Ale- 
 mannic tribe. 
 
 Jugurtha ('lovyovpOas or *loy6p6as), kijifr of 
 Numidia, was an illegitimate son of Mastanabal 
 and a grandson of Masinissa. He lost his father 
 at an early age, but was adopted by his uncle 
 Micipsa, who brought him tip with his own sons, 
 Hiempsal and Adherbal. Jugurtha quickly dis- 
 tinguished himself both by his abilities and his 
 skill in all bodily exercises, and rose to so imxch 
 favour and popularity with the Numidians, that he 
 begtm to excite the jealousy of Micipsa, In order 
 
 i A 9. 
 
356 JUGURTHA. 
 
 to remove bim to a distance, Micipaa sent him, In 
 E. c. 134, with ail auxiliary force, to assist Scipio 
 against Numantia. Here his zenl, courage, and 
 ability, gained for him the favour and com- 
 mendation of Scipio, and of all the leading nobles in 
 the Roman camp. On liis return to Numidia he was 
 received with honour by Micipsa, who was obliged 
 todissemble the fears which heentertainedofhis am- 
 bitious nephew. Micipsa died in 118, leaving the 
 kingdom to Jugurtha and his 2 sons, Hiempsal and 
 Adiierbal, in common. Jugiirtha soon showed that 
 he aspired to tliesole sovereignty of the country. In 
 the course of the same year he found an opportunity 
 to assassinate Hiempsal at Thirmida, and afterwards 
 defeated Adherba! in battle. Adherbal fled to 
 Rome to invoke the assistance of the senate ; but 
 Jugurtha, by a lavish distribution of bribes, coun- 
 teracted the just complaints of his enemy. The 
 senate decreed that the kingdom of Ntimidia 
 should be equally divided between the 2 com- 
 petitors ; but the senators entrusted with the 
 execution of this decree were also bribed by 
 Jugurtha, who thus succeeded in obtaining the 
 W. division of the kingdom, adjacent to Mau- 
 retania, by far the larger and richer portion of tlie 
 two (117). But this advantage was far from con- 
 tenting him- Shortly afterwards he invaded the 
 territories of Adherbal with a large army, and 
 defeated him. Adherbal m:ide his escape to the 
 strong fortress of Cirta, where he was closely 
 blockaded by Jugurtha. The Romans commanded 
 Jugurtha to abstain from further hostilities ; but 
 he paid no attention to their commands, and at 
 length gained possession of Cirta, and put Adherbal 
 to death, 112. War was now declared against 
 Jugurtha at Rome, and the consul, L. Calpumius 
 Bestia, was sent into Africa, 111. Jugurtha had 
 recourse to his customary arts ; and by means 
 of large sums of money given to Bestia and 
 M. Scaurus, his principal lieutenant, he purchased 
 from them a favourable peace. The conduct of 
 Bestia excited the greatest indignation at Rome ; 
 and Jugurtha was summoned to the city under a 
 safe conduct, the popular party hoping to be able 
 to convict the nobility by means of hia evidence. 
 The scheme, however, failed ; since one of the 
 tribunes who had been gained over by the friends 
 of Bestia and Scaurus forbade the king to give 
 evidence. Soon afterwards Jugurtha was compelled 
 to leave Italy, in consequence of his having ven- 
 tured on the assassination of Massiva, whose 
 counter influence he regarded with apprehension. 
 [M.ASSIVA,] The war was now renewed ; but 
 the consul, Sp. Postumius Albinus, who arrived to 
 conduct it(] 10), was able to effect nothing against 
 Jugurtha. When the consul went to Rome to 
 hold the comitia, he left his brother Aulus in 
 command of the army. Aulus was defeated by 
 Jugurtha ; great part of his army was cut to pieces, 
 and the rest only escaped a similar fate by the 
 ignominy of passing under the yoke. But this 
 disgrace at once roused all the spirit of the Roman 
 people : the treaty concluded by Aulus was in- 
 stantly annulled ; and the consul Q. Caecilius 
 Metellua was sent into "Africa at the head of a 
 new army (109). Metelliis was an able general 
 and an upright man, whom Jugurtha was unable 
 to cope with in the field, or to seduce by bribes. 
 In the course of 2 years Metellus frequently dt;- 
 feated Jugurtha, and at length drove him to t:i!;e 
 refuge among the Gaetuliaus. In 107 Mi^tcllus 
 
 JULIA. 
 
 was succeeded in the command by Mantis ; bnt 
 the cause of Jugurtha had meantime been espoused 
 by his father-in law Bocchus, king of Mauretania, 
 who bad advanced to his support with a large 
 army. The united forces of Jugurtha and Bocchus 
 were defeated in a decisive battle by Marius ; and 
 Bocchus purchased the forgiveness of the Romans 
 by suH'endering his son-in-law to Sulla, the quaes- 
 tor of Marius (106). Jugurtha remained in cap- 
 tivity till the return of Marius to Rome, when, 
 after adorning the triumph of his conqueror (Jan. 
 1, 104), he was thrown into a dungeon, and there 
 starved to death. 
 
 Julia. 1. Aunt of Caesar the dictator, and wife 
 of C. Marius the elder. She died b. c. GO, and her 
 nephew pronounced her funeral oration. — 2. 
 Mother of M. Antonius, the triumvir. In the 
 proscription of the triunivii-ate (43) she saved the 
 life of her brother, L. Caesar [Caesar, No. 5.]— 
 3. Sister of Caesar the dictator, and wife of M. Atius 
 Balbus, by whom she had Atia, the mother of 
 Augustus [Atia]. ^4. Daughter of Caesar the 
 dictator, by Cornelia, and his only child in marriage, 
 was married to Cn. Pompey in 59. She was a 
 woman of beauty and virtue, and was tenderly 
 attached to her husband, although 23 years older 
 than herself. She died in childbed in 54.-5. 
 Daughter of Augustus by Scribonia, and hia only 
 child, was bom in 39. She was educated with 
 great strictness, but grew up one of the most pro- 
 fligate women of her age. She was thrice married : 
 — 1. to M. Marcellus, her first cousin in 25 : 2. 
 after his death (23) without issue, to M. Agrippa, 
 by whom she had 3 sons, C. and L. Caesar, and 
 Agrippa Posturaua, and 2 daughters, Julia and 
 Agrippina : 3. after Agrippa 's death in 12, to 
 Tiberius Nero, the future emperor. In B. c. 2 
 Augustus at length became acquainted with the 
 misconduct of his daughter, whose notorious adul- 
 teries had been one reason wh^' her husband Ti- 
 berius had quitted Italy 4 years before. Augustus 
 was incensed beyond measure, and banished her to 
 Pandatiria, an island off the coast of Campanin. 
 At the end of 5 years she was removed to Rhcgiuni, 
 but she was never suffered to quit the bounds of 
 the city. Kven the testament of Augustus showed 
 the inflexibility of his anger. He bequeathed her 
 no legacy, and forbade her ashes to repose in liis 
 mausoleum. Tiberius on his accession (a. d. 14) 
 deprived her of almost all the necessaries of life ; 
 and she died in the course of the same year. ^6. 
 Daughter of the preceding, and wife of L. Aemilius 
 Paulus. She inherited her mother''s licentiousness, 
 and was in consequence banished by her grandfather 
 Augustus to the little island Tremerus, on the coast 
 of Apulia, A. D. 9, where she lived nearly 20 years. 
 She died in 28. It was probably this Julia whom 
 Ovid celebrated as Corinna in his elegies and other 
 erotic poems ; and his intrigues with her appear to 
 have been the cause of the poet's banishment in 
 A. D. 9.^7. Youngest child of Germanicus and 
 Agrippina, was born a. d. IJJ ; was married to M. 
 Vinicius in 33; and was banished in 37 by her 
 brother Caligula, who was believed to have had an 
 incestuous intercourse with her. She was recalled 
 by Claudius, but was afterwards put to death by 
 this emperor at Messalina's instigation. The charge 
 brought against her was adultery, and Seneca, the 
 philosopher, was banished to Corsica as the partner 
 of her guilt. — 8. Daughter of Dioisus and Livia, 
 the sister of Germanicus. ^he was married, a. d. 
 
JULIA. 
 
 20, to lier first cousin, Nero, son of Gernianicus 
 and Agrippina; and after Nero'a death, to Riibellius 
 ]Mandus, by whom she had a son, Rubellius 
 PhuUu3. She, too, was put to death by Claudius, 
 at the instigation of Messalinn, 59.-9. Daughter 
 of Titus, the son of Vespasian, married Flavins 
 Sabinus, a nephew of tlte emperor Vespasian. Julia 
 died of abortion, caused by her uncle Domitian, 
 with u'hom she lived in criminal intercourse. — 10. 
 Domna [DoniNA]. — 11. Drusilla [Drusilla]. 
 — 12. Maesa [Maesa"]. 
 
 Julia Gens, one of the mopt ancient patrician 
 houses at Home, was of Alban origin, and was 
 removed to Rome by Tullus Hostilius upon the 
 destruction of Alba Longa. It claimed descent 
 from tlie mythical lulus, the son of Venus and 
 Anchises. The most distinguished family in the 
 gens is that of Caesar. Under the empire we find 
 an immense number of persons of the name of 
 Julius, the most important of whom are spoken of 
 under their surnames. 
 
 JuUanus Didius. [Didius.] 
 
 Julianns, Flavius Claudius, usually called 
 Julian, and surnamod the Apostate, Roman em- 
 peror, A. D. 361 — 3G3. He was born at Constan- 
 tinople, A. D. 331, and was the son of Julius Con- 
 stantius by his second wife, Basilina, and the 
 nephew of Constantino the Great Julian and his 
 elder brother, Gallus, were the only members of the 
 imperial family whose lives were spared by the 
 sons of Constantine the Great, on the death of the 
 latter in 337. The 2 brothers were educated with 
 care, and were brought up in the principles of the 
 Christian religion ; but as they .advanced to man- 
 hood, they were watched with jealousy and sus- 
 picion bj' the emperor Constaiitius. After the 
 execution of Gallus in 3-54 [Gallus], the life of 
 Julian was in great peril ; but he succeeded in 
 pacifying the suspicions of the emperor, and was 
 allowed to go to Athens in 355 to pursue bis 
 studies. Here he devoted himself with ardour to 
 the study of Greek literature and philosophy, and 
 attracted universal attention both by his attainments 
 and abilities. Among his fellow-students were 
 Gregory of Nazianzus and Basil, both of whom 
 afterwards became so celebrated in the Christian 
 church. Julian had already abandoned Christianity 
 in his heart and returned to the pagan faith of his 
 ancestors; but fear of Constantius prevented him 
 from making an open declaration of liis apostnc3^ 
 Julian did not remain long at Athens. In Novem- 
 ber, 355, he received from Constantius the title of 
 Caesar, and was sent into Gaul to oppose the 
 Germans, who had crossed the Rhine, and were 
 ravaging some of the fairest provinces of Gaul. 
 iJuring the next 5 years (356 — 360) Julian carried 
 on war against the '2 German confederacies of the 
 Alcmanni and Franks with great success, and 
 gained many victories over them. His internal 
 administration was distinguished -by justice and 
 wisdom ; and he gained the goodwill and affection 
 of the provinces intrusted to his care. His growing 
 popularity awakened the jealousy of Constantius, 
 who commanded him to send some of his best 
 troops to the East, to serve against the Persians. 
 His soldiers refused to leave their favourite general, 
 and proclaimed him emperor at Paris in 360. After 
 sevei-al fruitless negotiations between Julian and 
 Constantius, both parties prepared for war. In 361 
 Julian marched along the valley of the Danube 
 towai-ds Constantinople; but Constantius, who hud 
 
 JULIANUS. 
 
 357 
 
 set out from Syria to oppose his rival, died on his 
 march in Cilicia. His death left Julian the undis- 
 puted master of the empire. On the I Ith of De- 
 cember Julian entered Constantinople. Pie lost no 
 time in publicly avowing himself a pagan, but he 
 proclaimed that Christianity would be tolerated 
 equally with paganism. He did not. however, act 
 impartially towards the Christians. He prefitrred 
 pagans as his civil and military officers, forbade the 
 Christians to teach rhetoric and grammar in the 
 schools, and, in order to annoy them, allowed the 
 Jews to rebuild the temple at Jerusalem. In the 
 following j-ear (362) Julian went to Syria in order 
 to make preparations for the war against the Per- 
 sians. He spent the winter at Antioch, where he 
 made the acquaintance of the orator Libanius ; and 
 in the spring of 363 he set out against the Persians. 
 He crossed the Euphrates and the Tigris; and after 
 burning his fleet on the Tigris, that it might not 
 fall into the hands of the enem.y, he boldly marched 
 into the interior of the country in search of the 
 Persian king. His army suffered much from the 
 heat, want of water, and provisions ; and he was 
 at length compelled to retreat. The Persians now 
 appeared and fearfully harassed his rear. Still the 
 Romans remained victorious in many a bloody en- 
 gagement ; but in the last battle fought on the 
 26th of June, Julian was mortally wounded by an 
 arrow, and died in the course of the day. Jovian 
 was chosen emperor in his stead, on the field of 
 battle. [JoviANUS.] Julian was an extraordinary 
 character. As a monarch he was indefatigable in 
 his attention to business, upright in his adminis- 
 tration, and comprehensive in his views; as a man, 
 he was virtuous, in the midst of a profligate age, 
 and did not yield to the luxurious temptations to 
 which he was exposed. In consequence of his 
 apostacy he lias been calumniated by Christian 
 writers; but for the same reason he has been unduly 
 extolled by heathen authors. He wrote a large 
 number of Avorks, many of which are extant. He 
 was a man of reflection and thought, but possessed 
 no creative genius. He did not however write 
 merely for the sake of writing, like so many of 
 his contemporaries ; his works show that lie had 
 his subjects really at heart, and that in literature 
 as well as in business his extraordinary activity 
 arose from the wants of a powerful mind, which 
 desired to improve itself and the world. The style 
 of Julian is remarkably pure, and is a close imitation 
 of the style of the classical Greek writers. The 
 following are his most important works : — 1. Letters 
 most of which were intended for public circulation, 
 and are of great importance for the history of the 
 time. Edited by Heyler, Mainz,llj20. — 2. Orations 
 on various subjects, as for instance. On the emperor 
 Constantius, Ou the worship of the sun. On the 
 mother of the gods (Cybele), On true and false Cy- 
 nicism, &c. — 3. The Caesars or the Danrfict {Ka'i- 
 (rapes ^ ^v/.iTr6&iot/), a satirical composition, which 
 is one of the most agreeable and instructive pro- 
 ductions of ancient wit. Julian describes the Romau 
 emperors approacliing one after the other to take 
 their seat round a table in the heavens ; and as 
 they come up, their faults, vices, and crimes, are 
 censiu-ed with a sort of bitter mirth by old Silenus, 
 whereupon each Caesar defends himself as well as 
 he can. Edited by Heusinger, Gotha, 1736, and 
 by llarless, Erlangen, 1785. — 4. Misopogon or the 
 Enemy of the Beard (]VIi(ro7raJ7wy), a severe satire 
 on the licentious and effeminate manners of the 
 
350 JULIANUS. 
 
 inbabitfints of Antiocli, who had ridiculed Julian, 
 when he resided in the cit}', on account of iii8 
 austere virtues, and had lauglied at his allowing 
 his beard to grow in the ancient fashion, — 5. 
 Aijoinst fhe CiirL4utns (Kara XpttrTiavaiy). This 
 Avork is lost, but sumo extracts from it are piven in 
 L'yriU's reply to it, whicii is still extant. — The best 
 edition of the collected works of Julian is by 
 Spanheini, Lips. IGOG. 
 
 Julianus, SalviUS, an eminent Roninn jurist, 
 who flourished under Hadrian and the Antonlnes, 
 He was praefectus urbi, and twice consul, hut bis 
 name does not appear in the Fasti. By the order 
 of Iladrian, he drew up the ediduin pcrpriuitm, 
 which forms an epoch in the history of Iloman 
 jurisprudence. His work appears to have consisted 
 in collecting and arranging the clauses which the 
 praetors were accustomed to insert in tlieir annual 
 edict, in condensing the materials, and in omitting 
 antiquated provisions. He was a voluminous legal 
 writer, and his works are cited in the Digest. 
 
 Julias {'lov\ias : Bib. Bethsaida: Et-Tdl^ Rn.), 
 a city of Palestine on the E, side of the Jordan, 
 N. of the Lake of Tiberias, so called b}' the te- 
 trarch Philip, in honour of Julia, the daughter of 
 Augustus. 
 
 Juliobriga (Bcforlillo, nr. Beynosa)^ a town of 
 the Cantabri in Hispania Tarraconensis, near the 
 sources of the Iberus. 
 
 Juliomagus. [Andecavi.] 
 
 Juli5poli3('IouA((i7roA(s). [GoRDiUM ;Tarsus.] 
 
 Julius. [Julia Gens.] 
 
 Juncaria {Junqifra), a town of the Indigetes 
 in Hispania Tarraconensis, on the road from Bar- 
 cino to the frontiers of Gaul, in a plain covered 
 with rushes (^lovyKdpiovK^Ziov). 
 
 Junia. 1. Half-sister of M. Brutus, the mur- 
 derer of Caesar, and wife of M. Lepidus, the trium- 
 vir. — 2. Tertia, or Tertulla, own sister of the 
 preceding, was the wife of C. Cassius, one cf 
 Caesar's nmrderera. She survived her husband a 
 long while, and did not die till a.d. •2'2. 
 
 Junia Gens, an ancient patrician house at Rome, 
 to which belonged the celebrated M. Junius Brutus, 
 wlio took such an active, part in expelling the Tar- 
 quins. But afterwards tlie gens appears as only a 
 pli4ielau one. Under the republic the chief fa- 
 milies were those of Brutus, Bubulcus, Grac- 
 
 CHANUP. NORBANUS, PULLUS, SiLANUS. The 
 
 Junii who lived under the empire, ate likewise 
 spoken of under their various surnames. 
 
 Juuo, called Hera by the Greeks. The Greek 
 goddess is spoken of in a separate article. [Hhra.J 
 The word Ju-no contains the same root as Ju-piter. 
 As Jupiter is the king of heaven and of the gods, 
 so Juno is the queen of heaven, or the female Ju- 
 piter. She was worshipped at Rome as the queen 
 of heaven, from early times, with the surname of 
 Rcfj'ma. At a later period her worship was so- 
 lennily transferred from Veii to Rome, where a 
 sanctuary was dedicated to lier on the Aventine. 
 As Jupiter was the protector of the male sex, so 
 Juno watched over the female sex. She was sup- 
 posed to accompany every woman through life, 
 from the moment of her birth to her death. Hence 
 she bore the special surnames of Virsjinalh and 
 Mairona, as well as the general ones of Opigma 
 and Sospita^ and under tlie last mentioned name 
 fche was worshipped at Lanuvium. On their birth- 
 day women offered sacrifices to Juno sumamed Na- 
 iulisy just as men sacrificed to their genhis natalia. 
 
 JUPITER. 
 
 The great festival, celebrated by nil the women, 
 in honour of Juno, was called Matronaiia [Did. of 
 Ant.s.v.)^ and took place on the 1st of Marcli. 
 Her protection of women, and especially her power 
 of making them fruitful, is further alluded to in the 
 festival Populifaijia {Did. of Ant. s. v.), as well as 
 in the fiurname of Fehndis^ Febniata^ Febritta, or 
 Fehrualis. Juno was further, like Saturn, the 
 guardian of the finances, and under the name of 
 Moncta she had a temple on the Capitoline hill, 
 which contained the mint. The most important 
 period in a woman's life is that of her marriage, 
 and she was therefore believed especially to pre- 
 side over marriage. Hence she was called Juga or 
 Jugalis^ and had a variety of other names, such as 
 Froimba^ Civ.xia^ Liicina, &c. The month of June, 
 which is said to have been originally called Juno- 
 nius, was considered to be the most favourable 
 period for marrying. Women in childbed invoked 
 Juno Lucina to help them, and newly-born children 
 were likewise under Iier protection : hence she was 
 sometimes confounded with the Greek Artemis or 
 Ilithyia. In Etruna she was worshipped under 
 the name of Cupra. She was also worshipped at 
 Falerii, Lanuvium. Aricia, Tlbur, Praeneate, and 
 other places. In the representations of the Roman 
 Juno that have come down to us, the tj'pe of the 
 Greek Hera is commonly adopted. 
 
 Jiipiter, called Zeuo by the Greeks. The Greek 
 god is spoken of in a separate article [Zeus.] Ju- 
 piter was originally an elemental divinity, and his 
 name signifies the father or lord of heaven, beinfy 
 a contraction oi Dioiris pater, or Diespiter. Beinj; 
 the lord of heaven, he was worshipped as the god 
 of rain, storms, thunder, and lightning, whence 
 he had the epithets of Fliivitts, Fidgurator, To/it- 
 irualis, Toiians^ and Fidminaior. As the pebble 
 or flint stone was regarded as the symbol of light- 
 ning, Jupiter was frequentl}' represented with such 
 a stone in his hand instead of a thunderbolt. In 
 concluding a treaty, the Romans took the sacred 
 .symbols of Jupiter, viz. the sceptre and flint stone, 
 together with some grass from his temple, and the 
 oath taken on such an occasion was expressed by 
 per Jovcm Lapidem jurare. In consequence of his 
 possessing such powers over the elements, and espe- 
 ciall}-- of his always having the thunderbolt at hia 
 command, he was regarded as the highest and most 
 powerful among the gods. Hence he is called the 
 Best and Most High {Optimus J\Taa~imus). His 
 temple at Rome stood on the lofty hill of the Ca- 
 pitol, whence he derived the surnames of Capitoll- 
 nus and Tarneius. He was regarded as the special 
 protector of Rome, As such lie was worshipped by 
 the consuls on entering upon their office ; and the 
 triumph of a victorious general was a solemn pro- 
 cession to his temple. He therefore bore the sur- 
 names of Imperatnr, VidoVf Tiividus, Statoi\ Opi- 
 tuliLs, Fi'Tdrius, Fracdator, 7'rimvpliator^ and the 
 like. Under all these surnames he had temples or 
 statues at Rome ; and 2 temples, viz. those of Ju- 
 piter Stator and of Jupiter Feretrius, were believed 
 to have been built in the time of Romulus. Under 
 the name of Jupiter Capilolinus^ he presided over 
 the great Roman games ; and under the name of 
 Jupiter Latiu/is or Latiuris^ over the Feriae Latinae. 
 Jupiter, according to the belief of the Romans, de- 
 termined the course of all human affairs. He fore- 
 saw the future, and the events liappening in it were 
 the results of his will. He revealed the future to 
 man through signs in the heavens nud the flight of 
 
JURA. 
 
 birds, Tvhicli are lience called tlie Tnesscngcrs of 
 Jupiter, while the god himself is dusignnt-ed as 
 J'rodujialis^ that is, the sender (if prodigies. For 
 tlie snnic reason tlie god was invoked at the begin- 
 ning of every iindevtaking, whether sacred or pro- 
 fane, together with Janus, wlio blessed tlie begin- 
 ning itself. Jupiter was furtlier regarded as the 
 guardian of law, and as the protector of justice and 
 virtue. lie maintained the sanctity of an oath, 
 and presided over all transactions which were based 
 upon faithfulness and justice. Hence Fides was 
 his companion on the Capitol, along with Victoria ; 
 and hence a. traitor to his country, and persons 
 guilty of perjury, were thrown down from the Tar- 
 peian rock. — As Jupiter was the lord of heaven, 
 and consequently the prince of light, the white 
 colour was sacred to him, white animals were sa- 
 crificed to him, his chariot was believed to be drawn 
 by 4 white horses, his priests wore white caps, 
 and the consuls were attired in white when they 
 offered sacrifices in tiie Capitol the day they en- 
 tered on their office. The worship of Jupiter at 
 I^ome was under tiie special care of the Fknrw.n 
 /HifJis, who was the highest in rank of all the 
 flamens. {Did. of Ant. art. Flamen.) The Ro- 
 nuiiJB, in their representations of the god, adopted 
 the type of the Greek Zeus. 
 
 Jura or Jui'assns Mons (Jura), a range of 
 mountains, which run N. of the lake Lemanus as 
 far as Augusta Rauracorum {Avgiist near Basle), 
 on the Rhine, forming tlie boundary between the 
 Sequani and Helvetii. 
 
 Justiniaaa. 1. Prima, a tovm in Illyrla, near 
 Tauresium, was the birthplace of Justinian, and 
 was built by that em])cror ; it became the resi- 
 dence of thfi archbishop of Illyria, and, in the 
 middle ages, of the Servian kings. —3. Sectrnda, 
 also a town in Ilh-ria, previously called Ulpiana, 
 was enlarged and embellished by .Justinian. 
 
 Justiuianus, surnamed the Great, emperor of 
 Constantinople, a. d. 527 — 565. He was born near 
 Tauresium in Illyria, a. d. 483 ; was adopted by 
 his uncle, the emperor Justinus, ui 520 ; suc- 
 ceeded his uncle in 527 ; married the beautiful 
 but licentious actress, Theodora, who exercised 
 great influence over hira ; and died in 56o, 
 leaving the crown to his nephew, Justin II. He 
 was, during the greater part of his reii^n, a firm 
 supporter of orthodoxy, and thus has received from 
 ecclesiastical writers the title of Great ; but towards 
 the end of his life, ho became a heretic, being one 
 of the adherents of Nestorianism. His foreign 
 wars were glorious, but all his victories were won 
 by his generals. The empire of the Vandals in 
 Africa was overthrown by Belisarius, and their 
 king Gelimer led a prisoner to Constantinople ; 
 and the kingdom of the Ostrogoths in Italy was 
 likewise destroyed, by the successive victories of 
 Belisarius and Ntirses. [Belisarius ; Narses.] 
 Justinian adorned Constantinople with many public 
 buildings of great magnificence ; but the cost of 
 their erection, as well as the expenses of his foreign 
 wars, obliged him to impose many new taxes, 
 which were constantly increased by the natural 
 covetousness and rapacity of the emperor. — The 
 great work of Jnstinian is his legislation. He re- 
 solved to establish a pcrlect systen^ of written le- 
 gislation for all his dominions ; and, for this end, 
 to make 2 great collections, one of the imperial 
 constitutions, the other of all that was valuable in 
 the works of jurists. His first work was the 
 
 JUSTINUS. 3o9 
 
 collection of the imperial constitutions. This he 
 commenced in 52U, in tlie 2nd year of his reign. 
 The task was entrusted to a commission of 10, 
 who completed their labours in the following 
 year (52^); and their collection was declared to 
 be law under the title oi Justin'uincus Codccc. — In 
 530 Tribonian. who had been one of the commis- 
 sion of 10 empioyed in drawing up the Code, was 
 authorised by the emperor to select fellow-labourers 
 to assist him in the other division of the under- 
 taking. Tiibonian selected 16 coadjutors; and 
 this commission proceeded at once to lay under 
 contribution the works of those jurists who had re- 
 ceived from former emperors '"auctnritatem con- 
 Bcribendarum interpretandique legum." Thi^y were 
 ordered to divide their materials into 50 Books, and 
 to subdivide each Book into Titles {Tit'di). No- 
 thing that was valuable was to be excluded, nothing 
 that was obsolete was to be admitted, and neither 
 repetition nor inconsistency was to be allowed. 
 This work was to bear the name Dujeda or Pan- 
 dcctae. The work was completed, in accordance 
 with the instmctions that had been given, in the 
 short space of 3 years ; and on the 30th of Dec. 
 533, it received frmn the imperial sanction the au- 
 thority of law. It comprehends upwards of 9000 
 extracts, in the selection nf which the compilers 
 made use of nearly 2000 dift'ercnt books, containing 
 more than 3,000,000 lines.— The Code and the Di- 
 gest contained a complete body of law ; but as they 
 were not adapted to elementary instruction, a com- 
 mission was appointed, consisting of Tribonian, 
 Theophilus, .ind Dorotheus, to compose an institu- 
 tional work, which should contain the elements of 
 the law {ler/nm incunaLuki)^ and should not be en- 
 cumbered with useless matter. Accordingly they 
 produced a treatise under the title of Imiifutinnea^ 
 which was based on elementary works of a similar 
 character, but chiefly on the Institutioncs of Gains. 
 [Gaius.] The Institutioues consisted of 4 books, 
 and were published with the imperial sanction, at 
 the same time as the Digest. — After the publi- 
 cation of the Digest and the Institutioues, 50 dc- 
 cisiones and some new constitutiones also were 
 promulgated by the emperor. This rendered a 
 revision of the Code necessary ; and accordingly^ a 
 new Code was promulgated at Constantinople, on 
 the I6th of November. 534, and the use of the dc- 
 cisiones, of the new constitutiones, and of tlie first 
 edition of the Code, was forbidden. The 2nd 
 edition (Codex Eepetitae Praeleciionis) is tlie Code 
 that we now possess, in 12 books, each of which 
 is divided into titles. — Justinian subsequenth'" 
 published various new constitutiones, to which he 
 gave the name of Novdlae Cunsiititiioiies. These 
 Constitutiones form a kind of supplement to the 
 Code, and were published at various times from 
 535 to 6^0^ but most of them apjjcared between 
 535 and 539. It does not seem, however, that 
 any official compilation of these Novelkw. appeared 
 in the lifetime of Justinian. — The 4 legislative 
 works of Justinian, the IiisiiliUioni's^ Dujesia or 
 Pandectae^ Codcx^ and N'ovellae^^ve included under 
 the general name of Corpus Juris Civiti^, and forni 
 the Roman law, as received in Europe. — The best 
 editions of the Corpus for general use are by Gotho- 
 fredns and Van Leeuwen, Amst. 1G63, 2 vols, ful, ; 
 by Gebauer and Spangenberg, Gotting. 177G — 
 1797, 2 vols. 4to. ; and by Beck, Lips. 1836, 
 2 vols. 4to. 
 
 Justimis. 1, The historian, of uncertain date, 
 
 A A 4 
 
360 JUSTUS. 
 
 but who did not live later than the 4th or 6th 
 century of our aem,, is the author of an extant 
 ■work entitled Hlstoriurum l-^hilippicaruni Lihri 
 JlLIV. This work is taken from the HidorUie 
 PhUippicae of Trop:n3 PonipeUis, wlio lived in the 
 time of Augustas. TJie title Philippicae was given 
 to it, because its main object was to give the his- 
 tory of the Macedonian monarchy, with all its 
 branches ; but in the execiition of this design, 
 Trogus permitted himself to indulge in so many 
 excursions, tliiit the woi'k fonued .i kind of uni- 
 versal history from the rise of the Assyrian mo- 
 narchy to the conquest of the East by Rome. The 
 original work of Trogus, which was one of great 
 value, is lost. The work of Justin is not so much 
 an abridgment of that of Trogus, as a selection of 
 such parts as seemed to him most worthy of being 
 generally known. Edited hv Graevius, Lug. Bat, 
 IG83 ; by Gronovius, Lug. Bat. 1719 and 1760 ; 
 and by Frotscbcr, Lips. 1027, 3 vols. — 2. Sur- 
 named the Martyr, one of the earliest of the 
 Christian writers, was bom about a. d, 108, at 
 Flavia Neapolis, the Shechera of the Old Testa- 
 ment, a city in Samuria. He waa brought up as a 
 heathen, and in his youth studied the Greek 
 philosophy with zeal and ardour. He was after- 
 wards converted to Christianity. He retained as 
 a Christian the garb of a philosopher, but devoted 
 himself to the propagation, by writing and other- 
 wise, of the faith wliich he had embraced. He 
 was put to death at Rome in the persecution under 
 M. Antoninus, about 165. Justin wrote a large 
 number of works in Greek, several of which have 
 come down to us. Of these the most important 
 are : — 1. An Apology for (lie Christians^ addressed 
 to Antoninus Pius, about 139 ; 2. A Second Apo- 
 Inpy for the Christians^ addressed to the emperors 
 M. Aurelius and L. Verus ; 3. A Dialogue with 
 Trypkon the Je\i\ in which Justin defends Chris- 
 tianity against the objections of Trj'-phon. The 
 best edition of the collected works of Justin is by 
 Otto, Jena, liU2— 1844, 2 vols. «vo. 
 
 Justus, a Jewish historian of Tiberiaa in Gali- 
 laea, was a contemporary of the historian Josephus, 
 who was very hostile to him. 
 
 Jiitiima, the nymph of a fountain in Latium, 
 famous for its healing qualities. Its water was 
 used in nearly all sacrifices ; a chapel was dedi- 
 cated to its nymph at Rome in the Campus 
 Martius by Lutatius Catulus ; and sacrifices were 
 offered to her on the 1 1th of January. A pond in 
 tlie forum, between the temples of Castor and 
 Vesta, was called Lacus Jutumae, whence we 
 must infer that the name of the nymph Juturna is 
 not connected with jnyis, but probably with juvare. 
 She is said to have been beloved by Jupiter, who 
 rewarded her with immortality and the rule over 
 the waters. Some writers call her the wife of 
 Janus and mother of Fontus, but in the Aeneid 
 she appears as the affectionate sister of Tiu-nus. 
 
 JuvaTtLm or Juvavia {^Sah(mrg\ a town in 
 Noiicum, on the river Jovavus or Isonta (Saha), 
 was a Roman colony founded by Hadrian, and 
 the residence of the Roman governor of the pro- 
 vince. It was destroyed by the Heruli in the 5th 
 century, but was afterwards rebuilt. 
 
 Jiiveiialis, Decimus Junius, the great Roman 
 satirist, but of whose life we have few authentic 
 particulars. His ancient biographers relate that 
 he was either the son or the "alumnus" of a rich 
 freedman ; that he occupied himselfj until he had 
 
 LABDACUS. 
 
 nearly reached the term of middle life, in declaim- 
 ing ; that, having subsequently composed some 
 clever lines up6n Paris the pantomime, he was in- 
 duced to cultivate assiduously satirical composition ; 
 and that in consequence of his attacks upon Paris 
 becoming knoA'n to the court, the poet, although 
 now an old man of 80, was appointed to the 
 command of a body of troops, in a remote district 
 of Egypt, where he died shortly afterwards. It 
 is supposed by some that the Paris, who was at- 
 tacked by JuVenal, was the contemporary of Do- 
 mitian, and that the poet was accordingly banished 
 by this emperor. But this opinion is clearly un- 
 tenable. 1. We know that Paris was killed in 
 A. D. 83, upon suspicion of an intrigue with the 
 empress Domitia. 2. The 4th satire, as appears 
 from the concluding lines, was written after the 
 death of Domitian, that is, not earlier than 96. 
 3. The Ist satire, as we learn from the 49th line, 
 was written after the condemnation of Marius 
 Priscus, that is, not earlier than 100. These po- 
 sitions admit of no doubt ; and hence it is esta- 
 blished that Juvenal was alive at least 17 years 
 after the death of Paris, and that some of his 
 satires were composed after the death of Domitian. 
 — The only facts with regard to Juvenal upon 
 which we can implicitly rely are, that he flourished 
 towards the close of the first century, that Aqui- 
 num, if not the place of his nativity, was at least 
 his chosen residence (Sat. iii. 319), and that he is 
 in all probability the friend whom Martial ad- 
 dresses in 3 epigrams. There is, perhaps, another 
 circumstance which we may admit. We are told 
 that he declaimed for many years of his life ; and 
 every page in his writings bears evidence to the 
 accuracy of this assertion. Each piece is a finished 
 rhetorical essay, energetic, glowing, and sonorous. 
 He denounces vice in the most indignant terms ; 
 but the obvious tone of exaggeration which per- 
 vades all his iilvectives leaves us in doubt liow far 
 this sustained passion is real, and how far assumed 
 for show. The extant works of Juvenal consist of 
 16 satires, th'e last being a fragment of \ery 
 doubtful authenticity, all composed in heroic hexa- 
 meters. Edited by Rupcrti, Lips. 1819 ; and by 
 Heinrich, Bonn, 1839. 
 
 Juventas. [IIeue.] 
 
 Juventius. 1, Celsus. [Celsus.] — 2. Late- 
 rensis. [Latjerensis.]— 3. Tkalna. [Thalna.] 
 
 Labda (Aa^Sa), daughter of the Bacchiad Am- 
 phion, and mother of Cypselus, by Eetion. [Cyp- 
 
 SEI.US.] 
 
 Labdacidae. [Labdacus.] 
 
 Labdacua (AdSSaKos), son of the Theban king, 
 Polydorus, by Nycteis, daughter of Nycteus. Lab- 
 dacus lost his father at an early age, and was 
 placed under the guardianship of Nycteus, and 
 afterwards under that of Lycus, a brother of Nyc- 
 teus. When Labdacus had grown up to manhood, 
 LycQS surrendered the government to him ; and 
 on the death of Labdacus, which occurred soon 
 after, Lycus undertook the guardianship of his son 
 Laius, the father of Oedipus. — The name Labda- 
 cidae is frequently given to the descendants of 
 Labdacus, — Oedipus, Polynices, Etcocles and 
 Antigone. 
 
LABDALUM. 
 
 Labdalum. [Svkacus.ae.] 
 
 Leibeates, a wiiilike people in Dalmatia, whose 
 chief town was Scodra, and in whose territory Wiis 
 the Labeatia Palus {Lake of Scutari), through 
 which the river Baibana {Bof/ana) runs. 
 
 Labeo, Antistius. 1. A Roman jarist, was one 
 of the murderers of Julius Caesar, and put nn end 
 to his life a'"ter the battle of Pliilippi, B. c. 42. — 
 2. Son of the preceding, and a still more eminent 
 jurist. He adopted the republican opinions of his 
 father, and was in consequence disliked by Au- 
 Rustus. It is probable that the Laheone insariioT 
 of Horace {Sat. i. 3. UO) was a stroke levelled 
 against the jurist, in order to please the emperor. 
 Labeo wrote a large number of works, which are 
 cited in the Digest. He was the founder of one of 
 the 2 great legal schools, spoken of under Capito. 
 
 Labeo, Q. Fabius, quaestor urbanus b. c. 196; 
 praetor 1 89, when he commanded the fleet in the 
 war against Antiochus ; and consul 183. 
 
 Laberius, Decimus, a Roman eques, and a 
 distinguished writer of mimes, was born about 
 B. c. 107, and died in 43 at Puteoli, in Campania. 
 At Caesar's triumphal games in October, 45, P, 
 Syrus, a professional minius, seems to have chal- 
 lenged all his craft to a trial of wit in esterapora- 
 neoiis farce, and Caesar offered Laberius 500,000 
 aesterccs to appear on the stage. Laberius was 60 
 years old, and the profession of a mimus was infa- 
 mous, but the wish of the dictator was equivalent 
 to a command, and he reluctantly complied. He 
 had however tcvenge in his power, and took 
 it. His prologue awakened compassion, and per- 
 haps indignation : and during the performance he 
 adroitly availed himself of his various characters 
 to point his wit at Caesar. In the person of a 
 beaten Syrian slave he cried out, — " Marry ! 
 Quiiites, but we lose our freedom," and all eyes 
 were turned upon the dictator ; and in another 
 mime he uttered the pregn;int maxim " Needs 
 must he fear, who makes all else adread." Caesar, 
 impartially or vindictiveh"", awarded the prize to 
 Syrus. The prologue of Laberius has been pre- 
 served by Macrobius {Sat. ii. 7) ; and if this may 
 be tiiken as a specimen of his style, lie would rank 
 above Terence, and second only to Plautus, in 
 dramatic vigour. Laberius evidently made great 
 impression on his contemporaries, although he is 
 depreciated by Horace (Sat. i. 10. 6). 
 
 Labicum, Labici, Lavicuin, Lavici (Labicit- 
 nus : Colonna\ an ancient town in Latium on one 
 of the hills of the Alban mountain, 15 miles S.E. 
 of Rome, "VV. of Praeneste, and N.E. of Tusculum. 
 It was an ally of the Aequi ; it was taken and was 
 colonised by the Romans, B.C. 418. 
 
 Labienus. 1. T., tribune of the plebs b. c. 63, 
 the year of Cicero's consulship. Under pretence 
 of avenging his uncle's death, who had joined Sa- 
 turninus (100), and had perished along with the 
 other conspirators, he accused Rabirius of perduellio 
 or high treason. Rabirius was defended by Cicero. 
 [RABiRit/s] In his tribuneship Labienus was 
 entirely devoted to Caesar's interests. Accordingly 
 when Caesar went into Transalpine Gaul in 58, he 
 took Labienus with him as his legatus. Labienus 
 continued with Caesar during the greater part of 
 his campaigns in Gaul, and was the ablest officer 
 lie had. On the breaking out of the civil war in 
 49, he deserted Caesar and joined Pompey. His 
 defection caused the greatest joy among the Pom- 
 peian party j but he disappointed the expectations 
 
 LACEDAS. 
 
 3(71 
 
 of his new friends, and never performed any thing 
 of importance. He fought against his old com- 
 mander at the battle of Pharsaiia in Greece, 48, at 
 the battle of Tliapsus in Africa, 46, and at the 
 battle of Munda in Spain, 45. He was slain in 
 the last of these battles. — 2. Q., son of the pre- 
 ceding, joined the party of Brutus and Cassius 
 after the murder of Caesar, and was sent by them 
 into Parthia to seek aid from Orodes, the Parthian 
 king. Before he could obtain any definite answer 
 from Orodes, the news came of the battle of Phi- 
 lippi, 42. Two years afterwards he persuaded 
 Orodes to entrust him with the command of a 
 PiU'thianarmy; and Pacoru.s,the son of Orodes, was 
 associated Avith him in the command. In 40 
 they crossed the Euphrates and met with great 
 success. They defeated Decidius Saxa, tlie lieu- 
 tenant of Antony, obtained possession of the two 
 great towns of Antioch and Apamea, and pene- 
 trated into Asia Minor. But in the following 
 year, 39, P. Ventidiiis, the most able of Antony's 
 legates, defeated the Parthians. Labienus fled iu 
 disguise into Cilicia, where he was apprehended, 
 and put to death. —3. T., a celebrated orator and 
 historian in the reign of Augustus, either son or 
 grandson of No. 1. He retained all the republican 
 feelings of his family, and never became reconciled 
 to the imperial government, but took every oppor- 
 tunity to attack Augustus and his friends. Plis 
 enemies obtained a decree of the senate that all 
 his writings should be burnt; whereupon lie shut 
 himself up in the tomb of iiis ancestors, and thus 
 perished, about a. d. 12. 
 
 Labranda {to. AdSpavda : AaSp:ivdevs^ AaSpap- 
 S7)i/6s, Labrandenus), a town in Caria, 6u stadia 
 N. of Mylasa, celebrated for its temple of Zeus 
 Stratios or Labrandenus, on a hill near the city. 
 Mr. Fellowes considers some ruins at .Jukli to be 
 those of the temple ; but this is doubtful. 
 
 Labro, a sea-port in PJlruria, mentioned by 
 Cicero along with Pisae, and supposed by some to 
 be the Liburnuni, mentioned by Zosimus, and tlie 
 modern Livorno or Lerjho)ii. Others however 
 maintain that the ancient Portus Pisanus corre- 
 sponds to Leghorn. 
 
 Labus or Labutaa (AdSos or AaGouras : Schad 
 Koh, part of the Elhitrz)^ a mountain of Parthia, 
 between the Coronus and the Sariphi Montca. 
 
 Labynetua (AaSu^'ijTos), a name common to 
 several of the Babylonian nionarchs, seems to have 
 been a title rather than a proper name. The 
 Labynetus, mentioned by Herodotus (i. 74) aa 
 mediating a peace between Cyaxares and Alyattes, 
 is the same with Nebuchadnezzar. The Laby- 
 netus who is mentioned by Herodotus (i. 77) as 
 a contemporary of Cyrus and Croesus, is the same 
 with the Belshazzar of the prophet Daniel. By 
 other writers he is called Nabonadius or Nabonidus. 
 He was the last king of Babylon. [Cvnus.] 
 
 Labyrinthug. [tfee Did. of Antiq. s. u.] 
 
 Lacedaemon (AaiceSat/zoji/), son of Zeus and 
 Ta^'gete, \\as married to Sparta, the daughter of 
 Eurotas, by whom he became the father of Amyclas, 
 Eurydice, and Asine. He was king of the country 
 which he called after his own name, Lacedaemon, 
 while he called tiie capital Sparta after the name of 
 his wife. [Sparta.] 
 
 Lacedaemouius (AaKeSai^utJj/io?), son of Cimon, 
 so named in honour of the Lacedaemonians. 
 
 Lacedas (AaK?i5as), or Leocedea (Herod. y\. 
 127), king of Argos, and father of Mclas. 
 
3f)2 LACETANL 
 
 lacetani, a people in Ilispania Tarraconcnsia at 
 the foot of the Pyrenees. 
 
 Lacliares (Aax^pv^)' 1- An Athenian dema- 
 gftgne, made himself tyrant of Athena, n. c. 296, 
 when the citj'' "was besieged by Demetrius. AVlien 
 Athens was on the point of falling into tlie hands 
 of Deniiitrius, Lacliares made Ills escape to Thebes. 
 — 2. An eminent Athenian rhetorician, who flou- 
 rished in the .5th century of our era. 
 
 Laches (Adx^js), an Athenian commander in 
 the Peioponnesian war, is first mentioned in u, c. 
 427. He fell at the battle of Mantinea, 41tJ. In 
 the dialogue of Plato whicli bears his name, he is 
 represented ag not over-acute in argument, and 
 v.'ich temper on a par with his acnteness. 
 
 Lacheais, one nf the Fates. [JIoerae.] 
 
 Lacia or Laciadae {Aaida, Aaicid^ai : AaKLdSrjs^ 
 Aa/fiGus), a deraus in Attica, belonging to the tribe 
 Oeneis, AV. of, and near to Athens. 
 
 Laciiiium. (Aokluiov &Kpov)^ a promontory on the 
 E, coast of Bruttinm, a few miles S. of Croton, and 
 fonning the W. boundary of the Tarentine gulf. 
 It possessed a celebmted temple of Juno, who was 
 worshipped here under the surname of Lacinia. 
 The remains of this temple arc still extant, and 
 Iiave given the modem name to the promontory, 
 Capo ddlii Colonne or Capo di Nao {va.6%). Han- 
 nibal dedicated in this temple a bilingual inscrip- 
 tion (ill Punic and Greek), which recorded the 
 histnr3'- of his campaigns, and of which Polybius 
 made use in writing his history. 
 
 Lacippo (Alcdppe), a town in Hispania Baetica 
 not fiir from tlie sea, and "W. of Mnlaca. 
 
 Laemon or Lacmug (AaK/iwi/, Aa/c^oy"), the N. 
 pnrt of Me. Pindus, in which the river Aous takes 
 its origin. 
 
 Lacobriga. 1. (Lofjr.ra\ a town of the Vaccaei 
 in the N. of Hispania Tarracononsis on the road 
 from Asturica to Tarraco. — 2. (Lagoa)^ a town on 
 the S.W. of Lusitania. E. of the Prom. Sncmm. 
 
 laconica (Aa/cwi'i/fTj), sometimes called LacOTiia 
 by the llomans, a country of Peloponnesus, was 
 hounded on the N. by ArgoUa and Arcadia, on the 
 W. by Mcssenia. and on the E. and S. by the sea. 
 I^aconica was a long valley, running southwards to 
 the sea, and was inclosed on ?> sides by mountains. 
 On the N. it was separated by Mt. Parnon from 
 Argolis, and by j\[t. Sciritis from Arcadia. It was 
 bounded b}-- Mt. Taygetus on the "VV. and by Mt. 
 Pamou on the E,, which are 2 masses of mountains 
 extending from Arcadia to the S. extremities of 
 the Peloponnesus, Mt. Taygetus terminating at 
 the Prom. Taenarum, and Mt, Parnon, continued 
 nndcr the names of Tliomax and Zarex, termi- 
 nating at the Prom. Malea. The river Eurotas 
 flows through the valley lying between these 
 mountain masses, and falls into the Laconian gulf. 
 In the upper part of its course the valley is narrow, 
 and near Sparta the mountains approach so close to 
 each other as to leave little more than room for the 
 channel of the river. It is for this reason that we 
 find the vale of Sparta called the holloio Lace- 
 daemon. Below Sparta the mountains recede, and 
 the valley opens out into a plain of considemble 
 extent. The eoil of this plain is poor, but on the 
 slopes of the mountains there is land of considerable 
 fertility. There were valuable marble quarries near 
 Taenarufl. Off the coast shell-fish were caught, 
 ■which produced a purple dye inferior only to the 
 Tyrian. Laconica is well described by Euripides 
 is difficult of access to an enemy. On the N. the 
 
 LACYDES. 
 
 cnuntr}*- could only be invaded by the valleys of the 
 Eurotas and the Oenus ; the range of Taygetus 
 formed an almost insuperable barrier on the VV. ; 
 and the want of good harbours on the E. coast 
 protected it from invasion by sea on that 'side. 
 Sparta was the only town of importance in the 
 country [Spakta]. — The most ancient inhabitants 
 of tlie country are said to have been Cynnrinns 
 and Leleges. They were expelled or conquered by 
 the Achaeans, who were the inhabitants of the 
 country in the heroic age. Tlie Dorians afterwards 
 invaded Peloponnesus and became the ruling race 
 in Laconica. Some of the old Achaean inhabitants 
 were reduced to slavery ; but a great number of 
 them became subjects of the Dorians under the name 
 of Perioeci (Ilepfoifcoi). The general name fof the 
 inhabitants is Lacones (Aa'cteji/ey) orLacedaemonii 
 (Aa/ce5ai/^(5y(ot) ; but the Perioeci are frequently 
 called Lacedacmonii, to distinguish them from the 
 Spartans. 
 
 Laconicus Sinus (/co'Attos Aa/ca-i'ncbs'), a gulf in 
 the S. of Peloponnesus, into which the Eut-otas 
 falls, b-ecinning W. at the Prom. Taenarum and E- 
 at the Prom. Malea. 
 
 Lactantius, a celebrated Christian Father, but 
 his exact name, the place of his nativity, and the 
 date of his birth, are uncertain. In modem works 
 we find him denominated Z-wczzw CocHus Flnnianus 
 Lactaniiics ; but the 2 former appellations, in the 
 2nd of which Caecilius is often substituted for 
 Coelius^ arc omitted in many MSS., while the 2 
 latter are frequently presented in an inverted order. 
 Since he is spoken of as far advanced in life about 
 A. D. 315, he must have been bom not later than 
 the middle of the 3rd century, probably in Tbily, 
 possibly at Firmum, on the Adriatic, and certainly 
 studied in Africa, where he became the pupil of 
 Amoblus, who taught rhetoric at Sicca. Ilis fame 
 became so widely extended, that about 301 he 
 was invited by Diocletian to settle at Nicomedia, 
 and there to practise his art. At this period he ap- 
 pears to have become aChristian. He was summoned 
 to Gaul, about 312 — Sirt, when now an old man, 
 to superintend the education of Crispus, son of Con- 
 stantine, and he probably died at Treves some 10 
 or 12 years afterwards (325 — 330.) — The extant 
 works of Lactantius are : — 1. Dhinarum Insitlu- 
 Honum Lilrri VII., a sort of introduction to Christ- 
 ianity, intended to supersede the less perfect 
 treatises of Minucius Felix, TertuUian, and Cyprian. 
 Each of the 7 books bears a separate title : (1.) Ue 
 Falsa RcUyione. (2.) De Origine Erroris. '(3.) 
 Dp- Fcdsa Sapicntia. (4.) Da Vera Saptentla ct 
 Religiove. (5.) De Justitia, ("(i.) De Vera CuJht, 
 (7.) De }~ita Beata. — 2. Kn Epitome of the In- 
 stitutions. — 3. De Ira Dei. — 4. De Opificio Dei 
 s. De Formatione Iloininis. — 5. De Mortihus per- 
 secuiorum.- — 6. Various Poems^ most of which 
 were probably not written by Lactantius. — The 
 style nf Lactantius, formed upon the model of the 
 great orator of Rome, has gained for him the ap- 
 pellation of the Chiistian Cicero., and not nnde- 
 servedly. The best edition of Lactantius is by Lo 
 Bmn and Lenglet du Frcsnoy, Paris, 1740. 
 
 Lactarius Mons or Lactis Hons, a moun'tain 
 in Campania, belonging to the Apennines, 4 njiles 
 E. of Stabiae, so called because the cows which 
 grazed upon it produced excellent milk. Hero 
 Narses gained a victory over the Goths, A.n. 553. 
 
 Lacydea (Aa/cy57?s), a native of Gyrene, suc- 
 ceeded Arcesilaus as president of the Academy at 
 
LADE. 
 
 Athens. The plfice where ]iis instructions ■n'cre 
 delivered was a gfirden, named tlic Lacydeum (Aa- 
 KiiSeiov), provided for the pnrpose liy his friend 
 Attiihis Philomctnr, king of Pergamus. This al- 
 teration in the locality of the school seems at least 
 to have contributed to the rise of the name of the 
 Neio Academy. He died aliout 215, from the 
 effects, it is said, of exceasivc drinking. 
 
 LadG (AdS??), an ibhuid off the W. coast of 
 Caria, opposite to Miletus and to the bay into 
 wliich the Maeander falh. 
 
 Ladon (ActSwf), tlio dragon wlio guarded the 
 apples of the Hespcrides, was the offspring of 
 Typhon and Echidna, or of Ge, or of Pliorcys 
 and Ceto. He was slain by Hercules ; and the 
 roprcsL'utation of the battle was placed by Zeus 
 among the stars. 
 
 Ladon (AdSon/). 1. A river in Arcadia, which 
 rose near Clitor, and fell into the Alphtius between 
 Ilcraea and Phrixa. In mythology Ladnn is the 
 husband of Stymplialis, and the father of Daphne 
 and Metope.™ 2. A small river in Elis, which 
 rose on the frontiers of Achaia and fell into the 
 PenGus. 
 
 Laeetani, a people on the E. coast of Hispania 
 Tarracnnensis, near tlie mouth of the river Rubri- 
 catus {Uvhir(jat)y probably the same as the Lale- 
 tani, whose country, Laletania produced good 
 wine, and whose chief town was Barcino. 
 
 Laelaps (AcciActi^), i. e. the storm wind, per- 
 sonified in tlie legend of the dog of Procris which 
 tore this name. Procris had received this swift 
 animal from Artemis, and gave it to her husband 
 Cephalus. When tlie Teumessian fox was sent 
 to punish the Thebans, Cephalus sent the dog 
 Laelapa against the fox. The dog overtook the 
 fox, but Zeus changed both animals into a stone, 
 which was shown in the neighbourhood of Thebes. 
 
 Laeliaiius, one of the 30 tyrants, emperor in 
 Gaul after the death of Postumus, a. d. 267, 
 was slain, after a few months, by his own soldiers, 
 who proclaimed Victohinus in his stead. 
 
 Laeiius. 1. C, was froni early manhood the 
 friend and companiim of Scipio Africanus the 
 elder, and fought under him in almost all liis cam- 
 paigns. He was consul B.C. 100, and obtained 
 the province of Cisalpine Gaul. ^2. C, ammamed 
 Sapiens, son of the preceding. His intimacy with 
 Scipio Africanus the younger was as remarkable 
 as his fatlier's friendsliip with the elder, and it ob- 
 tained an imperishable monument in Cicero's trea- 
 tise Laeiius sice dc Amkitia. He was born about 
 Hj(i, was tribune oftheplcbs 151 ; praetor 145 ; and 
 consul 140. Though not devoid of military talents, 
 as his campnign against the Lusitanian Viriathus 
 proved, he was more of a statesman than a soldier, 
 and more of a philosopher than a statesman. From 
 DiofTencs of Babylon, and afterwards from Panac- 
 tiiis he imbibed the doctrines of the stoic school ; 
 his father's iriend Polybius was his friend also ; 
 the wit and idiom of Terence were pointed and 
 polished by his and Scipio'a conversation ; and the 
 satirist Lueilius was his familiar companion. The 
 political opinions of Laeiius were dilVen-nt at dif- 
 ferent periods of his life. He endeavoured, pro- 
 bably during his tribunate, to procure a re-divisiou 
 of the public land, but he desisted from the 
 attempt, and for his forbearance received the appel- 
 lation of the Wi&e or the Frudcnt. He afterwards 
 became a strenuous supporter of the ari&tocratical 
 party. Several of his orations were c::taiit in the 
 
 LAEVL 
 
 3C3 
 
 time of Cicero, but were characterised more by 
 smoothness (Icnitus) than by power. — Laeiius is 
 tlie principal interlocutor in Cicero's dialogue De 
 Amicilia, and is one of the speakers in the De Se- 
 jKctuic^ and in the Dc jRcptdMca. His two daughtera 
 were married, the one to Q. Mucins Scaevoia, the 
 angur, the other to C. Fanniiis Strabo. The opinion 
 of his worth seems to have been universal, and it 
 is one of Seneca's injunctions to his friend Lueilius 
 " to live like Laeiius." 
 
 Laenas, Popilius, plebeians. The family was 
 unfavourably distinguished, even among the Ro- 
 mans, for their stenuiess, cruelty, and haughtiness 
 of character. 1. EI., 4 times consul b. c. 359,350", 
 350, 34ii. Li his 3rd consulship (350) he won a 
 hard-fought battle airainst the Gauls, for which 
 he celebrated a triumph — the first ever obtained by 
 a plebeian. —2. K., praetor 176, consul 172, and 
 censor 15.9. In his consulship he defeated the 
 Ligurian mountaineers ; and when the remainder 
 of the tribe surrendered to him, he sold them all 
 as slaves. ™ 3. C, brother of No. 2, was consul 
 172. He was afterwards sent as ambassador to 
 Antiochus, king of Syria, whom the senate wislied 
 to abst;iin from hostilities against Egypt. Antio- 
 chus was just marching upon Alexandria, when Po- 
 pilius gave him the letter of the stmate, which the 
 king read and promised to take into consideration 
 with his friends. Popilius straightway described 
 witJi his cane a circle in the sand round the king, 
 and ordered him not to stir out of it before he had 
 given a decisive answer. This boldness so fright- 
 ened Antiochus, that he at once yielded to the 
 demand of Rome. — 4. P., consul 132, the year 
 after the murder of Tib. Gracchus. He was 
 charged by the victorious aristocratical party with 
 the prosecution of the accomplices of Gracchus ; 
 and in this odious task he showed all the hard- 
 heartedness of his family. He subsequently with- 
 drew himself, by voluntary exile, from tlie ven- 
 geance of C. Gracchus, and did not return to Rome 
 till after his dcatii. 
 
 Laertes (AaeVT^y), king of Ithaca, was son of 
 Acrisius and Chalcomedusa, and husband of Anti- 
 clea, by whom he became the father of Ulysses and 
 Ctiraene. Some writers call Ulysses the son of 
 Sisyphus. [Anticlea.] Laertes took part in the 
 Calydonian hunt, and in the expedition of the 
 Argonauts. He was still alive when Ulysses re- 
 turned to Ithaca after the fall of Troy. 
 
 Laertius, Diogenes. [Diogenes.] 
 
 Lae3tryg"ono3 (Aaicrrpiryot-es), a savage race of 
 cannibals, whom Ulysses encountered in his wan- 
 derings. They were governed by Antiphates 
 and Lamus, They belong however to niytholocr 
 rather than to historj'. The modem interpreters 
 of Homer place them on the N. W. coast cf Sicilj*. 
 The Greeks themselves placed them on the E. coast 
 of the island in the plains of Leontini, which are 
 therefore called Lacsirygonii Cumpi. The Romans 
 however, and more especially the Roman poets, 
 who regarded the prom. Circeium as the Homeric 
 island of Circe, transplantt;d the Lacstrygones to 
 the S. coast of Latium in the neighbourhood of 
 Formiae, which they supposed to have been built 
 by Lanins, the king of this people. Hence Horace 
 {Curm. iii. 16. 34) speaks o^ Laestryr/onici Bacchus 
 in amphora., that is, Formian wine; and Ovid {MeL 
 xiv. 233) calls Formiae, Laestrygonis Lami Urbs. 
 
 Laovi or Levi, a Ligurian people in Gallia 
 Transpadana on the river Ticinus, who, in con- 
 
364 
 
 LAEVINUS. 
 
 junction with the Marici, huilt the toiiai of Ticinum 
 ( Favia ) . 
 
 LaeviEUS, Valerius. 1. P., consul b.c. 2fJ0,had 
 the conduct of the war against Pyrrhus. The king 
 wrote to Laevinus, offering to arbitrate between 
 Home and Tarentum ; but Laevinus bluntly bade 
 Iiim mind his own business, and begone to Epirus. 
 An Epirut spy having been taken in the Roman 
 Jines, Laevinus showed him the legions under 
 arms, and bade him tell his master, if he was 
 curious about the Roman men and tactics, to come 
 and see them himself. In the battle which fol- 
 lowed, Laevinus was defeated by Pynhus on the 
 banks of the Siris. — 2. M., praetor 215, crossed 
 over to Greece and carried on war against Philip. 
 He continued in the command in Greece till 211, 
 ■when he was elected consul in his absence. In 
 his consulship (210) he carried on the war in 
 Sicily, and took Agrigentum. He continued as 
 proconsul in Sicily for several years, and in 208 
 made a descent upon the coast of Africa. He died 
 200, and his sons Publius and Marcus honoured 
 his memory with funeral games and gladiatorial 
 combats, exhibited during 4 successive days in the 
 forum. — 3. C, son of No. 2, was by the mother's 
 side brother of M. Fulvius Nobilior, consul 189. 
 Laevinus was himself consul in 176, and carried 
 on war against the Ligurians. 
 
 Lag-OS, a city in great Phrygia. 
 
 Xagus (Aayos), a Macedonian of obscure birth, 
 was the father, or reputed father, of Ptolemy, the 
 founder of the Egyptian monarchy. He married 
 Arsinoe, a concubine of Philip of Macedon, who 
 was said to have been pregnant at the time of their 
 marriage, on which account the Macedonians ge- 
 nerally looked upon Ptolemy as the son of Philip. 
 
 Lais (Aai's), the name of 2 celebrated Grecian 
 Iletaerae, or courtezans, — 1. The elder, a native 
 probably of Corinth, lived in the time of the 
 Peloponnesian war, and was celebrated as the 
 most beautiful woman of her age. She was no- 
 torious also for her avarice and caprice. ^2. The 
 younger, was the daughter of Timandra, and was 
 probably born at Hyccara in Sicily. According 
 tn some accounts she was brought to Corinth when 
 7 years old, having been taken prisoner in the 
 Athenian expedition to Sicily, and bought by a 
 Corhithian. This story, however, involves nume- 
 rous difficulties, and seems to have arisen from a 
 confusion between this Lais and the elder one of 
 the same name. She was a contemporary and 
 rival of Pliryne. She became enamoured of a 
 Thessalian named Hippolochus, or llippostratus, 
 and accompanied him to Thessah'. Here, it is 
 said, some Thessalian women, jealous of her 
 beauty, enticed her into a temple of Aphrodite, 
 and there stoned her to death. 
 
 Laius (Aat'os), son of Labdacua, lost his father 
 at an early age. and was brought up by Lycus. 
 [L.^BDACus.] AVhen Lycus was slain by Am- 
 phinn and Zethus, Laius took refuge with Pelops 
 iu Peloponnesus. After the death of Amphion and 
 Zethus, Laius returned to Thebes, and ascended 
 the throne of his father. He married Jocastn, and 
 became by her the father of Oedipus, by whom he 
 was slain. For details see Obdipus. 
 
 Lalage, a common name of courtezans, from the 
 Greek XaKay^h prattling, used as a terra of en- 
 dearment, '* little prattler." 
 
 Laletani. [Laeetani.] 
 
 Lamachus (Aci/tax"^)) ^^ Athenian, son of 
 
 LAMPON. 
 
 Xenophanes, was the colleague of Alcibiades and 
 Nicias, in the great Sicilian expedition, b. c. 415. 
 He fell under the walls of Syracuse, in a sally of 
 the besieged. He appears amongst the dramatis 
 personae of Aristophanes, as the brave and some- 
 what bhisteriiig soldier, delighting in the war, and 
 thankful, moreover, for its pay. Plutarch describes 
 him as brave, but so poor, that on eveiy fresh 
 appointment he used to beg for money from the 
 government to buy clothing and shoes. 
 
 Lametus {Lamalo)^ a river in Bnittium, near 
 Croton, which falls into the Lameticus Sinus. 
 Upon it wa3 the town Lametini {St. Enfeinia). 
 
 Lamia (Aa^ta). 1. A female phantom. [Em- 
 rusA.J — 2. A celebrated Athenian courtezan, 
 was a favourite mistress for many years of De- 
 metrius Poliorcetcs. 
 
 Lamia, Aelius. This family claimed a high 
 antiquity, and pretended to be descended from the 
 mythical hero, Lamus. — 1. L., a Roman eques, 
 supported Cicero in the suppression of the Cati- 
 linarian cnnspii-acy, b. c. 63, and was accordingly 
 banished by the influence of the consuls Gabinius 
 and Piso in 58. He was subsequently recalled 
 from exile, and during the civil wars espoused 
 Caesar's party. — 2. L., son of the precedinir, and 
 the friend of Horace, was consul a. d. 3. He was 
 made praefectus urbi in 32, but he died in the 
 following year. — 3. L., was married to Domitia 
 Longina, the daughter of Corbulo ; but during the 
 lifetime of Vespasian he was deprived of her by 
 Domitian, who first lived with her as his mistress, 
 and subsequently married her. Lamia was put 
 to death by Domitian after his accession to the 
 throne. 
 
 Lamia (Aa^m: Aa^ieiir, Aa/iiwrT^y : Zcitun ot 
 Zcitani), a town in Phthiotis in Thessaly, situated 
 on the small river Achelous, and 50 stadia inland 
 from the Maliac gulf, on which it possessed a 
 harbour, called Phalara. It has given its name 
 to the war, which was carried on by the confe- 
 derate Greeks against Antipater after the death 
 of Alexander, B.C. 323. The confederates luider 
 the command of Leosthenes, the Athenian, de- 
 feated Antipater, who took refuge in Lamia, where 
 he was besieged for some months. Leosthenes 
 was killed during the siege ; and the confederates 
 were obliged to raise it in the following year (322), 
 in consequence of the approach of Leonnatus. The 
 confederate's under the command of Antiphilus de- 
 ieated Leonnatus who was slain in the action. Soon 
 afterwards Antipater was joined by Craterus ; and 
 thus strengthened he gained a decisive victory over 
 the confederates at the battle of Cranon, which put 
 an end to the Lamian war. 
 
 Laminlum (Laminit^ms), a town of the Car- 
 petani in Hispania Tarraconensis, 95 miles S. E. of 
 Toletum. 
 
 Lampa or Lappa (Aa/UTr?;, Aa-Kin) : AajCiTratoj, 
 Aa/.i7ret;s), a tomi in the N. of Crete, a little inland, 
 S. of Hydramum, said to have been built by Aga- 
 memnon, but to have been called after Lampns. 
 
 Lampea (?) Aa/.t7reia) or Lampeus Mons, a 
 part of the mountain range of Erymanthus, on the 
 frontiers of Achaia and Elis. 
 
 Lampetia (Aa^uTrcTfT?), daughter of Helins by 
 the nymph Ncaera. She and her sister Phae- 
 tusa tended the flocks of their father in Sicily. 
 In some legends she appears as one of the sisters 
 of Phaethon. 
 
 Lampon (AojUttwa'), nn Athenian, a celebrated 
 
LAMPONIA. 
 
 aoothsayer and interpreter of oracleg. In con- 
 junction with Xenoci'iuis, he li^d tlie colony which 
 founded Thurii in Itah", B. c. 4-13. 
 
 Lampoma, or -ium {Aajxtraiveia, -cii/tof), an 
 important city of Mysia^ in the interior of the 
 Troad, near tlie borders of Aeolia. 
 
 Lampra, Xamprae, or Lamptrao (Aa^uTrpa, 
 AauTrpai, Aa^irrpai ; Aa/.tirpciis ; Lamorica), a 
 demus on tlie W. coast of Attica, near the promon- 
 tory Astypalaea, belonging to the tribe Erechtheis. 
 It was divided into an upper and a lower city. 
 
 Lampridaus, Aelius, one of the Scripfores His- 
 toi-iae Augudae, lived in the reigns of Diocletian 
 and Conatantim^, and wrote the lives of the em- 
 perors : — 1. Commodus ; 2. Antoninus Diadu- 
 menus ; 3. Elagabalus, and 4. Alexander Severus. 
 It is not improbable that Lanipridius is the same 
 as Spartianus, and that the name of the author in 
 full was Aelius Lanipridius Spartianus. For the 
 editions of Lampridius, see Capitolinus. 
 
 Lampsacus (Aa/n/zaKos ; ha}ji.^aK7}v6s : Lap- 
 saki^ Ru.), an important city of Mysia, in Asia 
 Minor, on the coast of tlie Hellespont, possessed a 
 good harbour. It was celebrated for its wine ; 
 and hence it was one of the cities assigned by 
 Xenes to Tliemistocles for his maintenance. It 
 was the chief seat of the worship of Priapus ; and 
 tlie birthplace of the historian Charon, the plii- 
 losophers Ailimantus and Metrodorus, and the 
 riietorician Anaximenes. Lampsacus was a colony 
 of the Phocaenns : the name of the surrounding 
 district, Berbrycia, connects its old inhabitants 
 with the Thracian Bebryces. 
 
 Lamus (Aa,uos), son of Poseidon, and king of 
 the Laestrygones, was said to have founded For- 
 miae, in Italy. [Formiae.J 
 
 Lamua (Aa^os : Lamas), a river of Cilicia, the 
 boundary between Cilicia Aspera and Cilicia Cam- 
 pestrls ; with a town of the same name. 
 
 Lancia (Lancienses). 1. {SoUanco oi SoUancia^ 
 near Leon), a town of the Astures in Hispania 
 Tari-aconensis, 9 miles E. of Legio, was destroyed 
 by the Romans. — 2. Surnamed Oppidana, a town 
 of the Vettones in Lusitania, not far from the 
 sources of the river Munda. 
 
 Langobardi or Longobardi, comipted into Lom- 
 bards, a German tribe of the Suevic race. They 
 dwelt originally on the left bank of the Elbe, near 
 the river Saale ; but they afterwards crossed the 
 Elbe, and dwelt on the E. bank of the river, where 
 they were for a thne subject to Maroboduus in the 
 reign of Tiberius. After this they disappear from 
 history for 4 centuries. Like most of the other 
 German tribes, they migrated southwards ; and in 
 the '2nd half of the 5th century we find tliem again 
 on the N. bank of the Danube, in Upper Hungary. 
 Here they defeated and almost annihilated the 
 Heruli. In the middle of the 6th century they 
 crossed the Danube, at the invitation of Justinian, 
 and settled in Pannonia. Here they were engaged 
 for 30 years in a desperate conflict with the Gc- 
 pidae, which only ended with the extermination of 
 the latter people. In a. d, 5G0, Alboin, the king 
 of the Lombards, under whose command they had 
 defeated the Gepidae, led his nation across the 
 Julian Alps, and conquered the plains of N. Italy, 
 which have ever since received the name of Loni- 
 bardy. Here he founded the celebrated kingdom 
 of the Lombards, which existed for upwards of 2 
 centuries, till its overthrow by Cliarlcmagnc. — 
 Paulua Diaconus, who was a Louibaid by birth, 
 
 LAODAMIA. 
 
 365 
 
 derives their name of Langobardi from their long 
 beards ; but modern critics reject this etymology, 
 and suppose the name to have reference to their 
 dwelling on the banks of the Elbe, inasmuch as 
 Borde signifies in low German a fertile plain on 
 tlie bank of a river, and there is still a district in 
 Magdeburg called the lanffe Borde. Paulus Dia- 
 conus also states that the Lombards came originally 
 from Scandinavia, where they were called Vaiili, 
 and that they did not receive the name oi Lwjgo- 
 bardi or Long-Beards^ till they settled in Germany ; 
 but this statement ought probably to be rejected. 
 
 Lanice {AavlK-ri)^ nurse of Alexander the Great, 
 and sister of Clitus, 
 
 Lanuvium (LanuvTnus : Lavirina), an ancient 
 city in Latium, situated on a hill of the Alban 
 Mount, not far from the Appia Via, and subse- 
 quently a Roman municipium. It possessed an 
 ancient and celebrated temple of Juno Sospita. 
 Under the empire it obtained some importance as 
 the birthplace of Antoninus Pius. Part of the 
 walls of Lanuvium and the substructions of the 
 temple of Juno are still remaining. 
 
 Laocooa (Aao/ctJwi'), a Trojan, who plays a 
 prominent part in the post-Homeric legends, 
 was a son of Antenor or Acoetes, and a priest 
 of the Thymbraean Apollo. He tried to dissuade 
 his countrymen from drawing into the city 
 the wooden horse, which the Greeks had left 
 behind them when they pretended to sail away 
 from Troy ; and, to show the danger from the 
 horse, he hurled a spear into its side. The Tro- 
 jans, however, would not listen to his advice ; and 
 as lie was preparing to sacrifice a bull to Poseidon, 
 suddenly 2 fearful serpents were seen swimming 
 towards the Trojan coast from Tenedos. They 
 rushed towards Laocoon, who, while all the people 
 took to flight, remained with his 2 sons standing 
 by the altar of the god. The serpents first coiled 
 around the 2 boys, and then around the father, and 
 tims all 3 perished. The serpents then hastened 
 to the acropolis of Troy, and disappeared behind 
 the shield of Tritonis. The reason why Laocoon 
 suffered this fearful death is differently stated. 
 According to some, it was because he had run his 
 lance into the side of the horse ; according to 
 others, because, contrary to the will of Apollo, ho 
 had married and begotten children ; or, according 
 to others again, because Poseidon, being hostile to 
 the Trojans, wanted to show to the Trojans in the 
 person of Laocoon what fate all of them deserved. 
 — The stoiy of Laocoon's death was a fine subject 
 for epic and lyric as well as tragic poetry, and was 
 therefore frequently related by ancient poets, such 
 as by Bacchylides, Sophocles, Euphorion, Virgil, 
 and others. His death also formed the subject of 
 many ancient works of art ; and a magnificent 
 group, representing the father and liis 2 sons en- 
 twined by the 2 serpents, is still extant, and 
 preserved in the Vatican. [Agesander.] 
 
 Laodamas (AaoSa^uas). 1, Son of Alcinons. 
 king of the Phacacians, and Arete. — 2. Son of 
 Eteocles, and king of Thebes, in whose reign the 
 Epigoni marched against Thebes. In the battle 
 against the Epigoni, he slew their leader Aegia- 
 leus, but was himself slain by Alcmaeon. Others 
 related, that after the battle was lost, Laodamas 
 fled to the Encheleans in Illyricum. 
 
 Liiodamia (AoaSa^ueia). 1. Daughter of Acas- 
 tus, and wife of Protcsilaus. "When her husband 
 was slain before Troy, she begged the goda to be 
 
3G6 
 
 LAODICE. 
 
 allowed to converse with him for only 3 hours. 
 The request v/;is gmiited. Hermes led Protcai- 
 hiiis back to the upper world, and when ProtesiUuis 
 died a second time, Laodamia died with him. A 
 later tradition states, that after the second death of 
 Prntoaiiaus, Laodamia made an image of her hus- 
 band, to which she payed divine honours ; but as 
 her fatlier Acastus interfered, and commanded her 
 to burn the image, she herself leaped into the fire. 
 — 2. Daughter of Bellerophontes, became by Zeus 
 the mother of Sarpedon, and was killed by Artemis 
 while she was engaged in weaving. ^3. Nurse of 
 Orestes, usually called Arsinoe. 
 
 Laodice (AaoS'ucTj). "L Daughter of Priam and 
 Hecuba, and wife of Helicaon. Some relate that 
 she fell in love with Acamas, the son of Theseus, 
 when he came with Diomedes as ambassador to 
 Troy, and that she became by Acamns the mother 
 of Munitus. On the death of this Siin, she leaped 
 down a precipice, or was swallowed up by the 
 earth. — 2. Daughter of Agamemnon and Clytaem- 
 nestra (Horn. II. ix. 146), called Eiectra by the 
 tragic poets. [ELEfTRA.] —3. Mother of Se- 
 leucus Nicator. the founder of the Syrian mo- 
 narchy. ^4. Wife of Antiochus II. Theos, king 
 oc Syria, and mother of Seleiicus Callinicus. For 
 details, see p. 55. a. -^ 5. Wife of Seleuciis Calli- 
 nicus, and mother of Seleucus Cemunus and 
 Antiochus the Great. — 6. "Wife of Antiochus the 
 Great, was a daughter of Mithridates IV. king of 
 Pontua, and granddaughter of No. 4.-7. Wife 
 of Achaeus, the cousin and adversary of Antiochus 
 the Great, was a sister of No. 6.-8. Daughter of 
 Antiochus the Great by his wife Laodice [No. 6]. 
 She was married to her eldest brother Antiochus, 
 who died in his father's lifetime, 195. — 9. Daughter 
 of Seleucus IV. Philopator, was married to Perseus, 
 king of Macedonia.— 10. Daughter of Antiochus 
 IV. Epiphanes, was married to the impostor Alex- 
 ander Balas.— IL Wife and also sister of Mith- 
 ridates Eupator (commonly called the Great), king 
 of Pontus. During the absence of her husband, 
 and deceived by a report of his death, she gave free 
 scope to her amours ; and, alanued for the conse- 
 quences, on his return attempted his life by pnison. 
 Her designs were, however, beti'ayed to Mithri- 
 dates, who immediately put her to death. "—12. 
 Another sister of Mithridates Eupator, married to 
 Ariarathes VI., king of Cappadocia. After the 
 death of her husband she married Nicomedes, king 
 of Bithynia. 
 
 Laodicea (Aao5i«:eia : Acto5f/ceu?, Laodicensis, 
 Laodicenus), the name of 6 Greek cities in Asia, 
 4 of which (besides another now unknown) were 
 founded by Seleucus L Nicator, and named in 
 honour of his mother Laodice, the other 2 by 
 Antiochus IT. and Antiochus I. or III. (See Nos. 
 1.&5). ^1. L. ad Lycum (A. trphs rc^ Aukw, 
 Eikl-Hissar^ B.U.), a city of Asia Minor, stood on 
 a ridge of hills near the S- bank of the river 
 Lycus {C/ioruk-Su)^ a tributarv of the Maeander, 
 a little to the W. of Colossae" and to tiio S. of 
 Ilierapolis, on the borders of Lydia, Caria, and 
 Phrygia, to each of which it is assigned by dif- 
 ftrent writers ; but, after the definitive division of 
 the provinces, it is reckoned as belonging to Great 
 Phrygi.i, and under the later Pvomiiii emperors it 
 was the capital of Phry^ia Pacatiana. It was 
 founded by Antiochus 11. Theos, on the situ 
 of a previously existing town, and named in 
 honour of his wife Laodice. It passed from the 
 
 LAODICEA. 
 
 kings of Syria to those of Pergamus, and from 
 tliLMH to the Koraans, to whom Attains III, 
 bequeathed his kingdom. Under the Romans it 
 belonged to the province of Asia. At first it was 
 comparatively an insignificant place, and it suiTerod 
 much fioni the frequent earthquakes to which its 
 bite seems to be more exposed than that of any 
 other city of Asia Minor, and also from the Mitli- 
 ridacic War. tinder the later Roman republic 
 and the early emperors, it rose to importance ; 
 and, though more than once almost destroyed by 
 earthquakes, it was restored by the aid of the 
 emperors and the munificence of its own citizens, 
 and became, next to Apamea, the greatest city in 
 Phrygia, and one of the most flourishing in Asia 
 Minor. In an inscription it is called '■'' the most 
 splendid city of Asia," a statement confirmed by 
 the niiignificent ruins of the city, which comprise 
 an aqueduct, a gj'mnasium, several theatres, a 
 stadium almost perfect, besides remains of roiids, 
 porticoes, pillars, gates, foundations of houses, and 
 sarcophagi. This great prosperity was owing 
 partly to its situation, on the high road for the 
 traffic between the E. and W. of Asia, and partly 
 to the fertility and beauty of the country round it. 
 Already in the apostolic age it was the seat of a 
 flourishing Christian Church, which, however, be- 
 came very soon infected with the pride and luxury 
 produced by the prosperity of the city, as we learu 
 from St. Johns's severe Epistle to it. {Revel, iii. 
 14 — 'J2). St. Paul also addresses it in counnon 
 with the nighbouring church of Colossae {Cohss. ii. 
 1 ; iv. 1;^. IG).-^2. L.Combusta (A. ^ KaTOKGicav- 
 fJ-^infj or K€Kav}iiv7}, i. e. ilie burnt; the reason of 
 the epithet is doubtful: Ladih^ Ku.), a city of 
 L3'caonia, N. of Iconium, on the high roi^d from 
 the W. coast of Asia Minor to the Euphrates.— 
 3. L. ad Hare (A. iin rrj daAdrTj} : Jjidikiijeli), 
 a city on the coast of Syria, about 50 miles S. of 
 Antioch, was built by Seleucus I. on the site of 
 an earlier city, called Ramitha or Aeuh-)/ 'Aktt]. 
 It had the best harbour in S^'ria, and the sur- 
 rounding country was celebrated for its wine and 
 fruit=, which formed a large part of the tratiic of 
 the city. In the civil contests during the later 
 period of the Syrian kingdom, Laodicea obtained 
 virtual independence, in which it was confirmed 
 probably by Pornpey, and certainly hy Julius 
 Caesar, who greatly favoured the city. In the 
 civil wars, after Caesar's death, the Laodiceana 
 were severely punished by Cassius for their :idher- 
 ence to Dolabella, and tiie city again suffered in 
 the Parthian invasion of Syria, but was recom- 
 pensed by Antony with exemption from taxation. 
 Herod the Great built the Laodiceans an aqueduct, 
 the ruins of which still exist. It is mentioned 
 occasionally as an important city under the later 
 Roman empire ; and, after the conquest of Syria 
 by the Arabs, it was one of those places on the 
 coast which still remained in the hands of the 
 Greek emperors, and with a Ciiristian population. 
 It was tiken and destroyed by the Arabs in IIIIU. 
 It is now a poor Turkish village, with ver}-" con- 
 sidcmble ruins of the ancient city, the chief of 
 which are a triumphal arch, the remains of the 
 mole of the harbour, of a portico near it, of cati- 
 comba on the sea-coast, of the aqueducts and cis- 
 tern?, and of pillars where the Necropolis is sup- 
 posed to have stood. — 4. X, ad Libanum (A. Ai- 
 Sa.vov^ Tvphs Aigai'^;), a city of Cocle-Syria, at the 
 N. entrance to the n;irrow valley {avKwv], between 
 
LAODOCUS. 
 
 Ln)anii3 and AntiliLnnus, a])pear9 to have Ijecn, 
 through its favouiiihle eituatiuii, a phice of com- 
 mercial importance. During the possession of 
 Coele Syria by the Greek kings of Egypt, it was 
 the S. W. border fortress of Syria. It was the 
 chief city of a district called Laodicene. — 5. A 
 city in the S. E. of Media, near the boundary of 
 Persis, founded either by Antioclius I., Soter, or 
 Antiochus II. the Great: site unknown. — 6. In 
 Mesopotamia : site unknown. 
 
 Laodoctis (Aao5(J;cos). 1. Son of Bias and Pero 
 and brother of Talaus, took part in the expedi 
 tions of the Argonauts, and of the Seven against 
 Tliebes.~2. Son of Antenor. 
 
 Laomedon (AaofxiSaf). 1. King of Troy, son of 
 Ilus and Eun'dice, and father of Priara, llesione, 
 and other children. His wife is called Strymo, 
 Ilhoeo, Placia, Thoosa, Zeu.xippe, or Leucippe. 
 Poseidon and Apollo, who had displeased Zeus, 
 were doomed to serve Laomedon for wages. Ac- 
 cordingly, Poseidon built the walls of Troy, while 
 Apollo tended the king's flocks on Mount Ida. 
 "VVlien the two gods had done their work, Laome- 
 don refused them the reward he had promised them, 
 and expelled them from his dominions. Thereupon 
 Poseidon in wrath let loose the sea over the lands, 
 and also sent aniarine monster to ravage the country. 
 By the command of an oracle, the Trojans were 
 obliged, from time to time, to sacrifice a maiden 
 to the monster ; and on one occasion it was decided 
 by lot that Hesione, the daughter of Laomedon 
 himself, should be the victim. But it happened 
 tliat Hercules was just returning from his expedi- 
 tion against the Amazons, and he promised to save 
 the maiden, if Laomedon would give him tlie horses 
 which Tros had once received from Zeus as a com- 
 pensation for Ganymedes. Laomedon promised 
 them to Hercules, but again broke his word, when 
 Hercules had killed the monster and saved Hesione. 
 Hereupon Hercules sailed with a squadron of 6 
 ships against Troy, killed Laomedon, with all his 
 sons, except Podarces (Priam), and gave Hesione 
 to Telamon. Hesione ransomed her brother Priam 
 with her veil.' — Priam, as the son of Laomedon, is 
 called Laomedontiades ; and the Trojans, as the 
 subjects of Laomedon, are called Laomedontia- 
 dae. — 2. Of Mytilene, was one of Alexander's 
 generals, and after the king's death (u.c. 323), 
 obtained the government of Syria. He was after- 
 wards defeated by Nicanor, the general of Ptolemy, 
 and deprived of Syria. 
 
 Lapethus or Lapathus (AdivrjOos^ AdiraOos ; 
 Aair^dto?, Aair-qdivs : Lapiiho or iMpta)^ an im- 
 portant town on the N. coast of Cyprus, on a river 
 of the same name, E. of the prom. Cronmiyon. 
 
 Laphria (Aa^fiia), a surname of Artemis among 
 the Calydonians, from whom the worship of the 
 goddess' was introduced into Naupactns and Patrae, 
 in Achaia. The name was traced back to a hero, 
 Laphriua, son of Castalius. who was said to have 
 instituted her worship at Calydon. 
 
 Laphystius {Aa^va'ruis)^ a nmuntnin in Boeotia, 
 between Coronea, Lebadea, and Orchomenus, on 
 which was a temple of Zeus, who hence bure the 
 surname Laphystius. 
 
 Lapidei Campi. [Campi LAriDEi.] 
 Lapitlies (Aa7r(0Tjs), son of Apollo and Stilbe. 
 brother of Centaiiriis, and husband of Orsinome, 
 the daughter of Eurynomus, by whom he became 
 the father of Phorbas, Triopas, and Periplias. lie 
 was refrarded as the ancestor of the Lapithae in 
 
 LARES. 
 
 367 
 
 the mountains of Thessaly. The Lapithae were 
 goveriied by Pirithous, who being a son of Ixion, 
 was a half-brother of the Centaurs. The latter, 
 therefore, demanded their share in their father's 
 kingdom, and, as their claims were not satisfied, a 
 war arose between the Lapithae and Centaurs, 
 which, however, was terminated by a peace. But 
 when Pirithous married Ilippodaniia, and invited 
 the Centaurs to the marriage feast, the latter, fired 
 by wine, and urged on by Ares, attempted to carry 
 off the bride and the other women. Thereupon a 
 bloody conflict ensued, in which the Centaurs were 
 defeated by the Lapithae. — The Lapithne arc said 
 to have been the inventors of bits and bridles for 
 horses. It is probable that they were a Pehisgiau 
 people, who defi-atcd the less civilised Centaurs, 
 and compelled them to abandon Mt. Pelion. 
 
 Lar or Lars, was an Etruscan praonomcn, borne 
 for instance by Porsena and Tolumniiis. Trnni the 
 Etruscans it passed over to the Konians, whence 
 we read of Lar Hcrminius, who was consul 13. 0, 
 448. This word signified lord, king, or hero iu 
 the Etruscan. 
 
 Lara. [Lajiunda.] 
 
 Laranda (xaAapaioa; Larenda or Curaman^, 
 a considerable town in the S. of Lycaonia, at tlie 
 N. foot of M. Taurus, in a fertile district : taken 
 by storm by Perdiccas, but afterwards restored. 
 It was used by the Isaurian robbers as one of their 
 strongholds. 
 
 Larentia. [Acca Larentia.] 
 
 Lares, inferior gods at Rome. Theii worship 
 was closely connected with that of the Manes, .and 
 was analogous to the hero worship of the Greeks, 
 The Lares may be divided into 2 classes, ih^ Lares 
 domesiici and Lares puhUci. The former were the 
 Manes of a house raised to the dignity of heroes. 
 The Manes were more closely connected with the 
 place of burial, while the Lares were more particu- 
 larly the divinities presiding over the heui-th and 
 the whole house. It was only the spirits of good 
 men that were honoured as Lai^es. All the domestic 
 Lares were headed by the Lar familiaris, who was 
 regarded as the founder of the family. He was 
 inseparable from the family ; and when the latter 
 changed their abode, he went with them. Among 
 the Lares puhlici we have mention made of flares 
 praesiiles and Lares compitales^ who are in reality 
 the same, and differ only in regard to the place or 
 occasion of their worship. Scrvius Tullins is said 
 to have instituted their worship; and Avlicn Augustus 
 improved tlie regulations of the city, he also re- 
 newed the worsliip of the public Lares. Their 
 name, Larts praestHes, characterises tiiem as the 
 protecting spirits of the city, in which they bad a 
 temple in the uppermost part of the Via Sacra, that 
 is, near a compitum, whence they might be calk-d 
 Compitales. This temple {Siicell inn Laj-um or aadcs 
 Laru/n) contained 2 images, which were probably 
 those of Romulus and Uemus. Now, while these 
 Lares were the general protectors of the whole city, 
 the Lares compitales must be regarded as those 
 wlio presided over the several divisions of thecitv, 
 which were marked by tlie compita or the points 
 where two or more streets crossed each other, and 
 where small chapels {aediadun) were erected to 
 them. In addition to the Lares praestites and 
 compitales, there are other Lares which must bo 
 reckoned among tlie public ones, viz., the L^uris 
 7'uralcs, who were worship[ied in the country ; the 
 Lares r/u/ci', who were worshipped on the high- 
 
368 
 
 LARES. 
 
 roads by travellers ; and the Lares mar'mi or jier- 
 inarmi, to wliom P. Aemilius dedicated a sanctuary 
 in remembrance of his naval victory over Antioclms. 
 — The worship of the domestic Lares, together 
 with that of the Penates and Manes, constituted 
 wliat are called the sacra privata. The images of 
 the Lares, in great houses, were usually in a Ecpa- 
 rate compartment, called aediculae or lararia. They 
 were generally represented in the ductus Gabinus. 
 Their worship was verj'' simple, especially in early 
 times and in the country. The offerings were set 
 before them in patellae, whence they themselves 
 are called patcllaHi. Pious people made oflerings to 
 them every day ; but the}'- were more especially 
 worshipped on the calends, nones, and ides of every 
 month. When the inhabitants of the house took 
 their meals, some portion was offered to the Lares, 
 and on joyful family occasions they were adorned 
 with wreaths, and the lararia were thrown open. 
 When the young bride entered the house of her 
 liusband, her first duty was to offer a sacrifice to 
 the Lares. Respecting the public worship of the 
 Lares, and the festival of the Larentalia, see Diet 
 of Ant. art. LarentaUa., Compital'ta. 
 
 Lares (AapTjs : Alarlous)^ a city of N. Africa, 
 in the Carthaginian territory (Byzacena), S. W. of 
 Zama ; a place of some importance at the time of 
 the war with Jugartha. 
 
 Lar^a, Scribonius. [Scribonius.] 
 Larinum (Laiinas, atis : fxirino), a town of 
 the Frentani {wlience the inhabitants are some- 
 times called Frentani Larinates), on the river Ti- 
 fernus, and near the borders of Apulia, subsequently 
 a Roman municipium, possessed a considerable ter- 
 ritory extending down to the Adriatic sea. The 
 town of Clitoria on the coast was subject to La- 
 rinum. 
 
 Larissa (Aapio-cra), the name of several Pelas- 
 gian places, whence Larissa is called in mythology 
 the daughter of Pelasgua. I. In Europe. L {La^ 
 i-issa or Larza)^ an important town of Thessaly, in 
 Pelasgiotis, situated on the Penens, in an extensive 
 plain. It was once the capital of the Pclasgi, and 
 had a democratical constitution, but subsequently 
 became subject to the Macedonians. It retained its 
 importance under the Romans, and after the time 
 of Constantine the Great, became the ciipital of the 
 province of Thessaly. ^2. Sumamed Cremaste 
 (77 Kpefj.atTT'f))^ another important town of Thessaly, 
 in Phthiotis, situated on a height, whence probably 
 its name, and distant 20 stadia from the Maliac 
 gulf. IL In Asia. 1. An ancient city on the 
 coast of the Troad, near Hamaxitus ; ruined at 
 the time of the Persian war. ^2. L. Phriconis 
 (A. 7J ^piKuvis, also al ATjpio'crai), a city on the 
 coast of Mysia, near Cyme (hence called i) trepl 
 Ti]v Ky/x7)i/), of Pelasgian origin, but colonised by 
 the Aeolians, and made a member of the Aeolic 
 confederacy. It was also called the Egyptian 
 Larissa {v AiyviTTia), because Cyrus the Great 
 settled in it a body of his Egyptian mercenary 
 soldiers. ^3. L. Ephesia (A. tJ 'E</)eo-ta), a city 
 of Lydia, in the plain of the Cayster, on the N. 
 side of M. Messogis, N.E. of Kphesus ; with a 
 temple of Apollo Larissaeus. ^4. In Assyria, an 
 ancient city on the E. bank of the Tigri's, some 
 distance N. of the mouth of the river Zabatas or 
 Lycus, described by Xenophou (Anah. iii, 4). It 
 was deserted when Xenophon saw it ; but its 
 brick walls still stood, Q.5 feet thick, 100 feet high, 
 and 2 parasangs (=G0 stadia =U grog, miles), in 
 
 LAS. 
 
 circuit, and there was a stone pyramid near it. 
 Xenophon relates the tradition that, when the 
 empire passed from the Medes to the Persians, the 
 city resisted all the efforts of the Persian king 
 (i. e. Cyrus) to take it, until the iiihabitiints, ter- 
 rified at an obscuration of the sun, deserted the 
 city. Mr. Layard identifies the site of Larissa 
 with that of the ruins near iVimroud, the very 
 same site as that of Nineveh. The name Larissa 
 is no doubt a corruption of some Assyrian name 
 (perhaps Al-Assur), which Xenophon naturally 
 fell into through his familiarity with the word as 
 the name of cities in Greece. — 5. In Syria, called 
 by the Syrians Sizara {^i^apa : Kulat Seijar)^ a 
 city in the district of Apamene, on the W". bank 
 of the Orontes, about half-way between Apamea 
 and Epiphania. 
 
 Larissus or Larious (Adpio-aos, Adpiaos : liis- 
 so), a small river forming the boundary between 
 Achaia and Elis, rises in Mt. ScoUis, and flows 
 into the Ionian sea. 
 
 Larius Lacu3 (Lalce o/Como), a beautiful lake 
 in Gallia Transpadana, running from N. to S., 
 through which the river Adda flows. After 
 extending about 15 miles, it is divided into 2 
 branches, of which the one to the S.W. is about 
 in miles in length, and the one to the S.E. about 
 12 miles. At the extremity of the S.W. branch 
 is the town of Comum ; and at the extremity of 
 the S.E. branch the river Adda issues out of the 
 lake. The beauty of the scenery of this lake is 
 praised by Pliny. He had several villas on the 
 banks of the lake, of which he mentions 2 parti- 
 cularly ; one called Comoedia, and the other Tru- 
 goedia. (Plin, Kj). ix. 7-) Some believe Comoedia 
 to have been situated at the modern Bellagio., oil 
 the promontory which divides the 2 branches of 
 the lake ; and Tragoedia at Lenno, on the W. bank, 
 where the scenery is more wild. The intermitting 
 fountain, of which Pliny gives an account in another 
 letter (Ep. iv. 30), is still called PUniana. 
 Lars Toltunnius. [Tolumnius.] 
 Lartia Gens, patrician, distinguished at the 
 beginning of the republic through 2 of its members, 
 T. Lartiug, the first dictator, and Sp. Lartius, the 
 companion of Horatius on the wooden bridge. The 
 name soon after disappears entirely from the annals. 
 The Lartii were of Etniscnn origin, as is clearly 
 shown by their name, which comes from the 
 Etruscan word Lar or Lars. [Lar.] 
 
 Larunda, or Lara, daughter ofAlmon, was a 
 nymph who informed Juno of the connexion be- 
 tween Jupiter and Jutuma ; hence her name is 
 connected with \a\e7u. Jupiter deprived her of 
 her tongue, and ordered Mercury to conduct her 
 into the lower world. On the way thither. Mercury 
 fell in love with her, and she afterwards gave birth 
 to 2 Lares. 
 
 Larvae. [Lemuiies.] 
 
 Larymna (Adpvf.Lt/a)^ the name of 2 towns on 
 the river Cephissus, on the borders of Boeotia and 
 Locris, and distinguished as Upper and Lower 
 Larymna. The latter was at the mouth, of the 
 river and the former a little way inland. 
 
 Las (Aas: Ep. Adas : Passava)^ an ancient town 
 of Laconia, on the E. side of the Laconian gulf, 10 
 stadia from the sea, and S. of Gytheum. It is 
 said to have been once destroyed by the Dioscuri, 
 who hence received the surname of Lapersae, or 
 the Destroyers of Las. In the time of the Ro- 
 mans it had ceased to be a place of importance. 
 
LAKAEA. 
 
 Lasaea (Aacra/a), a town in the E. of Crete, 
 not far from the Prom. Sanionium, mentioned in 
 the Acts of the Apostles (xxvli. C). 
 
 Lasion (Aaa-iojv: Aacn^i'tos: Xa/a), a fortified 
 town in Elis, ou the frontiers of Arcadia, and not 
 far from the confluence of tlie Erymanthus and the 
 Alpheus. The possession of this town was a con- 
 stant source of dispute between the Eleans and 
 Arcadians. 
 
 Lastlienes (AarrfieVTjs) L An Olj-nthian, who, 
 together with Euthycrates, betrayed his cuimtry to 
 Philip of I\Tacedon, by whom he had been bribed, 
 B.C. 347. — 2. A Cretan, one of the principal 
 leaders of his countrymen in their war with the 
 Romans. He was defeated and taken prisoner by 
 Q. Metellus, 67- 
 
 Lasus (Aatros), one of the principal Greek lyric 
 poets, was a native of Hennione, in Argolis. He 
 is celebrated as the founder of the Athenian school 
 of dithjTambic poetr3% and as the teacher of Pindar. 
 He was cotemporary with Simonides, like whom 
 lie lived at Athens, imder the patronage of tlip- 
 parchus. It would appear that Lasus introduced 
 a greater freedom, both of rhythm and of music, 
 into the dithyrambic Ode ; that he gave it araore 
 artificial and more mimetic character ; and that the 
 subjects of his poetry embraced a far wider range 
 than had been customary. 
 
 Latera Stagmim {Etavg dc Mapuclone et de 
 Perols)^ a lake in the territory of Nemausus in 
 Gallia Narbonensis, connected with the sea by a 
 canal. On this lake was a fortress of the same 
 name. {Chateau de la Laite.) 
 
 Laterensis, Juventius, was one of the accusers 
 of Plancius, whom Cicero defended, B. c. 54. 
 [Plancius.] He was praetor in 51. He serv^ed 
 as a legate in the army of M. Lepidus, and when 
 the soldiers of Lepidus passed over to Antony, 
 Laterensis put an end to his life. 
 
 LatKon, Letlion, Letiies, Letliaeus (Addcav 
 Doric, A7}6coi; AvQaTos)^ a river of Cyrenaica in 
 N. Africa, falling into a Lacus Hesperidum, near 
 the city of Hespcris or Berenice, in the region 
 which the early Greek navigators identified with 
 the gardens of the Hesperldes. 
 
 Latialis or Latiaris, a surname of Jupiter as 
 the protecting divinity of Latium. The Latin towns 
 and Rome celebrated to him every year the feriae 
 Latinae, on the Alban mount, which were con- 
 ducted by one of the Roman consuls. [Latinus.] 
 
 Latinus. 1. King of Latium, son of Faunas and 
 the nymph Marica, brother of Lavinius, husband of 
 Amata. and father of Lavinia, whom he gave in mar- 
 riaee to Aeneas. [Lavinia.] This is the common 
 tradition ; but according to Hesiod he was a son of 
 Ulysses and Circe, and brother of Agrius, king of 
 the Tyrrhenians ; according to Hyginus he was a 
 son of Telemachus and Circe; while others describe 
 him as a son of Hercules, by an Hyperborean 
 woman, who was afterwards married to Faunus,- 
 or as a son of Hercules by a daughter of Faunus. 
 According to one account Latinus after his death 
 became Jupiter Latinris, just as Romulus became 
 Quirinus. — 3. A celebrated player in the farces 
 called mimes (Did. of Ant. s. v.) in the reign of 
 Domitian, with whom he was a great favourite, 
 and w^hom he served as a delator. He frequently 
 acted as mimus with Thymele as mima. 
 
 Latium (?) Aarivq)^ a country in Italy, inha- 
 bited by the Latini. The origin of the name is 
 uncertain. Most of the ancients derived it from a 
 
 LATIUM. 369 
 
 king Latinus, who was supposed to have been a 
 cotemporary of Aeneas [Latinus] ; but there 
 can be no doubt that the name of the people was 
 transferred to this fictitious king. Other ancient 
 critics connected the name with tlie verb latere, 
 either because Saturn had been hidden in the 
 country, or because Italy is hidden between the 
 Alps and the Apennines ! But neither of these 
 explanations deserves a serious refutation. A 
 modern writer derives Latium frum latus (like Cam- 
 pania from campus)., and supposes it to mean the 
 " flat land ; " but the quantity of the a in Idtus is 
 opposed to this etymology. — The boundaries of 
 Latium varied at different periods. 1. In the 
 most ancient times it readied only from the river 
 Tiber on the N., to the river Numicus and the 
 town of Ardea on the S., and from the sea-coast on 
 the AV. to the Alban Mt, on the E. 2. The terri- 
 tory of Latium was subsequently extended S-warda j 
 and long before the conquest of the Latins bv th& 
 Romans, it stretched from the Tiber on the N., to 
 the Prom. Circeiuin and Anxur or Tarracina on the 
 S. Even in the treaty of pence made between 
 Rome and Carthage in b. c. 509, we find Antiiim, 
 Circeii, and Tarracina, mentioned as belonging to 
 Latium. The name of Latium aniujuum or vetus 
 was subsequently given to- the countiy from tho 
 Tiber to the Prom. Circoium. 3. The Romnna 
 still further extended the territories of Latium, by 
 the conquest of the Hernici, Aequi, Volsci, and 
 Aurunci, as far as the LirJs on the S., and even 
 beyond this river to the town Sinucssa and to Mt. 
 Massicus. This new accession of territory was 
 called Latium novum or adject ajn.- — Latium, there- 
 fore, in its widest signification was bounded by 
 Etrm'ia on the N., from which it was separated by 
 the Tiber ; by Campania on the S., from which it 
 was separated by the Liris ; by the Tyrrhene sea 
 on the W. ; and by the Sabine and Samnite tribes 
 on the E. The greater part of this country is an ■ 
 extensive plain of volcanic origin, out of which rise 
 an isolated range of mountains known by the name 
 of MoNs Albanus, of which the Algidus and the 
 Tusculan hills are branches. Part of this plain, 
 on the coast between Antium and Tarracina, 
 which was at one time well cultivated, became a 
 marsh in consequence of the rivers Nymphaeus, 
 Ufens, and Amasenus finding no outlet for their ■ 
 waters [Pomptinae PaludesJ ; but the re- 
 mainder of the countr}'- was celebrated for its fer- 
 tility in antiquity. — The Latini were some of 
 the most ancient inhabitants of Italy. Tiiey appear 
 to have been a Pelasgian tribe, and are frequently- 
 called Aborigines. At a period long anterior to- 
 the foundation of Rome, these Pelasgians or Ab- 
 origines descended into the narrow plain between 
 the Tiber and the Numicus, expelled or subdued 
 the Siculi, the original inhabitants of that district 
 and there became known under the name of La- 
 tini. These ancient Latins, who were called Prisci 
 Lalini, to distinguish them from the later Latins 
 the subjects of Rome, formed a league or confederal 
 tion, consisting of 30 states. The town of Alba 
 Longa subsequently became the head of the league. 
 This town, which founded several colonies, and 
 among others Rome, boasted of a Trojan ori'nn • 
 but the whole story of a Trojan settlement in ftaly 
 is probably an invention of later times. Although 
 Rome was a colony from Alba, she became power- 
 ful enough in the reign of her 3rd king, Tullus 
 Hostilius, to take Alba and raze it to the ground. 
 
 B E 
 
370 LATIUM. 
 
 Ill this war Alba seems to have received no assist- 
 ance from the other Latin towns. Ancus Maixlus 
 and Tarquinius Piiscus carried on war succcssfLilly 
 with sevenil other Latin towns. Under Servius 
 Ttillitis Rome was admitted into the Latin Leaniie ; 
 and liis successor Tarquinius Superbus compelled 
 the other Latin towns to acknowledge Rome as the 
 head of the league, and to become dependent upon 
 the latter city. But xipon tlie expulsion of the 
 kings the Latins asserted their independence, and 
 commenced a struggle with Rome, which, though 
 frequently suspended and apparently terminated 
 by treaties, was as often renewed, and was not 
 brought to a final close till b. c. 340, when the 
 Latins were defeated by the Romans at the battle 
 of Mt. Vesuvius. The Latin league was now dis- 
 solved, and the Latins became the subjects of 
 Rome. — The following were the most important 
 institutions of the Latins during the time of their 
 independence : — The towns of Latium were Inde- 
 pendent of one another, but formed a league for 
 purposes of mutual protection. This league con- 
 sisted, as we have already seen, of 30 cities, a 
 number which could not be exceeded. Each state 
 sent deputies to the meetings of the league, which 
 were held in a sacred grove at tho foot of the Alban 
 Mt, b}"- the fountain of Ferentina. On the top of 
 tho mountain was a temple of Jupiter Latiaris, and 
 a festival was celebrated there in honour of this 
 god from the earliest times. This festival, which 
 was called the Fcriaa Latinae^ is erroneously said 
 to have been instituted by Tarquinius Superbus, 
 in commemoration of the alliance between the 
 Romans and Latins. It is true, however, that the 
 festival was raised into one of much greater im- 
 portance when Rome became the head of the 
 league ; for it was now a festival common both to 
 Rome and Latium, and served to unite the 2 nations 
 by a religious bond. Having thus become a Ro- 
 man as well as a Latin festival, it continued to be 
 celebrated by the Romans after the dissolution of 
 the Latin league. {Diet, of Ant. zxl. Feriae.) — 
 The chief magistrate in each Latin tov/n appears to 
 have borne the title of dictator. He was elected 
 annuall}', but might be re-elected at the close of 
 his year of office. Even In the time of Cicero we 
 find dictators in the Latin towns, as for instance in 
 Lanuvium. {Cxz. pro Mil. 10.) in every Latin 
 towTi there was also a senate and a popular assem- 
 bly, but the exact nature of their powers is un- 
 known. — The old Latin towns were built for the 
 most part on isolated hills, the sides of which were 
 made by art very steep and almost inaccessible. 
 They were surrounded by walls built of great po- 
 Ij'gonal stones, the remains of which still excite 
 -our astonishment, — On the conquest of tlie Latins 
 in 340, several of the Latin towns, such as Lanu- 
 vium, Aricia, Nomentum, Pedum, and Tusculum, 
 received the Roman franchise. Aii the other towns 
 became Roman Socli, and are mentioned in history 
 under the general name of Nomcn Laiinum or La- 
 iini. The Ronians, however, granted to them 
 from time to time certain rights and privileges, 
 which the other Socil did not enjoy ; and in par- 
 ticular they founded many colonies, consisting of 
 Latins, in various parts of Italy. These Latin co- 
 lonies formed apart of the A^ojj?eJiZ^aiz«wm, although 
 they were not situated in Latium. Thus the La- 
 tini came eventually to hold a certain status inter- 
 mediate between that of Roman citizens and pere- 
 grlni. (For details sec Diet, of Ant. art. Lathii.) 
 
 LAURIUM. 
 
 Latmicus Sinus (6 AarfiiKhs k6\ttos), a gulf 
 on the coast of Ionia, in Asia Minor, into which 
 the river Maeander fell, named from M. Latmus, 
 which overhangs it. Its width from Miletus, 
 which stood on its S. side, to Pyrrha, was about 
 30 stadia. Through the changes efTected on this 
 cfiast by the Maeander, the gulf is now au inland 
 lak(% called Alcees-Chai or Ufa-Bassi, 
 
 Latm.us (Aar/xus : Mo?ite di Palatia), a moun- 
 tain in Caria, extending in a S. E. direction from 
 its commencement on the S. side of the Maeander, 
 N. E. of Miletus and the Sinus Latmicus. It was 
 the mythological scene of the story of Luna and 
 Eiidymion, who is hence called by the Roman 
 poets "Latmius herns'' and '■'Latmius venator :" 
 he had a temple on the mountain, and a cavern in 
 its side was shown as his grave. 
 
 Latobrigi, a people in Gallia Belgica, who are 
 mentioned, along with the Tulingi and Rauraci, 
 as neighbours of the Helvetii. They probably 
 dwelt near the sources of the PJiine, in Switzerland. 
 
 Latona, [Leto.] 
 
 Latopolis (AarSiroKis : Esneh, Rii.), a city of 
 Upper Egypt, on the W. bank of the Nile, be- 
 tween Thebes and Apollonopolis ; the seat of the 
 worship of the Nile-fish called latus, which was 
 the symbol of the goddess Neith, whom the Greeks 
 identified with Athena. 
 
 Latovici, a people in the S.W. of Pannonla on 
 the river Savus, in the modern Illyria and Croatia. 
 
 Latro, M. Porcius, a celebrated Roman rheto- 
 rician in the reign of Augustus, was a Spaniard by 
 birth, and a friend and contemporary of the elder 
 Seneca, by whom he Is frequently mentioned. His 
 school was one of the most frequented at Rome, 
 and he numbered among his pupils the poet Ovid. 
 He died B. c. 4. Many modern writers suppose 
 that he was the author of the Declamations of 
 Sallust against Cicero, and of Cicero against Sallust, 
 
 Laureacum or Lauriacum {Lorch near Ens\ 
 a strongly fortified town on the Danube in Nori- 
 cum Ripense, the head-quarters of the ind legion, 
 and the station of a Roman fleet. 
 
 Laureiitia, Acca. [Acca Laurentia.] 
 
 Laurentius Lydus. [Lydus.] 
 
 Laurentum (Lam'ens, -ntis: Casale of Copo~ 
 coita^ not Filter no) ^ one of the most ancient towns 
 of Latium, was situated on a height between Ostia 
 and Ardca,not far from the sea, and was surrounded 
 by a grove of laurels, from which the place was- 
 supposed to have derived its name. According to 
 Virgil, it was the residence of king Latinus and 
 the capital of Latium ; and it is certain that it 
 was a place of importance in the time of the Ro- 
 man kings, as it is mentioned in the treaty con- 
 cluded between Rome and Carthage in b. c, 509. 
 The younger Pliny and the emperor Commodus had 
 villas at Laurentuni, which appears to have been 
 a healtliy place, notwithstanding the marshes in 
 the m^ighbourhood. These marshes supplied the 
 tables of the Romans with excellent boars. — In 
 the time of the Antonines Laurentum was united 
 with Laviniuin, from wiiich it was only 6 miles 
 distant, so that the 2 formed only one town, which 
 was called LAurolavinium, and its inhabitants 
 were named Laiireiites Lavinates. 
 
 Laurotanus Portus, a harbour of Etruria, on 
 the ro;id from Pupulonia to Cosa. 
 
 Lanriacum. [Laureacum.] 
 
 Laurinm (Aaupioi/, Aavpeiov)^ a mountain in 
 the S. of Attica, a little N. of the Prom. Sunium, 
 
LAUKON. 
 
 celebrated for its silver mines, "which in early 
 times were so productive that eveiy Athenian 
 citizen received annually 10 drachmae. On the 
 advice of Themistocles, the Athenians applied this 
 money to equip 200 triremes, sliortly before the 
 invasion of Xerxes. In the time of Xenophon the 
 produce of the mines was 100 talents. They gra- 
 dually became less and less productive, and in the 
 time of Strabo they yielded nothing. 
 
 Lauron [Laury, W. of Xucar in Valencia), a 
 town in the E. of Hispania Tarraconensis, near the 
 sea and the river Sucro, celebrated on account of 
 its siege by Sertorius, and as the place where Cn. 
 Pompey, the Younger, was put to death after the 
 battle of Miinda. 
 
 Laus (Aaos: AaTj/os), a Greek city in Lucania, 
 situated near the moutli of the river Laus, which 
 formed the boundarj' between Lucania and Brut- 
 tium. It was founded by the Sybarites, after 
 their own city had been taken by the inhabitants 
 of Croton, b. c. 510, but it had disappeared in the 
 time of Pliu}'. — ^he gulf into which the river 
 Laua flowed, was also called the giUf of Laus. 
 
 Laus Pompeii {Lodi Vecchio), a town in Gallia 
 Cisalpina, N.W. of Piacentia, and S.E. of Medio- 
 lanum. It was founded by the Boii, and was 
 afterwards made amunicipiumby Pompeius Strabo, 
 the father of Pompeius Magnus, whence it was 
 called by his name. 
 
 Lausus. 1. Son of Mezentius, king of the 
 Etruscans, slain by Aeneas. ^2. Son of Numitor 
 and brother of Ilia, killed by Amulius. 
 
 Lautiilae, a village of the Volsci in Latium, in 
 a narrow pass between Taixacina and Fundi. 
 
 Lavema, the Roman goddess of thieves and 
 impostors. A grove was sacred to her on the via 
 Salaria, and she had an altar near the porta Laver- 
 iialis, which derived its name from her. 
 
 Lavicum. [Labicum.] 
 
 Lavinia, daughter of Latiiius and Aniata, was 
 betrothed to Turnus [Turnus], but was afterwards 
 given in marriage to Aeneas, by whom she became 
 the mother of Aeneas Silvius. 
 
 Lavmiiun. (Laviniensis : Pratica), an ancient 
 town of Latium, 3 miles from the sea and 6 miles 
 E. of Lanrentum, on the Via Appia, and near the 
 river Numiciis, which divided its territory from 
 that of Ardea. It is said to have been founded by 
 Aeneas, and to have been called Laviniuni, in 
 honour of his wife Lavinia, the daughter of Lati- 
 rus. It possessed a temple of Venus, common to 
 all the Latins, of which the inhabitants of Ardea 
 had the oversight. It was at Lavinium that the 
 king Titus Tatius was said to have been murdered. 
 Lavinium was at a later time united with Lauren- 
 turn ; respecting which see Laurentum. 
 
 Lazae or Lazi (Aa^a/, Aafoi), a people of Col- 
 chis, S. of the Phasis. 
 
 Leaena {Aeaiva), an Athenian hetaera, beloved 
 by Aristogiton or Harmodius. On the murder of 
 Hipparchus she was put to the torture ; but she 
 died under her sufferings without making any 
 disclosure, and, if we may believe one account, she 
 bit off her tongue, that no secret might be wrung 
 from her. The Athenians honoured her memory 
 greatly, and in particular by a bronze statue of a 
 lioness (^iaiua) without a tongue, in the vestibule 
 of the Acropolis. 
 
 Leander {Aeiav^po? or AeafS^os), the famous 
 youth of Abydos, who was in love with Hero, the 
 priestess of Aphrodite in Sestus, and swam every 
 
 LED A. 
 
 371 
 
 night across the Hellespont to visit her, and 
 returned before daybreak. Once during a stormy 
 night he perished in the waves. Next morning 
 his corpse was washed on the coast of Sestus, 
 whereupon Hero threw herself into the sea. This 
 story is the subject of the poem of Musaeus, 
 entitled De Amure Herois et Leandri [Musaeus], 
 and is also mentioned by Ovid (/At. xviii. 19), 
 and Virgil. {Georg,m.2b^.) 
 
 Learclius (Aeafjxos). 1. [Athamas.]^2. Of 
 Rhegium, one of those Daedalian artists who stand 
 on the confines of the mythical and historical 
 periods, and about wliom we have extremely 
 uncertain information. One account made him a 
 pupil of Daedalus, another of Dipoenus and Scyllis. 
 
 Lebadea (Ae^aSeta : Livadhia\ a town in 
 Boeotia, W. of tiie lake Copais, between Chaeronea 
 and Mt. Helicon, at the foot of a rock from which 
 the river Hercyna flows. In a cave of this rock, 
 close to the town, was the celebrated oracle of 
 Trophonius, to which the place owed its importance, 
 
 Lebedos (A4§eBos: Ae§e'5ios), one of the 12 
 cities of the Ionian confederacy, in Asia Minor, 
 stood on the coast of Lydia, between Colophon and 
 Teos, 90 stadia E. of the promontory of Myonne- 
 sus. It was said to have been built at the time 
 of the Ionian migration, on the site of an earlier 
 Carian city ; and it flourished, chiefl}- by commerce, 
 until Lysimachus transplanted most of its inha- 
 bitants to Ephesus, Near it were some mineral 
 springs, which still exist near Ekklesia, but no 
 traces remain of the city itself. 
 
 Leben or Lebena (AegTJx', Ae§7jfo), a town on 
 the S. coast of Crete, 90 stadia S.E. of Gortyna, of 
 wliich it was regarded as the harbour. It possessed 
 a celebrated temple of Aesculapius. 
 
 Lebintlius {Ae§iv6os : Lebitha)^ an island in 
 the Aegaean sea, one of the Sporades, W. of Ca- 
 lymna, E. of Amnrgos and N. of Astypalaea. 
 
 Lechaeuai {rhAexatov. Aexa7os'}, one of the 
 2 harbours of Corinth, with which it was connected 
 by 2 long walls. It was 12 stadia from Corinth, 
 was situated on the Corinthian gulf, and received 
 all the ships which came from Italyand Sicily. It 
 possessed a temple of Poseidon, who was hence 
 8U]'named Lechaeus. 
 
 Lectum {rh AcktoV : C. Bala or S. Maria), the 
 S, W. promontor}' of the Troad, is formed wliere 
 the W. extremity of M. Ida juts out into the sea, 
 opposite to the N. side of the island of Lesbos. 
 It was the S. limit of the Troad ; and, under the 
 Byzantine emperors, the N. limit of the province 
 of Asia. An altar was shown here in Strabo's 
 time, which was said to have been erected by 
 Agnmemnon to the 12 chief gods of Greece. 
 
 Leda {A-qSa), daughter of Thestius, whence she 
 is called ThesHas^ and wife of Tyndareus, king of 
 Sparta. One night she was embraced both by her 
 husband and by Zeus ; by the former she became 
 the mother of Castor and Clytaemnestra, by the 
 latter of Pollux and Hek-na. According to Homer 
 {Od. xi. 298), both Castor and Pollux were sons 
 of Tyndareus and Leda, while Helena is described 
 as a daughter of Zeus. Other traditions reverse 
 the atory, making Castor and Pollux the sons of 
 Zeus, and Helena tlie daughter of Tyndareus. 
 According to the common legend Zeus visited 
 Leda in the form of a swan ; and she brought 
 forth 2 eggs, from the one of which issued Helena, 
 and from the other Castor and Pollux. The visit 
 of Zeus to Leda in the form of a swan was fre- 
 
 B B 2 
 
372 LEDON. 
 
 quently represented by ancient artists. The Roman 
 poets sometimes call Helena Ledaea, and Castor 
 and Pollux Ledaei Diu 
 
 Ledon (AeSwy), a town in Phocis, N. "VV. of 
 Tithorea ; the birth-place of Philomelus, the com- 
 mander of the Phocians in the Sacred war ; it was 
 destroyed in this war. 
 
 Ledus or Ledum {Lcs or Lez^ near Montpellier), 
 a small river in Gallia Narboncnsis. 
 
 Legae {hiiyaL or Aij7es), a people on the S. 
 Bhore of the Caspian Sea, belonging to the same 
 race as the Cadusii. A branch of them was found 
 by the Romans in the N. mountains of Albania, at 
 the time of Pompey's expedition into those regions. 
 
 Legio Septima Gemina (Leon)^ a town in His- 
 pania Tarraconensis, in the country of the Astures, 
 which was originally the head-quarters of the 
 legion so-called. 
 
 Leitus (A7]tTos\ son of Alector or Alectryon, 
 by Cleobule, and father of Peneleus, was one of 
 the Argonauts, and comraanded the Boeotians in 
 the war against Troy. 
 
 Lelantus Campus (rh AvKavrov TreS/or), a 
 plain in Euboea, between Eretna and Chalcis, for 
 the possession of which these two cities often con- 
 tended. It contained warm springs and mines of 
 iron and copper, but was subject to frequent earth- 
 quakes. 
 
 Leleges (AeAeyes), an ancient race which inha- 
 bited Greece before the Hellenes. They are fre- 
 quently mentioned along with the Pelasgians as 
 the most ancient inhabitants of Greece. Some 
 writers erroneously identify them with the Pelas- 
 gians, but their character and habits were essen- 
 tially different : the Pelasgians were a peaceful and 
 agricultural people, whereas the Leleges were a war- 
 like and migratory race. They appear to have first 
 taken possession of the coasts and the islands of 
 Greece, and afterwards to have penetrated into the 
 interior. Piracy was probably their chief occupation ; 
 and they are represented as the ancestors of the Tele- 
 boans and the Taphiana, who sailed as far as Phoe- 
 nicia, and were notorious for their piracies. The 
 coasts of Acamania and Aetolia appear to have 
 been inhabited by Leleges at the earliest times ; 
 and from tlience they spread over other parts of 
 Greece. Thus we find them in Phocis and Locris, 
 in Boeotia, in Megaris, in Laconia, which is said 
 to have been more anciently called Lelegia, i]i 
 Elis, in Euboea, in several of the islands of the 
 Aegaeau sea, and also on the coasts of Asia Minor, 
 in Caria, Ionia, and the S. of Troas. — The origin 
 of the Leleges is uncertain. Many of the ancients 
 connected them with the Carians, and according 
 to Herodotus (i. 171), the Leleges were the same 
 as the Carians ; but whether there was any real 
 connection between these peoples cannot be deter- 
 mined. The name of the Leleges was derived, 
 according to the custom of the ancients, from au 
 ancestor Lelex, who is called king either of Mega- 
 ris or of Lacedaemon. According to some tradi- 
 tions this Lelex came from Egypt, and was the 
 son of Poseidon and Libya ; but the Egyptian 
 origin of the people was evidently an invention of 
 later times, — The Leleges must be regarded as a 
 branch of the great Indo-Germanic race, who be- 
 came gradually incorporated with the E[ellenes, 
 and thus ceasud to exist as an independent people. 
 
 lelex. [Leleges.] 
 
 Lemannus or Lemauus Lacus (Lake of Ge- 
 s^iJal, a large lake formed by the river Rliodanus, 
 
 LEMURES. 
 
 was the boundary between the old Roman prr> 
 vince in Gaul and the land of the Plelvetii. Its 
 greatest length is oh miles, and its greatest breadth 
 6 miles. 
 
 Ii9mnos {jS.y\\.ivos : Arifivios, fern. A-rjixuids : Sta- 
 limene^ i. e. els tclv Arifxvov)^ one of the largest 
 islands in the Aegaean sea, was situated nearly 
 midway between Mt. Athos and the Hellespont, 
 and about 2"2 miles S, W. of Imbros. Its area 13 
 about 147 square miles. In the earliest times it 
 appears to have contained only one town, which 
 bore the same name as the island (Horn, //. xiv, 
 299) ; but at a later period we read of 2 towns, 
 Myrina {Palaeo Castro) on theW. of the island, and 
 Hephaestia or Hephaestias (nr. Rapanidi) on the 
 N.W., with a harbour. Lemnos was sacred to Hi-- 
 phaestus (Vulcan), who is said to have fallen herc^ 
 when Zeus hurled him down from Olympus. 
 Hence the workshop of the god is sometimes 
 placed in this island. The legend appears to have- 
 arisen from the volcanic nature of Lemnos, which- 
 possessed in antiquity a volcan*callcd ]\Iosychlu7 
 {y[6<Tvx^os). The island still bears traces of 
 having been subject to the action of volcanic fire, 
 though the volcano has long since disappeared. — 
 The most ancient inhabitants of Lemnos, according 
 to Homer, were the Thracian Siniies; a name, how- 
 ever, which probably only signifies robbers (SiV- 
 T( 65- from crivQ^ai). When the Argonauts landed 
 at Lemnos, they arc said to have found it inhabited 
 only by women, who had murdered all their hus- 
 bands, and had chosen as their queen HypsipylCy 
 the daughter of Thoas, the king of the island, 
 [Hypsipyle.] Some of the Aigonauts settled 
 here, and became b}"" the Lemnian women tlie 
 fatliers of the Minyae^ the later inhabitants of the 
 island. The Minyae are said to have been driven 
 out of the island by the Pelasgians, who had been 
 expelled from Attica. These Pelasgians are fur- 
 ther said to have carried away from Attica some 
 Athenian women ; but as the children of these 
 women despised their half-brothers, born of Pelas- 
 gian women, tlie Pelasgians murdered both them- 
 and thtir children. In consequence of this atro- 
 city, and of the former murder of the Lemniait 
 husbands by the wives, Lemnian Deeds became a 
 proverb in Greece for all atrocious acts. Lemnos. 
 was afterwards conquered by one of the gene- 
 rals of Darius ; but Miltiades delivered it from 
 the Persians, and made it subject to Athene 
 in Whose power it remained for a long time. Pliny 
 speaks of a remarkable labyrinth in Lemnos, but 
 no traces of it have been discovered by modern 
 travellers. The principal production of the island 
 was a red earth called terra Lemnia or dijillata, 
 which was employed by the ancient physicians a&- 
 a remedy for wounds and the bites of serpents, and 
 which is still much valued by the Turks and" 
 Greeks for its supposed medicinal virtues. 
 
 Lemonia, one of the country tribes of Rome,, 
 named after a village Lemonium, situated on the 
 Via Latina before the Porta Capena. 
 
 Lemovices, a people in Gallia Aquitanica, be- 
 tween the Bituriges and Arvemi, whose chief town 
 was Augustoritum, subsequently called Lemovices, 
 the modern Limogea. 
 
 Lemovii, a people of Germany, mentioned along 
 with the Rugii, who inhabited the shores of the 
 Baltic in the modern Pommerania. 
 
 Lemiires, the spectres or spirits of the dead. 
 Some writers describe Lemures as the common 
 
LENAEUS. 
 
 name for all the spirits of the dead, and divide 
 them into 2 chisses ; the Lares, or the souls of 
 gd'id ninn, and the Larvae, or the souls of wicked 
 men. But the common idea was that the Lcimires 
 and Larv.ac were the same. They were said to 
 wandtT about at night as spectres, and to torment 
 iind tVitrlitcn the living. In order to propitiate 
 tht-m tile Romans celebrated the festival of the 
 LciHuralia, or LemuHa. {Did. of Antiq. s. ?j.) 
 
 Leuaeus (ATjvaius), a surname of Dioin'sus, de- 
 rivod from \y\v6s, the wine-press or the vintage. 
 
 Lentia {Luiz), a town in Noricum, on the 
 Danube. 
 
 Lentienses, a tribe of the Alemanni, who lived 
 on tile N. shore of the Lacus Brigantinus {Lake of 
 Constance), in tile modern IJnzgau. 
 
 Lento, Caesenuiiis, a follower of M. Antony. 
 He was one of Antony's 7 agrarian commissioners 
 {septcmviratus) in B. c. 44, fur apportioning the 
 'Campanian and Leontine lands, whence Cicero 
 terms liim divisor Italiae. 
 
 Lentulus, Cornelius, one of the haughtiest 
 patrician families at Rome ; so that Cicero coins 
 the words ■ Ajypietas and Lentiiliias to express 
 the qualities of the high aristocratic party {adPam. 
 iii. 7). The name was derived from levs^ like 
 •Cicero from acer. — 1. L., consul B.C. 3*27; le- 
 gate in tlie Caudine campaign, 321 ; and dictator 
 3"20, when he avenged the disgrace of the Furculae 
 C;iudinae. This was indeed disputed (Liv.ix. 15); 
 Tjut his descendants at least claimed the honour 
 for him, by assuming the agnomen of Caudinus. ^ 
 S. L., sumamed Candinus, pontifex maximus, and 
 consul 237, when he triumphed over tlie Ligurians. 
 He died 213. — 3. P.,surnamed Caudinus, served 
 with P. Scipio in Spain, 210 ; praetor 204 ; one of 
 the 10 ambassadors sent to Philip of Macedon, 19G. 
 -^^4. P., praetor in Sicily 214, and continued in 
 his province for the 2 following years. In 109 he 
 was one of 10 ambassadors sent into Asia after the 
 submission of Antiochus. ^5. Cn,, quaestor 212 ; 
 curule aedile 204 ; consul 201 ; and proconsul in 
 Hither Spain 199.^6. L., praetor in Sardinia 
 211, succeeded Scipio as proconsul in Spain, where 
 he remained for 11 years, and on his return ^^-as 
 only allowed an ovation, because he only held pro- 
 consular rank. He was consul 199, and the next 
 year proconsul in Gaul.^7. L., curule aedile 163; 
 -consul loG ; censor 147- — 8. P., curule aedile 
 with Scipio Nasica 169, consul sufi'octus, with 
 C Domitius 162, the election of the former 
 consuls being declared informal. He became 
 princeps senatus, and must have lived to a good 
 old age, since he was wounded in the contest with 
 C. Gracchus in 121.^9. P., surnamed Sura, the 
 man of chief note in Catiline's crew. He was 
 quaestor to Sulla in ol : before him and L. Tri- 
 iirius, Verres had to give an account of the monies 
 he had received as quaestor in Cisalpine Gaul. 
 He was soon after himself called to account for 
 the same matter, but was acquitted. It is said 
 that he got his cognomen of Sura from his conduct 
 on this occasion ; for when Sulla called him to 
 account, he answered by scornfully putting out his 
 leg, *' like boys," says Plutarch, " when they 
 make a blunder in playing at ball." Other 
 persons, however, had borne the name before, one 
 perhaps of the Lentulus family. In 75 he was 
 praetor ; and Hortensius, pleading before such a 
 judge, had no difficulty in procuring the acquittal 
 of Terentius Varro, when accused of extortion. 
 
 LENTULUS. 
 
 373 
 
 In 71 he was consul. But in the next year 
 lie was ejected from the senate, with 63 others, 
 for infamous life and manners. It was this, 
 probably, tiiat led him to join Catiline and his 
 crew. From his distinguished birth and high 
 rank, he calculated on becoming chief of the con- 
 spiracy; and a prophecy of the Sibylline books was 
 applied by fluttering haruspices to him. Three 
 Cornelii were to rule Rome, and he was the 3rd 
 after Sulla and Cinna ; the 20th year after the 
 burning of the capitol, &c., was to be fatal to the 
 city. To gain power, and recover his place in the 
 senate, he became praetor again in 63. When 
 Catiline quitted the city for Etruria, Lentulus was 
 left as chief of the home conspirators, and his irre- 
 solution probably saved the city from being iired. 
 For it was by his over-caution that the negotiation 
 with the ambassadors of the Allobroges was entered 
 into : these unstable allies revealed the secret to 
 the consul Cicero, who directed them to feign 
 compliance with the conspirators' wishes, and thus 
 to obtain "ftTitten documents which might be 
 brought in evidence against them. The well- 
 known sequel will be found under the life of 
 Catiline. Lentulus was deposed from the praetor- 
 ship, and was strangled in the Capitoline prison on 
 the 5th of December, His step-son Antony pre- 
 tended that Cicero refused to deliver up his corpse 
 for burial. — 10. P., surnamed Spinther, He 
 received tliis nickname from his resemblance to 
 the actor Spinther. Caesar commonly calls hira 
 by this name : not so Cicero ; but there could be 
 no harm in it, for he used it on his coins when 
 pro-praetor in Spain, simply to distinguish himself 
 from the many of the same family ; and his son 
 bore it after him. He was curule aedile in 63, 
 the year of Cicero's consulship, aud was entrusted 
 with the care of tlie anprehended conspirator, 
 P. Sura [No. 9]. His games were long remem- 
 bered for their splendour ; but his toga, edged 
 with Tyrian purple, gave offence. He was praetor 
 in 60 ; and by Caesar's interest he obtained 
 Hither Spain for his next year's province, where 
 ho remained into part of 50. In 57 he was consul, 
 which dignity he also obtained by Caesar's support. 
 In his consulship he moved for the immediate 
 recall of Cicero, brought over his colleague Me- 
 tellus Nepos to the same views ; and his services 
 were gratefully acknowledged by Cicero. Now, 
 therefore, notwithstanding his obligations to Caesar, 
 he had openly taken part with the aristocracy. He 
 received Cilicia as his province, but he attempted 
 in vain to obtain a decree of the senate, charging 
 him with the office of restoring Ptolemy Auletes, 
 tiie exiled king of Egypt. He remained as, pro- 
 consul in Cilicia from bQ till July, 53, and obtained 
 a triumph, though not till 51. On tlie breaking 
 out of the civil war in 49, he joined the Pompeian 
 party. He fell into Caesar's hands at Corfinium, 
 but was dismissed by the latter uninjured. He 
 then joined Pompey in Greece ; and after the 
 battle of Pharsalia, he followed Pompey to Egypt, 
 and got safe to Rhodes. ^ 11. P., sumamed 
 Spinther, son of No. 10, followed Pompey's 
 fortunes with his father. He was pardoned by 
 Caesar, and returned to Italy. In 45 he was 
 divorced from his abandoned wife, Metella..(Comp, 
 Hor., Serm. ii. 3. 239.) After the murder of 
 Caesar (44) he joined the conspirators. He served 
 with Cassius against Rhodes ; with Brutus in 
 Lycia. — 12, Cn., surnamed Clodianus, a Clau- 
 
374 LEO. 
 
 dius adopted into the Lcntulus family. He was 
 consul in 72, -with L. Gelliiis Piiblicola. In the 
 war with Spartaciis "both lie and his coUeacue were 
 defeated — but after their consulship. With tiie 
 same colleague lie held the censorship in 70, and 
 ejected 63 members from the senate for infamous 
 life, among whom were Lentnlus Sura [No. 9J 
 and C. Antoniua, afterwards Cicero's colleague in 
 the consulship. Yet the majority of those expelled 
 were acquitted hy the courts, and restored ; and 
 Lentnlus supported the Manilian law, appointing 
 Pompey to the command against Mithridates. As 
 an orator, he concealed his want of talent by great 
 skill and art, and by a good voice. — 13. L., sur- 
 iianied Cms, appeared in 61 as the chief accuser 
 of P. Clodius, for violating the mysteries of the 
 Bona Dea. In 58 he was praetor, and in 49 consul 
 with C. Marcellus. He was raised to the consul- 
 ship in consequence of his heiiig a known enemy 
 of Caesar. He did all he could to excite his 
 waverino; party to take arms and meet Caesar: he 
 called Cicero cowardly; blamed him for seeking a 
 triumph at such a time ; urged war at any price, 
 in the hope, says Caesar {B. C. i. 4), of retrieving 
 his ruined fortunes, and becoming another Sulla. 
 It was mainly at Lentuliis' instigation that the 
 violent measures passed the senate early in the 
 year, which gave the tribunes a pretence for flying 
 to Caesar at Ravenna. He himself fled from the 
 city at the approach of Caesar, and afterwards 
 crossed over to Greece. After the battle of Phar- 
 salia, he fled to Egypt, and arrived there the day 
 after Pompey's murder. On landing, he was 
 apprehended by young Ptolemy's ministers, and 
 put to death in prison. — 14. L., sui'named Ifiger, 
 flameu of Mars. In 57, he was one of the priests 
 to whom was referred the question whether the 
 site of Cicero's house was consecrated ground. In 
 5G he was one of the judges in the case of 
 P. Sextius, and he died in the same year, much 
 praised by Cicero. —-15. L., son of the last, and 
 also flamen of Mars, Pie defended M. Scaurus, in 
 54, when accused of extortion ; he accused Ga- 
 binius of high treason, about the same time, but 
 was suspected of colluaion. In the Philippics he 
 is mentioned as a friend of Antony's.— 16. Cossus, 
 sumamed Gaetulicus, consul B.C. 1, was sent into 
 Africa in a. d. 6, where he defeated the Gaetuli : 
 hence his surname. On the accession of Tiberius, 
 A. D. 14, he accompanied Drusus, who was sent 
 to quell the mutiny of the legions in Pannonia, 
 He died 25, at a very great age, leaving behind 
 him an honourable reputation. — 17. Cn., sur- 
 namcd Gaetulicus, son of the last, consul a. d. 26. 
 He afterwards had tlie command of the legions of 
 Upper Germany for 10 years, and was very popular 
 among the troops. In 39 he was put to death by 
 order of Caligula, who feared his influence with 
 the soldiers. He was an historian and a poet ; 
 but we have only 3 lines of his poems extant, 
 unless he is the author of 9 epigrams in the Greek 
 Antholog}% inscribed with the name of Gaetulicus. 
 Leo, or Leon (Ae'wi/). 1. Also called Leonides 
 (AewftSijy), of Heraclea on the Pontus, disciple of 
 Plato, was one of the conspirators who, with their 
 leader, Chion, assassinated Clearchus, tyrant of 
 Heraclea, B.C. 353.^2. Of Byzantium, a rhe- 
 torician and historical writer of the age of Philip 
 and Alexander the Great.- 3. Diacnnus or the 
 Deacon, a Byzantine historian of the 10th century. 
 His historj'', in 10 books, includes the period from 
 
 LEOCHARES. 
 
 the Cretan expedition of Nicephorus Phocas, in 
 the reign of the emperor Romanus 11., A- D. 959^ 
 to the death of Joannes I. Zimisces, 975. The 
 ptyle of Leo is vicious : he employs unusual and 
 inappropriate words (many of them borrowed from 
 Homer, Agathias the historian, and the Septuagint), 
 in the place of simple and common ones ; and he 
 abounds in tautological phrases. His his tor}', 
 however, is a valuable contemporary record of a 
 stirring time, honestly and fearlessly writteji. 
 Edited for the first time by Hase, Paris, 1818. 
 — 4. Grammaticus, one of the continuators of 
 Byzantine histor}'- from the period when Theo- 
 phanes leaves off. Plia work, entitled C/irojio- 
 (jraphia^ extends from the accession of Leo V. the 
 Armenian, lil3, to the death of Romanus Leca- 
 penus, 944. Edited with Theophancs by Combefis, 
 Paris, 1655. — 5. Archbishop of Thcssalonica, an 
 eminent B3-zantine philosopher and ecclesiastic of 
 the 9th centur}-. His works are lost, but he is 
 frequently mentioned in terms of the highest 
 praise by the Byzantine writers, especially for his 
 knowledge of geometry and astronomy. ^ 6. Ma- 
 gentenus, a commentator on Aristotle, flourished 
 during the 1st half of the 14th century. He 
 was a monk, and afterwards archbishop of My- 
 tilene. Several of his commentaries on Aristotle 
 are extant, and have been published. — 7. Leo 
 was also the name of 6 Byzantine emperors. Of 
 these Leo VI., sumamed the philosopher, who 
 reigned 886 — 911, is celebrated in the history of 
 the later Greek literature. He wrote a treatise on 
 Greek tactics, 17 oracles, 33 orations, and several 
 other works, which are still extant. He is also ce- 
 lebrated in the historj'- of legislation. As the Latin 
 language had long ceased to be the official lan- 
 guage of the Eastern empire, Basil, the father of 
 Leo, liad formed and partly executed the plan of 
 issuing an authorised Greek version of Justinian's 
 legislation. This plan was carried out by Leo. 
 The Greek version is known under the title of 
 Bctcri\£Koi AiaTci|eiF, or shortly, 'QaffiXiKol ; in 
 Latin, Basilica, which means '"' Imperial Consti- 
 tutions," or " Laws." It is divided into 60 books, 
 subdivided into titles, and contains the Institutes, 
 the Digest, the Codex, and the Novellae ; and 
 likewise such constitutions as were issued by the 
 successors of Justinian down to Leo VL There 
 are, however, many laws of the Digest omitted in 
 the Basilica, which contain, on the other hand, a 
 considerable number of laws or extracts from 
 ancient jurists which are not in the Digest. The 
 publication of this authorised body of law in the 
 Greek langxinge led to the gradual disuse of the 
 original compilations of Justinian in the East. 
 But the Roman law was thus more firmly esta- 
 blished in Eastern Europe and Western Asia, 
 where it has maintained itself among the Greek 
 population to the present day. The best edition 
 of the Basilica is the one now publishing by 
 Heimbach, Lips. 1833, seq. 
 
 Leobotes. [Labotas.] 
 
 Leochares {K^taxo-pf)^)^ an Athenian statuary 
 and sculptor, was one of the great artists of the 
 later Athenian school, at the head of which were 
 Scopas and Praxiteles. He flourished B.C. 352 — 
 338. The masterpiece of Leochares seems to have 
 been his statue of the rape of Ganymed':'. The 
 original work was in bronze. Of the extant copies 
 in marble, the best is one, half the size of life, in 
 the Museo Pio-Clementino. 
 
LEOCORIUM. 
 
 Xeocorium (Aecaii6piou), a shrine in Atlieins, in 
 the Ceramicus, erected in honour of the daughters 
 of Leos. Hipparchus was murdered liere. 
 
 Leodamas (AewSaiLias), a distinguished Attic 
 oriLtor, was educated in the school of Isocrates, 
 and is greatly praised ty Aeschines. 
 
 Leonica, a town of the Edetani in the W. of 
 Hispania Tarraconensis. 
 
 Leomdas (AewWSas). 1. I. King of Sparta, 
 B.C. 491 — 4ij0, was one of the sons of Anaxan- 
 drides by his first wife, and, according to some 
 accounts, was twin-brother to Cleombrotus. He 
 succeeded his half-brother Clcomenes 1., b. c. 491, 
 his elder brother Dorieus also having previouslr 
 died. When Greece was invaded by Xerxes, 
 480, Leonidas was sent with a small army to 
 make a stand against the enemy at the pass of 
 Tiierraopylae. The number of his arraj-- is va- 
 riously stated : according to Ilcrodotus, it amounted 
 to somewhat more than oOOO men, of whom 300 
 were Spartans ; in all probability, the regular 
 band of (so called) hnights (tTTreiV). The Persians 
 in vain attempted to force their way through tlie 
 pass of Thermopylae. They were driven back by 
 Leonidas and his gallant band with immense 
 slaughter. At length the Malian Ephialtes be- 
 trayed the mountain path of the Anopaea to the 
 Persians, who were thus able to fall upon the rear 
 of the Greeks. "When it became known to Le- 
 onidas that the Persians were crossing the moun- 
 tain, he dismissed all the other Greeks, except the 
 Thespian and Theban forces, declaring that he 
 and the Spartans under his command must needs 
 remain in the post the}'^ had been sent to guard. 
 Then, before the body of Persians, who were 
 crossing the mountain under Hydarnes, could 
 arrive to attack him in the rear, he advanced from 
 the narrow pass and charged the myriads of the 
 enemy with his handful of troops, hopeless now of 
 preserving their lives, and anxious only to sell 
 them dearly. In the desperate battle which en- 
 sued, Leonidas himself fell soon. His body was 
 rescued by the Greeks, after a violent struggle. 
 On the hillock in the pass, where the remnant of 
 the Greeks made their last stand, a lion of stone 
 was sot up in his honour.— 2. II. King of Sparta, 
 was son of the traitor, Cleonymus. He acted as 
 guardian to his infant relative, Areus IL, on 
 whose death he ascended the throne, about 25G. 
 Being opposed to the projected reforms of his con- 
 temporary Agis IV., he was deposed, and the 
 throne was transferred to his son-in-law, Cleom- 
 brotus ; but he was soon afterwards recalled, and 
 caused Agis to be put to death, 240. He died 
 about 236', and was succeeded by his son, Cleo- 
 menes 111.-3, A kinsman of Olympias, the 
 mother of Alexander the Great, was entrusted 
 with the main superintendence of Alexander's 
 education in his earlier yeai-s, before lie became 
 the pupil of Aristotle. Leonidas was a man of 
 austere character, and trained the young prince in 
 hardy and self-denying habits. There were 2 excel- 
 lent cooks (said Alexander afterwards) with which 
 Leonidas had furnished him, — a night's march to 
 season his breakfast, and a scanty breakfast to 
 season his dinner. — 4. Of Tarentum, the author 
 of upwards of 100 epigrams in the Doric dialect. 
 His epigrams formed a part of the Garland of 
 Meleager. They are chiefly inscriptions for de- 
 dicatory offerings and works of art, and, though 
 not of a very high order of poetry, are usually 
 
 LEOSTHENES. S75 
 
 pleasing, ingenious, and in good taste. Leonidas 
 probably lived in the time of Pynhus. — 5. Ot 
 Alexandria, also an epigrammatic poet, flourished 
 under Nero and Vespasian. In the Greek Antho- 
 logy, 43 epigrams are ascribed to him ; they are of 
 a very low order of merit. » 
 
 Leonnatus (AeofmroF), a Macedonian ofPella, 
 one of Alexander's most disting-uished officers. 
 His father's name is variously given, as Anteas, 
 Anthes, Onasus, and Eunus. He saved Alex- 
 andLT''3 life in India in the assault on the city of 
 the MalU. After the death of Alexander (b. c. 
 32.j), he obtained the satrapy of the Lesser or 
 Hellespontine Phrygia, and in the following year 
 he crossed over into Europe, to assist Antlpater 
 against the Greeks; but he was defeated by the 
 Athenians and their allies, and fell in battle. 
 
 Leontiades {h^ovTt6Z7]s). 1. A Theban, com- 
 manded at Thermopylae the forces supplied by 
 Thebes to the Grecian army, b. c. 4110. — 2. A 
 Theban, assisted the Spart'ins in seizing the Cad- 
 mea, or citadel of Thebes, in 3G2. He was slain 
 by Pelopidas in 379, when the Spartan exiles 
 recovered possession of the Cadmea. 
 
 Leontini (oi AeofTrvoi ; A.^ovtIvos '. JLeidini), a 
 town in the E. of Sicily, about 5 miles from the 
 sea, N. W. of Syracuse, was situated upon the 
 small river Lissus. It was built upon 2 hills,. 
 which were separated from one another b}' a val- 
 ley, in which were the forum, the senate-house,. 
 and the other public buildings, while the temples 
 and the private houses occupied the hills. The 
 rich plains N, of the cit}', called Leontini Campi, 
 were some of the most fertile in Sicily, and pro- 
 duced abundantcropsof most excellent wheat. Leon- 
 tini was founded by Chalcidians from Naxos, b. c. 
 730, only 6 years after the foundation of Naxos it- 
 self. It never attained much political importance in 
 consequence of its proximity to Syracuse, to which 
 it soon became subject, and whose fortunes it 
 shared. At a later time it joined the Carthaginians, 
 and was in consequence taken and plundered by 
 the Romans. Under the Komans it sunk into in- 
 significance, Gorgias was a native of Leontini. 
 
 Leontium (AerfvTw;/), an Athenian hetacra, 
 the disciple and mistress of Epicui-us, wrote a 
 treatise against Theophrastus. She had a daughter, 
 Dane, who was also an hetaera of some notoriety. 
 
 Leontium {J\.^6vtiov)^ a town in Achaia, be- 
 tween Pharae and Aegium. 
 
 Lsontopolis (Aeor'TiiTroAis, li€6vT(au ir6Kis), 1. 
 A city in the Delta of Egypt, S. of Thmu'is, and 
 N. "W. of Athribis, was the capital of the Nomos 
 Leontopolites, and probably of late foundation as 
 no writer before Strabo mentions it. Its site is 
 uncertain. — 2. [Nicephorium.] 
 
 Leoprepides, i. e. Simonides, the son of Leo- 
 pre pes. 
 
 Leos (AeciSs), one of the heroes eponymi of the 
 Athenians, said to have been a son of Orpheus. 
 Tbe phyle or tribe of Leontis derived its name 
 from him. Once, when Athens was suffering from 
 famine or plague, the Delphic oracle demanded 
 that the daughters of Leos should be sacrificed, 
 and the father complied with the command of the 
 oracle. The maidens were afterwards honoured 
 by the Athenians, who erected the Leocorium 
 (from Aeis and i(6pai) to them. Their names 
 were Praxithea, Theope, and Eubule. 
 
 Leosthenes (Aewo-eeVTys), an Atlienian com- 
 mander of the combined Greek army in the Lamian 
 
376 
 
 LEOTYCHIDES. 
 
 ■war. In the year after the death of Alexander 
 (b. c. 323), he defeated Antipater near Thermo- 
 pylae ; Autipater thereupon threw himself into 
 the small town of Lamia. Leosthenes pressed the 
 siege -with the utmost vigour, but was killed by a 
 blow from a stone. Jlis loss was mourned by the 
 Athenians as a public calamity. He was honoured 
 "ivith a public burial in the Ceramicus, and his 
 funeral oration was pronounced by H^'perides. 
 Leotycllides {AsojTvxiorjs, Aeurux'STjj, Herod.). 
 
 1. King of Sparta, B. c. 491 — 469. He commanded 
 the Greek fleet in 479, and defeated the Persians 
 at tlie battle of Mycale. He was afterwards sent 
 ■with an army into Thessaly to punish those who 
 had sided with the Persians ; but in consequence 
 of his accepting the bribes of the Aleuadae, he was 
 brought to trial on his return home, and went into 
 exile to Tegea, 469, where he died. He was suc- 
 ceeded by his grandson, Archidamus II.— 2. Grand- 
 son of Archidamus II., and son of Agis II. There 
 was, however, some suspicion that he "waa in 
 reality the fruit of an intrigue of Alclbiades with 
 Timaea, the queen of Agis ; in consequence of 
 ■which he was excluded from the throne, mainly 
 through the influence of Lysander, and his uncle, 
 Agesllaus II., was substituted in his room. 
 
 Lepidus AemHi-as, a distinguished patrician fa- 
 mily. 1. M., aedile B. c. 19'2 ; praetor 191, with 
 Sicily as his province ; consul 187, when he de- 
 feated the Ligurians ; pontlfex maximus lUO ; 
 censor 179 with M. Fulvius Nobilior ; and consul 
 a second time 175, He was six times chosen by 
 the censors princeps senatus, and he died 152, full 
 of years and honours. Lepidus the triumvir is 
 called by Cicero {FhU, xili. 7) the pronepos of this 
 Lepidus ; but he would seem more probably to 
 have been his aJmcpos^ or great-great-grandson.— 
 
 2. M., consul 137, carried on war in Spain against 
 the Vaccaei, but unsuccessfully. Since he had at- 
 tacked the Vaccaei in opposition to the express 
 orders of the senate, he was deprived of his com- 
 mand, and condemned to pay a fine. He was a 
 man of education and refined taste. Cicero, who 
 had read bis speeches, speaks of him as the greatest 
 orator of his age. He helped to form the style of 
 Tib. Gracchus and C. Carbo, who were accustomed 
 to listen to him with great care.^3. M., the 
 father of the triumvir, was praetor in Sicily in 81, 
 ■where he earned a character by his oppressions 
 only second to that of Verres. In the civil wars 
 between Marius and Sulla he belonged at first to 
 the party of the latter, but he afterwards came 
 forward as a leader of the popular party. In his 
 consulship, 78, he attempted to rescind the laws of 
 Sulla, who had lately died, but he was opposed by 
 his colleague Catulus, who received the powerful 
 support of Pompey. In the following year (77) 
 Lepidus took up arms, and marched against Rome. 
 He Avas defeated by Pompey and Catulus, under 
 the walls of the city, in the Campus Martius, and 
 was obliged to take to flight. Finding it impossible 
 to hold his ground in Italy, Lepidus sailed with 
 the remainder of his forces to Sardinia ; but re- 
 pulsed even in this island by the propraetor, he 
 died shortly afterwards of chagrin and sorrow, 
 which is said to have been increased by the dis- 
 covery of his wife's infidelity. — 4. Mam., sur- 
 Jiamed Livianus, because he belonged originally to 
 the Livia gens, consul 77, belonged to the aristo- 
 cratical party, and was one of the influential persons 
 who prevailed upon Sulla to spare the life of the 
 
 LEPIDUS. 
 
 young Julius Caesar. — 5. M., consul 66, with L. 
 Volcatius Tullus, the sameyear in whicli Cicero was 
 praetor. He belonged to the aristocratical party, 
 but on the breaking out of the civil war in 49, he 
 retired to his Forraian villa to watch the progress 
 of events. — 6. L. Aemilius Paulus, son of No. 
 3, and brother of M. Lepidus, the triumvir. His 
 surname of Paulus was probably given him by his 
 father, in honour of the celebrated Aemilius Paulus, 
 the conqueror of Macedonia. But since he belonged 
 to the family of the Lepidi, and not to that of the 
 PaiUi, he is Inserted in this place and not under 
 Paulus. Aemilius Paulus did not follow the ex- 
 ample of his father, but commenced his public 
 career by supporting the aristocratical party. Plis 
 first public act was the accusation of Catiline in 
 63. He was quaestor in Macedonia 52; aedile 
 55 ; praetor S3 ; and consul 50, along with AI. 
 Claudius Marcelhis. Paulus was raised to the 
 consulship, on account of his being one of the most 
 determined enemies of Caesar, but Caesar gained 
 him over to his side by a bribe of 1500 talents, 
 which he is said to have expended on the comple- 
 tion of a magnificent basilica which he had com- 
 menced in his aedilcship. After the murder of 
 Caesar (44), Paulus joined the senatorial part)--. 
 He was one of the senators who declared M. Lepi- 
 dus a public enemy, on account of bis having joined 
 Antony ; and, accordingly, when the triumvuate 
 was fonned, his name was set down first in the 
 proscription list by his o^vn brother. The soldiers, 
 however, who were appointed to kill him, allowed 
 him to escape. He passed over to Brutus in Asia, 
 and after the death of the latter repaired to Mile- 
 tus. Here he remained, and refused to go to 
 Rome, although he was pardoned by the triumvirs, 
 —7. M. Aemilius Lepidna, the Triumvir, brother 
 of the last. On the breaking out of the civil war 
 (49), Lepidus, who was thenpraetor, joined Caesar's 
 party ; and as the consuls had fled with Pompey 
 from Italy, Lepidus, as praetor, was the highest 
 magistrate remaining in Italy. During Caesar's 
 absence in Spain, Lepidus presided at the comitia 
 in which the former was appointed dictator. In 
 the following year (48) he received the province of 
 Nearer Spain. On his return to Rome in 47, 
 Caesar granted him a triumph, and made him hla 
 magister equitura ; and in the next year (46), his 
 colleague in the consulship. In 44 he received 
 from Caesar the government of Narbonese Gaul 
 and Nearer Spain, but had not quitted the neigh- 
 bourhood of Rome at the time of the dictator's death . 
 Having the command of an army near the city, he 
 was able to render M. Antonj^ efiicient assistance ; 
 and the latter in consequence allowed Lepidus to 
 be chosen pontifex maximus, which dignity had 
 become vacant by Caesar's death. Lepidus soon 
 afterwards repaired to his provinces of Gaul and 
 Spain. He remained neutral in the struggle be- 
 tween Antony and the senate ; but he subsequently 
 joined Antony, when the latter fled to hira in 
 Gaul after his defeat at Mutina. This was in the 
 end of May, 43 ; and when the news reached 
 Rome, the senate proclaimed Lepidus a public 
 enemy. In the autumn Lepidus and Antony 
 crossed the Alps at the head of a powerful army. 
 Octavlan (afterwards Augustus) joined them ; and 
 in the month of October the celebrated triumviratti 
 was formed, by which the Roman world was di- 
 vided between Octavlan, Antony, and Lepidus. 
 [See p. IOC, a.] In 42 Lepidus remained in Italy 
 
LEPONTII. 
 
 rvs consul, while the two other triumvirs prosecuted 
 the wnr against .Brutus and Cassias. In the fresli 
 division of the provinces after the battle of Phi- 
 lippi, Lepidus received Africa, where he remained 
 till 36. In this year Octavian summoned hira to 
 Sicily to assist him in the war against Sex. Pompey. 
 Lepidus obeyed, but tired of being treated as a 
 subordinate, he resolved to make an effort to acquire 
 Sicily for himself and to regain his lost power. 
 He was easily subdued by Octavian, who spared 
 his life, init deprived him of his triumvirate, his 
 army, and his provinces, and commanded that he 
 should live at Circeii, under strict surveillance. He 
 allowed him, however, to retain his dignity of pnn- 
 tifex maximus. He died B. c. 13. Augustus suc- 
 ceeded him as pontifex maximus. Lepidus was 
 fond of ease and repose, and it is not improbable 
 that he possessed abilities capable of effecting much 
 more than he ever did. — 8. Paulus Aemilius 
 Lepidus, son of No. 6, with whom he is fre- 
 quently confounded. His name is variously given 
 by the ancient writers Aemilius Paulus^ or Paulus 
 Aemilius, or Aemilius Lepidus Paulus, but Paulus 
 Aemilius Lepidus seems to be the most correct 
 form. He probably fled with his father to Brutus, 
 but h? afterwards made his peace with the trium- 
 virs. He accompanied Octavian in his campaign 
 against Sex. Pompey in Sicily in. 36. In 34 he 
 ■was consul suffectus. In 22 he was censor with 
 L. Munatius Plnncus, and died while holding this 
 dignity. — 9. M. Aemiliua Lepidus, son of the 
 triumvir [No. 7] and Junia, formed a conspiracy 
 in 30, for the purpose of assassinating Octavian on 
 his return to Rome after the battle of Actium. 
 Maecenas, who had charge of the city, became 
 acquainted with the plot, seized Lepidus, and sent 
 him to Octavian in the East, who put hira to death. 
 His father was ignorant of the conspiracy, but his 
 mother was privy to it. Lepidus was married 
 twice : his first wife was Antonia, the dai^hter of 
 the triumvir, and his 2nd Servilia, who puran end 
 to her life by swallowing burning coals when the 
 conspiracy of her husband was discovered. ^10. 
 Q. Aemilius Lepidus, consul 21 with M. Lolliua. 
 (Hor. Ep. i. 20. 2S.)— IL L. Aemilius Paulus, 
 son of No. 8 and Cornelia, married Julia, the grand- 
 daughter of Augustus. [Julia, No, 6.] Paulus 
 is therefore called the progener of Augustus. He 
 was consul a.d. 1 with 0, Caesar, his wife''s 
 brother. He entered into a conspiracy against Au- 
 gustus, of the particulars of which we are not in- 
 formed. —13. M. Aemilius Lepidus, brother of 
 the last, consul a. d. 6 with L. Arruntius, He 
 lived on the most intimate terms with Augustus, 
 who employed him in the war against the Dalma- 
 tians in A. D. 9. After the death of Augustus, he 
 was also held in high esteem hy Tiberius. — 
 13. IS.. Aemilius Lepidus, consul with T. Sta- 
 tilius Taurus in a. d. 11, must be carefully distin- 
 guished from the last. In A. d, 21 he obtained 
 the province of Asia.— 14. Aemilius Lepidus, 
 the son of 11 and Julia, the granddaughter of 
 Augustus, and consequently the great-grandson of 
 Augustus, He was one of the minions of the em- 
 peror Caligula, with whom he had the most shame- 
 ful connection. He married Drusilla, the favourite 
 sister of the emperor ; but he was notwithstanding 
 put to death by Caligula, A. D. 39. 
 
 Lepoutii, a people inhabiting the Alps, in whose 
 country Caesar places the sources of the Rhine, 
 and Pliny the sources of the Rhone. They dwelt 
 
 LEPTINES, 
 
 377 
 
 on the S. slope of the St. Gotthard and the Simplon, 
 towards the Lngo Maggiore, and their name is still 
 retained in the Val Leventina. Their chief town 
 was Oscela {Domo d''Cssola). 
 
 Leprea (AeVpea), daughter of Pyrgeus, from 
 whom the town of Lepreum in Elis was said to 
 have derived its name. [Lepreum.] Another tra- 
 dition derived the name from Lepreus, a son of Cau- 
 con, Glaucon, or Pyrgeus, by Astydamia, He was 
 a grandson of Poseidon, and a rival of Plercules 
 both in his strength and his powers of eating, but 
 he was conquered and slain by the latter. His 
 tomb was believed to exist at Phigalia. 
 
 Lepreum (AeVpeoy, AeVpeos: AeTrptor-r/y ; Stro- 
 viizi). a town of Elis in Triphylia, situated 40 
 stadia from the sea, was said to have been founded 
 in the time of Theseus by Minyans from Lemnos. 
 After the Messenian wars it was subdued by the 
 Eleans with the aid of Sparta ; but it recovered its 
 independence in the Peloponnesian war, and was 
 assisted by the Spartans against Elis. At the time 
 of the Achaean league it was subject to Elis, 
 
 Q, Lepta, a native of Cales in Campania, and 
 praefectus fabrum to Cicero in Cilicia B.C. 51. Pie 
 joined the Pompeian party in the civil war, and is 
 frequently mentioned in Cicero's letters. 
 
 Leptines (AeTrTiV?;?). L A Syracusan, son of 
 Hermocrates, and brother of Dionysius the elder, 
 tjTant of Sj'racuse. He commanded his brother's 
 fleet in the war against the Carthaginians b. c. 397, 
 but was defeated by Mago with great loss. In 390 
 he was sent by Dionysius with a fleet to the assist- 
 ance of the Lucanians against the Italian Greeks. 
 Some time afterwards he gave offence to the jealous 
 temper of the tyrant, by giving one of his daughters 
 in marriage to Philistus, without any previous in- 
 timation to Dionysius, and on this account he was 
 banished from Syracuse, together with Philistus. 
 He thereupon retired to Thurii, but was subse- 
 quently recalled by Dionysius to Syracuse. Here 
 he was completely reinstated in his former favour, 
 and obtained one of the daughters of Dionysius in 
 marriage. In 383, he again took an active part 
 in the war against the Carthaginians, and com- 
 manded the right wing of the Syracusan army in 
 the battle near Cronium ; in which he was killed. 
 —2. A Syracusan, who joined with Calippus in 
 expelling the garrison of the younger Dionysius 
 from Rhegium, 351. Soon afterwards he assas- 
 sinated Calippus, and then crossed over to Sicily, 
 where he made himself tyrant of ApoUonia and 
 Engyum. He was expelled in common with the 
 other tyrants by Timoleon ; but his life was spared 
 and he was sent into exile at Corinth, 342.^3. 
 An Athenian, known only as the proposer of a law 
 taking away all special exemptions from the burden 
 of public charges (areAetai ruv Acirovpyicotf) 
 against which the celebrated oration of Demosthenes 
 is directed, usually known as the oration against 
 Leptines. This speech was delivered 35.5 : and 
 the law must have been passed above a year before, 
 as we are told that the lapse of more than that 
 period had already exempted Leptines from all per- 
 sonal responsibility. Hence the efforts of Demo- 
 sthenes were directed solely to the repeal of the 
 law, not to the punishment of its proposer. His 
 arguments were successful, and the law was re- 
 pealed. —4. A Sj'rian Greek, who assassinated 
 with his own hand at Laodicca, Cn, Octavius, the 
 chief of the Roman deputies, who had been sent 
 into Syria, 162. Demetrius caused Leptines to be 
 
378 
 
 LEPTIS. 
 
 seized, and sent as a prisoner to Kome ; "but the 
 senate refused to receive lilni, being desirous to re- 
 serve this cause of compLiint as a public grievance. 
 
 Leptis (AeTTTi's). 1. Leptia Blagna or Neapo- 
 lis (?) AeTTTis fxeyd\T], NeaToAty), a city on the 
 coast of N. Africa, between the Syrtes, E. of Ahro- 
 tonum, and W. of the mouth of the little river 
 Cinypa, was a Phoenician colony, with a flourish- 
 ing commerce, though it possessed no harbour. 
 With Abrotonum and Oea it formed the African 
 Tripolis. The Romans made it a colony : it was 
 the birthplace of the emperor Septimius Severus: 
 and it continued to flourish till A. D. 36G, when it 
 was almost ruined by an attack from a Libyan 
 tribe. Justinian did something towards its resto- 
 ration ; but the Arabian invasion completed its 
 destruction. Its ruins are still considerable. — 2. 
 Leptia Minor or Parva (AeTrrU tj {xiKpa: Lavita, 
 Ra.), usually called simply Leptis, a Phoenician 
 colony on the coast of Byzacium, in N. Africa, 
 between Hadrumetum and Tliapsus : an important 
 place under both the Carthaginians and the Ro- 
 mans. 
 
 Lerina (St Honorat), an island off the coast of 
 Gallia Narbonensis, opposite Antipolis {Antihes). 
 
 Leraa or Leme (Aepj/Tj), a district in Argolis, 
 not far from Argos, in which was a marsh and a 
 small river of the same name. It was celebrated 
 as the place where Hercules killed the Lemean 
 Hydra. [See p. 308, b.] 
 
 Lero {St. Marguerite)^ a small island off the 
 coast of Gallia Narbonensis. 
 
 Leros (Aepos : Aepios), a small island, one of 
 the Sporades, opposite to the mouth of the Sinus 
 lassius, on the coast of Caria. Its inhabitants, 
 who came originally from Miletus, bore a bad 
 character. Besides a city of the same name, it 
 had in it a temple of Artemis, where the trans- 
 formation of the sisters of Meleager into guinea- 
 fowls was said to have taken place, in memory of 
 which guinea-fowls were kept in the court of that 
 temple. 
 
 Lesboaax (A^a-Sccua^). L Son of Potamon of 
 Mytilene, a philosopher and sophist, in the time 
 of Augustus. He was the father of Polemon, the 
 teacher and friend of the emperor Tiberius, Ijes- 
 bonax wrote several political orations, of which 2 
 have come down to us, one entitled Trepl rou 7ro\4fj.ou 
 Kopivdiwy^ and the other TTporpeTrTLichs hSyos, both 
 of which are not unsuccessful imitations of the Attic 
 orators of the best times. They are printed in the 
 collections of the Greek orators [Demosthenes], 
 and separately by Orel!!, Lips. 1820. — 2. A Greek 
 grammarian, of uncertain age, but later than No. 1 , 
 the author of an extant work on grammatical figures 
 (irepl o'XTj^arwi'), published by Valckenaer in his 
 edition of Ammonius. 
 
 Lesbos {AeaSos: AeVfftos, Lesbius : Mytilene,, 
 Metelin)^ the largest, and by far the most import- 
 ant, of the islands of the Aegean along the coast of 
 Asia Minor, lay opposite to the Gulf of Adra- 
 myttium, off the coast of Mysia, the direction of 
 its length being N. W. and S. E. It is inter- 
 sected by lofty mountains, and indented with 
 large bays, the chief of ivhich, on the W. side, 
 runs more than half way across the island. It 
 had 3 chief headlands, Argennum on the N. E., 
 Sigrium on the W., and Malea on the S. Its 
 vallies were very fertile, especially in the N. part, 
 near Methjinna ; and it produced com, oil, and 
 wine renowned for its excellence. In early times 
 
 LETO- 
 
 it was called by various names, the chief of which 
 were, Issa, Peiasgia, Mytanis, and Macaria : the 
 late Greek writers called it Mytilene, from its 
 chief city, and this name has been preserved to 
 modem times. The earliest reputed inhabitants 
 were Pelasgians ; the next, an Ionian colony, who 
 Avere said to have settled in it 2 generations before 
 the Trojan War ; lastly, at the time of the great 
 Aeolic migration (1 30 years after the Trojan 
 War, according to the mythical chronology'), the 
 island was colonised b}'' Aeolians, who founded in 
 it an Hexapolis, consisting of the 6 cities, Myti- 
 lene, Methynnia, Eresus, Pyrrha, Antissa, and 
 Arisbe, afterwards reduced to 5 through the de- 
 struction of Arisbe by the Methymnaeans. The 
 Aeolians of Lesbos afterwards founded numerous 
 settlements along the coast of the Troadand in the 
 region of Mt. Ida, and at one time a great part of 
 the Trnad seems to have been subject to Lesbos. 
 The chief facts in the history of the island are 
 connected with its principal city, Mytilene, which 
 was the scene of the struggles between the nobles 
 and the commons, in which Alcaeus and Pitta- 
 custook part. At the time of the Peloponnesian 
 "War, Lesbns was subject to Athens. After va- 
 rious changes, it fell under the power of Mithri- 
 dates, and passed from him to the Romans. The 
 island is most important in the early history of 
 Greece, as the native region of the Aeolian school 
 of lyric poetry. It was the birthplace of the mu- 
 sician and poet Terpander, of the lyric poets 
 Alcaeus, Sappho, and others, and of the dithy- 
 rambic poet Arion. Other fonns of literature 
 and philosophy early and long flourished in it : the 
 sage and statesman Pittacus, the historians Hel- 
 lanicUvS and Theophanes, and the philosophers 
 Theophrastus and Phanias, were all Lesbians. 
 
 Lesbothemis (Aeo-^ti^e/i/y), a statuary of an- 
 cient date, and a native of Lesbos. 
 
 Lesch.es or Lescheus (AeVxTjy, Alax^y^), one 
 of the TO-called cyclic poets, son of Aeschylinus, a 
 native of Pyrrha, in the neighbourhood of Mytilene, 
 and hence called a Mytilenean or a Lesbian. He 
 flourished about B.C. 708, and was usually regarded 
 as the author of the Little Iliad ('lAiay t] ^Kaaa-wv or 
 'lAiaj jxiKpa.)^ though this poem was also ascribed 
 to various other poets. It consisted of 4 books, 
 and was intended as a supplement to the Homeric 
 Iliad. It related the events after the death of 
 Hector, the fate of Ajax, the exploits of Philoctetes, 
 Neoptolemus, and Ulysses, and the final capture 
 and destruction of Troy, which part of the poem 
 was called The Destruction of Troy i^lXlov iriptns). 
 There was no unity in the poem, except that of 
 historical and chronological succession. Hence 
 Aristotle remarks that the little Iliad furnished 
 materials for 8 tragedies, whilst only one could be 
 based upon the Iliad or Odyssey of Homer. 
 
 Lethaeus {Ar^dalos). 1. A river of Ionia, in 
 Asia Minor, flowing S. past Magnesia into the 
 Maeander. ^ 2, A river in the S. of Crete, flow- 
 ing past Gortyna.— 3. [Lathon.] 
 
 Lethe (Atj^tj), the personification of oblivion, 
 called by Hesiod a daughter of Eris. A river in 
 the lower v/orld was likewise called Lethe. The 
 souls of the departed drank of this river, and thus 
 forgot all they had said or done in the upper world. 
 
 Lethie, a river in Spain. See Limaea. 
 
 Leto (Atjtco), called Latona by the Romans, is 
 described by Hesiod as a daughter of the Titan 
 Coeus and Phoebe, a sister of Asteria, and the 
 
LEUCA. 
 motlier of Apollo and Artemis by Zeus, to whom 
 she was maiTied before Hera. ' Homer likewise 
 calls her the mother of Apollo and Artemis by Zeus ; 
 he mentions her in the story of Niobe, who paid so 
 dearly for her conduct towards Leto [NiOBE],and 
 he also describes her as the friend of the Trojans 
 in the war with the Greeks. In later writers these 
 elements of her story are variously embellished, for 
 they do not describe her as the lawful wife of 
 Zeus, but merely as his mistress, who was perse- 
 cuted by Hera during her pregnancy. All the 
 "world being afraid of receiving Leto on account of 
 Hera, she wandered about till she came to Delos, 
 which was then a floating island, and bore the name 
 of Astoria or Ortygia. When Leto arrived there, 
 Zeus fastened it by adamantine chains to the 
 bottom of the sea, that it might be a secure resting- 
 place for his beloved, and here she gave birth to 
 Apollo and Artemis. The tradition is also related 
 with various other modifications. Some said 
 that Zeus changed Leto into a quail {opru^\ 
 and that in this state she arrived in the floating 
 island* which was hence called Ortygia. Others 
 related that Zeus was enamoured with Asteria, 
 but that she being metamorphosed into a bird, flew 
 across the sea ; that she was then changed into a 
 rock, which for a long time, lay under the surface 
 of the sea ; and that this rock arose from the waters 
 and received Leto when she was pursued by Python. 
 Leto was generally worshipped only in conjunction 
 with her children. Delos was the chief seat of her 
 worship. [Apollo.] — Itisprobablethatthe name 
 of Leto belongs to the same class of words as the 
 Greek \r]6T] and the Latin lateo. Leto would there- 
 fore signify "the obscure" or "concealed," not as 
 a physical power, but as a divinity yet quiescent 
 and invisible, from whom issued the visible divi- 
 nity with all his splendour and brilliancy. This 
 view is supported by the account of her genealogy 
 given by Hesiod. — From tlieir mother Apollo is 
 frequently Leto'ius ovLcUohts^ and Artemis (Diana) 
 Letoia^ Letois^ LatoTs^ or Latoa. 
 
 Leuca (ri Aeu^a), a town at the extremity of 
 the lapygian promontory in Calabria, with a stink- 
 ing fountain, [under which the giants who were 
 vanquished by Hercules are said to have been 
 buried. The promontory'' is still called Copo di 
 Leuca, t 
 
 Leucae, Leuca (Aeiz/fai, ActJ/ctj ; Lefka)^ a 
 small town on the coast of Ionia, in Asia Minor, 
 near Phocaea, built by the Persian general Tachos 
 in E. c. 332, and remarkable as the scene of the 
 battle between the consul Licinius Crassus and 
 Aristonicus, in 131. 
 
 Leucas or Leucadia (Aeu/cas, Aeu/caSia : Aeu- 
 KaZios : Santa Maura)^ an island in the Ionian sea, 
 off the W. coast of Acarnania, about 20 miles in 
 length, and from 5 to 8 miles in breadth. It has 
 derived its name from the numerous calcareous 
 hills which cover its surface. It was originally 
 united to the mainland at its N.E. extremity by a 
 narrow isthmus. Homer speaks of it as a penin- 
 sula, and mentions its well fortified town Nerimis 
 CNilpucos}. It was at that time inhabited by the 
 Teleboans and Leleges. ^bsequently the Corin- 
 thians under Cypselus, between B.C. 665 and 626, 
 founded a new town, called Lertcas in the N.E. of 
 the country near the isthmus, in which they settled 
 1000 of their citizens, and to which they removed 
 the inhabitants of Nericus, which lay a little to the 
 "W. of the new town. The Corinthians also cut a 
 
 LEUCIPPUS. 
 
 370 
 
 canal through the isthmus and thus converted the 
 peninsula into an island. This canal was afterwards 
 filled up by deposits of sand ; and in the Pelopon- 
 nesian war it was no longer available for ships, 
 which during that period were conveyed acioss the 
 isthmus on more than one occasion (Thuc. iii. 81, 
 iv. u ). The canal was o[icned again by tlie Romans. 
 At present the channel is dry in some parts, aiid 
 has from 3 to 4 feet of water in otiicrs. The town 
 of Leucas was a place of importance, and during 
 the war between Philip and the Romans v/as at 
 the head of the Acarnanian league, and the place 
 where the meetings of the league were held. It 
 was in consequence taken and plundered by the 
 Romans, B.C. 197. The remains of this town are 
 still to be seen. The other towns in the island 
 were Hellomenum {'E\K6fj.£vov) on the S. E. coast, 
 and Phara {^apa), on the S.V/. coast. — At the S. 
 extremity of the island, opposite Cephalienia, was 
 the celebrated promontor3% variously called Leucas, 
 Leucatas^Leucates^OT Leucaic [C. Ducalo), on which 
 was a temple of Apollo, who hence had the surname 
 of Leucadius. At the annual festival of the god it 
 was the custom to cast down a criminal from this 
 promontory into the sea: to break his fall birds of 
 all kinds were attached to him, and if he reached 
 the sea uninjured, boats were ready to pick him 
 up. This appears to have been an expiatory rite ; 
 and it gave rise to the well known story that lovers 
 leaped from this rock, in order to seek relief from 
 the pangs of love. Thus Sappho is said to have 
 leapt down from this rock, when in love with. 
 Phaon ; but this well known story vanishes at the 
 first approach of criticism. 
 
 Leiice {KiVKT]), an island in the Euxine sea, 
 near the mouth of the Borj-sthcnes, sacred to 
 Achilles. [Achilleus Dromos.] 
 
 Leuci, a people in the S. E. of Gallia Belgica, 
 S. of the Mediomatrici, between the Matrona and 
 Mosella. Their chief town was TuUum (Totcl). 
 
 Leuci ISdontes, called by the Romans Albl 
 Montes, a range of momitaius in the W. of Crete. 
 [Albi Montes.] 
 
 Leucippe. [Acgathoe.] 
 
 Leucippides (AeuKiTnriSes), i. e. Phoebe and 
 HilaJra, the daughters of Leucippus. They were 
 priestesses of Athena and Artemis, and betrothed 
 to Idas and Lynceus, the sons of Aphareus ; but 
 Castor and Pollux being charmedwith their beauty, 
 carried them off and married them. 
 
 Leucippus (AeuKiTTTTos). 1. Son of Oenomaus. 
 For details see Daphne.— 3. Son of Perieres and 
 Gorgophone, brother of Aphareus, and prince of 
 the Messenians, was one of the Calydonian hunters. 
 By his wife Philodice, he had 2 daughters, Phoebe 
 and Hilaira, usually called Leucippides.— 3. A 
 Grecian philosopher, the founder of the atomic 
 theory of the ancient philosopliy, which was more 
 fully developed by Democritus. Where and when 
 he was born we have no data for deciding. Mile- 
 tus, Abdera, and Elis have been assigned as his 
 birth-place ; the 1st, apparently, for no other 
 reason than that it was the birth-place of several 
 natural philosophers ; the '2nd, because Democritus 
 came from that town ; the 3rd, because he was looked 
 upon as a disciple of the Eleatic school. The period 
 when he lived is equally uncertain. He is called 
 the teacher of Democritus the disciple of Parme- 
 nides, or, according to other accounts, of Zeno, of 
 Melissus, nay even of Pythagoras. With regard 
 to his philosophical system it is impossible to speak 
 
3S0 LEUCON. 
 
 ■with certainty, since the -writers who mention him, 
 either mention him in conjunction with Democritus, 
 or attribute to him doctrines which are in like 
 manner attributed to Democritus. [Democritus.] 
 
 Leucon (Aeviccot/). 1. Son of Poseidon or Atha- 
 Tnas and Themisto, and father of Erythrus and 
 Evippe. — 2. A powerful king of Bosporus, who 
 reigned B. c. 393 — 353. He was in close alliance 
 ■with the Athenians, whom he supplied with corn 
 in frreat abundance, and who, in return for his ser- 
 vices, admitted him and his sons to the citizenship 
 of Athens. ^3. An Athenian poet, of the old 
 comedy, a contemporary and rival of Aristophanes. 
 
 Leuconium {A^ukwviov)^ a place in the island 
 of Ciiios. (Thuc. viil. 24.) 
 
 Leucouoe (AeuKovoij), daughter of Minyas, 
 usually called Leucippe. [Ai-CATHOE.] 
 
 Leucopetra (Aeu/coTrerpa : C. dell' Armi), a pro- 
 montory in the S.W. of Bnattium, on the Sicilian 
 straits, and a few miles S. of Rhegium, to wliose 
 territory it belonged. It was regarded by the 
 ancient writers as the termination of the Apennines, 
 and it derived its name from the white colour of 
 its rocks. 
 
 Leueophrys (AeuK64>pvs). 1. A city of Caria, 
 in the plain of the Maeander, close to a curious 
 lake of warm water, and having a renowned temple 
 of Artemis Leucophryne. — 2. A name given to 
 the island of Tenedos, from its white cliff's. 
 
 Leucophryne, [Leucofhrys.] 
 
 Leucosia or Leucasia {Piana)^ a small island 
 in the S. of the gulf of Paestum, off the coast of 
 Lucania, and opposite the promontory Posidium, 
 said to have been called after one of the Sirens. 
 
 Leucosyxi (AeuKoffupoi, i. e. White Syrians), 
 was a name early applied by the Greeks to the in- 
 habitants of Cappadocia, who were of the Syrian 
 race, in contradistinction to the Syrian tribes of a 
 ■darker colour beyond the Taurus. Afterwards, 
 when Cappadoces came to be the common name 
 for the people of S. Cappadocia, the word Leucosyri 
 was applied specifically to the people in the N. of 
 the country (aft. Pontus) on the coast of the 
 Euxine, between the rivers Halys and Iris : these 
 are the White Syrians of Xenophon (Anab. v. 6). 
 After the Macedonian conquest, the name appears 
 to have fallen into disuse. 
 
 Lencotliea (Aei/(co06o), a marine goddess, was 
 previously Ino, the wife of Athamas. For details 
 see Athamas. 
 
 Leucotlioe, daughter of the Babylonian king 
 Orchamus and Eurynome, was beloved by Apollo. 
 Her amour was betrayed by the jealous Clytia to 
 her father, who buried her alive ; whereupon Apollo 
 metamorphosed her into an incense shrub. — Leu- 
 cotlioe is in some writers only another form for 
 Leucothea. 
 
 Leuctra (ra. Aewrpa: Lf/ka or Lefhra), a 
 amall town in Boeotin, on the road from Platacae 
 to Thespiae, memorable for the victory wliich 
 Epaminondas and the Thebans here gained over 
 Cleombrotus and the Spartans, b. c. 371. 
 
 Leuctrum (AeO/crpoy). 1. Or Leuctra (Lrfirn\ 
 A town in Messenia, on the E. side of the Messenian 
 gulf, between Cardamyle and Thalama, on the 
 small river Pamisus. The Spartans and Messenlans 
 disput;d for the possession of it. —2. A small town 
 in Achaia, dependent on Rliypae. 
 
 Lezovii or Lezobii, a pco|)le in Gallia Lngdu- 
 neiisis, on the Ocean, W. of the mouth of the Se- 
 £\\ia.nQ.. Their capital was Noviomagus. {LUicux). 
 
 LTBANIUS. 
 
 Liba (tj A(§a), a city of Mesopotamia, between 
 Nisibis and the Tigris. 
 
 Libanius (AiSdfjos), a distinguished Greek - 
 sophist and rhetorician, was born at Antioch, on the 
 Orontes, about a. d. 314. He studied jit Athens, 
 where he imbibed an ardent love for the great 
 classical writers of Greece ; and he afterwards set 
 up a private school of rhetoric at Constantinople, 
 which was attended by so large a number of pupils, 
 that the classes of the public professors were com- 
 pletely deserted. The latter, in revenge, charged 
 Libanius with being a magician, and obtained his 
 expulsion from Constantinople about 346. He 
 then went to Nicomedia, wliere he taught with 
 equal success, but also drew upon himself an equal 
 degree of malice from his opponents. After a stay 
 of live years at Nicomedia, be was recalled to Con- 
 stantinople. Eventually he took up his abode at 
 Antioch, where he spent the remainder of his life. 
 Here he received the greatest marks of favour from 
 the emperor Julian, 362. In the reign of Valens 
 he was at first persecuted, but he afterwards suc- 
 ceeded in winning the favour of that monarch also. 
 The emperor Theodosius likewise showed him 
 marks of respect, but his enjoyment of life was dis- 
 turbed by ill health, by misfortunes in his family, 
 and more especially by the disputes in which he 
 was incessantly involved, partly with rival sophists, 
 and partly with the prefects. It cannot, however, 
 be denied, that he himself was as much to blame 
 as his opponents, for he appears to have provoked 
 them by his querulous disposition, and by the 
 pride and vanity which everywhere appear in his 
 orations, and which led him to interfere in political 
 questions which it would have been wiser to have 
 left alone. He was the teacher of St. Basil and 
 Chrysostora, with whom he always kept up a 
 friendly connexion. The year of his death is uncer- 
 tain, but from one of his epistles it is evident that 
 he was alive in 391, and it is probable that he died 
 a few years after, in the reign of Arcadius. The 
 extant works of Libanius are : 1. Models for rheto- 
 rical exercises {Ylpoyvfj.pao'fxdTOiJi' TrapaSciyiiara). 
 2. Orations (AcJyoi), 67 in number. 3. Declama- 
 tions (MeAerat), i.e. orations on fictitious subjects, 
 and descriptions of various kinds, 50 in number. 
 4. A life of Demosthenes, and arguments to the 
 speeches of the same orator. 5. Letters CEttio-to- 
 Aai), of which a very large number is still extant. 
 Many of these letters are extremely interesting, 
 being addressed to the most eminent men of his 
 time, such as the emperor Julian, Athanasius, 
 Basil, Gregory of Nyssa, Chrysostom, and others. 
 The style of Libanius is superior to that of the 
 other rhetoricians of the 4 th century. He took 
 the best orators of the classic age as his models, 
 and we can often see in him the disciple and happy 
 imitator of Demosthenes ; but he is not always able 
 to rise above the spirit of his age, and we rarely 
 find in him that natural simplicity which constitutes 
 the great charm of the best Attic orators. His 
 diction is a curious mixture of the pure old Attic 
 with what may be termed modern. Moreover it 
 is evident that, like all other rhetoricians, he is 
 more concerned about the form than the sub- 
 stance. As far as the history of his age is con- 
 cerned, some of his orations, and still more his 
 epistles are of great value, such as the oration in 
 which he relates the events of his own life, the 
 eulogies on Constantius and Constans, the orations 
 on Julian, several orations describing the condition 
 
LIBANUS. 
 
 of Antioch, and those which he wrote against his 
 professional and political opponents. There is no 
 complete edition of all the workf of Libaniua. The 
 best edition of the orations and declamations is by 
 Rei^ke, Altenburg, 1791 — 97,4 vols. 8vo.,and the 
 best edition of the epistles is by Wolf, Amster- 
 dam, 173lt, fol. 
 
 Libanus (5 AlSavos, rh AfSaj/ov : Heb. Le- 
 banon, i. e. tlie White Mountain. : Jekel Lihnan)^ 
 a lofty and steep mountain range on the confines of 
 Syria and Palestine, dividing Phoenice from Coele- 
 Syria- It extends from above Sidon, about lat. 
 33io jsf_^ jn a direction N.N.E. as far as about 
 lat. 341°. Its highest summits are covered with 
 perpetual snow, its sides were in ancient times 
 clothed with forests of cedars, of which only 
 scattered trees now remain, and on its lower slopes 
 grow vines, figs, mulberries, and other fruits: its 
 wines were highly celebrated in ancient times. It 
 is considerably lower than the opposite range of 
 Antilibanuk. In the Scriptures the word Le 
 banon is used for both ranges, and for either of 
 them ; but in classical authors the names Libanus 
 and Antilibanus are distinctive terms, being applied 
 to the W. and E. ranges respectively. 
 
 Libama or Libamum, a town of Liguria on 
 the Via Aurelia, N.W. of Genua. 
 
 liibentma, Lubentina, orLubentia, a surname 
 of Venus among the Romans, by which she is 
 described as the goddess of sexual pleasure (dea 
 libidinis). 
 
 Liher, or Liber Pater, a name frequently given 
 by the Roman poets to the Greek Bacchus or 
 Dionysus, who was accordingly regarded as iden- 
 tical with the Italian Liber, But the god Idber, 
 and the goddess Libera were ancient Italian divi- 
 nities, presiding over the cultivation of the vine 
 and the fertility of the fields. Hence they were 
 ■worshipped even in early times in conjunction with 
 Ceres. A temple to these 3 divinities was vowed 
 by the dictator, A Postumius, in B.C. 496, and was 
 built near the Circus Flaminius ; it was afterwards 
 restored by Augustus, and dedicated by Tiberius. 
 The name Liber is probably connected with libe- 
 rare. Hence Seneca says, Liber dicttts est quia 
 Hberat serviiio curaritm animij while others, who 
 were evidently thinking of the Greek Bacchus, 
 found in the name an allusion to licentious drink- 
 ing and speaking. Poets usually called him Liber 
 Paier^ the latter word being very commonly added 
 by the Italians to the names of gods. The female 
 Libera was id ntified by the Romans with Cora or 
 Proserpina, the daughter of Demeter (Ceres) ; 
 whence Cicero calls Liber and Libera children of 
 Ceres ; whereas Ovid calls Ariadne Libera. The 
 festival of the Liberalia was celebrated by the 
 Romans every year on the 17th of March. 
 Libera. [Liber,] 
 
 Libertaa, the personification of Liberty, was 
 worshipped at Rome as a divinity. A temple was 
 erected to her on the Aventine by Tib. Sempronius 
 Gracchus. Another was built by Clodius on the 
 spot where Cicero's house had stood. A third was 
 erected after Caesar's victories in Spain, From 
 these temples we must distinguish the Atrium 
 Libertatis, which was in the N. of the forum, to- 
 -wards the Quirinal. This building under the re- 
 public served as an office of the censors, and also 
 contained tables with laws inscribed upon them. It 
 ■was rebuilt by Asinius Pollio, and then became 
 the rcDository of the first public library at Rome, 
 
 LIBO. 
 
 381 
 
 — Libertas is usually represented in works of art 
 as a matron, with the pileus, the symbol of liberty, 
 or a wreath of laurel. Sometimes she appears 
 holding the Phrygian cap in her hand. 
 
 Libethrides. [Libethrum.] 
 
 Libethrius Mons (tJ* Aii-hdpiov upo^), a moun- 
 tain in Boeotia, a branch of Mt. Helicon, 40 stadia 
 from Coronea, possessing a grotto of the Libethrian 
 nymphs, adorned with their statues, and 2 fountains 
 Libnilirias and Peira. 
 
 Libethrum (AeiSridpou, ra AeiSridpa, ra A1&7/- 
 6pa), an ancient Thracian town in Pieria in Mace- 
 donia, on the slope of Olympus, and S.W. of Dium, 
 where Orpheus is said to have lived. This town 
 and the surrounding country were sacred to the 
 Muses, who were hence called Libclkrides ; and it ia 
 probable that the worship of the Muses under this 
 name was transferred from this place to Boeotia. 
 
 Libitina, an ancient Italian divinity, who was 
 identified by the later Romans sometimes with 
 Persephone (Proserpina), on account of her con- 
 nection with the dead and their burial, and some- 
 times with Aphrodite (Venus). The latter was 
 probably the conseq^uence of etymological specula- 
 tions on the name Libitina, which people connected 
 with libido. Her temple at Rome was a repository 
 of everything necessary for burials, and persons 
 might there either buy or hire those things. Hence 
 a person undertaking the burial of a person (an 
 underUiker) was called lihitinariiis^ and his business 
 libititia ; hence the expressions libitinam exercere^ or 
 facere^ and libitina funerihusnon sufficiebat^ i.e. they 
 could not all be buried. It is related that king 
 Servius Tullius, in order to ascertain the number 
 of deaths, ordained that for every person who died, 
 a piece of money should be deposited in the temple 
 of Libitina. — Owing to this connection of Libitina 
 with the dead, Roman poets frequently employ her 
 name in the sense of death itself. 
 
 ■ Libo, Scribonius, a plebeian family. 1. L.,, 
 trilTune of the plebs, B.C. 149, accused Ser. Sulpi- 
 cius Galba on account of the outrages which he had 
 committed against the Lusitanians. [Galb-a, 
 No. 6.] It was perhaps this Libo who consecrated 
 the Puteal Scrihonianum or Puteal Libonis^ of which 
 we so frequently read in ancient -writeps. The 
 Puteal was an enclosed place in the forum, near 
 the Arcus Fabianus, and was so called from its 
 being open at the top, like a puteal or well. It ap- 
 pears that there was only one such puteal at Rome,, 
 and not two, as is generally believed. It was de- 
 dicated in very ancient times either on account of 
 the whetstone of the augur Navius (comp, Liv. i. 
 36), or because the spot had been struck b)' light- 
 ning ; it was subsequently repaired and re-dedicated 
 by Libo, who erected in its neighbourhood a tri- 
 bunal for the praetor, in consequence of which the- 
 place was frequented by persons who had law-suits, 
 such as money lenders and the like. (Comp. Hor. 
 Sat. ii. 6. 35, Epist. i. 19. 8.)— 2. L., the father- 
 in-law of Sex, Pompey, the son of Pompey the 
 Great. On the breaking out of the civil war in 49^ 
 he naturally sided with Pompey, and was entrusted 
 with the command of Etruria. Shortl}"- afterwards 
 he accompnnied Pompey to Greece, and waa ac- 
 tively engaged in the war that ensued. On the 
 death of Bibulus (48) he had the chief command 
 of the Porapeian fleet. In the civil wars which 
 followed Caesar's death, he followed the fortunes 
 of his son-in-law Sex. Pompey. In 40, Octavian 
 married his sister Scribonia, and this marriage 
 
382 
 
 LIBON. 
 
 was followed by a peace between the tnamvirs and 
 Pompey ('60). When the war was renewed in 
 36, Libo for a time continued with Pompey, but, 
 seeing his cause hopeless, he deserted him in the fol- 
 lowing year. In 34, he was consul with M, Antony. 
 
 Libon (AifiuK/), an Elean, the architect of the 
 great temple of Zeus in the Altis at Olympia, 
 tloui'ished about e.c. 450. 
 
 Libni, a Gallic tribe in Gallia Cispadana, to 
 whom the towns of Brixia and Verona formerly be- 
 longed, from which they were expelled by the 
 Cenomani. They are probably the same people 
 whom we afterwards find in the neighbourhood of 
 Vercellae under the name of Lebecii or Libici. 
 
 Libumia, a district of Illyricum, along the coast 
 of the Adriatic sea, was separated from Istria on 
 the N. W. by the river Arsi;x, and from Dalmatia 
 on the S. by the river Titius, thus corresponding 
 to the W. part of Croatia, and tlie N. part of the 
 modern Dalmatia. The country is mountainous 
 and unproductive, and its inhabitants, the Libumi, 
 supported themselves chiefly by commerce and 
 navigation. They were celebrated at a very early 
 period as bold and skilful sailors, and they appear 
 to have been the first people who had the sway of 
 the waters of the Adriatic. They took possession of 
 most of the islands of this sea as far as Corcyra, and 
 had settlements even on the opposite coast of Italy. 
 Their ships were remarkable for their swift sail- 
 ing, and hence vessels built after the same model 
 were called Libumicae or Liburnae naves. It was 
 to light vessels of this description that Augustus 
 was mainly indebted for his victory over Antony's 
 fleet at the battle of Actlum. The Liburnians 
 ■were the first Illyrian people who submitted to the 
 Komans. Being liard pressed by the lapydes on 
 the N. and by the Dalmatians on the S,, they 
 sought the protection of Rome at a comparatively 
 early period. Hence we find that many of their 
 towns were immunes, or exempt from taxes. The 
 islands off the coast were reckoned a part of Libur- 
 nia and a^e known by the general name of Libur- 
 nides or Libumicae Insulae. [Illyricum.] 
 
 Libya (At§u7]), daughter of Epaphus and 
 Memphis, from whom Libya (Africa) is said to 
 have derived its name. By Poseidon she became 
 the mother of Agenor, Belus, and Lelex. 
 
 Libya {AiSvtj : AiSues, Libyes). 1. The Greek 
 name for the continent of Africa in general 
 [Africa].— 2. L. Interior (A. tJ eyrSs), tlie 
 T.'hole interior of Africa, as distinguished from the 
 well-known regions on the N. and N.E. coasts.— 
 3. Libya, specifically, or Libyae Nonios {At€vTis 
 j/o/x6s), a district of N. Africa, between Egypt and 
 Marmarica, so called because it once formed an 
 Egyptian Nomos. It is sometimes called Libya 
 Exterinr. 
 
 Libyoi Moutes (rb AiSukoi/ opos: Jebcl Sdselch\ 
 the range of mountains which form the W. margin 
 of the valley of the Nile. [Aegyptus.] 
 
 Libycum Mare (t!) A^^vkov TreAayoj), the part 
 of the Mediterrr^nean between the island of Crete 
 and the N. coast of Africa. 
 
 Libyphoemcea [AiSotpoiviK^s, AiSotpotviK^s), a 
 term applied to the people of those parts of N. 
 Africa, in which the Phoenicians had founded co- 
 lonies, and especially to the inhabitants of_ the 
 Phoenician cities on the coast of the Carthaginian 
 territory: it is derived from the fact that these 
 people were a mixed race of the Libyan natives 
 with the Phoenician settlers. 
 
 LICINIUS. 
 
 Libyssa {AiSvaaa: Herehih^), a town of Bi- 
 tliynia, in Asia Minor, on the N. coast of the Sinus 
 Astacenns, W. of Nicomedia, celebrated as the 
 place where the tomb of Hannibal was to be seen. 
 
 Licates or Licatii, a people of Vindelicla on 
 the E. bank of tlie river Licus or Licia (Xec/i),one 
 of the fiercest of the Vindelician tribes. 
 
 Licbades (Aix^Ses : Fo?iticonesz), 3 small islands 
 between Euboea and the coast of Locris, called 
 Scarphia, Ciiresa, and Phocaria. See Lichas, No. 1. 
 
 Lichas (A/xas). 1. An attendant of Hercules, 
 brought his master the poisoned gannent, which 
 destroyed the hero. [See p. 310, b.] Hercules, in 
 anguish and wrath, threw Lichas into the sea, and 
 the Lichadian islands were believed to have derived 
 their name from him, — 2, A Spartan, son of 
 Arcesilaus, was proxenus of Argos, and is fre- 
 quently mentioned in the Peloponnesian war. He 
 was famous throughout Greece for his hospitalitj'-, 
 especially in his entertainment of strangers at the 
 Gymnopaedia, 
 
 Licia or Licus. [Licates.] 
 
 Liciiiia. 1. A Vestal virgin, accused of incest, 
 together with 2 other Vestals, Aemilia and Marcia, 
 B.C. 114. L. Metellus, the pontifex maximus, 
 condemned Aemilia, but acquitted Licinia and 
 Marcia. The acquittal of the "2 last caused such 
 dissatisfaction that the people appointed L. Cassias 
 Longinus to investigate the matter ; and he con- 
 demned both Licinia and Marcia. — 2. Wife of 
 C. Sempronius Gracchus, the celebrated tribune. 
 ^ 3, Daughter of Crassus the orator, and wife of 
 the younger Marius. 
 
 Licinia Gens, a celebrated plebeian house, to 
 which belonged C. Licinius Calvng Stolo, whose 
 exertions threw open the consulship to the ple- 
 beians. Its most distinguished families at a later 
 time w^ere those of Crassus, Lucullus and 
 Ml'rena. There were likewise numerous other 
 surnames in the gens, which are also given in 
 tiieir proper places. 
 
 Licinius. 1. C. Licinius Calvus, surnamed 
 Stolo, which he derived, it is said, from the care 
 with whicliN he dug up the shoots that sprang up 
 from the roots of his vines. He brought the contest 
 between the patricians and plebeians to a happy 
 termination, and thus became the foundet- of Rome's 
 greatness. He was tribune of the people from B.C. 
 376 to 367, and was faithfully supported in his 
 exertions by his colleague L. Sextius. The laws 
 which he proposed were : 1. That in future no 
 more consular tribunes should be appointed, but 
 that consuls should be elected, one of whom should 
 aiways be a plebeian. 2. That no one should 
 possess more than 500 jugera of the public land, 
 nr keep upon it more than 100 head of large and 
 500 of small cattle. 3. A law regulating the affairs 
 between debtor and creditor. 4. That the Sibylline 
 books should be entrusted to a college of ten men 
 (decemviri), half of whom should be plebt'lans. 
 These rogations were passed after a most vehement 
 opposition on the part of the patricians, and 
 L. Sextius was the first plebeian who obtained the 
 consulship, 366. Licinius himself was elected 
 twice to the consulship, 364 and 361. Some years 
 later he was accused by M. Popllius Laenas of 
 having transgressed his own law respecting the 
 amount of public land which a person might pos- 
 sess. He was condemned and sentenced to pay a 
 heavy, fine. — 2. C. Licinius Macer, an annalist 
 and an orator, was a man of praetorian dignity, 
 
LlClNiUa. 
 
 who, when impeached (6G) of extortion by Cicero, 
 finding that the verdict was against him, forth witli 
 committed suicide before the formalities of the trial 
 were completed, and thus averted the dishonour 
 and loss which would have been entailed upon 
 his family by a public condemnation and by the 
 confiscation of property which it involved. His 
 Jn?iales commenced with the very origin of the 
 city, and extended to 21 books at least ; but how 
 far he brought down his history, is unknown.^ 
 3. C. Licinius Hacer Calvxis, son of the last, a 
 distinguished orator and poet, was born in 82, and 
 died about 47 or 46, in his 35th or 36th year. 
 His most celebrated oration was delivered against 
 Vatinius, who was defended by Cicero, when he 
 was t)nly 27 years of age. So powerful was the 
 effect produced by this speech, that tbe accused 
 started up in the midst of the pleading, and pas- 
 sionately exclaimed, " Rogo vos, judicea, num, si 
 iste disertus est, ideo me damnari oporteat?" liis 
 poems were full of wit and grace, and possessed 
 sufficient merit to be classed by the ancients with 
 those of Catullus. His elegies, especially that 
 on the untimely death of his mistress Quintilia, 
 have been warmly extolled by Catullus, Pro- 
 pertius, and Ovid. Calvus was remarkable for 
 the shortness of his stature, and hence the vehe- 
 ment action in which he indulged while pleading 
 was in such ludicrous contrast with his insignificant 
 person, that even his friend Catullus has not been 
 able to resist a joke, and has presented hitn to us 
 as the '■'' Salaputium disertura," " the eloquent 
 Tom^ Thumb." 
 
 Licinius, Koman emperor A. d. 307 — 324, 
 whose full name was Publius Flavius Galerius 
 Valekius Licinianus Licinius. He was a Ba- 
 cian peasant by birth, and the early friend and com- 
 panion in arms of the emperor Galerius, by whom 
 he was raised to the rank of Augustus, and invested 
 with the command of the Illyrian provinces at 
 Carmentum, on the 11th of November, A, D. 307. 
 Upon the death of Galerius in 311, he concluded 
 a peaceful arrangement with Maximinus II., in 
 virtue of which the Hellespont and the Bosporus 
 were to form the boundary of the two empires. In 
 313 he married at Milan, Constantia, the sister of 
 Constantine, and in the same year set out to en- 
 counter Maximinus, who had invaded his dominions. 
 Maximinus was defeated by Licinius near He- 
 raclea, and died a few months afterwards at 
 Tarsus. Licinius and Constantine were now the 
 only emperors, and each was anxious to obtain the 
 undivided sovereignty-. Accordingly war broke 
 out between them in 315. Licinius was defeated 
 at Cibalis in Pannouia, and afterwards at Adri- 
 anople, and was compelled to purchase peace by 
 cedin^ to Constantine Greece, Macedonia, and 
 lUyricura. This peace lasted about 9 years, at 
 the end of which time hostilities were renewed. 
 The great battle of Adrinople (July, 323), fol- 
 lowed by the reduction of Byzantium, and a second 
 great victory achieved near Chaltedon (September), 
 placed Licinius at the mercy of Constantine, who, 
 although he spared his life for the moment, and 
 merely sentenced him to an honourable imprison- 
 ment at Thessalonica, soon found a convenient pre- 
 text for putting him to detith, 324. 
 
 licir,QS. 1. A Gaul by birth, was taken pri- 
 soner in war, and became a slave of Julius Caesar, 
 whose confidence he gained so much as to be made 
 his dispensator or steward. Caesar gave him his 
 
 LIGUHIA. 383 
 
 freedom. He also gained the favour of Augustus, 
 who appointed him iu B.C. 15, governor of his 
 native country, Gaul. By the plunder of Gaul 
 and by other means, he acquired enormous wealth, 
 and hence his name is frequently coupled with 
 that of Crassus. He lived to see the reign of 
 Tiberius. — 3. The barber (tojisor) Licinus spoken 
 of by Horace (Ars Foil. 301), must have been a 
 different person from the preceding, altliough iden- 
 tified by the Scholiast. — 3. Clodius Liciniis, a 
 Roman annalist, who lived about the beginning of 
 the first century B. c, wrote the histoiy of Rome 
 from its capture by the Gauls to his own time. 
 This Clodius is frequently confounded with Q. 
 Claudius Quadrigarius. [Qoadrigarius.] ^ 4. 
 L. Porcius Licinus, plebeian aediie, 210, and 
 praetor 207, when he obtained Cisalpine Gaul as 
 his province, — 5, L. Porcius Licinus, praetor 
 193, with Sardinia as his province, and consul 
 134, when he carried on war against the Ligu- 
 rians.'^G. Porcius Liciuus, an ancient Roman 
 poet, who probably lived in the latter part of the 
 2nd century B.C. 
 
 Licymjlia, spoken of by Hoi-ace (Canu. ii. 12. 
 13, seq.), is probably the same as Terentia, the 
 wife of Maecenas. 
 
 Licymnius (AiKvfivios). 1. Son of Electryon 
 and the Phrygian slave Midea, and consequently 
 half-brother of Alcmene. He was married to 
 Perimede, by whom he became the father of 
 Oeonus, Argeus, and Melas. He was a friend of 
 Hercules, whose son TJepolemus slew him, accord- 
 ing to some unintentionally, and according to 
 others in a fit of anger.— 2. Of Chios, a distin- 
 guished dithyrambic poet, of uncertain date. Some 
 writers place him before Simonides ; but it is per- 
 haps more likely tliat he belonged to the later 
 Athenian dithyrambie school about the end of the 
 4th century b. c, — 3. Of Siciij", a rhetorician, the 
 pupil of Gorgias, and the teacher of Polus, 
 
 Lide (Ai'St;), a mountain of Caria, above Pedasua. 
 Q. Ligarius, was legate, in Africa, of C.Considius 
 Longus, who left him in connnand of the province, 
 B. c. 50. Next year (49) Lignrius resigned the 
 government of the province into the hands of 
 L. Attius Varus. Ligarius fought under Varus 
 against Curio in 49, and against Caesar himself in 
 46. After the battle of Thapsns, Ligarius was 
 taken prisoner at Adrumetum ; his life was spared, 
 but he was banished by Caesar. Meantime, a 
 public accusation was brought against Ligarids by 
 Q. Aelius Tubero. The case was pleaded before 
 Caesar himself in the forum. Cicero defended 
 Ligarius in a speech still extant, in which he 
 maintains that Ligarius i)ad as nmch claims to the 
 mercy of Caesar, as Tubero and Cicero himself. 
 Ligarius was pardoned by Caesar, who was on the 
 point of setting out for the Spanish war. The 
 speech which Cicero delivered in his defence was 
 subsequently published, and was much admired. 
 Ligarius joined the conspirators, who assnssinated 
 Caesar in 44. Ligarius and his 2 brothers perished 
 in the proscription of the triumvirs in 43, 
 ^ Iiger or Ligeris^ {Loire), one of the largest 
 rivers in Gaul, rises in M. Cevennn, flows tlunu"h 
 the territories of the Arverni, Aedui,and Carnu- 
 tes, and fails into the ocean between the territories 
 of the Namnetes and Pictones. 
 
 Liguria (■^ Aiyva-TiK-i}, i] Aiyva-TivnX a dis- 
 trict of Italy, was, in the time of Augustus, bounded 
 on the W. by the river Varus, and the Maritime 
 
384 
 
 LTGURIA. 
 
 Alps, whicli separated it from Transalpine Gaul, 
 on the S. E. by the river Macra, which sepiirated 
 it from Etruria, on the N. by the river Pu, and on 
 the S. by the Mare Lignsticam. The country is 
 very mountainous and unproductive, as the Maritime 
 Alps and the Apennines run through tlie greater 
 part of it. The mountains run almost down to the 
 coast, leaving only space sufficient for a road, which 
 formed the highway from Italy to the S. of Gaul. 
 The chief occupation of the inhabitants was the 
 rearing and feeding of cattle. The numerous forests 
 on the mountains produced excellent timber, which, 
 with the other products of the countr}', was ex- 
 ported from Genua, the principal town of the 
 country. The inhabitants were called by the 
 Greeks Ligyes (Aiyue?) and Ligystini {Aiyuan- 
 voi) and by the Romans Ligiires (Sing, Lic/us, 
 more rarely Ligur). They were in early times a 
 powerful and widely extended people ; but their 
 origin ia uncertain, some writers supposinj^ them to 
 be Celts, others Iberians, and others again of the 
 same race as the Siculians, or most ancient inha- 
 bitants of Italy. It is cert:iin that the Ligurians 
 at one time inhabited the S. coast of Gaul as well 
 as the country afterwards called Lii^ria, and that 
 they had possession of the whole coast from the 
 mouth of the Rhone to Pisae in Etruria. The 
 Greeks probably became acquainted with them 
 first from the Samians and Phocaeans, who visited 
 their coasts for the purposes of commerce ; and so 
 powerful were they considered at this time that 
 Hesiod names them, along with the Scythians and 
 Ethiopians, as one of the chief people of the earth. 
 Tradition also related that Hercules fought with 
 the LigTirians on the plain of atones near Massilia ; 
 and even a writer so late as Eratosthenes gave the 
 name of Ligystice to the whole of the "W". peninsula 
 of Europe. So widely were they believed to be 
 spread that the Ligyes in Germany and Asia were 
 supposed to be a branch of the same people. The 
 LigTurian tribes were divided by the Romans into 
 Ligures Transalpini and Cisalpini. The tribes which 
 inhabited the Maritime Alps were called in general 
 Alpini, and also Cajn/laii or Comati, from their 
 custom of allowing their hair to grow long. The 
 tribes which inhabited the Apennines were called 
 Montajii. The names of the principal tribes were: 
 — on the W. side of the Alps, the Salves or 
 Salluvii, Oxybii, and Deciates ; on the E. 
 side of the Alps, the Intemelii, Ingauni and 
 Apuani near the coast, the Vagienni, Salassi 
 and Taurini on the upper course of the Po, and 
 the Laevi and Marisci N. of the Po. — The 
 Ligurians were small of stature, but strong, active, 
 and brave. In early times they served as merce- 
 naries in the armies of the Carthaginians, and 
 subsequently they carried on a long and fierce 
 struggle with the Romans. Their country was 
 invaded for the first time by the Romans in B.C. 
 2o'i; but it was not till after the termination of the 
 2nd Punic war and the defeat of Philip and An- 
 tiochus that the Romans were able to devote their 
 energies to the subjugation of Liguria. It was 
 many years however before the whole country was 
 finally subdued. Whole tribes, such as the Apuani, 
 were transplanted to Samnium, and their place 
 supplied by Roman colonists. The country was 
 divided betwepn the provinces of Gallia Narbo- 
 nensis and GaUia Cisalpina ; and in the time of 
 Augustus and of the succeeding emperors, the 
 tribes in the mountains were placed under the 
 
 l^iMiNAi^A. 
 
 government of an imperial procurator, called Prcf 
 curator or Praefeclus Alpium Alarilimanim. 
 
 Ligusticum Mare, the name originally of the 
 whole sea S. of Gaul and of the N.W. of Italy, 
 but subsequently only the E. part of this sea, or 
 the Gulf of Genoa^ whence later writers speak 
 only of a Sinus Ligusticus. 
 
 Lilaea (AfAara : AtAoieus), an ancient town, in 
 Phocis, near the sources of the Cephissus. 
 
 Lilybaeum (Ai\v€aiou : Marsala)^ a town in 
 the W. of Sicily, with an excellent harbour, situ- 
 ated on a promontory of the same name {C. Boeo 
 or di Marsala)^ opposite to the Prom. Plerniaeum 
 or Mercurii {C. Bon) in Africa, the space between 
 the 2 being the shortest distance between Sicily 
 and Africa, The town of Lilybaeum was founded 
 by the Carthaginians about b. c. 397, and was 
 made the pnncipal Carthaginian fortress in Sicily. 
 It was surrounded by massive walls and by a 
 trench 60 feet wide and 40 feet deep. On the 
 destruction of Selinus in 249, the inhabitants of 
 the latter city were transplanted to Lilybaeum, 
 which thus became still more powerful. Lil_y- 
 baeum was besieged by the Romans in the 1st 
 Punic war, but tliey were unable to take it ; and 
 they only obtained possession of it by the treaty 
 of peace. Under the Romans Lilybaeum continued 
 to be a place of importance. At Marsala^ which 
 occupies only the S. half of the ancient town, there 
 are the ruins of a Roman aqueduct, and a few 
 other ancient remains. 
 
 Limaea, Limia, Limius, BelLon (Linia), a 
 river in Gallaecia in Spain, between the Durius 
 and the Minius, which flowed into the Atlantic 
 Ocean. It was also called the river of Forget- 
 fulness (6 rrjs A^Stjs^ Flumen Ohlivionis) ; and it 
 is said to have been so called, because the Turduli 
 and the Celts on one occasion lost here their com- 
 mander, and forgot the object of their expedition. 
 This legend was so generally believed that it was 
 with difficulty that Brutus Callaicus could induce 
 his soldiers to cross the river, when he invaded 
 Gallaecia, B.C. 136. On the banks of this river 
 dwelt a small tribe called LimicJ, 
 
 Limites ILoznani, the name of a continuous series 
 of fortifications, consisting of castles, walls, earthem 
 ramparts, and the like, which the Romans erected 
 along the Rhine and the Danube, to protect their 
 possessions from the attacks of the Germans. 
 
 Limnae (Af/irai, Ai/xvaios) . 1. A town in 
 Messenia, on the frontiers of Laconia, with a 
 temple of Artemis, who was hence surnamed Lim- 
 natis. This temple was common to the people of 
 both countries ; and the outrage which the Mes- 
 senian youth committed against some Lacedae- 
 monian maidens, who were sacrificing at this 
 temple, was the occasion of the 1st Messenian 
 war. Limnae was situated in the Ager Denthe- 
 liatis, which district was a subject of constant 
 dispute between the Lacedaemonians and Mes- 
 senians after the re-establishment of the Messenian 
 independence by Cpaminondas. — 2, A town in 
 the Thracian Chersonesus on the Hellespont, not 
 far from Sestus, founded by the Milesians. — 3. 
 See Sparta. 
 
 Limnaea {Aifivaia. : Ki^va.7os\ a town in the 
 N. of Acamania, on the road from Argos Amphi- 
 lochicum to Stratos, and near the Ambracian gulf, 
 on which it had a harbour. ^ 
 
 Limnaea, Linmetes, LimnegeEes (Ai^vaia 
 fos), AifJ.vf}Tr}s (ts), AinuTiyeu-qs), i. e. inhabiting 
 
LIMONUM. 
 
 or bom in a lake or marsh, a Bumame of several 
 divinities who were believed either to have sprung 
 from a lake, or who had their temples near a lake. 
 Hence we find this surname given to Dionysus 
 at Athena, and to Artemis at various places. 
 Limoiium. [Pictones.] 
 
 Limyra (ra Ai^vpa : Ru. N. of Phineha ?), a 
 city in the S.E. of Lycia, on the river Limybus, 
 20 stadia from its mouth. 
 
 Limyrus (Aifiupos : Phinehi ?), a river of Lycia, 
 flowing into the bay W. of the Sacnim Promon- 
 toriiim (Phineka Bay) ; navigable as far up as Li- 
 myra. The recent travellers differ as to whether 
 the present river Phineka is the Limyra or its tri- 
 butary the Arycandus. 
 
 Linduxn {Lincoln)^ a town of the Coritanl, in 
 Britain, on the road from Londinium to Eboracum, 
 and a Roman colony. The modem name Lincoln 
 has been formed out of Lindum Colonia, 
 
 lindus (A£p5os: A£»'5ios; Lindo, Ru.), on the 
 E. side of the island of Rhodes, was one of the 
 most ancient Dorian colonies on the Asiatic coast. 
 It is mentioned by Homer (11. ii. 65Q), with its 
 kindred cities, lalysus and Camirua, These 3 cities, 
 with Cos, Cnidus, and Halicamassus, formed the 
 original Hexapolis, in the S.W. comer of Asia 
 Minor. Lindus stood upon a mountain in a dis- 
 trict abounding in vines and figs, and had 2 cele- 
 brated temples, one of Athena auraamed AtvS/a, 
 and one of Hercules. It was the birthplace of 
 Cleobulus, one of the 7 wise men. It retained 
 much of its consequence even after the foundation 
 of Rhodes. Inscriptions of some importance have 
 lately been found in its Acropolis. 
 
 Lingones. 1. A powerful people in Trans- 
 alpine Gaul, whose territory extended from the 
 foot of Mt. Vogesus and the sources of the Ma- 
 trona and Mosa, N. as far as the Treviri, and S. as 
 far as the Sequani, from whom they were separated 
 by the river Arar. The emperor Otho gave them 
 the Roman franchise. Their chief town was An- 
 dematurinum, afterwards Lingones (Langres).'^ 
 2. A branch of the above mentioned people, who 
 migrated into Cisalpine Gaul along with the Boii, 
 and shared the fortunes of the latter. [Bon.] They 
 dwelt E. of the Boii as far as the Adriatic sea in 
 the neighbourhood of Ravenna. 
 Xintemum. [Liternum.] 
 Linus (AiVos), the personification of a dirge or 
 lamentation, and therefore described as a son of 
 Apollo by a Muse (Calliope, or by Psamathe or 
 Chalciope), or of Amphiraarus by Urania. Both 
 Argos and Thebes claimed the honour of his birth. 
 An Argive tradition related, that Linus was exposed 
 by his mother after his birth, and was brought up 
 bv shepherds, but was afterwards torn to pieces 
 by dogs. Psamathe's grief at the occurrence be- 
 traj'-ed her misfortune to her father, who condemned 
 her to death. Apollo, indignant at the father's 
 cmelty, visited Argos with a plague ; and, in obe- 
 dience to an oracle, the Argives endeavoured to 
 propitiate Psamathe and Linus by means of sacri- 
 fices. Matrons and virgins sang dirges which were 
 called \ivoi. According to a Boeotian tradition 
 Linus was killed by Apollo, because he had ventured 
 upon a musical contest with the god ; and every 
 year before sacrifices were offered to the Muses, a 
 funeral sacrifice was offered to him, and dirges 
 (Khoi) were sung in his honour. His tomb was 
 claimed by Argos and by Thebes, and likewise by I 
 Chalcis in Euboea. It is probably owing to the I 
 
 LIVIA. 
 
 385 
 
 difficulty of reconciling the different mythuses 
 about Linus, that the Thebans thought it necessary 
 to distinguish between an earlier and later Linus ; 
 the latter is said to have instructed Hercules in 
 music, but to have been killed by the hero. In 
 the time of the Alexandrine grammarians Linus 
 was considered as the author of apocryphal works, 
 in which the exploits of Dionysus were described. 
 
 Lipara and Liparenses Insulae. [Aeoliah.] 
 
 Liparis (AtVapis), a small river of Cilicia, flow- 
 ing past Soloe. 
 
 Liqaentia (Livenza), a river in Venetia in the 
 N. of Italy between Altinum and Concordia, whicli 
 flowed into the Siims Tergestinus. 
 
 Liris (ffan^/zano), more anciently called Clanis, 
 or Glania, one of the principal rivers in central 
 Italy, rises in the Apennines W. of lake Fucinus, 
 flows first through the territory of the Marsi in a 
 S. E.-ly direction, then turns S. W. near Sora, and 
 at last flows S. E. into the Sinus Caietanus near 
 Mintumae, fonning the boundary between Latium 
 and Campania. Its stream was sluggish, whence 
 the " Liris quiela aqua " of Horace (Carm. i. 31). 
 
 Lissus (At(ro-(fy : Afcrinos, Aitrtreiis). 1. (Ales- 
 sio)j a town in the S. of Dalmatia, at the mouth of 
 the river Drilon, foiuided by Dionysius of Syra- 
 cuse, B. c, 385. It was situated on a hill near the 
 coast, and possessed a strongly fortified acropolis, 
 called Acrolissus, which was considered impreg- 
 nable. The town afterwards fell into the hands 
 of the Illyrians, and was eventually colonized by 
 the Romans. —-2. A small river in Thrace W. of 
 the Hebrus. 
 
 Lista (.S*. Anaiofflia), a town of the Sabines, S. 
 of Reate, is said to have been the capital of the 
 Aborigines, from which they were driven out by 
 the Sabines, who attacked them in the night. 
 
 Litana Silva {Silva di Luge), a large forest on 
 the Apennines in Cisalpine Gaul, S. E. of Mutina, 
 in which the Romans were defeated by the Gauls, 
 B.C, 216. 
 
 Liternum or Lintemum (Pati-ia), a town on 
 the coast of Campania, at the mouth of the river 
 Clanius or Glanis, which in the lower part of its 
 course takes the name of Litemus (Pairia or 
 Clanio), and which flows through a marsh to the 
 N. of the town called Literna Palus. The town 
 was made a Roman colony B.C. 194, and was 
 recolonized by Augustus. It was to this place 
 that the elder Scipio Africanus retired, when the 
 tribunes attempted to bring him to trial, and here 
 he is said to have died. His tomb was shown at 
 Liternum ; but some maintained that he was 
 buried in the family sepulchre near the Porta 
 Capena at Rome. 
 
 Livia. 1. Sister of M. Livius Drusus, the cele- 
 brated tribune, B.C. 91, was married first to 
 M. Porcius Cato, by whom she had Cato Uticensis, 
 and subsequently to Q. Servilius Caepio, by whom 
 she had a daughter, Servilia, the mother of M. 
 Brutus, who killed Caesar.— 2. Livia Drusilla, 
 the daughter of Livius Drusus Claudianus [Drusus, 
 No. 3], was married first to Tib. Claudius Nero ; 
 and afterwjirds to Augustus, who compelled her 
 husband to divorce her, b. c. 38. She had already 
 borne her husband one son, the future emperor 
 Tiberius, and at the tiihe of her marriage witb 
 Augustus was 6 months pregnant with another, 
 who subsequently received the name of Drusus. 
 She never had any children by Augustus, but she 
 retained his affections till his death. It was gene- 
 
386 
 
 LIVIA. 
 
 rally believed that she caused C. Caesar and L. Caesar, 
 the 2 grandsons of Augustus to be poisoned, in order 
 to secure the succession for her own children ; and 
 she was even suspected of having hastened the 
 death of Augustus. On the accession of her Bon 
 Tiberius to the throne, she at first attempted to 
 obtain an equal share in the government ; but this 
 the jealous temper of Tiberius would not brook. 
 He commanded her to retire altogether from public 
 aflfe-irs, and soon displayed even hatred towards 
 her. When she was on her death-bed, he re- 
 fused to visit her. She died in a, d. 29, at the 
 age of 82 or 86. Tiberius took no part in the 
 funeral rites, and forbade her consecration, which 
 had been proposed by the senate. ^ 3. Or Llvilla, 
 the daughter of Drusus senior and Antonia, and 
 the wife of Drusus junior, the son of the emperor 
 Tiberius. She was seduced by Sejanus, who per- 
 suaded her to poison, her husband, a. d. 23. Her 
 guilt was not discovered till the fall of Sejanus, 8 
 years afterwards, 31.— 4. Julia Livilla, daughter 
 of GermanicuB and Agrippina. [Julia, No. 7.] 
 
 lavia Gens, plebeian, but one of the most illus- 
 trious houses among the Roman nobility. The 
 Livii obtained 8 consulships, 2 censorships, 3 tri- 
 umphs, a dictatorship, and a mastership of the horse. 
 The most distinguished families are those of 
 Drusus and Salinator. 
 
 IdVlTis, T., the Roman historian, was bom at 
 Patavium {Padua)^ in the N. of Italy, B.C. bd. 
 The greater part of his life appears to have been 
 spent in Rome, but he returned to his native town 
 before his death, which happened at the age of 76, 
 in the 4th year of Tiberius, a. d. 17. We know 
 that he was married, and that he had at least 2 
 children, a son and a daughter, married to L. Ma- 
 gius, a rhetorician. His literary talents secured 
 the patronage and friendship of Augustus ; he be- 
 came a person of consideration at court, and by his 
 advice Claudius, afterwards emperor, was induced 
 in early life to attempt historical composition ; but 
 there is no ground for the assertion that Livy acted 
 as preceptor to the young prince. Eventually his 
 reputation rose so high and became so widely dif- 
 fused, that a Spaniard travelled from Cadiz to 
 Rome, solely for the purpose of beholding him, 
 and having gratified his curiosity in this one par- 
 ticular, immediately returned home. The great 
 and only extant work of Livy is a History of 
 Rome, termed by himself -inwafe (xliii. 13), ex- 
 tending from the foundation of the city to the 
 death of Drusus, B.C. 9, comprised in 142 books. 
 Of these 35 have descended to lis ; but of the 
 whole, with the exception of 2, we possess Epitomes^ 
 which must have been drawn up by one who was 
 well acquainted with his subject. By some they 
 have been ascribed to Livy himself, by others to 
 Florus J but there is nothing in the language or 
 context to warrant either of these conclusions ; 
 and external evidence is altogether wanting. From 
 the circumstance that a short introduction or pre- 
 face is found at the beginning of books 1, 21, and 
 51, and that each of these marks the commence- 
 ment of an, important epoch, the whole work has 
 bef-n divided into decades^ containing 10 books 
 each ; but the grammarians Priscian and Diomedes, 
 who quote repeatedly from particular books, never 
 allude to any such distribution. The commence- 
 ment of book xli. is lost, but there is certainly no 
 remarkable crisis at this place which invalidates 
 one part of the argument in favour of the antiquity 
 
 LI VI US. 
 
 of the arrangement. The 1st decade (bks. i — x.) 
 is entire. It embraces the period from the foun- 
 dation of the city to the year b. c. 294, when the 
 subjugation of the Samnites may be said to have 
 been completed. The 2nd decade (bks. xi — xx,) 
 is altogether lost. It embraced the period from 
 294 to 219, comprising an account, among other 
 matters, of the invasion of Pyrrhus and of the 
 first Punic war. The 3rd decade (hks. xxi — 
 XXX.) is entire. It embraces the period from 219 
 to 201, comprehending the whole of the 2nd Punic 
 war. The 4th decade (bks. xxxi — xl.) is entire, 
 and also one half of the 5th (bks. xli — xlv.). These 
 15 books embrace the period from 201 to 167, and 
 develope the progress of the Roman arms in Cisal- 
 pine Gaul, in Macedonia, Greece and Asia, ending 
 with the triumph of Aemilius Panlus. Of the 
 remaining books nothing remains except incon- 
 siderable fragments, the most notable being a few 
 chapters of the 9 1st book, concerning the fortunes 
 of Sertorius. The composition of such a vast work 
 necessarily occupied many years ; and we find 
 indications which throw some light upon the 
 epochs when different sections were composed. 
 Thus in book first (c. 19) it is stated that the 
 temple of Janus had been closed twice only since 
 the reign of Numa, for the first time in the con- 
 sulship of T. Manlius (b. c. 235), a few years after 
 the termination of the first Punic war ; for the 
 second time by Augustus Caesar, after the battle 
 of Actium, in 29. But we know that it was shut 
 again by Augustus after the conquest of the Can- 
 tabrians, in 25 ; and hence it is evident that the 
 first book must have been written between the 
 years 29 and 25. Moreover, since the last book 
 contained an account of the death of Drusus, it 
 is evident that the task must have been spread, 
 over 17 years, and probably occupied a much longer 
 time. — The style of Livy may be pronounced 
 almost faultless. The narrative flows on in a calm, 
 but strong current ; the diction displays richness 
 without heaviness, and simplicity without tameness. 
 There is, moreover, a distinctness of outline and a 
 warmth of colouring in all his delineations, whether 
 of living men in action, or of things inanimate, 
 which never fail to call up the whole scene before 
 our eyes. — In judging of the merits of Livy as an 
 historian, we are bound to ascertain, if possible, the 
 end which he proposed to himself. No one who 
 reads Livy with attention can suppose that he ever 
 conceived the project of drawing up a critical history 
 of Rome. His aim was to otfer to his countrymen a 
 clear and pleasing narrative, which, while it gratified 
 their vanity, should contain no startling improba- 
 bilities nor gross amplifications. To effect this pur- 
 pose he studied with care the writings of some of 
 his more celebrated predecessors on Roman history. 
 Where his authorities were in accordance with 
 each other, he generally rested satisfied with this 
 agreement ; where their testimony was irrecon- 
 cileable, he was content to point out their want of 
 harmony, and occasionally to offer an opinion on 
 their comparative credibility. But, in no case did 
 he ever dream of ascending to the fountain head. 
 He never attempted to test the accuracy of his 
 authorities by examining monuments of remote 
 antiquity, of which not a few were accessible to 
 every inhabitant of the metropolis. Thus, it is 
 perfectly clear that he had never read the Leges 
 Regiae, nor the Commentaries of Servius Tullius, 
 nor even the Licinian Rogations ; and that he had 
 
LIVIUS. 
 
 never consulted the vast collection of decrees of the 
 senate, ordinances of the plebs, treaties and other 
 state papers, which were preserved in the city. 
 Nay more, he did not consult even all the au- 
 thors to whom he might have resorted with 
 advantage, such as tlie Atiuals and Antiquities of 
 Varro, and the Origines of Cato. And even those 
 writers whose authority he followed, he did not 
 use in the most judicious manner. He seems to 
 have performed his task piecemeal. A small section 
 was taken in hand, different accounts were com- 
 pared, and the most plausible was adopted ; the 
 same system was adhered to in the succeeding 
 portions, so that each considered by itself, without 
 reference to the rest, was executed with care ; but 
 the witnesses who were rejected in one place were 
 admitted in another, without sufficient attention 
 being paid to the dependence and the connection 
 of the events. Hence the numerous contradictions 
 and inconsistencies which have been detected by 
 sharp-eyed critics. Other mistakes also are found 
 in abundance, arising from his want of anything 
 like practical knowledge of the world, from his 
 never having acquired even the elements of the 
 military art, of jurisprudence, or of political eco- 
 nomy, and above all, from his singular ignorance 
 of geography. But while we fully acknowledge 
 these defects in Livy, we cannot admit that his 
 general good faith has ever been impugned with 
 any show of justice. We are assured (Tacit. Jinn. 
 iv. 34) that he was fair and liberal upon matters 
 of contemporary history ; we know that he praised 
 Cassius and Brutus, that his character of Cicero 
 was a high eulogium, and that he spoke so warmly 
 of the unsuccessful leader in the great civil war, 
 that he was sportively styled a Pompeian by 
 Augustus. It is true that in recounting the do- 
 mestic strife which agitated the republic for nearly 
 two centuries, he represents the plebeians and 
 their leaders in the most unfavourable light. But 
 this arose, not from any wish to pervert the truth, 
 but from ignorance of the exact relation of the 
 contending parties. It is manifest that he never 
 can separate in his own mind the spirited plebeians 
 of the infant commonwealth from the base and 
 venal rabble which thronged the forum in the days 
 of Marius and Cicero ; while in like manner he 
 confounds those bold and honest tribunes, who 
 were the champions of liberty, with such men as 
 Saturninus or Sulpicius,Clodius orVatinius. — There 
 remains one topic to which we must advert. We 
 are told by Quintilian (i. 5. § 56, viii. 1. § 3) 
 that Asinius Pollio had remarked a certain Pata- 
 vifMty in Livy. Scholars have given themselves a 
 vast deal of trouble to discover what this term 
 may indicate, and various hypotheses have been 
 propounded ; but if there is any truth in the' 
 story, it is evident that Pollio must have intended 
 to censure some provincial peculiarities of expres- 
 sion, which we, at all events, are in no position to 
 detect. The best edition of Livy is by Draken- 
 borch, Lugd. Bat. 1738—46, 7 vols. 4to. There 
 is also a valuable edition, now in course of pub- 
 lication, by Alchefski, Berol. 8vo. 1841, seq. 
 livius Andronicus, [Andronicus.] 
 Lis, Lisa, Lixus (Ail, Al|a, At^os : Al-Araish\ 
 a city on the W. coast of Mauretania Tingitana, in 
 Africa, at the mouth of a river of the same name : 
 it was a place of some commercial importance. 
 
 Locri, sometimes called Locrenses by the 
 Romans, the inhabitants of Locris (?) Ao/cpts), 
 
 LOCRI. 
 
 387 
 
 were an ancient people in Greece, descended from 
 the Leleges, with which some Hellenic tribes were 
 intermingled at a very early period. They were, 
 however, in Homer's time regarded as Hellenes ; 
 and according to tradition even Deucalion, the 
 founder of the Hellenic race, was said to have 
 lived in Locris in the town of Opus or Cynos. In 
 historical times the Locrians were divided into 2 
 distinct tribes, differing from one another in cus- 
 toms, habits and civilization. Of these the Eastern 
 Locrians, called Epicnemidii and Opuntii, who 
 dwelt on the E. coast of Greece opposite the island 
 of Euboea, were the more ancient and more 
 civilized ; while the Western Locrians, called 
 Ozolae, who dwelt on the Corinthian gulf, were a 
 colony of the former, and were more barbarous. 
 Homer mentions only the E. Locrians. At a later 
 time there was no connexion between the Eastern 
 and Western Locrians ; and in the Peloponnesian 
 war we find the former siding with the Spartans, 
 and the latter with the Athenians. — 1. Eastern 
 IiOCrls, extended from Thessaly and the pass of 
 Thermopylae along the coast to the frontiers of 
 Boeotia, and was bounded by Doris and Phocis 
 on the W. It was a fertile and well cultivated 
 country. The N. part was inhabited by the Locri 
 Epicnemidii ('E7ri>ct"?7(uf5ioi), who derived their 
 name from Mt. Cnemis. The S. part was inhabited 
 by the Locri Opuntii (^Ottovvtioi)^ who derived 
 their name from their principal town. Opus. The 
 two tribes were separated by Daplmus, a small 
 slip of land, which at one time belonged to Phocis. 
 These two tribes are frequently confounded with 
 one another ; and ancient writers sometimes use 
 the name either of Epicnemidii or of Opimtii 
 alone, when both tribes are intended. The Epic- 
 nemidii were for a long time subject to the Pho- 
 cians, and were included under the name of the 
 latter people ; whence the name of the Opuntii 
 occurs more frequently in Greek history. ^ 2. 
 Western Locris, or the country of the Locri 
 Ozolae i^Q^6Xai\ was bounded on the N. by 
 Doris, on the W. by Aetolia, on the E. by Phocis, 
 and on the 8. by the Corinthian gulf. The origin 
 of the name of Ozolae is uncertain. The ancients 
 derived it either from the undressed skins worn by 
 the inhabitants, or from Sfeiv " to smell," on 
 account of the great quantity of asphodel that 
 grew in their country, or from the stench arising 
 from mineral springs, beneath which the centaur 
 Nessus is said to have been buried. The country 
 is mountainous, and for the most part unpro- 
 ductive. Mt. Corax from Aetolia, and Mt. Par- 
 nassus from Phocis, occupy the greater part of it. 
 The Locri Ozolae resembled their neighbours, the 
 Aetolians, both in their predatory habits and in 
 their mode of warfare. They were divided into 
 several tribes, and are described by Thucydides as 
 a rude and barbarous people, even in the time of 
 the Peloponnesian war. From B.C. 315 they be- 
 longed to the Aetolian League. Their chief town 
 was Amphissa. 
 
 Locri Epizephyrai (AottporE7rife(|)ijpioJ: MoUa 
 di Burzano), one of the most ancient Greek 
 cities in Lower Italy, was situated in the S. E. of 
 Bruttium, N. of the promontory of Zephyrium, 
 from which it was said to have derived its sur- 
 name Epizephyrii, though others suppose this 
 name given to the place, simply because it lay to 
 the W. of Greece. It was founded by the Locrians 
 from Greece, b. c. 683. Strabo expressly says that it 
 
388 
 
 LOCUSTA. 
 
 was founded by the Ozolae, and not by the Opuntii, 
 as most writers related ; but iiis statement is not 
 so probable as the common one. The inhabitiints 
 regarded themselves as descendants of Ajax Oileus ; 
 and as he resided at the town of Naryx among 
 the Opuntii, the poets gave the name of JVarycia 
 to Locris (Ov. Met. xw 70o), and called the 
 founders of the town the Narycii Locri (Vlrg. 
 Aen. iii. 399), For the same reason the pitch of 
 Bruttium is frequently called Naryda (Virg. 
 Georg. ii. 438). Locri was celebrated for the 
 excellence of its laws, which were drawn up by 
 Zaleucus soon after the foundation of the city. 
 [ZiLEUcus.] The town enjoyed great prosperity 
 down to the time of the younger Dionysius, who 
 rftsided here for some years after his expulsion 
 from Syracuse, and committed the greatest atro- 
 cities against the inhabitants. It suffered much in 
 the wars against Pyrrhus, and in the 2nd Punic war. 
 The Romans allowed it to retain its freedom and 
 its own constitution, which was democratical ; but 
 it gradually sunk in importance, and is rarely 
 mentioned in later times. Near the town was an 
 ancient and wealthy temple of Proserpina. 
 
 Locusta, or, more correctly, Lucusta, a woman 
 celebrated for her skill in concocting poisons. She 
 ■was employed by Agrippina in poisoning the em- 
 peror Claudius, and by Nero for despatching Bri- 
 tannicus. She was rewarded by Nero with ample 
 estates ; but under the emperor Galba she was 
 executed with other malefactors of Nero's reign, 
 
 Lollia Paulina, granddaughter of M. LoUius, 
 mentioned below, and heiress of his immense 
 wealth. She was married to C. Memmius Regulus ; 
 but on the report of her grandmother's beaut}', the 
 emperor Caligula sent for her, divorced her from 
 her husband, and married her, but soon divorced 
 her again. After Claudius had put to deatii his 
 wife Messalina, Lollia was one of the candidates 
 for the vacancy, but she was put to death by means 
 of Agrippina. 
 
 Lolliamis {Ao\\iav6s ), a celebrated Greek 
 sophist in the time of Hadrian and Antoninus Pius, 
 was a native of Ephesus, and taught at Athens. 
 
 Lollius. 1. H. LoUiiis Palicaniis, tribune of 
 the plebs, B.C. 71, and an active opponent of the 
 aristocracy. — 2. M. liOllius, consul 21, and 
 governor of Gaul in 1 6. He was defeated by some 
 German tribes who had crossed the Rhine. Lollius 
 was subsequently appointed by Augustus as tutor 
 to his grandson, C. Caesar, whom he accompanied 
 to the East, B.C. 2. Here he incurred the dis- 
 pleasure of C. Caesar, and is said in consequence 
 to have put an end to his life by poison. Horace 
 addressed an Ode (iv. 9) to Lollius, and 2 Epistles 
 (i. 2, 1 8) to the eldest son of Lollius. 
 
 Londinium, also called Oppidum Londiniense 
 Lundiaium or Londinum {London)^ the capital 
 of the Cantii in Britain, was situated on the S. 
 bank of the Thames in the modem Soutliwarky 
 though it afterwards spread over the other side of 
 the river. It is not mentioned by Caesar, pro- 
 bably because his line of march led him in a dif- 
 ferent direction ; and its name first occurs in the 
 reign of Nero, when it is spoken of as a flourish- 
 ing and populous town, much frequented by mer- 
 chants, although neither a Roman colony nor a 
 municipium. On the revolt of the Britons under 
 Buadicen, a. d, C2, the Roman governor Sue- 
 tonius Paulinus abandoned Londinium to the 
 enemy, who massacred the inhabitants and plun- 
 
 LONGINUS. 
 
 dered the tOAvn. From the effects of this devas- 
 tation it gradually recovered, and it appears again 
 as an important place in the reign of Antoninus 
 Pius. It v/as surrounded with a wall and ditch 
 by Constantine the Great or Theodosius, the 
 Roman governor of Britain ; and about this time 
 it was distinguished by the surname of Augusta, 
 whence some writers have conjectured that it was 
 then made a colony. Londinium had now extended 
 so much on the N. bank of the Thames, that it 
 was called at this period a town of the Trino- 
 bantes, from which we may infer that the new- 
 quarter was both larger and more populous than 
 the old part on the S. side of the river- The wall 
 built by Constantine or Theodosius was on the N, 
 side of the river, and is conjectured to have com- 
 menced at a fort near the present site of the tower, 
 and to have been continued along the Minories, to 
 Cripplegate, Newgate and Ludgate. London was 
 the central point, from which all the Roman roads 
 in Britain diverged. It possessed a Miliiarium 
 Aiireum, from which the miles on the roads were 
 numbered ; and a fragment of this Milliariuni, the 
 celebrated London Stone, may be seen affixed to 
 the wall of St. Swithin's Church in Cannon Street. 
 This is almost the only monument of the Roman 
 Londinium still extant, with the exception of 
 coins, tesselated pavements, and the like, which 
 have been found buried under the ground. 
 
 Longanus {St Lucia), a river in the N. E. of 
 Sicily between Mylae and Tyndaris, on the banks 
 of which Hieron gained a victory over the Ma- 
 mertines. 
 
 Lon^niLS, a distinguished Greek philosopher and. 
 grammarian of the 3rd century of our era. His ori- 
 ginal name seems to have been Dionysius ; but he 
 also bore the name oi Dionysius Lovginus, Cassius 
 LoTiginus, or Dio7iysius Cassius LoTigiiius^ probably 
 because either he or one of his ancestors had 
 received the Roman franchise through the in- 
 fluence of some Cassius Longinus. The place of his 
 birth is uncertain ; he was brought up with care by 
 his uncle Fronto, who taught rhetoric at Athens, 
 whence it has been conjectured that he was a 
 native of that city. He afterwards visited many 
 countries, and became acquainted with all the 
 illustrious pliilosophers of his age, such as Am- 
 monius Saccas, Origen the disciple of Ammonius, 
 not to be confounded with the Christian writer, 
 Plotinus, and Amelius. He was a pupil of the 
 2 former, and was an adherent of the Platonic 
 philosophy ; but instead of following blindly the 
 system of Ammonius, he went to the fountain- 
 head, and made himself thoroughly familiar with 
 the works of Plato. On his return to Athens he 
 opened a school, which was attended by numerous 
 pupils, among whom the most celebrated was Por- 
 phyry. He seems to have taught philosophy and 
 criticism, as well as rhetoric and grammar ; and 
 the extent of his information was so great, that he 
 was called "a living library" and "a walking 
 museum." After spending a considerable part of 
 his life at Athens he went to the East, where he 
 became acquainted with Zenobia, of Palmyra, 
 who made hira her teacher of Greek literature. 
 On the death of her husband Odenathus Lon- 
 ginus became her principal adviser. It was mainly 
 through bis advice that she threw off her alle- 
 giance to the Roman empire. On her capture by 
 Aurelian In 273, Longinus was put to death by 
 the emperor. Longinus was imquestlonably the 
 
LONGINUS. 
 
 greatest philosoplier of his age. He was a man of 
 excellent sense, sound judgment, and extensive 
 knowledge. His work on the Sublime (Tlepl i(>|«ous), 
 a great part of which is still extant, surpasses in 
 oratorical power every thing written after the time 
 of the Greek orators. There is scarcely any work 
 in the range of ancient literature which, inde- 
 pendent of its excellence of style, contains so many 
 exquisite remarks upoa oratory, poetry, and good 
 taste in general. The best edition of this work is 
 by Weiske, Lips. 1809, 8vo., reprinted in London, 
 1820. Longinus wrote many other works, both rhe- 
 torical and philosophical, all of which have perished. 
 loEg-inus, Cassius. [Cassios.] 
 Longobardi. [Langobardi.] 
 Iiong'illa (Longulanus: Buon Biposo\ a town 
 of the Volsci in Latium, not far from Corioli, and 
 belonging to the territory of Antium, but destroyed 
 by the Romans at an early period. 
 
 Longus {A6yyos)y a Greek sophist, of uncertain 
 date, but not earlier than the 4th or 5th century 
 of our era, is the author of an erotic work, entitled 
 IIoifj.£pucui/ Tuv Kara A<i(pviv koI X\6tji^, or Fas- 
 toralia de Daphnide el Chloe, written in pleasing 
 and elegant prose. The best editions are by Vil- 
 loison, Paris, 1778; Schaefer, Lips. 1803; and 
 Passow, Lips. 1811, 
 
 Lopadusa [Aoiradou(ra : Lampedusa)^ an island 
 in the Mediterranean, between Melita. i^Malta) 
 and the coast of Byzacium in Africa. 
 
 Lonum or Lorii, a small place in Etrurla with 
 an imperial villa, 12 miles N. "VV. of Rome on the 
 Via Aurelia, where Antoninus Pius was brought 
 up, and where he died. 
 
 Loryma (riAi^puyuo: Aplotltcld^ Ru.), a city 
 on the S. coast of Caria, close to the promontory of 
 Cynossema (C. Aloupo), opposite to lalysus in 
 Rhodes, the space between the two being about 
 the shortest distance between Rhodes and the 
 coast of Caria. 
 
 Lotis, a nymph, who, to escape the embraces of 
 Priapus, was metamorphosed into a tree, called 
 after her Lotus. (Ov. Met. ix. 347.) 
 
 Lotopliagi (Aa)TO(p(iyot^ i. e. lotus-eaters). Ho- 
 mer, in tlie Odyssey, represents Ulysses as coming 
 in his wanderings to a coast inhabited by a people 
 who fed upon a fruit called lotus, the taste of which 
 was so delicious that every one who eat it lost all 
 wish to return to his native country, but desired to 
 remain there with the Lotophagi, and to eat the 
 lotus {Od. ix, 94). Afterwards, in historical 
 times, the Greeks found that the people on the N. 
 coast of Africa, between the Syrtes, and especially 
 about the Lesser Syrtis, used to a great extent, as 
 an article of food, the fruit of a plant, which they 
 identified with the lotus of Homer, and they called 
 these people Lotophagi. To this day, the inha- 
 bitants of the same part of the coast of Tunis and 
 Tripoli eat the fruit of the plant which is supposed 
 to be the lotus of the ancients, and drink a wine 
 made from its juice, as the ancient Lotophagi are 
 also said to have done. This plant, the Zizypkus 
 Lotus of the botanists {ov jujube-tree)^ is a prickly 
 branching shrub, with fruit of the size of a wild- 
 plum, of a saffron colour and a sweetish taste. The 
 ancient geographers also place the Lotophagi in the 
 larf^e island of Meninx or Lotophagitis {Jerbah), 
 adjacent to this coast. They carried on a commer- 
 cial intercourse with Egypt and with the interior 
 of Africa, by the very same caravan routes winch 
 are used to the present day. 
 
 LUCANUS. 
 
 389 
 
 Loxias (Ao^i'as), a surname of Apollo, derived 
 by some from his intricate and ambiguous oracles 
 (AtJ^a), but better from Xiyav, as the prophet or 
 interpreter of Zeus. 
 
 Loxo (Ao|(6), daughter of Boreas, one of the 
 Hyperborean maidens, wlio brought the worship 
 of Artemis to Delos, whence the name is also used 
 as a surname of Artemis herself. 
 
 Lna, also called Lua mater or Lua Satumi, 
 one of the early Italian divinities, whose worship 
 was forgotten in later times. It may be that she 
 was the same as Ops, the wife of Saturn ; but all 
 we know of her is, that sometimes the arms taken 
 from a defeated enemy were dedicated to her, and 
 burnt as a sacrifice, with a view of averting calamity. 
 
 Luca (Lucensis : Lucca), a Ligurian city in 
 Upper Italy, at the foot of the Apennines and on 
 the river Ausus, N. E. of Pisae. It was included 
 in Etruria by Augustus ; but in the time of Julius 
 Caesar it was the most S.-ly city in Liguria, and 
 belonged to Cisalpine Gaul. It was made a Roman 
 colony, B.C. 177. The amphitheatre of Lucca 
 may still be seen at the modern town in a state of 
 tolerable preservation, and its great size proves the 
 importance and populousness of the ancient city. 
 
 Lucania (Lucfmus), a district in Lower Italy, 
 was bounded on the N. by Campania and Sam- 
 nium, on the E. by Apulia and the gulf of Ta- 
 rentum, on the S. by Bruttium, and on the W. by 
 the Tyrrhene sea, thus corresponding for the most 
 part to the modern provinces of Principato, Ci- 
 tei-iore and Basilicata, in the kingdom of Naples. 
 It was separated from Campania by the river 
 Silarus, and from Bruttium by the river Laus, and 
 it extended along the gulf of Tarentura from Thurii 
 to Metapontum. The country is mountainous, as 
 the Apennines run through the greater part of it ; 
 but towards the gulf of Tarentum there is an 
 extensive and fertile plain. Lucania was celebrated 
 for its excellent pastures (Hor. Ep. i. 28) ; and its 
 oxen were the finest and largest in Italy. Hence, 
 the elephant was at first called by the Romans a 
 Lucanian ox {Lucas bos). The swine also were 
 very good ; and a peculiar kind of sausages was 
 celebrated at Rome under the name of Liicanica. 
 The coast of Lucania was inhabited chiefly by 
 Greeks, whose cities were numerous and flourish- 
 ing. The most important were Metapontum, 
 Heraclea, THunir, Buxentum, Elea or Ve- 
 LiA, PosiDONiA or Paestum. The interior of 
 the country was originally inhabited by the Chones 
 and Oenotrians. The Lucanians proper were Sam- 
 nites, a brave and warlike race, who left their 
 mother-country and settled both in Lucania and 
 Bruttium. They not only expelled or subdued 
 the Oenotrians, but they gradually acquired pos- 
 session of most of the Greek cities on the coast. 
 They are first mentioned in b. c. 396 as the allies 
 of the elder DIonysius in his war against Thurii. 
 They were subdued by the Romans after Pyrrhus 
 had left Italy. Before the 2nd Punic war their 
 forces consisted of 30,000 foot and 3000 horse • 
 but in the course of this war their country was 
 repeatedly laid waste, and never recovered its 
 former prosperity. 
 
 Lucanus, M. Annaeus, usually called Lucan, 
 a Roman poet, was bom at Corduba in Spain, A. d. 
 39. His father was L. Annaeus Mella, a brother 
 of M. Seneca, the philosopher. Lucan was carried 
 to Rome at an early age, where his education was 
 superintended by the most eminent preceptors of 
 
390 
 
 LUCANUS. 
 
 the day. His talents developed themselves at a 
 very early age, and excited such general admiration 
 as to awaken the jealousy of Nero, who, unable to 
 hrook competition, forbade hira to recite in public. 
 Stung to the quick by this prohibition Lucan em- 
 barked ill the famous conspiracy of Piso, was be- 
 trayed, and, by a promise of pardon, was induced 
 to turn informer. He began by denouncing his 
 own mother Acilia (or Atilia), and then revealed 
 the rest of his accomplices without reserve. But 
 he received a traitor's reward. After the more 
 important victims had been despatched, the em- 
 peror issued the mandate for the death of Lucan 
 who, finding escape hopeless, caused his veins to 
 be opened. When, from the rapid effusion of 
 blood, he felt his extremities becoming chill, he 
 began to repeat aloud some verses which he had 
 once composed, descriptive of a wounded soldier 
 perishing by a like death, and, with these lines 
 upon his lips, expired a. d. 65, in tlie 26th year of 
 his age. Lucan wrote various poems, the titles of 
 which are preserved, but the only extant production 
 is an heroic poem, in 10 books, entitled Fharsalia^. 
 in which the progress of the struggle between 
 Caesar and Pompey is fully detailed, the events, 
 commencing with the passage of the Rubicon, being 
 arranged in regular chronological order. The 1 Uth 
 book is imperfect, and the narrative breaks off 
 abruptly in the middle bf the Alexandrian war, 
 but we know not whether the conclusion has been 
 lost, or whether the author ever completed his 
 task. The whole of what we now possess was 
 certainly not composed at the same time, for the 
 different parts do not by any means breathe the 
 same spirit. In the earlier portions we find liberal 
 sentiments expressed in very moderate terms, ac- 
 companied by open and almost fulsome flatter^'- of 
 Nero ; but, as we proceed, the blessings of freedom 
 are loudly proclaimed, and the invectives against 
 tyranny are couched in language the most offensive, 
 evidently aimed directly at the emperor. The 
 ■work contains great beauties and great defects. It 
 is characterised by copious diction, lively imagina- 
 tion, and a bold and masculine tone of thought ; 
 but it ia at the same time disfigured by extrava- 
 gance, far-fetched conceits, and unnatural similes. 
 The best editions are by Oudendorp, Lug. Bat. 
 1728 ; by Burmann, 1740 ; and bv "Weber, Lips. 
 1821—1831. 
 
 Lucanus, Ocellus. [Ocellus.] 
 
 Lucceius. 1. L., an old friend and neighbour of 
 Cicero. His name frequently occurs at the com- 
 mencement of Cicero's correspondence with Atticus, 
 "with whom Lucceius had quarrelled. Cicero at- 
 tempted to reconcile his two friends. In b. c. 63 
 Lucceius accused Catiline ; and in 60 he became a 
 candidate for the consulship, along with Julius 
 Caesar, who agreed to support him ; but he lost 
 his election in consequence of the aristocracy bring- 
 ing m Bibulus, as a counterpoise to Caesar's in- 
 fluence. Lucceius seems now to have withdrawn 
 from public life and to liave devoted himself to 
 literature. He was chiefly engaged in the compo- 
 sition of a contemporaneous history of Rome, com- 
 mencing with the Social or Marsic war. In bo he 
 had nearly finished the history of the Social and of 
 the first Civil war, when Cicero wrote a most urgent 
 letter to his friend, pressing him to suspend the 
 thread of his histoiy, and to devote a separate 
 "Work to the period from Catiline's conspiracy to 
 Cicero's recall from banishment {ad Fam. v. 12). 
 
 LUCIANUS. 
 
 Lucceius promised compliance with his request, but 
 he appears never to have written the work. On 
 the breaking out of the civil war in 49, he espoused 
 the side of Pompey. He was subsequently par- 
 doned by Caesar and returned to Rome, where he 
 continued to live on friendly terms with Cicero.—" 
 2. C, sumamed Hirrus, of the Pupinian tribe, 
 tribune of the plebs 53, proposed that Pompey 
 should be created dictator. In 52 he was a can- 
 didate with Cicero for the augurship, and in the 
 following year a candidate with M, Caelius for the 
 aedileship, but he failed in both. On the breaking 
 out of the civil war in 49, he joined Pompey. He 
 was sent by Pompey as ambassador to Orodes, 
 king of Parthia, but he was thrown into prison by 
 the Parthian king. He was pardoned by Caesar 
 after the battle of Pharsalia, and returned to Rome. 
 
 Lucenses Callaici, one of the 2 chief tribes of 
 the Callaici or Gallaeci on the N. coast of Hispania 
 Tarraconensis, derived their name from their town 
 Lucus August!. 
 
 Lucentum {Alicante), a town of the Contestani, ' 
 on the coast of Hispania Tarraconensis, 
 
 Luceria (Lucerinus : Lucera), sometimes called 
 Nuceria, a town in Apulia on the borders of 
 Samnium, S. W. of Ajpi, was situated on a steep 
 hill, and possessed an ancient temple of Minerva, 
 In the war between Rome and Samnium, it was 
 first taken by the Saranites (b. c. 321), and next 
 by the Romans (319) ; but having revolted to the 
 Samnites in 314, all the inhabitants were mas- 
 sacred by the Romans, and their place supplied 
 by 2500 Roman colonists. Having thus become 
 a Roman colony, it continued faithful to Rome in 
 the 2nd Punic war. In the time of Augustus it 
 had greatly declined in prosperity; but it was still 
 of sufficient importance in the 3rd century to be 
 the residence of the praetor of Apulia. 
 
 lucianiis {AovKLav6s)^ usually called Lucian, 
 a Greek writer, born at Samosata, tlie capital of 
 Commagene, in Syria. The date of his birth and 
 death is uncertain ; but it has been conjectured, with 
 much probability, that he was born about a. i>. 1 20, 
 and he probably lived till towards the end of this 
 century. We know that some of his more cele- 
 brated works were written in the reign of M. Au- 
 relius, Lucian's parents were poor, and he was 
 at first apprenticed to his maternal uncle, who was 
 a statuary. He afterwards became an advocate, 
 and practised at Antioch, Being unsuccessful in 
 this calling, he employed himself in writing speeches 
 for others, instead of delivering them himself. But 
 he did not remain long at Antioch ; and at an 
 early period of his life he set out upon his travels, 
 and visited the greater part of Greece, Italy, and 
 Gaul, At that period it was customary for pro- 
 fessors of the rhetorical art to proceed to different 
 cities, where they attracted audiences by their 
 displays, much in the same manner as musicians or 
 itinerant lecturers in modem times. He appears 
 to have acquired a good deal of money as well as 
 fame. On his return to his native country, pro- 
 bably about his 40th year, he abandoned the rhe- 
 torical profession, the artifices of which, he tells 
 us, were foreign to his temper, the natural enemy 
 of deceit anfl pretension. He now devoted most 
 of his time to the composition of his works. He 
 still, however, occasionally travelled ; for it appears 
 that he was in Achaia and Ionia about the close oi 
 the Parthian war, 160 — 165 ; on which occasion, 
 too, he seems to have visited Olympia, and beheld 
 
LUCIANUS. 
 
 the self-immolation of Peregrinus. About the 
 year 170, or a little previously, he visited the 
 false omcie of the impostor Alexander, in Paphla- 
 gonia. Late in life he obtained the office of procu- 
 rator of part of Egypt, which office was probably 
 bestowed upon him by the emperor Coramodus. 
 The nature of Lucian's writings inevitably procured 
 him many enemies, by whom he has been painted 
 in very black coloui's. According to Suidas he 
 was surnanied tlte Blaspliemer^ and was torn to 
 pieces by dogs, as a punishment for his impiety ; 
 but on this account no reliance can be placed. 
 Other writers state that Lucian apostatised from 
 Christianity ; but there is no proof in support of 
 this charge ; and the dialogue entitled P/a/opain's, 
 ■which would appear to prove that the author had 
 once been a Christian, was certainly not written 
 by Lucian, and was probably composed in the 
 reign of Julian the Apostate. — As many as 8"2 
 works have come down to us under the name of 
 Lucian ; but some of these are spurious. The 
 most important of them are his Dialogues. They 
 are of very various degrees of merit, and are treated 
 in the greatest possible variety of style, from se- 
 riousness down to the broadest humour and buf- 
 foonery. Their subjects and tendency, too, vary 
 considerably ; for while some are employed in 
 attacking the heathen philosophy and religion, 
 others are mere pictures of manners without any 
 polemic drift. Our limits only allow- us to men- 
 tion a few of the more important of these Dia- 
 logues ; — The Dialogues of Oie Gods^ 26 in number, 
 consist of short dramatic narratives of some of the 
 most popular incidents in the heathen mythology. 
 The reader, however, is generally left to draw his 
 own conclusions from the story, the author only 
 taking care to put it in the most absurd point of 
 view. — In the Jupiter Convicted a bolder style of 
 attack is adopted ; and the cynic proves to Ju- 
 piter^'s face, that every thing being under the do- 
 minion of fate, he has no power whatever. As this 
 dialogue shows Jupiter's want of power, so the 
 Jupiter the Tragedian strikes at his very existence, 
 and that of the other deities. — The Vitarum 
 Auctio^ or Sale of the Philosopliers^ is an attack 
 upon the ancient philosophers. In this humourous 
 piece the heads of the different sects are put up to 
 sale, Hermes being the auctioneer. — The Fislter- 
 man is a sort of apology for the preceding piece, 
 and may be reckoned among Lucian's best dia- 
 logues. The philosophers are represented as having 
 obtained a day's life for the purpose of taking ven- 
 geance upon Lucian, who confesses that he has 
 borrowed the chief beauties of his writings from 
 them. — The Banquet, or the Lapithae^ is one of 
 Lucian's most humourous attacks on the philoso- 
 phers. The scene is a wedding feast, at wliich a 
 representative of each of the principal philosophic 
 sects is present. A discussion ensues, which seis all 
 the philosophers by the ears, and ends in a pitched 
 battle. — The Nigrinus is also an attack on philo- 
 sophic pride ; but its main scope is to satirise the 
 Romans, whoso pomp, vain- glory, and luxur}'', are 
 unfavourably contrasted with the simple habits of 
 the Athenians. — The more miscellaneous class of 
 Lucian's dialogues, in which the attacks upon my- 
 thology and philosophy are not direct but incidental, 
 or which are mere pictures of manners, contains 
 some of his best. At the head must be placed 
 Timon, which may perhaps be regarded as Lucian's 
 masterpiece. — The Dialogues of tlie Dead are 
 
 LUCILIUS, 3S1 
 
 perhaps the best known of all Lucian's works. 
 The subject affords great scope for moral reflection, 
 and for satire on the vanity of human purauita. 
 "Wealth, power, beauty, strength, not forgetting 
 the vain disputations of philosophy, afford the ma- 
 terials. Among the modems these dialogues have 
 been imitated by Fontenelle and Lord Lyttelton. 
 — The Icaro-Menippus is in Lucian's best vein, 
 and a master-piece of Aristophanic humour. Me- 
 nippus, disgusted with tlie disputes and pretensions 
 of the philosophers, resolves on a visit to the stars, 
 for the purpose of seeing how far their theories 
 are correct. By the mechanical aid of a pair of 
 wings he reaches the moon, and surveys thence 
 the miserable passions and quarrels of men. Hence 
 he proceeds to Olympus, and is introduced to the 
 Thunderer himself. Here he is witness of the 
 manner in which human prayers are received in 
 heaven. They ascend by enormous ventholes, and 
 become audible when Jupiter removes the covers. 
 Jupiter himself is represented as a partial judge, 
 and as influenced by the largeness of the rewards 
 promised to him. At the end he pronounces judg- 
 ment against the philosophers, and threatens in 4 
 days to destroy them all. — Charon is a very ele- 
 gant dialogue, but of a graver turn than the pre- 
 ceding. Charon visits the earth to see the course 
 of life there, and what it is that always makes men 
 weep when they enter his boat. Mercury acts as 
 his Cicerone. — Lucian's merits as a writer consist 
 in his knowledge of human nature ; his strong 
 common sense ; the fertility of his invention ; the 
 raciness of his humour ; and the simplicity and 
 Attic grace of his diction. There was abundance 
 to justify his attacks, in the systems against which 
 they were directed. Yet he establishes nothing in 
 their stead. His aim is only to pull down ; to 
 spread a universal scepticism. Nor were his 
 assaults connned to religion and philosophy', but 
 extended to every thing old and venerated, the 
 poems of Homer and Hesiod, and the history of 
 Herodotus. — The best editions of Lucian are by 
 Hemsterhuis and Reitz, Amst. 1743, 4 vols. 4to. ; 
 by Lehman, Lips. 1821 — 1831, 9 vols. 8vo. ; and 
 by Dindorf, with a Latin version, but without notes, 
 Paris, 1840, 8vo. 
 
 Lucifer or Phosphorus {'^w(T(p6pos, also by the 
 poets 'Ewo'^fJpos or ^ae(r(p6pos), that is, the bringer 
 of light, is the name of the planet Venus, when seen 
 in the morning before sunrise. The same planet 
 was called Hesperus, Vesperugo, Vesper, Noctifer^ 
 or N'octunms^ when it appeared in the heavens 
 after sunset. Lucifer as a personification is called 
 a son of Astraeus and Aurni-a or Eos, of Cephalus 
 and Aurora, or of Atlas. By Philonis he is said 
 to have been the father of Ceyx. He is also called 
 the father of Daedalion and of the Hesperides. 
 Lucifer is also a surname of several goddesses of 
 light, as Artemis, Aurora, and Hecate. 
 
 LiicLlius. 1. C, was born at Suessa of the Au- 
 runci, B.C. 148. He served in the cavalry under 
 Scipio in the Numantine war ; lived upon terms of 
 the closest familiarity with Scipio andLaelius; and 
 was either the maternal grand-uncle, or, which is 
 less probable, the maternal grandfather of Pompey 
 the Great. He died at Naples, 103, in the 46th 
 year of his age. Ancient critics agree that, if not 
 absolutely the inventor of Roman satire, he was 
 the first to mould it into that form which afterwards 
 received full developement in the hands of Horace, 
 Persius, and Juvenal. The first of these 3 great 
 
39-2 
 
 LUCILLA. 
 
 masters, while he censures the hnrsh versification 
 and the slovenly haste with which Lucilius threw 
 off his compositions, acknowledges with admiration 
 the fierceness and boldness of his attacks upon the 
 vices and follies of his contemporaries. The Satires 
 of I.ucilius were divided into 30 books. Upwards 
 of 800 frajrraents from these have been preserved, 
 but the greatest number consist of isolated couplets, 
 or single lines. It is clear from these fragments 
 that his reputation for caustic pleasantry was by no 
 means unmerited, and that in coarseness and broad 
 personalities he in no respect fell short of the 
 licence of the old comedy, which would seem to 
 have been, to a certain extent, his model. The 
 fragments were published separately, by Franciscus 
 Donsa, Lug. Bat. 4to. 1597, reprinted by the 
 brothers Volpi, iivo. Patav. 1735; and, along with 
 Censorinus, by the two sons of Havercamp, Lug. 
 Bat. Ovo. 1743. — 2. Lucilius Junior, probably 
 the author of an extant poem in 640 hexameters, 
 entitled Aetna^ which exhibits throughout great 
 command of language, and contains not a few 
 brilliant passages. Its object is to explain upon 
 philosophical principles, after the fashion of Lu- 
 cretius, the causes of the various physical pheno- 
 mena presented by the volcano. Lucilius Junior 
 was the procurator of Sicily, and the friend to 
 whom Seneca addresses his Epistles, his Natural 
 Questions, and his tract on Providence, and whom 
 he strongly urges to select this very subject of 
 Aetna as a theme for his muse. 
 
 Lucilla, Annia, daughter of M. Aurelius and 
 the younger Faustina, was born about a. d. 147. 
 She was married to the emperor, L. Verus, and 
 after his death (169) to Claudius Pompeianus. In 
 183 she engaged in a plot against the life of her 
 brother Commodus, which, having been detected, 
 she was banished to the island of Capreae, and 
 there put to death. 
 
 Luciua, the goddess of light, or rather the god- 
 dess that brings to light, and hence the goddess 
 that presides over the birth of children. It was 
 therefore used as a surname of Juno and Diana. 
 Lucina corresponded to the Greek goddess Ilithyia. 
 
 Lucretia, the wife of L. Tarquinius Collatinus, 
 whose rape by Sex. Tarquiniusled to the dethrone- 
 ment of Tarquinius Superbus and the establishment 
 of the republic. For details see Tarquinius. 
 
 Lucretia Gens, originally patrician, but subse- 
 quently plebeian also. The surname of the pa- 
 trician Lucretii was Triciptinus, one of whom, Sp. 
 Lucretius Triciptinus, the father of Lucretia, was 
 elected consul, with L. Junius Brutus, on the esta- 
 blishment of the republic, B. c. 509. The plebeian 
 families are known by the surnames of Gallus, 
 O/ella^ and Vespillo^ but none of them is of sufficient 
 importance to require notice. 
 
 Lucretilis, a pleasant mountain in the country 
 of the Sabines, overhanging Horace''3 villa, a part 
 of the modem Monte Gennaro. 
 
 T. Lucretius Cams, the Roman poet, respecting 
 whose personal history, our information is both 
 scanty and suspicious. The Eusebian Chronicle 
 fixes B. c. 95 as the date of his birth, adding that 
 he was driven mad by a love potion, that during 
 his lucid intervals he composed several works which 
 were revised by Cicero, and that he perished by 
 his own liand in his 44th year, B.C. 52 or 5L 
 Another ancient authority places his death in Bb. 
 From what source the tale about the philtre may 
 have been derived we know not; but it is not im- 
 
 LUCRINUL. 
 
 probable that the whole story was an invention of 
 some enemy of the Epicureans. Not a hint is to be 
 found anywhere which corroborates the assertion 
 with re^rard to the editorial labours of Cicero, — 
 The work, which has immortalised the name of 
 Lucretius, is a philosophical didactic poem, composed 
 in heroic hexameters, divided into 6 books, con- 
 taining upwards of 7400 lines, addressed to C. 
 Memmius Gemellus, who was praetor in 58, and is 
 entitled De Rerum Natura. It was probably pub- 
 lished about 57 or BQ ; for, from the way in which 
 Cicero speaks of it in a letter to his brother, written 
 in $5^ we may conclude that it had only recently 
 appeared. The poem has been sometimes repre- 
 sented as a complete exposition of the religious, 
 moral, and phj-'sical doctrines of Epicurus, but this 
 is far from being a correct description. Epicurus 
 maintained that the unhappiness and degradation of 
 mankindaroseinagreat degree from the slavish dread 
 which they entertained of the power of the gods, and 
 from terror of their wrath ; and the fundamental 
 doctrine of his system was, that the gods, whose 
 existence he did not deny, lived in the enjoyment 
 of absolute peace, and totally indifferent to the 
 world and its inhabitants. To prove this position 
 Epicurus adopted the atomic theory of Leucippus, 
 according to which the material imiverse was not 
 created by the Supreme Being, but was formed by 
 the union of elemental particles which had existed 
 from all eternity, governed by certain simple laws. 
 He further sought to show that all those striking 
 phaenomena which had been regarded by the 
 vulgar as direct manifestations of divine power, 
 were the natural results of ordinary processes. To 
 state clearly and develope fully the leading prin- 
 ciple of this philosophy, in such a form as might 
 render the study attractive to his countrjinen, was 
 the object of Lucretius, his work being simply an 
 attempt to show that there is nothing in the history 
 or actual condition of the world which does not 
 admit of explanation without having recourse to 
 the active interposition of divine beings. The poem 
 of Lucretius has been admitted by all modem 
 critics to be the greatest of didatic poems. The 
 most abstruse speculations are clearly explained in 
 majestic verse ; while the subject, which in itself 
 was dry and dull, is enlivened by digressions of 
 matchless power and beauty. — The best editions 
 are by Wakefield, London, 1796, 3 vols. 4to., re- 
 printed at Glasgow, 1813, 4 vols. 8vo.; and by 
 Forbiger, Lips. 1828, 12mo. 
 
 Lucrinus Lacua, was properly the inner part of 
 the Sinus Cumanus or Puteolanus, a bay on the coast 
 of Campania, between the promontory Misenura 
 and Puteoli, running a considerable way inland. 
 But at a very early period the Lucrine lake was 
 separated from the remainder of the bay by a dike 
 8 stadia in length, which was probably formed 
 originally by some volcanic change, and was sub- 
 sequently rendered more complete by the work of 
 man. Being thus separated from the rest of the 
 sea, it assumed the character of an inland lake, 
 and is therefore called Lacus by the Romans. Its 
 waters still remained salt, and were celebrated for 
 their oyster beds. Behind the Lucrine lake was 
 another lake called Lacus Avernus. In the 
 time of Augustus, Agrippa made a communication 
 between the lake Avemua and the Lucrine lake, 
 and also between the Lucrine lake and the Sinus 
 Cumanus, thus forming out of the 3 the celebrated 
 Julian Harbour. The Lucrine lake was filled up 
 
LUCULLUS. 
 
 by a volcanic eniption in 1538, when a conical 
 mountain rose in its place, called Monte Nuovo. 
 The Avemus has thus become again a separate 
 lake, and no trace of the dike is to be seen in the 
 Gulf of Pozzuoli. 
 
 Lucullus, Liclmus, a celebrated plebeian family. 
 1. L., the grandfather of the conqueror of Mithri- 
 dates, was consul b. c. 151, together with A. Pos- 
 turaius Albinus, and carried on war in Spain against 
 the Vaccaei. — 2. L., son of the preceding, was 
 praetor 103, and carried on war unsuccessfully 
 against the slaves in Sicily. On his return to Rome 
 he was accused, condemned, and driven into exile. 
 — 3. L., son of the preceding, and celebrated as 
 the conqueror of Mithridates. He was probably born 
 about 110. He served with distinction in the 
 Marsic or Social war, and accompanied Sulla as 
 his quaestor into Greece and Asia, 80. When Sulla 
 returned to Italy after the conclusion of peace 
 with Mithridates in 84, Lucullus was left behind 
 in Asia, where he remained till 80. In 79 he was 
 curule aedile with his younger brother Mnrcus. 
 So great was the favour at this time enjoyed by 
 Lucullus with Sulla, that the dictator, on his 
 death-bed, not only confided to him the charge of 
 revising and correcting his Commentaries, but ap- 
 pointed him guardian of his son Faustus, to the 
 exclusion of Pompey; a circumstance which is said 
 to have first given rise to the enmity and jealousy 
 that ever after subsisted between the two. In 77 
 Lucullus was praetor, and at the expiration of this 
 magistracy obtained the government of Africa, 
 where he distinguished himself by the justice of 
 his administration. In 74 he was consul with M. 
 Aurelius Cotta. In this year the war with Mithri- 
 dates was renewed, and Lucullus received the 
 conduct of it. He carried on this war for 8 years 
 with great success. The details are given under 
 Mithridates, and it is only necessary to mention 
 here the leading outlines, Lucullus defeated Mi- 
 thridates with great slaughter, and drove him out 
 of his hereditary dominions, and compelled him 
 to take' refuge in Armenia with his son-in-law 
 Tigranes (71). He afterwards invaded Armenia, 
 defeated Tigranes, and took his capital Tigranocerta 
 (69). In the next campaign (68) he again defeated 
 the combined forces of Mithridates, and laid siege 
 to Nisibis ; but in the spring of the following year 
 (67), a mutiny among his troops compelled him to 
 raise the siege of Nisibis, and return to Pontus. 
 Mithridates had already taken advantage of his 
 absence to invade Pontus, and had defeated his 
 lieutenants Fabius and Triarius in several successive 
 actions. But Lucullus on his arrival was unable 
 to effect any thing against Mithridates, in conse- 
 quence of the mutinous disposition of his troops. 
 The adversaries of Lucullus availed themselves of 
 so favourable an occasion, and a decree waa passed 
 to transfer to Acilius Glabrio, one of the consuls 
 for the year, the province of Bithynia and the 
 command against Mithridates. But Glabrio was 
 wholly incompetent for the task assigned him : on 
 arriving in Bithynia, he made no attempt to assume 
 the command, but remained quiet within the con- 
 fines of the Roman province. Mithridates mean- 
 while ably availed himself of this position of affairs, 
 and Lucullus had the mortification of seeing Pontus 
 and Cappadocia occupied by the enemy before his 
 eyes, without being able to stir a step in their 
 defence. But it was still more galling to his feel- 
 ings when, in G% he was called upon to resign the | 
 
 LUCULLUS. 
 
 393 
 
 command to his old rival Pompey, who had been 
 appointed by the Manillan law to supersede both 
 him and Glabrio. Lucullus did not obtain his 
 triumph till 63, in consequence of the opposition of 
 his enemies. He was much courted by tlie aristo- 
 cratical party, who sought in Lucullus a rival and 
 antagonist to Pompey; but, instead of putting him- 
 self prominently forward as the leader of a party, 
 he soon began to withdraw gradually from public 
 affairs, and devote himself more and more to a life 
 of indolence and luxury. He died in 57 or 6G. 
 Previous to his death he had fallen into a state of 
 complete dotage, so that the management of his 
 affairs was confided to bis brother Marcus. The 
 name of Lucullus is almost as celebrated for the 
 luxury of his latter years as for his victories over 
 Mithridates. He amassed vast treasures in Asia ; 
 and these supplied him the means, after his return 
 to Rome, of gratifying his natural taste for luxurv, 
 together with an ostentatious display of magnifi- 
 cence. His gardens in the immediate suburbs of 
 the city were laid out in a style of extraordinary 
 splendour ; but still more remarkable were his 
 villas at Tusculum, and in the neighbom'hood of 
 Neapolis. In the construction of the latter, with 
 its parks, fish-ponds, &c., he had laid out vast sums 
 in cutting through hills and rocks, and throwing 
 out advanced works into the sea. So gigantic 
 indeed was the scale of these labours for objects 
 iipparently so insignificant, that Pompey called him, 
 in derision, the Roman Xerxes. His feasts at Rome 
 itself were celebrated on a scale of inordinate mag- 
 nificence : a single supper in the hall, called that of 
 Apollo, was said to cost the sum of 50,000 denarii. 
 Even during his campaigns the pleasures of the 
 table had not been forgotten ; and it is well known 
 that he was the first to introduce cherries into 
 Italy, which he had brought with him from Cerasus 
 in Pontus. Lucullus was an enlightened patron of 
 literature, and had from his earliest years devoted 
 much attention to literary pursuits. He collected 
 a valuable library, which was opened to the free 
 use of the literarj' public ; and here he himself 
 used to associate with the Greek philosophers and 
 literati, and would enter warmly into their meta- 
 physical and philosophical discussions. Hence the 
 picture drawn by Cicero at the commencement of 
 the Academics was probably to a certain extent 
 taken from the reality. His constant companion 
 from the time of his quaestorship had been An- 
 tioclms of Ascalon, from whom he imbibed the 
 precepts of the Academic school of philosophy, to 
 which he continued through life to be attached. 
 His patronage of the poet Archias is well known. 
 He composed a history of the Marsic war in Greek, 
 — 4. L. or M., son of the preceding and of Servilia, 
 half-sister of M. Cato, was a mere child at his 
 father's death. His education was superintended 
 by Cato and Cicero. After Caesar's death, he 
 joined the republican party, and fell at the battle 
 of Philippi, 42.^5, M., brother of No. 3, was 
 adopted by M. Terentius Varro, and consequently 
 bore the names of M. Terentius Varuo Lu- 
 cullus. He fought under Sulla in Italy, 82; was 
 curule aedile with his brother 79; praetor 77; and 
 consul 73. After his consulship he obtained the 
 province of Macedonia, He carried on war against 
 the Dardanians and Bessi, and penetrated as far 
 as the Danube. On his return to Rome he obtained 
 a triumph, 71. He was a strong supporter of the 
 aristocratical party. He pronounced the funeral 
 
394 
 
 LUCUMO. 
 
 oration of his brother, but died before the com- 
 mencement of the civil war, 49, 
 
 Luciimo. [Tarquinius.] 
 
 Ludias. [Lydias.] 
 
 La^duuensis Gallia. [Gallia.] 
 
 Lugdunum (Lugdunensis). 1. {Lyon\ the 
 chief town of Gallia Lugdunensis, situated at the 
 foot of a hill at the confluence of the Arar {Saone) 
 and the Rhodanus {RhoTie), is said to have been 
 founded by some fugitives from the town of Vienna, 
 further down the Rhone. In the year after 
 Caesar's death (b. c. 43) Lugdunum was made a 
 Roman colony by L. Munatiua Plancus, and be- 
 came under Augustus the capital of the province, 
 and the residence of the Roman governor. Being 
 situated on two navigable rivers, and being con- 
 nected with the other parts of Gaul by roads, 
 which met at this town as their central point, it 
 soon became a wealthy and populous place, and is 
 described by Strabo as the largest city in Gaiil 
 next to Narbo. It received many privileges from 
 the emperor Claudius ; but it was burnt down in 
 the reign of Nero. It was, however, soon rebuilt, 
 and continued to be a place of great importance 
 till A. D. 197^ when it was plundered and the 
 greater part of it destroyed by the soldiers of 
 Septimius Severus, after his victory over his rival 
 Albinus in the neighbourhood of the town. From 
 this blow it never recovered, and was more and 
 more thrown into the shade by Vienna. Lug- 
 dunum possessed a vast aqueduct, of which the 
 remains may still be traced for miles, a mint, and 
 an imperial palace, in which Claudius was bom, 
 and in which many of the other Roman emperors 
 resided. At the tongue of land between the 
 Rhone and the Arar stood an altar dedicated to 
 Augustus by the difTerent states of Gaul ; and 
 here Caligula instituted contests in rhetoric, prizes 
 being given to the victors, but the moat ridiculous 
 punishments inflicted on the vanquished. (Comp. 
 Juv. i- 44.) Lugdunum is memorable in the his- 
 tory of the Christian church as the seat of the 
 bishopric of Irenaeus, and on account of the per- 
 secutions which the Christians endured here in 
 the 2nd and 3rd centuries. ^ 2. L. Batavorum 
 (Lej/den), the chief town of the Batavi. [BataVI.] 
 ^ 3. Convenaxxun (St. Bertrand de Comminges), 
 the chief town of the Convenae in Aquitania. 
 
 [CONVENAE.] 
 
 Luna. [Selene.] 
 
 Luna (Lunensis : Luni)^ an Etruscan town, 
 situated on the left bank of the Macra, about 4 
 miles from the coast, originally formed part of 
 Liguria, but became the most N.-ly city of Etruria, 
 when Augustus extended the boundaries of the 
 latter country as far as the Macra. The town 
 itself was never a place of importance, but it pos- 
 sessed a large and commodious harbour at the 
 mouth of the river, called Lunae Portus {Gulf of 
 Spezzia). In b. c. 177 Luna was made a Roman 
 colony, and 2000 Roman citizens were settled 
 there. In the civil war between Caesar and 
 Pompey it had sunk into utter decay, but was 
 colonised a few years afterwards. Luna was cele- 
 brated for its white marble, which now takes its 
 name from the neighbouring town of Carrara. 
 The quarries, from which this marble was obtained, 
 appear not to have been worked before tlie time of 
 Julius Caesar ; but it was extensively employed in 
 the public buildings erected in the reign of Au- 
 gustus. The wine and the cheeses of Luna also 
 
 LUTETIA. 
 
 enjoyed a high reputation : some of the.se cheeses 
 are said to have weighed 1000 pounds. The ruins 
 of Luna are few and unimportant, consisting of 
 the vestiges of an amphitheatre, fragments of 
 columns, &c. 
 
 Lunae Montes (ri ttJs '2,€Xi]vt]s opos\ a range 
 of mountains, which some of the ancient geo- 
 graphers believed to exist in the interior of Africa, 
 covered with perpetual snow, and containing the 
 sources of the Nile. Their actual existence is 
 neither proved nor disproved, 
 
 Luperca, or Lupa, an ancient Italian divinity, 
 the wife of Lupercus, who, in the shape of a she- 
 wolf, performed the office of nurse to Romulus and 
 Remus. In some accounts she is identified with 
 AccA Laurentia, the wife of Faustulus. 
 
 Lupercus, an ancient Italian divinity, who was 
 worshipped hy shepherds as the protector of their 
 flocks against wolves. On the N. side of the Pala^ 
 tine hill there had been in ancient times a cave, 
 the sanctuarj-- of Lupercus, surrounded by a grove, 
 containing an altar of the god and his figure clad 
 in a goat-skin, just as his priests, the Luperci. The 
 Romans sometimes identified Lupercus with the 
 Arcadian Pan. Respecting the festival celebrated 
 in honour of Lupercus and his priests, the Luperci 
 see Did. of Ant. art. Lupercalia and Luperci. 
 
 Lupia. [LuppiA.] 
 
 Lupiae or Luppiae, a town in Calabria, be 
 tween Brundusiura and Hydruntum. 
 
 Lupodunum {Lade7iburg9), a town in Germany 
 on the river Nicer (Neckar). 
 
 Luppia or Lupia (Lippe)^ a navigable river in 
 the N. W. of Germany, which falls into the Rhine 
 at Wesel in WestpJtalia, and on which the Romans 
 built a fortress of the same name. The river 
 Eliso (Abne) was a tributary of the Luppia, and 
 at the confluence of these 2 rivers was the fortress 
 of Aliso. 
 
 Lupus, Eutilius. 1. P., consul, with L.Julius 
 Caesar, in B.C. 90, was defeated by the Marsi,and 
 slain in battle. — 2. P., tribune of the plebs, 56, 
 and a warm partisan of the aristocracy. He was 
 praetor in 49, and was stationed at Terracina with 
 3 cohorts. He afterwards crossed over to Greece. 
 — 3. Probably a son of the preceding, the author 
 of a rhetorical treatise in 2 books, entitled Ve 
 Figuris Senteniiarum et Eloculionis, which appears 
 to have been originally an abridgement of a work 
 by Gorgias of Athens, one of the preceptors of 
 young M. Cicero, but which has evidently under- 
 gone many changes. Its chief value is derived 
 from the numerous translations which it contains, 
 of striking passages from the works of Greek orators 
 now lost. — Edited by Ruhnken along with AquUa 
 and Julius Ruffinianus, Lug. Bat. 1768, reprinted 
 by Frotscher, Lips. 1831. 
 
 Lurco, M. Auiidius, tribune of the plebs, B.C. 
 61, the author of a law on bribery (dcAmhitu). 
 He was the maternal grandfather of the empress 
 Livia, wife of Augustus. He was the first person 
 in Rome who fattened peacocks for sale, and he 
 derived a hirge income from this source. 
 
 Luscinus, Fabricius. [Fabriciuh.] 
 
 Lusitania, Lusltaui. [Hispania.] 
 
 Lusonea, a tribe of the Celtiberi in Hispania 
 Tarraconensis, near the sources of the Tagus. 
 
 Lutatius Catiilua. [Catulus.] 
 
 Lutatius Cerco. [Cerco.] 
 
 Lutetia, or, more commonly, Lutetia Pari- 
 aiorum {Pans), the capital of the Parisii in 
 
LYCABETTUS. 
 
 Gallia Lugdunensis, was situated on an island in 
 the Sequana (5feme)» and was connected with the 
 banks of the river by 2 wooden bridges. Under 
 the emperors it became a place of importance, and 
 the chief naval station on the Sequana. Here 
 Julian was proclaimed emperor, a. d. 360. 
 
 Lycabettus (AvKaStjrTSs: StGeorge), a moun- 
 tain in Attica, belonging to the range of Pentelicus, 
 close to the walls of Athens on the N. E. of the 
 eity, and on the left of the road leading to Ma- 
 rathon. It is commonly, but erroneouslj'-, supposed 
 that the small hill N. of the Pnyx is Lycabettiis, 
 and that Si. Georcfe is the ancient Anchesraus, 
 
 Lycaeus (Auttaros),orLyceus, a lofty mountain 
 in Arcadia, N. W. of Megalopolis, from the summit 
 of which a great part of the country could be seen. 
 It was one of the chief seats of the worship of 
 Zens, who was hence surnamed Lycaeiis. Here 
 was a temple of this god; and here also was cele- 
 brated the festival of the Lycaea {Diet. ofAnt s. v.). 
 Pan was likewise called Lycaeus^ because he was 
 bom and had a sanctuar}' on this mountain. 
 
 Lycambes. [Archilochus.] 
 
 Iiycaon (Avkomv)^ king of Arcadia, son of Pelas- 
 gus by Meliboea or Cyllene. The traditions about 
 Lycaon represent him in very different lights, 
 Some describe him as the first civiliser of Arcadia, 
 who built the town of Lycosura, and introduced 
 the worship of Zeus Lycaeus. But he is more 
 usually represented as an impious king, with a 
 large number of sons as impious as himself. Zeus 
 visited the earth in order to punish them. The god 
 was recognised and worshipped by the Arcadian 
 people. Lycaon resolved to mm-der him ; and in 
 order to try if he were really a god, served before 
 him a dish of human flesh. Zeus pushed away 
 the table which bore the horrible food, and the 
 place where this happened was afterwards called 
 Trapezus. Lycaon and all his sons, with the ex- 
 ception of the youngest (or eldest), Nyctimus, were 
 killed by Zeus with a flash of lightning, or accord- 
 ing to others, were changed into wolves. — Callisto, 
 the daughter of Lycaon, is said to have been changed 
 into the constellation of the Bear, whence she is 
 called by the -poeta Lycaonis Arctos, Lycaonia Arctos, 
 or Lycaonia Virgo, or by her patronymic Lycaonis, 
 
 Lycaonia (Au/faon'a: Au/faofes: part of ^ara- 
 man), a district of Asia Minor, assigned, under the 
 Persian Empire, to the satrapy of Cappadocia, but 
 considered by the Greek and Roman geographers 
 the S.E. part of Phrygia; boimded on the N. by 
 Galatia, on the E. by Cappadocia, on the S. by 
 Cilicia Aspera, on the S.W. by Isauria (which was 
 sometimes reckoned as a part of it) and by Phrygia 
 Paroreios, and on the N.W. by Great Phrygia. 
 Its boundaries, however, varied much at different 
 times. — It was a long narrow strip of country, its 
 length extending in the direction of N.W. and 
 S.E. ; Xenophon, who first mentions it, describes 
 its width as extending E. of Iconium (its chief 
 city) to the borders of Cappadocia, a distance of 30 
 parasangs, about 110 miles. It forms a table land 
 between the Taurus and the mountains of Phrygia, 
 deficient in good water, but abounding in flocks of 
 sheep. The people were, so far as can be traced, 
 an aboriginal race, speaking a language which is 
 mentioned in the Acts of tlie Apostles as a distinct 
 dialect : they were warlike, and especially skilled 
 in archery. After the overthrow of Antiochus the 
 Great by the Romans, Lycaonia, which had be- 
 longed successively to Persia and to Syria, was 
 
 LYCIA. 
 
 395 
 
 partly assigned to Eumenes, and partly governed 
 by native chieftains, the last of whom, Antipater, 
 a contempory of Cicero, was conquered by Amyn- 
 tas, king of Galatia, at whose death in b. c. 25 it 
 passed, with Galatia, to the Romans, and was 
 finally united to the province of Cappadocia. Ly- 
 caonia was the cliief scene of the labours of the 
 Apostle Paul on his first mission to the Gentiles. 
 {Acts^ xiv.) 
 
 Lyceum {r6 AvKnoy), the name of one of the 3 
 ancient gj'mnasia at Athens, called after the temple 
 of Apollo Lyceus, in its neighbourhood. It was 
 situated S. E. of the city, outside the walls, and 
 just above the river Ilissus. Here the Polemarch 
 administered justice. It is celebrated as the place 
 where Aristotle and the Peripatetics taught. 
 
 Lyceus {Auk^ios), a surname of Apollo, the 
 meaning of which is not quite certain. Some derive 
 it from Ai/Koy, a wolf, so that it would mean " the 
 woif-slayer;" others from \vkt}, light, according to 
 which it would mean "the giver of light;'" and 
 others again from the country of Lycla. 
 
 Lyclinitis. [Lychnidus.] 
 
 Lyclmidus, more rarely Lychuidium or Lych- 
 nis (Aiix^'tSoy, AuxvlSioyj Avx^is ; Avx^i^ios ; 
 Achriia, Ochrida\ a town of Illyricum, was the 
 ancient capital of the Dessaretii, but was in the 
 possession of the Romans as early as their war 
 with king Gentius. It was situated in the interior 
 of the country, on a height on the N. bank of the 
 lake Lychnitis {Avx^'^ris., or r) Aux'^'^^" ^'V*''?)* 
 from which the river Drilo rises. The town was 
 strongly fortified, and contained many springs 
 within its walls. In the middle ages it was the 
 residence of the Bulgarian kings, and was called 
 Achris or Ac/niia^ whence its modern name. 
 
 Lycia {AvKia : Avkios, Lycius : /1/eis), a small, 
 but most interesting, district on the S. side of Asia 
 Minor, jutting oirt into the Mediterranean in a 
 f^rra approaching to a rough semicircle, adjacent 
 to parts of Caria and Pamphylia on the W. and E., 
 and on the N. to the district of Cibyratis in Phry- 
 gia, to which, under the Byzantine emperors, it 
 was considered to belong. It was bounded on the 
 N.W. by the little river Glaucus and the gulf of the 
 same name, on the N.E. by the mountain called 
 Climax (the N. part of the same range as that 
 called Solyma), and on the N. its natural boundary 
 was the Taurus, but its limits in this direction were 
 not strictly defined. The N. parts of Lycia and the 
 district of Cibyratis form togi-'tber a high table land, 
 which is supported on the N. by the Taurus ; on the 
 E. by the mountains called Solyma ( Tctkiaht-Dagli), 
 which run from N. to S. along the E. coast of 
 Lycia, far out into the sea, foraiing the S.E. pro- 
 montory of Lycia, called Sacrum Pr. {C. Kheli- 
 donia) ; the summit of this range is 7tJ00 .feet 
 high, and is covered with snow * : the S.W. and 
 S. sides of this table land are formed by the range 
 called Massicytus {Aktar Vagh), which ntns S.E. 
 from the E. side of the upper course of the river 
 Xanthus : its summits are about 4000 feet high ; 
 and its S. side descends towards the sea in a suc- 
 cession of terraces, terminated by bold cliffs. The 
 mountain system of Lycia is completed by the 
 Cragus, which fills up the space between the "W. 
 side of the Xanthus and the Gulf of Glaucus, and 
 forms the S.W. promontory of Lycia : its summits 
 are nearly 6000 feet high. The chief rivers are 
 
 * According to many of the ancients the Taurus began 
 at this range. 
 
396 
 
 LYCIA. 
 
 the Xanthus {Eclien-CIiai)^ "which has its sources 
 in the tiible-land S. of the Taurus, and flows from 
 N. to S. between the Cragus and Massicytus, and 
 the Lirayrus, which flows from N. to S. between 
 the Massicytus and the Solyma mountains. The 
 vallies of these and the smaller rivers, and the 
 tenaces above the sea in the S. of the country 
 were fertile in com, wine, oil, and fruits, and the 
 mountain slopes were clothed with splendid cedars, 
 firs, and plane-trees : saffron also was one chief 
 product of the land. The total length of the coast, 
 from Telmissus on the W. to Phaselis on the E., 
 including all windings, is estimated by Strabo at 
 17'20 stadia (172 geog. miles), while a straight 
 line drawn across the country, as the chord of this 
 arc, is about 80 geog. miles in length. The ge- 
 neral geographical structure of the peninsula of 
 Lycia, as connected with the rest of Asia Minor, 
 bears no little resemblance to that of the peninsula 
 of Asia Minor itself, as connected with the rest of 
 Asia. According to the tradition preserved by He- 
 rodotus, the most ancient name of the country was 
 Milyas (i; MiXuas), and the earliest inhabitants 
 (probably of the Syro-Arabian race) were called 
 Milyae, and afterwards Solymi: Bubset^uently the 
 Termilae, from Crete, settled in the country : and 
 lastly, the Athenian Lycus, the son of Pandion, 
 iied from his brother Aegcus to Lycia, and gave 
 his name to the country. Homer, who gives 
 Lycia a prominent place in the Iliad, represents 
 its chieftains, Glaucus and Sarpedon, as descended 
 from the royal iamily of Argos (Aeolids) : he 
 does not mention the name of Milyas ; and he 
 speaks of the Solymi as a warlike race, inhabiting 
 the mountains, against whom the Greek hero 
 Bellerophontes ia sent to fight, by his relative 
 t!ie king of Lycia. Besides the legend of Belle- 
 rophon and the chimaera, Lycia is the scene of 
 another popular Greek stor}', that of the Harpies 
 and the daughters of Pandarus ; and memorials of 
 both are preserved on the Lycian monuments now 
 in the British Museum. On the whole, it is clear 
 that Lycia was colonized by the Hellenic race (pro- 
 bably from CJrete) at a very early period, and that 
 its historical inhabitants were Greeks, though with 
 a mixture of native blood. The earliernames were 
 preserved in the district in the N. of the country 
 called Milyas, and in the mountains called Solyma. 
 The Lycians#-lways kept the reputation they have 
 in Homer, as brave warriors. They and the Cili- 
 cians were the only people W. of the Halya whom 
 Croesus did not conquer, and they were the last 
 who resisted the Persians. [XaNthus.] Under 
 the Persian empire they must have been a power- 
 ful maritime people, as they furnished 50 ships to 
 the fleet of Xerxes. After the Macedonian con- 
 quest, Lycia formed part of the Syrian kingdom, 
 from which it was taken by the Romans after their 
 victory over Antiochus III. the Great, and given 
 to the Rhodians. It was soon restored to inde- 
 pendence, and formed a flourishing federation of 
 cities, each having its own republican form of go- 
 veniment, and the whole presided over by a chief 
 magistrate, called A.vKt6.pxn^. There was a federal 
 council, composed of deputies from the 23 cities of 
 the federation, in which the 6 cliief cities, Xanthus, 
 Patara, Pinara, Olympus, Myra, and Tlos, had 3 
 votes each, certain lesser cities 2 each, and the 
 rest 1 each : this assembly determined matters re- 
 lating to the general government of the country, 
 and elected the Lyciarches, as well as the judges 
 
 LYCOPPIRON. 
 
 and the inferior magistrates. Internal dissensions 
 at length broke up this constitution, and the 
 country was united by the emperor Claudius to the 
 province of Pamphylia, from which it was again 
 separated by Theodosias, who made it a separate 
 province, with Myra for its capital. Its cities 
 were numerous and flourishing (see the articles), 
 and its people celebrated for their probity. Their 
 cnstoms are said to have resembled those botli of 
 the Carians and of the Cretans. Respecting the 
 works of art found by Mr. Fellows in Lycia, and 
 now in the British Museum, see Xanthijs. 
 
 Lycius (AuKios). L The Lycian, a surname of 
 Apollo, who was worshipped in several places of 
 Lycia, especially at Patara, where he had an oracle. 
 Hence the Lycitte sories are the responses of the 
 oracle at Patara (Virg. Aen. iv. 346). ^2. Of Eleu- 
 therae, in Boeotia, a distinguished statuary, the dis- 
 ciple or son of Myron, flourished about B.C. 428. 
 
 Lycomedea (AuKo/xTjSTjy). 1. A king of the 
 Dolopians, in the island of Scyros, near Euboea. 
 It was to his court that Achilles was sent disguised 
 as a maiden by his mother Thetis, who was anxious 
 to prevent his going to the Trojan war. Here 
 Achilles became by Deidamia, the daughter of 
 Lycomedes, the father of Pyrrhus or Neoptolemus. 
 Lycomedes treacherously killed Theseus by thrust- 
 ing him down a rock. ^ 2. A celebrated Arcadian 
 general, was a native of Mantinea and one of the 
 chief founders of Megalopolis b. c. 370. He after- 
 wards showed great jealousy of Thebes, and formed 
 a separate alliance between Athens and Arcadia, 
 in 366. He was murdered in the same year on his 
 return from Athens, by some Arcadian exiles. 
 
 lycon {hvK(av). 1. An orator and demagogue 
 at Athens, was one of the 3 accusers of Socrates 
 and prepared the case against him. When the 
 Athenians repented of their condemnation of So- 
 crates, they put Meletus to death and banished 
 Anytus and Lyco n. ^ 2. Of Troas, a distinguished 
 Peripatetic philosopher, and the disciple of Straton, 
 whom he succeeded as the head of the Peripatetic 
 school, B. c. 272. He held that post for more than 
 44 years, and died at the age of 74. He enjoyed 
 the patronage of Attalus and Eumenes. He was 
 celebrated for his eloquence and for his skill in 
 educating boys. He wrote on the boundaries of 
 good and evil {De Finihus). 
 
 Lycophron {KvK6<pp{av). 1. Younger son of 
 Periander, tyrant of Corinth, by his wife Melissa. 
 For details see Periander. — 2. A citizen of 
 Pherae, where he put down the government of the 
 nobles and established a tyranny about b. c. 405. 
 He afterwards endeavoured to make himself master 
 of the whole of Thessaly, and in 404 he defeated 
 the Larissaeans and others of the Thessalians, who 
 opposed him. He was probably the father of Jason 
 of Pherae. ^3. A son, apparently, of Jason, and 
 one of the brothers of Thebe, wife of Alexander, 
 the tyrant of Pherae, in whose murder he took 
 part together with his sister and his 2 brothers, 
 Tisiphonus and Pitholaus, 367. On Alexander's 
 death the power appears to have been wielded 
 mainly by Tisiphonus, though Lycophron had an 
 important share in the government. Lycophron 
 succeeded to the supreme power on the deatli of 
 Tisiphonus, but in 352 he was obliged to surrender 
 Pherae to Philip, and withdraw from Thessaly.— 
 4. A grammarian and poet, was a native of Chalcis 
 in Euboea, and lived at Alexandria, under Ptolemy 
 Philadelnhus (B. c. 285 — 247), who entrusted to 
 
LYCOPOLTS. 
 
 him the arrangement of the works of the comic 
 poets in the Alexandrian library. In the execu- 
 tion of this comraission Lycophron drew up an ex- 
 tensive work on comedy. Nothing more is known 
 of his life. Ovid {Ibis, 533) states that he was 
 killed by an arrow. — As a pnet, Lycophron ob- 
 taineda place in the Tragic Pleiad. He also wrote 
 a satyric drama. But the only one of his poems 
 which has come down to us is the Cassaiidra or 
 Alexandra. This is neither a tragedy nor an epic 
 poem, but a long iambic monologue of 1474 verses, 
 in which Cassandra is made to prophesy the fall of 
 Troy, the adventures of the Grecian and Trojan 
 heroes, with numerous other mythological and his- 
 torical events, going back as early as the fables of 
 Id and Europa, and ending with Alexander the 
 Great. The work has no pretensions to poetical 
 merit. It is simply a cumbrous store of traditional 
 learning. Its obscurity is proverbial. Its author 
 obtained the epithet of the Obscure ((rK0Tetv6s). 
 Its stores of learning and its obscurity alike excited 
 the efforts of the ancient grammarians, several of 
 whom wrote commentaries on the poem. The only 
 one of these works which survives, is the Scholia 
 of Isaac and John Tzetzes, which are far more 
 valuable than the poem itself. — The best editions 
 are by Potter, Oxon. 1697, fol. ; Reichard, Lips. 
 1788, 2 vols. 8vo. ; and Bachmann, Lips. 1828, 2 
 vols. 8vo. 
 
 Lycdpolis (ij Avkuv ttSxis: Siout, Ru.), a city 
 of Upper Egypt, on the W. bank of the Nile, be* 
 tween Hermopolis and Ptolemais, said to have 
 derived its name from the circumstance, that an 
 Aethiopian army was put to flight near it by a 
 pack of wolves, 
 
 Lycorea {AuKupeia : AvKtcpevs, AviccSptos^ Av- 
 KupelTTjs), an ancient town at the foot of Mt. Ly- 
 corea {Liakura), which was the southern of the 2 
 peaks of Mt. Parnassus. [Parnassus.] Hence 
 Apollo derived the surname of Lj'coreus. The 
 town Lycorea is said to have been the residence 
 of Deucalion, and Delphi is also reported to have 
 been colonised by it. 
 
 Lycoris. [Cytheris.] 
 
 Lycortas (AvKdpras), of Megalopolis, was the 
 father of Polybius, the historian, and the close friend 
 of Philopoemen, whose policy he always supported. 
 He is first mentioned in B.C. 189, as one of the 
 ambassadors sent to Rome ; and his name occurs 
 for the last time in 168. 
 
 Lycosura (AvK6a-ovpa : Avnoa-ovpevs : Paleo- 
 Icramhavos or Sidhirokastro near Siala)^ a town in 
 the S. of Arcadia, and on the N, W, slope of Mt. 
 Lycaeus, and near the small river Plataniston, said 
 by Pausanias to have been the most ancient town in 
 Greece, and to have been founded by Lycaon, the 
 son of Pelasgus. 
 
 Lyctus (AiJktoj : Au«Tioy), sometimes called 
 Lyttus (AuTTos), an important town in the E. 
 of Crete, S.E. of Cnossus, was situated on a height 
 of Mt. Argaeus, 80 stadia from the coast. Its 
 harbour was called Chersonesus, It was one of 
 the most ancient cities in the island, and is men- 
 tioned in the Iliad, It was generally considered 
 to be a Spartan colony, and its inhabitants were 
 celebrated for their bravery. At a later time it 
 was conquered and destroyed by the Cnossians, 
 but it was afterwards rebuilt, and was extant in 
 the 7th centuiy of our era. 
 
 LycTirgus {AvKovpyos). 1. Son of Dryas, and 
 king of the Edones in Thrace. He is famous for 
 
 LYCURGUS. 
 
 357 
 
 Ills persecution of Dionysus (Bacchus) and his 
 worship in Thrace. Homer relates that, in order to 
 escape from Lycurgus, Dionysus leaped into the 
 sea, where he was kindly received by Thetis ; and 
 that Zeus thereupon blinded the impious king, 
 who died soon afterwards, hated by the immortal 
 gods. This story has received many additions from 
 later poets and mythographers. Some relate thai 
 Dionysus, on his expeditions, came to the kingdom 
 of Lycurgus ; but was expelled by the impious 
 king. Thereupon the god drove Lycurgus mad, in 
 which condition he killed his son Dryas, and also 
 hewed off one of his legs, supposing that he was 
 cutting down vines. The country now produced no 
 fruit ; and the oracle declaring that fertility should 
 not be restored unless Lycurgus were killed, the 
 Edonians carried him to mount Pangaeum, where 
 he was torn to pieces by horses. According to 
 Sophocles (A7iti(/. 955)i Lj'curgus was entombed 
 in a rock. ^ 2. King in Arcadia, son of Aleus and 
 Neaera, brother of Cepheus and Auge, husband of 
 Cleophile, Eurynome, or Antinoe, and father of An- 
 caeus, Epochus, Amphidamas, and lasus. Lycurgus 
 killed Areithous, who used to fight with a club. 
 Lycurgus bequeathed this club to his slave Ereu- 
 thalion, his sons having died before him. — 3. Son 
 of Pronax and brother of Amphithea, the wife of 
 Adrastus. He took part in the war of the Seven 
 against Thebes, and fought with Amphiaraus. He 
 is mentioned among those whom Aesculapius called 
 to life again after their death.— 4, King of Nemen, 
 son of Pheres and Periclymene, brother of Admetus, 
 husband of Eurj'dice or Amphithea, and father of 
 Opheltes, 
 
 lyciirgus. 1. The Spartan legislator. Of hia 
 personal history we have no certain information ; 
 and there are such discrepancies respecting him in 
 the ancient writers, that many modern critics have 
 denied his real existence altogether. The more ge- 
 nerally received account about him was as follows : — 
 Lycurgus was the son of Eunomus, king of Sparta, 
 and brother of Polydectes. The latter succeeded 
 his father as king of Sparta, and afterwards died, 
 leaving his queen with child. The ambitioua 
 woman proposed to Lycurgus to destroy her off- 
 spring if he would share the throne with her. He 
 seemingly consented ; but when she had given 
 birth to a son (CharJlaus), he openly proclaimed 
 him king; and as next of kin, acted as his guardian. 
 But to avoid all suspicion of ambitious designs, with 
 which the opposite party charged him, Lycurgus left 
 Sparta, and set out on his celebrated travels, which 
 have been magnified to a fabulous extent. He is 
 said to have visited Crete, and there to have 
 studied the wise laws of Minos. Next he went to 
 Ionia and Egypt, and is reported to have pene- 
 trated into Libya, Iberia, and even India, In Ionia 
 he is said to have met either with Homer himself, 
 or at least with the Homeric poems, which he in- 
 troduced into the mother countr3^ The return of 
 Lycurgus to Sparta was hailed by all parties. 
 Sparta was in a state of anarchy and licentiousness,, 
 and he was considered as the man who alone could 
 cure the growing diseases of the state. He under- 
 took the task ; yet before he set to work, he 
 strengthened himself with the authority of the 
 Delphic oracle, and with a strong party of influential 
 men at Sparta. The reform seems not to have been 
 carried altogether peaceably. The new division of 
 the land among the citizens must have violated 
 many existing interests. But all opposition was over- 
 
398 
 
 LYCURGUS. 
 
 borne, and tKe whole constitation, military and civil, 
 ■was remodelled. After Lycurgus had obtained for 
 his institutions an approving oracle of the national 
 god of Delphi, he exacted a promise from the people 
 not to make any alterations in his laws before his 
 return. And now he left Sparta to finish his life 
 in voluntary exile, in order that his countrymen 
 might be bound by their oath to preserve his con- 
 stitution inviolate for ever. Where and how he 
 died nobody could tell. He vanished from the 
 earth like a god, leaving no traces behind but his 
 spirit; and he was honoured as a god at Sparta 
 with a temple and yearly sacrifices down to the 
 latest times. The date of Lycurgus is variously 
 given, but it is impossible to place it later than 
 B.C. 825. — Lycurgus was regarded through all 
 auhsequent ages as the legislator of Sparta, and 
 therefore almost all the Spartan institutions were 
 ascribed to him as their author. We therefore 
 propose to give here a sketch of the Spartan insti- 
 tution, referring for details to the Diet, of Antiq. ; 
 though we must not imagine that this constitution 
 was entirely the work of Lycurgus. The Spartan 
 constitution was of a mixed nature ; the monarchi- 
 cal principle was represented by the kings, the 
 aristocracy by the senate, and the democratical 
 element by the assembly of the people, and subse- 
 quently by their representatives, the ephors. The 
 kings had originally to perform the common func- 
 tions of the kings of the heroic age. They were 
 high priests, judges, and leaders in war ; but in 
 all of these departments they were in course of 
 time superseded more or less. As judges they re- 
 tained only a particular branch of jurisdiction, that 
 referring to the succession of property. As military 
 commanders they were restricted and watched by 
 commissioners sent by the senate ; the functions of 
 high priest were curtailed least, perhaps because 
 least obnoxious. In compensation for the loss of 
 power, the kings enjoyed great honours, both 
 during their life and after their death. Still 
 the principle of monarchy was verj' weak among 
 the Spartans. — The powers of the senate were 
 very important : they had the right of originating 
 and discussing all measures before they could be 
 submitted to the decision of the popular assembly ; 
 they had, in conjunction with the ephors, to watch 
 over the due observance of the laws and institu- 
 tions ; and they were judges in all criminal cases, 
 without being bound by any written code. For all 
 this they were not responsible, holding their office 
 for life. — But with all these powers, the elders 
 formed no real aristocracy. They were not chosen 
 either for property qualification or for noble birth. 
 The senate was open to the poorest citizen, who, 
 during 60 years, had been obedient to the laws and 
 zealous in the performance of his duties. — The 
 mass of the people, that is, the Spartans of pure 
 Doric descent, formed the sovereign power of the 
 state. The popular assembly consisted of every 
 Spartan of 30 years of age, and of unblemished 
 character ; only those were excluded who had not 
 the means of contributing their portion to the sys- 
 sitia. They met at stated times, to decide on all 
 important questions brought before them, after a 
 previous discussion in the senate. They had no 
 right of amendment, but only that of simple approval 
 or rejection, which was given in the rudest form 
 possible, by shouting. The popular assembly, how- 
 ever, had neither frequent nor very important oc- 
 casions for directly exerting their sovereign power. 
 
 LYCURGUS. 
 
 Their chief activity consisted in delegating it ; 
 hence arose the importance of the ephors, who 
 were the representatives of the popular element of 
 the constitution. The ephors answer in every 
 characteristic feature to the Roman tribunes of the 
 people. Their origin was lost in obscurity and in- 
 significance ; but at the end they engrossed the 
 whole power of the state. — With reference to their 
 subjects, the few Spartans formed a most decided 
 aristocracy. On the conquest of Peloponnesus by 
 the Dorians, part of the ancient inhabitants of 
 the country, under name of the Perioici, were 
 allowed indeed to retain their personal liberty, but 
 lost all civil rights, and were obliged to pay to the 
 state a rent for the land that was left them. But 
 a great part of the old inhabitants were reduced to 
 a state of perfect slavery, different from that of the 
 slaves of Athens and Rome, and more similar to 
 the villanage of the feudal ages. These were called 
 Hehtts. They were allotted with patches of land, to 
 individual members of the ruling class. They tilled 
 the land, and paid a fixed rent to their mappers, not, 
 as the perioici, to the state. The number of these 
 miserable creatures was large. They were treated 
 with the utmost cruelty by the Spartans, and were 
 frequently put to death by their oppressors. — The 
 Spartans formed, as it were, an army of invaders in 
 an enemy's country, their city was a camp, ana 
 every man a soldier. At Sparta, the citizen only 
 existed for the state ; he had no interest but the 
 state's, and no property but what belonged to the 
 state. It was a fundamental principle of the con- 
 stitution, that all citizens were entitled to the en- 
 joyment of an equal portion of the common pro- 
 perty. This was done in order to secure to the 
 commonwealth a large number of citizens and sol- 
 diers, free from labour for their sustenance, and 
 able to devote their whole time to warlike exer- 
 cises, in order thus to keep up the ascendancy of 
 Sparta over her perioici and helots. The Spartans 
 were to be warriors and nothing but warriors. 
 Therefore, not only all mechanical labour was 
 thought to degrade them ; not only was husbandry 
 despised and neglected, and commerce prevented, 
 or at least Impeded, by prohibitive laws and by 
 the use of iron money ; but also the nobler arts 
 and sciences were so effectually stifled, that Sparta 
 is a blank in the history of the arts and literature 
 of Greece. The state took care of a Spartan from 
 his cradle to his grave, and superintended his edu- 
 cation in the minutest points. This was not con- 
 fined to his youth, but extended throughout his 
 whole life. The syssitia, or, as they were called 
 at Sparta, phiditia, the common meals, may be re- 
 garded as an educational institution ; for at these 
 meals subjects of general interest were discussed 
 and political questions debated. The youths and 
 boys used to eat separately from the men, in their 
 \vn divisions. — 2. A Lacedaemonian, who, though 
 not of the royal blood, was chosen king, in b. c. 220, 
 together with AgesipolisIIL, after the death of 
 Cleomenes. It was not long before he deposed his 
 colleague and made himself sole sovereign, though 
 under the control of the Ephori. He carried on war 
 against Philip V. of Macedon,and the Achaeans. He 
 died about 210, and Machanidas then made himself 
 tyrant. ^3. An Attic orator, son of Lycophron, 
 who belonged to the noble family of the Eteobu- 
 tadae, was born at Athens, about b. c. 396. He 
 was a disciple of Plato and Isocrates. In public 
 life he was a warm supporter of the policy of Demo- 
 
LYCUS. 
 
 Bthenes, and was universally admitted to be one of 
 the most virtuous citizens and upright statesmen of 
 his age. He was thrice appointed Tamias or ma- 
 nager of the public revenue, and held tliis office 
 each time for five years, beginning with 337. He 
 discharged the duties of this office v/ith such abi- 
 lity and integrity, that he raised the public reve- 
 nue to the sum of 1200 talents. One of his laws 
 enacted that bronze statues should be erected ttl 
 Aeschylus, Sophocles, and Euripides, and that 
 copies of their tragedies should be preserved in the 
 public archives. He often appeared as a successful 
 accuser in the Athenian courts, but he himself was 
 as often accused by others, though he always suc- 
 ceeded in silencing his enemies. He died while 
 holding the office of President of the theatre of 
 Dionysus, in 323. A fragment of an inscription, 
 containing an account of his administration of the 
 finances, is still extant. There were 1 5 orations 
 of Lycurgus extant in antiquity ; but only one has 
 come down to us entire, the oration against Leo- 
 crates, which was delivered in 330. The style is 
 noble and grand, but neither eltgant nor pleasing. 
 The oration is printed in the various collections of 
 the Attic orators. [Demosthenes.] 
 
 Lycus {AvKos). 1. Son of Poseidon and Ce- 
 laeno, who was transferred by his father to the 
 islands of the blessed. By Alcyone, the sister of 
 Celaeno, Poseidon begot Hyrieus, the father of the 
 following.^2. Son of Hyrieus and Clonia, and bro- 
 ther of Nycteus. Polydorus, king of Thebes, mar- 
 ried the daughter of Nycteus, by whom he had a son 
 Labdacus ; and on his death he left the government 
 of Thebes and the guardianship of Labdacus to his 
 father-in-law. Nycteus afterwards fell in battle 
 against Epopeus, king of Sicyon, who had carried 
 away his beautiful daughter Antiope. Lycus suc- 
 ceeded his brother in the government of Thebes, an d 
 in the guardianship of Labdacus. He surrendered 
 the kingdom to Labdacus when the latter had 
 grown up. On the death of Labdacus soon after- 
 wards, Lycus again succeeded to the government of 
 Thebes, and undertook theguardianship of Laius,the 
 son of Labdacus. Lycus marched against Epopeus, 
 whom he put to death (according to other accounts 
 Epopeus fell in the war with Nycteus), and he 
 carried away Antiope to Thebes. She was treated 
 with the greatest cruelty by Dirce, the wife of Lycus; 
 in revenge for which her sons by Zeus, Amphion 
 and Zethus, afterwards put to death both Lycus 
 and Dirce. [Amphion.] — 3. Son of No. 2, or, 
 according to others, son of Poseidon, was also king 
 of Thebes. In the absence of Hercules, Lycus 
 attempted to kill his wife Megara and her children, 
 but was afterwards put to death by HiTcules. ^ 
 4. Son of Pandion, and brother of Aegeus, Nistis, 
 and Pallas. He was expelled by Aegeus, and 
 took refuge in the country of the Termili, which 
 was called Lycia after him. He was honoured at 
 Athens as a hero, and the Lyceum derived its 
 name from him. He is said to have introduced 
 the Eleusinian mysteries into Andania in Messenia. 
 He is sometimes also described as an ancient 
 prophet, and the family of the Lycomedao, at Athens, 
 traced their name and origin from him. -^ 5. Son of 
 Dascylus, and king of the Mariandynians, who 
 received Hercules and the Argonauts with hospi- 
 tality.— 6. Of Rhegium, the father, real or adoptive, 
 of the poet Lycophron, was an historical writer in 
 the time of Demetrius Phalereus. 
 
 Lycus (AiJkos), the name of several rivers, which 
 
 LYDIA. 399 
 
 are said to be so called from the impetuosity of 
 their current. 1. (KUij), a little river of Bithynia, 
 falling into the sea S. of Heraclea Pontica. — 2. 
 {Germenek-Chai)^ a considerable river of Ponfu3, 
 rising in the mountains on the N. of Armenia 
 Minor, and flowing W. into the Iris at Eupatoria. 
 — 3. {Qioruk-Su),A considerable river of Phrygia, 
 flowing from E. to W. past Colossae and Lao- 
 dicea into the Maeander.^4. (Nakr-el-Kelb), a 
 river of Phoenicia, falling into the sea N. of Bery- 
 tus.^ 5. (Great Zah or V7u-Su), a river of As- 
 syria, rising in the mountains on the S. of Armenia, 
 and flowing S. W. into the Tigris, just below La- 
 rissa [Nimrovd). It is undoubtedly the same as 
 the Zabatus of Xenophon. 
 
 Lydda (to: Au55a, t} AuSStj : Lud)^ a town of 
 Palestine, S. E. of Joppa, and N. W. of Jerusalem, 
 at the junction of several roads which lead from 
 the sea -coast, was destroyed by the Romans in the 
 Jewish War, but soon after rebuilt, and called 
 Diospolis. 
 
 Lydia (AuSta: Ai/5ds, Lydus), a district of Asia 
 Minor, in the middle of the W. side of the penin- 
 sula, between Mysia on the N. and Caria on the 
 S., and between Phrygia on the E. and the 
 Aegean Sea on the W. Its boundaries varied so 
 much at different times, that they cannot be de- 
 scribed with any approach to exactness till we 
 come to the time of the Roman rule over W. Asia. 
 At that time the N. boundary, towards Mysia, was 
 the range of mountains which form the N. margin of 
 the valley of the Hermus, called Sardene, a S.W. 
 branch of the Phrygian Olympus: the E. lioundary 
 towards Phrygia was an imaginary line : and the 
 S. boundary towards Caria was the river Maeander, 
 or, according to some authorities, the range of 
 mountains which, under the name of Messogis 
 {Kastane Dagh) forms the N. margin of the valley 
 of the Maeander, and is a N. W. prolongation of 
 the Taurus. From the E. part of this range, in 
 the S. E. comer of Lydia, another branches off to 
 the N. W., and runs to the "W. far out into the 
 Aegean Sea, where it forms the peninsula opposite 
 to the island of Chios. This chain, which is called 
 Traolus {Kisiija Alusa Dagh), divides Lydia into 
 2 unequal vallies ; of which the S. and smaller is 
 watered by the river Cayster, and the N. forms 
 the great plain of the Hermus: these vallies are 
 very beautiful and fertile, and that of the Hermus 
 especially is one of the most delicious regions of 
 the earth. The E. part of Lydia, and the adjacent 
 portion of Phrygia, about the upper course of the 
 Hermus and its tributaries, is an elevated plain, 
 showing traces of volcanic action, and hence called 
 Catacecaumene {KaraKeKav^ivt]). In the boun- 
 daries of Lydia, as just described, the strip of 
 coast belonging to Ionia is included, but the name 
 is sometimes used in a narrower signification, so as 
 to exclude Ionia. In early times the country had 
 another name, Maeonia (Mpoycij, Maioria), by 
 which alone it is known to Homer ; and this name 
 was afterwards applied specifically to the E. and S. 
 part of Lydia, and then, in contradistinction to it, 
 tlie name Lydia was used for the N.W. part. In 
 the mythical legends the common name of the 
 people and country, Lydi and Lydia, is derived 
 from Lydus, the son of Atys, the first king. The 
 Lydians appear to have been a race closely con- 
 nected with the Carians and the Mysians, with 
 whom they observed a common worship in the 
 temple of Zeus Carius at Mylasa : they also prac- 
 
400 
 
 LYDIADES. 
 
 tised the worship of Cybele, nnd other Phrygian 
 customs. Amidst the uncertainties of the early 
 legends, it is clear that Lydia was a very early 
 seat of Asiatic civilization, and that it exerted a 
 very importjint influence on the Greeks. The Lydian 
 monarchy, which was founded at Sardis, before the 
 time of authentic history, grew up into an empire, 
 under which the many different tribes of Asia 
 Minor W. of the river Halys were for the first 
 time united. Tradition mentioned 3 dynasties of 
 kings ; the Atyadae, which ended (according to 
 the backward computations of chronologers) about 
 B. c. 1221 ; the Heraclidae, which reigned 505 
 years, down to 71b'; and the Mermnadae, 160 
 years, down to S.'iG. Only the last dynasty can 
 be safely regarded as historical, and the fabulous 
 element has a large place in the details of their 
 history : their names and computed dates were : — 
 (1) Gyges, B.C. 716—678; (2) Ardys, 678— 
 629 ; (3) Sadyattes, 629—617 ; (4) Alyattes, 
 617—560 ; (5) Croesus, 560 (or earlier)— 546 ; 
 under whose names an account is given of the rise 
 of the Lydian empire in Asia Minor, and of its 
 overthrow by the Persians under Cyrus. Under 
 these kings, the Lydians appear to have been a 
 highly civilised, industrious, and wealthy people, 
 practising agriculture, commerce, and manufactures, 
 and acquainted with various arts ; and exercising, 
 through their intercourse with the Greeks of 
 Ionia, an important influence on the progress of 
 Greek civilisation. Among the inventions, or im- 
 provements, which the Greeks are said to have de- 
 rived from them, were the weaving and dyeing of 
 fine fabrics ; various processes of metallurgy ; the 
 use of gold and silver money, which the Lydians 
 are said first to have coined, the former from the 
 gold found on Traolus and from the golden sands 
 of the Pactolus ; and various metrical and musical 
 improvements, especially the scale ovmode of music 
 called the Lydian, and the form of the lyre called 
 the magadis. (See Did. of Anliq., Musica). The 
 Lydians had also public games similar to those of 
 the Greeks. Their high civilisation, however, was 
 combined with a lax morality, and, after the Persian 
 conquest, when they were forbidden by Cyrus to 
 carry arms, they sank gradually into a bye-word 
 for effeminate luxuriousness, and their very name 
 and language had almost entirely disappeared by 
 the commencement of our era. Under the Persians, 
 Lydia and Mysia formed the 2nd satrapy : after the 
 Macedonian conquest, Lydia belonged first to the 
 kings of Syria, and next (after the defeat of An- 
 tiochus the Great by the Romans) to those of Per- 
 gamus, and so passed, by the bequest of Attains 
 III., to the Romans, under whom it formed part of 
 the province of Asia. 
 
 Lydiades(Au5fa577!), a citizen of Megalopolis, 
 ■who, though of an obscure family, raised himself 
 to the sovereignty of his native citj', about b. c. 
 244. In 234 he voluntarily abdicated the sove- 
 reignty, and permitted Megalopolis to join the 
 Achaean League as a free state. He was elected 
 several times general of the Achaean League, and 
 became a formidable rival to Aratus. He fell in 
 battle against Cleomeiies, 226. 
 
 Lydias or Ludias (Av8ias, Ton. AySiTjr, Aou- 
 5;as : Karusmuk or Mavronero\ a river in Ma- 
 cedonia, rises in Eijrdaea, passes iildcssa, and after 
 flowing through the lake on which Pella is situ- 
 ated, talU into the Axius, a short distance from 
 the Therinaic gulf. In the upper part of its course 
 
 LYNCESTIS. 
 
 it is called the Eordaean river ('EopSai'/cir tpo- 
 Ta^bj) by Arrian. Herodotus (vii. 127) by 
 mistake makes the Lydias unite with the Hali- 
 acmon, the latter of which is W. of the former. 
 
 Lydus (Ai'Sos), son of Atys and Callithea, and 
 brother of Tyrrhenus, said to have been the mythi- 
 cal ancestor of the Lydians. 
 
 Lydns, Joannes Laurentius, was bom at Phi- 
 ladelphia, in Lydia (whence he is called Lydus or 
 the Lydian), in a. d. 49U. He held various public 
 offices, and lived to an advanced age. He wrote : 
 1. riepi uTjuui/ ffvyypa(p7j, De Mensihns Liher, of 
 which there are two epitomae, or summaries, and a 
 fragment extant. 2. Ilepl apx^i' K.r.K. De Magi- 
 stratibus Heipublicae Romanae. 3. Tiepl oioaTtixemVj 
 De Osteniis. The work De Mensibus is an histori- 
 cal commentary on the Roman calendar, with an 
 account of the various festivals, derived from a 
 great number of authorities, most of which have 
 perished. Of the two summaries of this curious 
 work, the larger one is by an unknown hand, the 
 shorter one by Maximus Planudes. The work 
 De Alagistraiibus was thought to have perished, 
 but was discovered by VJIloison in the suburbs of 
 Constantinople, in 1785. Tlie best edition of these 
 works is by Bekker, Bonn, 1837. 
 
 Lygdamis {h.iryhafus). 1. Of Naxos, a dis- 
 tinguished leader of the popular party of the island 
 in the struggle with the oligarchy. He conquered 
 the latter, and obtained thereby the chief power in 
 the state. He assisted Pisistratus in his third re- 
 turn to Athens ; but during his absence his ene- 
 mies seem to have got the upper hand again ; for 
 Pisistratus afterwards subdued the island, and 
 made Lygdamis tyrant of it, about b. c. 540. In 
 532 he assisted Polycrates in obtaining the tyranny 
 of Samos. ^ 2. Father of Artemisia, queen of 
 Halicamassus, the contemporary of Xerxes. ^3. 
 Tyrant of Halicamassus, the son of Pisindelis, and 
 the grandson of Artemisia. The historian Herodo- 
 tus is said to have taken an active part in delivering 
 his native city from the tyranny of this Lj'gdamis. 
 
 Lygii or Ligii, an important people in Ger- 
 many, between the Viadus {Oder) and the Vis- 
 tula, in the modem Silesia and Posen., were 
 bounded by the Burgundiones on the N., the 
 Goths on the E., the Bastamae and Osi on the 
 W., and the Marsingi, Silingae and Semnones on 
 the S. They were divided into several tribes, 
 the chief of which were the Manimi, Duni, Elysii, 
 Burii, Arii, Naharvali and Helveconae. They 
 first appear in history as members of the great 
 Marcomannic league formed by Maroboduus in 
 the reigns of Augustus and Tiberius. In the 3rd 
 century some of the Lygii migrated with the Bur- 
 gundians "W.-wards, and settled in the country 
 bordering on the Rhine. 
 
 Lyncestis (Au-yKTjo-Ti's), a district in the S. W, 
 of Macedonia, N. of the river Erigon, and upon 
 the frontiers of Illyria. Its inhabitants, the Lyn- 
 cestae, were Illyrians, and were originally an 
 independent people, who were governed by their 
 own princes, said to be descended from the family 
 of the Bacchiadae. The Lyncestae appear to have 
 become subject to Macedonia by a marriage be- 
 tween the royal families of the 2 countries. The 
 ancient capital of the country was Lyncus 0) 
 Au7Kos), though Heraclea at a later time be- 
 came the chief town in the district Near Lyncus 
 was a river, the waters of them are said to have 
 been as intoxicating as wine. (Ov, Met. xv. 329.) 
 
LYNCEUS. 
 
 Lynceus (AvyKsvs). 1. One of the 50 8OT13 of 
 Aegyptus, whose life was saved by his wife Hy- 
 permiicstra, when all his other brothers were 
 murdered by the daughters of Danaus on their 
 wedding night. [Aegvptl'S.] Danaus thei'tiupon 
 kept Hypennnestra in strict confinement, but was 
 afterwards prevailed upon to give her to Lynceus, 
 who succeeded him on the throne of Argos. Ac- 
 cordincr to a different legend, Lynceus slew Diinaus 
 and all the sisters of Hypermnestra, in revenge for 
 his brothers. Lynceus was succeeded as king of 
 Argos by his son Abas. ^ 2. Son of Aphareus 
 and Arene, and brother of Idas, was one of the 
 Argonauts and famous for his keen sight. lie is 
 also mentioned among the Calvdonian hunters, 
 and was slain by Pollux, For details respecting 
 }iis death, see p. 228, b. ^3. Of Samos, the dis- 
 ciple of Theiiphrastus, and the brother of the his- 
 torian Duris, was a contemporary of Menander, 
 and his rivjd in comic poetry. He survived Me- 
 nander, upon whom he wrote a book. He seems 
 to have been more distinguished as a grammarian 
 and historian thait as a comic poet. 
 
 Lyncus, king of Scythia, or, according to others, 
 of Sicily, endeavoured to murder Triptolemus, who 
 came to him with the gifts of Ceres, but he was 
 metamorphosed by the goddess into a lynx, 
 
 Lyrcea or Lyrceum {AvpKsia, Avpiceiop), a 
 small town in Argolis, situated on a mountain of 
 the siime name, 
 
 LymessTia (Avpv'r}(r<T6s\ a town in the interior 
 of Mysia, in Asia Minor, frequently mentioned by 
 Homer: destroyed before the time of Strabo. 
 
 Lysander (Ai/o-az/Spoy), a Spartan, was of servile 
 origin, or at least the offspring of a marriage 
 between a freeman and a woman of inferior con- 
 dition. He obtained the citizenship, and became 
 one of the most distinguished of the Spartan 
 generals and diplomatists. In rc. 407, he was 
 sent out to succeed Cratesippidaa in the command 
 of the fleet, off the coasts of Asia Minor. He fixed 
 his head-quarters at Ephesus, and soon obtained 
 great influence, not only with the Greek cities, 
 but also with Cyrus, who supplied him with large 
 sums cf money to pa}' his sailors. Next year, 406, 
 lie was succeeded by Callicratidas. In one year 
 the reputation and influence of Lysander had be- 
 come 30 great, that Cjrus and the Spartan allies in 
 Asia requested the Lacedaemonians to appoint 
 Lysander agnin to the conmiand of the fleet. The 
 Lacedaemonian law, however, did not allow the 
 office of admiral to be held twice by the same 
 person ; and, according!}-, Aracus was sent out in 
 405, as the nominal commander-in-chief, while 
 I>vsaiider, virtually invested with the supreme 
 direction of affairs, had the title of vice-admiral 
 (eVt(TToA.eus), In this year he brought the Pelo- 
 ponnesian war to a conclusion, by the defeat and 
 capture of the Athenian fleet off Aegos-potami. 
 Oulv i) Athenian ships made their escape under 
 the command of Conon. He afterwards, sailed to 
 Athens, and in the spring of 404 the city capitu- 
 lated ; the long walls and the fortifications of the 
 Piraeus were destroyed, and an oligarchical form of 
 government established, known by the name of the 
 30 Tyrants. Lysander was now by far the most 
 powerful man in Greece, and he displayed more 
 than the usual pride and haughtiness which dis- 
 tinguished the Spartan commanders in foreign 
 countries. He was passionately fond of praise, 
 and took care that his exploits should be celebrated 
 
 LYSJAS. 
 
 401 
 
 by the most illustrinus poets of his time. Ho 
 always kept the poet Choerilus in his retinue ; and 
 his praises were also sung by Antilochus, Anti- 
 machus of Colophon, and Niceratus of Hernclea. 
 He was the first of the Greeks to whom Greelc 
 cities erected altars as to a god, offered sacrifices, 
 and celebrated festivals. His power and ambition 
 caused the Spartan government uneasiness, and ac- 
 cordingly the Ephors recalled him from Asia Minor, 
 to whicli he had again repaired, and for some years 
 kept him without any public employment. On the 
 death of Agis II. in 397, he secured tiie succession 
 for Agesilaus, the brother of Agis, in opposition to 
 Leotychides, the reputed son of the latter. Ha 
 did not receive from Agesilaus the gratitude he had 
 expected. He was one of the members of the 
 council, 30 in number, which was appointed to 
 accompany the new king in his expedition into 
 Asia in 396. Agesilaus purposely thwarted all 
 his designs, nnd refused all the favours which he 
 asked. On his return to Sparta, Lysander resolved 
 to bring about the change he had long meditated 
 in the SpartJin constitution, by abolishing heredi- 
 tary royalty, and making the throne elective. He 
 is said to have attempted to obtain the sanction of 
 the gods in favour of his scheme, and to have tried 
 in succession the oracles of Delphi, Dodona, and 
 Zeus Aramon, but without success. He does not 
 seem to have ventured upon any overt act, and his 
 enterprise was cut short by his deatii in the follow- 
 ing year. On the breaking out of the Boeotian 
 war in '695, Lysander was placed at the head of 
 one army, and the king Pausanias at the head of 
 another. Lysander marched against Haliartus and 
 perished in battle under the walls, 395. 
 
 lysandra {Auaavdpa), daughter of Ptolemy 
 Soter and Eurydice, the daughter of Antipatur. 
 She was married first to Alexander, the son of 
 Cassander, king of Macedouifu, and after his death 
 to Agathocles, the son of Lysimachus. After the 
 murder of her 2nd husband, b. c. 284 [Agatho- 
 cles, No. 3], she fled to Asia, and besought as- 
 sistance from Seleucus. The latter in consequence 
 marched against Lysimachus, who was defeated 
 and slain in battle 281. 
 
 Lysanias (Avaavias). 1. Tetrarcb of Abilene, 
 was put to death by Antony, to gratify Cleopatra, 
 B. c. 36.^2. A descendant of the last, who was 
 tetrarcb of Abilene at the time when our Saviour 
 entered upon his ministry. (Luke, iii, 1.) 
 
 Lysxas (Aucr^as), an Attic orator, was bom at 
 Athens, s. c. 458. He was the son of Cephalus, 
 who was a native of Syracuse, and had taken up 
 his abode at Athens, on the iuYitjition of Pe- 
 ricles. At the age of 15, Lysias and his brothers 
 joined the Athenians who went as colonists to 
 Thurii in Italy, 443. He there completed his 
 education under the instruction of two Syracusans, 
 Tisias and Nicias. He afterwards enjoyed great 
 esteem among the Thuiians, and seems to have 
 taken part in the administration of the city. After 
 the defeat of the Athenians in Sicily, he was ex- 
 pelled by the Spartan party from Thurii, as a par- 
 tisan of the Athenians. He now returned to 
 Athens, 411. During the rule of the 30 Ty- 
 rants (404), he was looked npou as an enemy of 
 the government, his large property was confiscated, 
 and he was thrown into prison ; but he escaped, 
 and took refuge at Megara. He joined Tlirasy- 
 bulus and the exiles, and in order to render them 
 effectual assistance, he sacrificed all that remained 
 
 D D 
 
402 
 
 LYSIMACHIA. 
 
 of his fortune. He gave the patriots 2000 dmchmas 
 and 200 shields, and engaged a band of 300 mer- 
 cenaries. Thmsybulus pvocured hmi the Athenian 
 franchise, which he had not possessed hitherto, 
 since he was the son of a foreigner ; but he was 
 afterwards deprived of this rights because it had 
 been conferred without a probuleuma. Henceforth 
 he lived at Athens as an isoteles, occupying himself, 
 as it appears, solely with writing judicial speeches 
 for others, and died in 378, at the age of 80. — 
 Lysias wrote a great number of orations ; and 
 among those which were current under his name, 
 the ancient critics reckoned 230 as genuine. Of 
 these 35 only are extant ; and even some of tliese 
 are incomplete, and others are probably spurious. 
 Most of these orations were composed after his 
 return from Thurii to Athena. The only one 
 which he delivered himself is that against Erato- 
 sthenes, 403. Tlie language of Lysias is perfectly 
 pure, and may be regarded as one of the best spe- 
 cimens of the Attic idiom. All the ancient writers 
 agreed that his orations were distinguished by 
 grace and eleg;ince. His style is always clear and 
 lucid ; and his delineations of character striking 
 and true to life. The orations of Lysias are con- 
 tained in the collections of the Attic orators. [De- 
 mosthenes.] The best separate editions are by 
 Foertsch, Lips. 1829 : and by Franz, Monac. 1831. 
 
 Lysimachia or -ea {Av(rtiJ.axia, Auct/idx^ta : 
 Ava-tfiax^vs). 1. (Eksemil)^ an important town 
 on the N. E. of the gulf of Melas, and on the 
 isthmus connectmg the Thracian Chersonesus with 
 the mainland, was founded E. c. 309 by Lysi- 
 machua, who removed to his new city the greater 
 part of the inhabitants of the neighbouring town 
 of Cardia. It was subsequently destroyed by the 
 Tliracians, but was restored by Antiochus the 
 Great. Under the Romans it greatly declined ; 
 but Justinian built a strong fortress on the spot, 
 which he called Hexamiliuni {"E.^a^i\Loi'\ doubt- 
 less, from the width of the isthmus, under which 
 name it is mentioned in the middle ages. — 
 2. A town in the S. W. of Aetolia, near Pleuron, 
 situated on a lake of the same name, which was 
 more anciently called Hydra. 
 
 Lysimachus (Autri^axos), king of Thrace, was 
 a Macedonian by birth, and one of Alexander's ge- 
 nerals, but of mean origin, his father Agathocles 
 having been originally a Penest or serf in Sicily. 
 He was early distinguished for his undaunted 
 courage, as well as for his great activity and 
 strength of body. We are told by Q. Curtius that 
 Lysimachus, when hunting in Syria, had killed a 
 lion of immense size single-handed ; and this cir- 
 cumstance that writer regards as the origin of a 
 fable gravely related by many authors, that on 
 account of some offence, Lysimachus had been shut 
 up by order of Alexander in the same den with a 
 lion ; but though unarmed, had succeeded in de- 
 stroying the animal, and was pardoned by the king 
 in consideration of his courage. In the division of 
 the provinces, after the death of Alexander (b. c, 
 323J, Thrace and the neighbouring countries as 
 far as the Danube were assigned to Lysimachus. 
 For some years he was actively engaged in war 
 with the warlike barbarians that bordered his pro- 
 vince on the N. At length, in 315, he joined the 
 league which Ptolemy, Seleucus, and Cassander 
 had formed against Antigonus ; but he did not 
 take any active part in the war for some time. In 
 306 he took the title of king, when it was as- 
 
 LYSIPPUS. 
 
 sumed by Antigonus, Ptolemy, Seleucug, and Cas- 
 sander. In 302 Lysimachus crossed over into 
 Asia Minor to oppose Antigonus, while Seleucus 
 also advanced aj^ainst the latter from the East. In 
 301 Lysimachus and Seleucus effected a junction, 
 and gained a decisive victory at Ipsus over Anti- 
 gonus and his son Demetrius. Antigonus fell on 
 the field, and Demetrius became a fugitive. The 
 conquerors divided between them the dominions of 
 the vanquished ; and Lysimachus obtained for his 
 share all that part of Asia Minor extending from 
 the Hellespont and the Aegaean to the heart of 
 Phiygia. In 291 Lysimachus crossed the Danube 
 and penetrated into the heart of the country of 
 the Getae ; but he was reduced to the greatest 
 distress by want of provisions, and was ultimately 
 compelled to surrender with his whole army. Dro- 
 michaetes, king of the Getae, treated him with the 
 utmost generosity, and restored him to liberty. In 
 208 Lysimachus united with Ptolemy, Seleucus, and 
 Pyrrhus, in a common league against Demetrius, 
 who had for some years been in possession of Ma- 
 cedonia, and was now preparing to march into 
 Asia. Next year, 287, Lysimachus and Pyrrhus 
 invaded Macedonia, Demetrius was abandoned by 
 his own troops, and was compelled to seek safety in 
 flight. Pyrrhus for a time obtained possession of 
 the Macedonian throne, but he was expelled by 
 Lysimachus in 286. Lysimachus was now in pos- 
 session of all the dominions in Europe that had 
 formed part of the Macedonian monarchy, as well 
 as of the greater part of Asia Minor. He remained 
 in undisturbed possession of these vast dominions 
 till shortly before his death. His downfall was 
 occasioned by a dark domestic tragedy. His wife 
 Arsinoe, daughter of Ptolemy Soter, had long hated 
 her step-son Agathocles, and at length, by false 
 accusations, induced Lysimachus to put his son to 
 death. This bloody deed alienated the minds of his 
 subjects ; and many cities of Asia broke out into 
 open revolt. Lysandra, the widow of Agathocles, 
 fled with her children to the court of Seleucus, who 
 forthwith invaded the dominions of Lysimachus. 
 The two monarchs met in the plain of Corns (Co- 
 rupedion) ; and Lysimachus fell in the battle that 
 ensued, B.C. 281. He was in his 80th year at 
 the time of his death. — Lysimachus founded Ly- 
 simachia, on the Hellespont, and also enlarged and 
 rebuilt many other cities. 
 
 Lysimelia (?/ Av(Ti/j.4\eta Ki^vri\ a marsh near 
 Syracuse in Sicily, probably the same as the marsh 
 more anciently called Syraco from which the town 
 of Syracuse is said to have derived its name. 
 ^ Lysinoe {Av(tiv6t): Agelan$), a town in Pi- 
 sidia, S. of the lake Ascania, 
 
 Lysippus (AiitriTfTTos), of Sicyon, one of the 
 most distinguished Greek statuaries, was a con- 
 temporary of Alexander the Great. Originally a 
 simple workman in bronze {faber acrarim)^ he rose 
 to the eminence which he afterwards obtained by 
 the direct study of nature. He rejected the last 
 remains of the old conventional rules which the 
 early artists followed. In his imitation of nature 
 the ideal appears almost to have vanished, or 
 perhaps it should rather be said that he aimed to 
 idealize merely human beauty. He made statues 
 of gods, it is true ; but even in this field of art his 
 favourite subject was the human hero Hercules ; 
 while his portraits seem to have been the chief 
 foundation of his fame. The works of Lysippus 
 are said to have amounted to the enormous numbef 
 
LYSIS. 
 
 of 1500. They were almost all, if not all, in 
 bronze ; in consequence of which none of them are 
 extant. He made statues of Alexander at all 
 periods of life, and in many different positions. 
 Alexander's edict is well known, that no one 
 should paint him but Apelles, and no one make his 
 statue but Lysippus. The most celebrated of these 
 statues was that in which Alexander was represented 
 with a lance, which was considered as a sort of 
 companion to the picture of Alexander wielding a 
 thunderbolt, by Apeiles. 
 
 Lysis (AiJo-is), an eminent Pythagorean philo- 
 sopher, who, driven out of Italy in the persecution 
 of his sect, betook himself to Thebes, and became 
 the teacher of Epaminondas, by whom he was 
 held in the highest esteem. 
 
 Lysis, a river of Caria, only mentioned by Livy 
 (xxxviii. 15). 
 
 Lysistratua, of Sicyon, the brother of Lysippus, 
 was a statuary, and devoted himself to the making 
 of portraits. He was the first who took a cast of 
 the human face in gypsum ; and from this mould 
 he produced copies by pouring into it melted wax. 
 
 Lystra (^ Avarpa, ra Avarpa : prob. Karadagh, 
 Ru.), a city of LycaonJa, on the confines of Isauria, 
 celebrated as one chief scene of the preachbig of 
 Paul and Barnabas. (Ads, xiv.) 
 
 M. 
 
 Macae (MaKat). 1. A people on the E. coast 
 of Arabia Felix, probably about il/«scaZ. — 2. An 
 inland people of Libya, in the Regio Syrtica, that 
 is, the part of N. Africa between the Syrtes. 
 
 Macalla, a town on the E. coast of Bruttium, 
 which Avas said to possess the tomb and a sanctuary 
 of Philoctetes. 
 
 Macar or Macareus (Mo/cap or Mawapeus). 1. 
 Son of Helios (or Crinacus) and Rhodes, fled from 
 Rhodes to Lesbos after the murder of Tenages. — 
 2. Son of Aeolus, who committed incest with his 
 sister Canace. [Canace..] ^3. Son of Jason and 
 Medea, also called Mermerus or Mormorus. 
 
 Dlacaria (MaKap/ia), daughter of Hercules and 
 Deianira. 
 
 Macaria {MaKapia). 1. A poetical name of 
 several islands, such as Lesbos, Rhodes, and Cy- 
 prus, — 2. An island in the S. part of the Sinus 
 Arabicus (Red Sea)j off the coast of the Troglo- 
 dytae. 
 
 Maccabaei {MaKKa€a7oi\ the descendants of the 
 family of the heroic Judas Maccabi or Maccabaeus, 
 a surname which he obtained from his glorious 
 victories. (From the Uehiew maUxib^ *'a hammer.") 
 They were also called Asamonaei {^ha-afxuvaioi), 
 from Asamonaeus, or Chasmon, the great-grand- 
 father of Mattathias, the father of Judas Macca- 
 baeus, or, in a shorter form, Asmonaei or Hasmo- 
 naei. This family first obtained distinction from 
 the attempts which were made by Antiochus IV. 
 Epiphanes, king of Syria, to root out the worship 
 of Jehovah, and introduce the Greek religion among 
 the inhabitants of Judaea. Antiochus published 
 an edict, which enjoined uniformity of worship 
 throughout his dominions. At Modin, a town not 
 far from Lydda, lived Mattathias, a man of the 
 priestly line and of deep religious feeling, who had 
 5 sons in the vigour of their days, John, Simon, 
 Judas, Eleazar, and Jonathan. When the officer 
 of the Syrian king visited Modin, to enforce 
 
 MACEDONIA. 
 
 403 
 
 obedience to the royal edict, Mattathias not only 
 refused to desert the religion of his forefathers, but 
 with his own hand struck dead the first renegade 
 who attempted to offer sacrifice on the heathen 
 altar. He then put to death the king's officer, and 
 retired to the mountains with his 5 sons (b. c. 
 167). Their numbers daily increased; and as 
 opportunities occurred, they issued from their 
 mountain fastnesses, cut off detachments of the 
 Syrian army, destroyed heathen altars, and restored 
 in many places the synagogues and the open 
 worship of the Jewish religion. Within a few 
 months the insurrection at Modin had grown into 
 a war for national independence. But the toils of 
 such a war were too much for the aged frame of 
 Mattathias, who died in the 1st year of the revolt, 
 leaving the conduct of it to Judas, his 3rd son. 1. 
 Judas, who assumed the surname of Maccabaeus, 
 as has been mentioned above, carried on tlie war 
 with the same prudence and energy with which it 
 had been commenced. After meeting with great 
 success, he at length fell in battle against the forces 
 of Demetrius I Soter, 160. He was succeeded in 
 the command by his brother, — 2. Jonathan, who 
 maintained the cause of Jewish independence with 
 equal vigour and success, and became recognised 
 as high-priest of the Jews. He was put to death 
 by Tryphon, the minister of Antiochus VI., who 
 treacherously got him into his power, 1 44. Jona- 
 than was succeeded in the high-priesthood by his 
 brother, — 3. Simoa, who was the most fortunate of 
 the sons of Mattathias, and under whose government 
 the countrj'" became virtually independent of Syria. 
 He was murdered by his son-in-law Ptolemy, the 
 governor of Jericho, together with 2 of his sons, 
 Judas and Mattathias, 135. His other son Joannes 
 Hyrcanus escaped, and succeeded his father. ^ 4. 
 Joannes Hyrcanus L was high-priest J 35 — lOG. 
 He did not assume the title of king, but was to all 
 intents and purposes an independent monarch. 
 [Hyrcanus.] He was succeeded by his son 
 Aristobulus I. ^ 5. Aristobulus I., was the first 
 of the Maccabees who assumed the kingly title, 
 which was henceforth borne by his successors. His 
 reign lasted only a year 106 — 105. [Aristobulus.] 
 He was succeeded by his brother, ^6. Alexander 
 Jannaeus, who reigned 105 — 78. [Alexander, 
 p. 35, a.] He was succeeded by his widow, ^7. 
 Alexandra, who appointed her son Hyrcanus II. 
 to the priesthood, and held the supreme power 78 
 — 69. On her death in the latter year her son,— 
 8. Hyrcanus II., obtained the kingdom, 69^ but 
 was supplanted almost immediately afterwards by 
 his brother, — 9. Aristobulus II., who obtained 
 the throne 68. [Aristobulus.] For the re- 
 mainder of the history of the house of the Macca- 
 bees see Hyrcanus II. and Herodes I. 
 
 Macedonia (Mo«e5oWa: MaweScii/es), a countiy 
 in Europe, N. of Greece, which is said to have 
 derived its name from an ancient king Macedon, 
 a son of Zeus and Thyia, a daughter of Deucalion. 
 The name first occurs in Herodotus, but its more 
 ancient form appears to have been Macetia (Ma- 
 K^rla) ; and accordingly the Macedonians are 
 sometimes called Macetae. Tho country is said 
 to have been originally named Emathia. The 
 boundaries of Macedonia differed at different 
 periods. In the time of Herodotus the name Mace- 
 donis designated only the country to the S. and 
 W. of the river Lydias. The boundaries of the 
 ancient Macedonian monarchy, before the time of 
 
404 
 
 MACEDONIA. 
 
 Philip, the father of Alexander, were on the S. 
 Olympus and the Carabunian mountains, which 
 separated it from Thessaly and Epirus, on the E. 
 the river Strvmon, which separated it from Thrace, 
 and on the N. and W. Illyria and Paeonia, 
 from which it was divided by no well defined 
 limits. Macedonia was greatly enlarged by the 
 conquests of Philip. He added to his kingdom 
 Paeonia on the N., so that the mountains Scordus 
 and Orbelus now separated it from Mnesiii ; a 
 part of Thrace on the E. as far as the river Nestus, 
 which Thracian district was usually called Mace- 
 donia adjeda ; the peninsula Chalcidice on the S. ; 
 and nn the W. a part of Illyria, as far n^ the lake 
 L3'chnitis. On the conquest of the country by 
 the Romans, B.C. 168, Macedonia was divided 
 into 4 districts, which were quite independent of 
 one another: — 1. The counti-y between the Stry- 
 mon and the Nestus, with a pnrt of Thrace E. of 
 the Nestus, as far as the Hebrus, and also in- 
 cluding the territory of Heraclea Sintica and 
 Bisaltice, W. of the Str^Tnon ; the capital of this 
 district was Amphipolis. 2. The country between 
 the Stryraon and the Axius, exclusive of those 
 parts already named, but including Chalcidice ; 
 tlie capital Thessaloiiica. 3. Tlie country between 
 the Axius and Peneua ; the capital Pella. 4. The 
 mountainous country in the W. ; the capital Pela- 
 gonia. After the conquest of the Achaeans, in 
 146, Macedonia was formed into a Roman pro- 
 vince, and Thessaly and Illyria were incorporated 
 with it ; but at the same time the district E. of the 
 Nestus was again assigned to Thrace- The Roman 
 province of Macedonia accordingly extended from 
 the Aegaean to the Adriatic seas, and was bounded 
 on the S- by the province of Achaia. It wag 
 originally governed by a proconsul ; it was made 
 by Tiberius one of the provinces of the Caesar ; 
 but it was restored to the senate by Claudius. 
 — Macedonia may be described as a large plain, 
 surrounded on 3 sides by lofty mountains. Through 
 this plain, however, run many smaller ranges of 
 mountains, between which are wide and fertile 
 valleys, extending from the coast far into the in- 
 terior. The chief mountains were Scordus, or 
 Scahdus, on the N,W. frontier, towards Illyria 
 and Dardania ; further E. Orbelus and Scomius, 
 which separated it from Moesia ; and Rhodope, 
 which extended from Scomius in a S.E. direction, 
 forming the boundary between, Macedonia and 
 Thrace. On the S. frontier were the C^mbunii 
 MoNTES and Olympus. The chief rivers were 
 in the direction of E. to W., the Nestus, the 
 Strvmon, the Axius, the largest of all, the 
 LuDiAS or Lyuias, and the Haliacmon. — The 
 great bulk of the inhabitants of Macedonia con- 
 sisted of Thracian and Illyrian tribes. At an 
 early period some Greek tribes settled in the S. 
 part of the country. They are said to have come 
 from Argos, and to have, been led by Gauanes, 
 Aeropus, and Perdicciis, the 3 sons of Temenus, 
 the Heraclid. Perdiccas, the youngest of the 
 brothers, was looked upon as the founder of the 
 Macedonian monarchy. A later tradition, how- 
 ever, regarded Caranus, who was also a Heraclid 
 from Argoa, as the founder of the monarchy. 
 These Greek settlers intermarried with the ori- 
 ginal inhabitants of the country. The dialect 
 which they spoke was akin to the Doric, but it 
 contained many barbarous words and forms ; and 
 the Macedonians were accordingly never regarded 
 
 MACHAON. 
 
 by the other Greeks as genuine Hellenes. More- 
 over, it was only in the S. of Macedonia that the 
 Greek language was spoken ; in the N. and N.W. 
 of the country the Illyrian tribes continued to 
 speak their own language and to preserve their 
 ancient habits and customs. Very little is known 
 of the history of Macedonia till the reign o* 
 Amyntas I,, who was a contemporary of Darius 
 Hyataspis ; but from that time their history is 
 more or less intimately connected with that of 
 Greece, till at length Philip, the father of Alex- 
 ander the Great, became the virtual master of the 
 whole of Greece, The conquests of Alexander 
 extended the Macedonian supremacy over a great 
 part of Asia ; and the Macedonian kings continued 
 to exercise their sovereignty over Greece, till the 
 conquest of Perseus by the Romans, 168, brought 
 the Macedonian monarchy to a close. The details 
 of the Macedonian history are given in the lives of 
 the separate kings. 
 
 Macella (Macellaro), a small fortified to^vn in 
 the W. of Sicily, S.E. of Segesta. 
 
 Macer, Aenulius. 1. A Roman poet, a native of 
 Verona, died in Asia, b. c. 16. He wrote a pneni 
 or poems upon birds, snakes, and medicinal plants, 
 in imitation, it would appear, of the Theriaca of 
 Nicander. (Ov. Tnst. iv. 10, 44.) The work now 
 extant, entitled " Aemilius Macer de Herbarum 
 Virtutibus," belongs to the middle ages. — 2. We 
 must carefully distinguish from Aemilius Macer of 
 Verona, a poet Macer, who wrote on the Trojan 
 war, and who must have been alive in a. d. 12, 
 since he is addressed by Ovid in that year {ex 
 Pont. ii. 10. 2.) —3. A Romnn jurist, who lived in 
 the reign of Alexander Severus. He wrote several 
 work^ extracts from which are given in the Digest, 
 Macer, Clodius, w.a3 governor of Africa at 
 Nero's death a. d. 68, when he laid claim to the 
 throne. He was murdered at the instigation of 
 Galba by the procurator, Trebonius Garucianus. 
 Macer, Licinius. [Licinius.] 
 Macestus (MoKTjcrTos: Simaul-Su^ and lower 
 Susitglwrli)^ a considerable river of Mysia, rises in 
 the N.W, of Phrygia,and flows N. through Mysia 
 into the Rhyndacus. It is probably the same river 
 which Polybius (v, 77) calls Megistus (Me-ytCTos). 
 Machaeriis {Maxo-ipovs : Maxa/piriys), a stronn- 
 border fortress in the S. of Peraea, in Palestine, 
 on the confines of the Nabathaei : a stronghold of 
 the Sicarii in the Jewish war. A tradition made 
 it the place where John the Baptist was beheaded. 
 Machanidas, tyrdnt of Lacedaemon, succeeded 
 Lycurgus about b. c. 210. Like his predecessor, 
 he had no hereditary title to the crown, but 
 ruled by the swords of his mercenaries alone. He 
 was defeated and slain in battle by Philopoemen, 
 the general of the Achaean league in 207. 
 
 Mackaon (Moxfiwf), son of Aesculapius, was 
 married to Anticlea, the daughter of Diodes, by 
 whom he became the father of Gorgasus, Nlcoraa- 
 chus, Alexanor, Sphyrus, and Polemocrates. To- 
 gether with his brother Podalirius he went to Troy 
 with 30 ships, commanding tlie men who came 
 from Tricca, Ithome, and Oechalia. In this war 
 he acted as the surgeon of the Greeks, and also 
 distinguished liimself in battle. He was himself 
 wounded by Paris, but was carried from the field 
 by Nestor. Later writers mention him as one of 
 the Greek heroes who were concealed in the wooden 
 horse, and he is said to have cured Philoctetes. 
 He was killed by Eurypylus, the son of Teler 
 
MACHLYES. 
 
 phu8, and he received divine honours at Gcrenia, in 
 Messenia. 
 
 Machlyes (Max^wes), a people of Libya, near 
 the Lotophagi, on the W. side of the lake Triton, 
 in what was afterwards called Africa Propria. 
 
 Machon (Md^wj/), of Corinth or Sicyon, a comic 
 poet, flourished at Alexandria, where he gave in- 
 structions respecting comedy to the grammarian 
 Aristophanes of Byzantium. 
 
 Macistus or Macisttun (Matfto-Tos, MaKsa-rov : 
 Ma/cfffTios), an ancient town of Elis in Triphylia, 
 N.E. of Lepreum, originally called Platanistus 
 (nAararjcTToCy), and founded by the Caucones. 
 
 Macoraba {MaKOpd€a: Meeca), a city in the 
 W. of Arabia Felix ; probably the sacred city of 
 the Arabs, even before the time of Mohammed, and 
 the seat of the worship of Alitat or Alitta nnder 
 the emblem of a meteoric stone. 
 
 Macra {Magra\ a small river rising in the 
 Apennines and flowing into the Ligurian sea near 
 Luna, which, from the time of Augustus, formed 
 the boundary between Liguria and Etruria. • 
 
 Macrianus, one of the 30 tyrants, a distinguished 
 general, who accompanied Valerian in his expe- 
 dition against the Persians, A. D. 260. On the 
 capture of that monarch, Macrianus was proclaimed 
 emperor, together with his 2 sons Macrianus and 
 Quietus. He assigned the management of affairs 
 in the East to Quietus, and set out with the 
 younger Macrianus for Italy. They were encoun- 
 tered by Aureolus on the confines of Thrace and 
 Illyria, defeated and slain, 262. Quietus was 
 shortly afterwards slain in the East by Odenathus. 
 
 Macri Campi, [Campi Maori.] 
 
 Macrinus, M. Opiiius Sevems, Roman em- 
 peror, April, A. D. 217 — June, 218. He was born 
 at Caesarea in Mauretania, of humble parents, A. i>. 
 164, and rose at length to be praefect of the prae- 
 torians under Caracalla. He accompanied Caracalla 
 in his expedition against the Parthians, and was 
 proclaimed emperor after the death of Caraealla, 
 whom he had caused to be assassinated. He con- 
 ferred the title of Caesar upon his son Diadurae- 
 nianus, and at the same time gained great popularity 
 by repealing some obnoxious taxes. But in the 
 course of the same year he was defeated with great 
 loss by the Parthians, and was obliged to retire 
 into Syria. While here his soldiers, with whom 
 he had become unpopular by enforcing among 
 them order and discipline, were easily seduced from 
 their allegiance, and proclaimed Elagabalus as 
 emperor. With the troops which remained faithful 
 to him, Macrinus marched against the usurper, 
 but ^va3 defeated, and fled in disguise. He was 
 shortly afterwards seized in Chalcedon, and put to 
 death, after a reign of 1 4 months. 
 
 Macro, Naevius Sertorms, a favourite of the 
 emperor Tiberius, was employed to arrest the 
 powerful Sejanus in A. d. 31. On the death of the 
 latter he was made praefect of the praetorians, an 
 office which he continued to hold for the remainder 
 of Tiberius's reign and during the earlier part of 
 Caligula's. Macro was as cruel as Sejanus. He 
 laid informations ; he presided at the rack ; and he 
 lent himself to the most savage caprices of Tiberius 
 during the last and worst period of his government. 
 During the lifetime of Tiberius he paid court to 
 the young Caligula ; and he promoted an intrigue 
 between his wife Ennia and the young prince. It 
 was rumoured that Macro shortened the Inst mo- 
 ments of Tiberius by stifling him with the bedding 
 
 MAEANDEPu 
 
 405 
 
 as he recovered unexpectedly from a swoon. Bat 
 Caligula soon became jealous of Macro, and com- 
 pelled him to kill himself with his wife and 
 children, 38. 
 
 Macrobii (Ma/cptJeioi, i. e. Long-lived)^ an 
 Aelhiopian people in Africa, placed by Herodotus 
 (iii. 17) on the shores of the S. Ocean. It is in 
 vain to attempt their accurate identification with 
 any known people. 
 
 Macrobius, the grammarian, whose full name 
 was Ambrosius Aurelius Theodosius Macrobius. All 
 we know about him is that he lived in the age of 
 Honorius and Theodosius, that he was probably 
 a Greek, and that he had a son named Eirstathius. 
 He states in the preface to his Saturnalia that 
 Latin was to him a foreign tongue, and hence we 
 may fairly conclude that he was a Greek by birth, 
 more especially as we find numerous Greek idioms 
 in his style. He was probably a pagan. His 
 extant works are : — \.Satu7'nalioruin Coiiviviorum. 
 Libri Vll.^ consisting of a series of dissertations 
 on history, mythology, criticism, and various points 
 of antiquarian research, supposed to have been 
 delivered during the holidays of the Saturnalia at 
 the house of Vettius Praeteitatus, who was invested 
 with the highest offices of state under Valentinian 
 and Valens. The form of the work is avowedly 
 copied from the dialogues of Plato, especially the 
 Banquet : in substance it bears a strong resem- 
 blance to the Noctes Atticae of A. Gellius. The 
 1st book treats of the festivals of Saturnus and 
 Janus, of the Roman calendar, &c. The 2nd book 
 commences with a collection of bon mots, ascribed 
 to the most celebrated wits of antiquity ; to these 
 are appended a series of essays on matters connected 
 with the pleasures of the table. The 4 following 
 boaks are devoted to criticisms on Virgil. The 7th 
 book is of a more miscellaneous character than the 
 preceding. — 2. Commenlariiis ex Cicerone in Som- 
 nium ScipioniSj a tract much studied during the 
 middle ages. The Dream of Scipio, contained in 
 the 6th book of Cicero's De Republica is taken as 
 a text, which suggests a succession of discourses 
 en the physical constitution of the universe, accord- 
 ing to the views of the New Platonis'ts, together 
 with notices of some of their peculiar tenets on 
 mind as well as matter. — 3. De Dijferejitiis et So- 
 cietatibus Graeci LaUni-gue Verbi, a treatise purely 
 grammatical, of which only an abridgment is extant, 
 compiled by a certain' Joannes. — The best editions 
 of the works of Macrobius are by Gronovius, Lug. 
 Bat. 1670, and by Zeunius, Lips. 1774. 
 
 Macrones (Maw/jwi/ey), a powerful and warlike 
 Caucasian people on the- N.E. shore of the Pontus 
 Euxinus. 
 
 Mactoriiun (yiaicriapiov : MaKruplvos)^ a town 
 in the S. of Sicily, near Gelia. 
 
 Macynia (Ma/ru^U: MaKuvei/s), a town in the 
 S. of Aetolia, near the mountain Taphiassus, E. of 
 Calydon and the Evenus. 
 
 Bladianitae {MaSia^'^rai, Ma5i7ji/aioi, 'M.a5n)voi : 
 0. T. Midianim), a powerful nomad people in the 
 S. of Arabia Petraea, about the head of the Red 
 Sea. They carried on a caravan trade between 
 Arabia and Egypt, and were troublesome enemies 
 of the Israelites until they were conquered by- 
 Gideon. They do not appear in history after the 
 Babylonish captivity. 
 
 Triadytus (MaSi^Tos: MaSurios: A/arto), a sea- 
 port town on the Thracian Chersonesua. 
 
 Maeander {M.aio.v5pos : Mcjidcreh or Aff.-inder, 
 
405 
 
 MAECENAS. 
 
 or Dni/uJc-Afendereh^ i. e. the Great Mcnderelt^ in 
 contnidistinction to iJie Little Meiidereh^ the ancient 
 Ca^ster), has its source in the mountain called 
 Aulocrenas, above Celaenae, in the S. of Phrygia, 
 close to the aoujce of the Marsyas, which imme- 
 diately joins iL [Celaenae.] It flows in a ge- 
 neral W. direction, with various changes of direction, 
 but on the whole with a slight inclination to the S. 
 After leaving Phrygia, it flows parallel to Mt. Mes- 
 sogis, on its S. side, forming the boundary between 
 Lydia and Caria, and at last falls into the Icarian 
 Sea between Myus and Priene. Its whole length 
 is above 170 geographical miles. The Maeander 
 is deep, but narrow, and very turbid ; and there- 
 fore not navigable far up. Its upper course lies 
 chiefly through elevated plains, and partly in a deep 
 rocky valley: its lower course, for the last 110 
 miles, is through a beautiful wide plain, through 
 ■which it flows in those numerous windings that 
 have made its name a descriptive verb {to mean- 
 der)^ and which it often inundates. The alteration 
 made in the coast about its mouth by its alluvial 
 deposit was observed by the ancients, and it has 
 been continually going on. [See Latmicus Sinus 
 and Miletus.] The tributaries of the Maeander 
 were, on the right or N. side, the Marsyas, Cludrus, 
 Lethaeus, and Gaeson, and, on the left or S. side, 
 the Obrimas, Lycus, Harpasus, and another Mar- 
 syas. — As a god Maeander is described as the 
 father of the nymph Cyane, who was the mother 
 of Caunus. Hence the latter is called by Ovid 
 {Met. ix. 573) Maeandrius juvenis, 
 
 Maecenas, C. Cilnius, was bom some time be- 
 tween B. c. 73 and 63 ; and we learn from Horace 
 {Carm. iv, 11) that his birth-day was the 13th of 
 April. His family, though belonging wholly to 
 the equestrian order, was of high antiquity and 
 honour, and traced its descent from the Lucumones 
 of Etruria. His paternal ancestors the Cilnii^ are 
 mentioned by Livy (x. 3, 5) as having attained 
 great power and wealth at Arretlum about B. c. 301, 
 The maternal branch of the family was likewise of 
 Etruscan origin, and it was from them that the 
 name of Maecenas was derived, it being customary 
 among the Etruscans to assume the mother's as 
 well as the father''s name. It is in allusion to this 
 circumstance that Horace {Sat. i. 6. 3) mentions 
 both his avns mcderTius aique paiernus as having 
 been distinguished by commanding numerous le- 
 gions ; a passage, by the way, from which we are 
 not to infer that the ancestors of Maecenas had 
 ever led the Roman legions. Although it is un- 
 known where Maecenas received his education, it 
 must doubtless have been a careful one. We leam 
 from Horace that he was versed both in Greek and 
 Roman literature ; and his taste for literary pursuits 
 was shown, not only by his patronage of the most 
 eminent poets of his time, but also by several per- 
 formances of his own, both in verse and prose. It 
 has been conjectured that he became acquainted 
 with Augustus at ApoUonia before the death of 
 Julius Caesar; but he is mentioned for the first 
 time in b. c. 40, and from this year his name con- 
 stantly occurs as one of the chief friends and 
 ministers of Augustus. Thus we find him employed 
 in B. c. 37, in negotiating with Antony; and it was 
 probably on this occasion that Horace accompanied 
 him to Brundisium, a journey which he has de- 
 scribed in the 5th satire of the 1st book. During 
 the war with Anton}', whicli was brought to a 
 close by the battle of Actium. Maecenas remained 
 
 MAECENAS. 
 
 at Rome, being entrusted with the administration 
 of the civil affairs of Italy. During this time he 
 suppressed the conspiracy of the younger Lepidus. 
 Maecenas was not present at the battle of Actium, 
 as some critics have supposed; and the Istepode of 
 Horace probably does not relate at all to Actium, 
 but to the Sicilian expedition against Sext, Pom- 
 peius. On the return of Augustus from Actium, 
 Maecenas enjoyed a greater share of his favour 
 than ever, and in conjunction with Agrippa, bad 
 the management of all public affairs. It is related 
 that Augustus at this time took counsel with 
 Agrippa and Maecenas respecting the expediency 
 of restormg the republic; that Agrippa advised 
 him to pursue that course, but that Maecenas 
 strongly urged him to establish the empire. For 
 many years Maecenas continued to preserve the 
 uninterrupted favour of Augustus; but between 
 B.C. 21 and 16, a conlneas, to say the least, had 
 sprung up between the emperor and his faithful 
 minister, and after the latter year he retired en- 
 tirely from public life. The cause of this estrange- 
 ment is enveloped in doubt. Dion Cassius positively 
 attributes it to an intrigue carried on by Augustus 
 with Terentia, Maecenas's wife. Maecenas died 
 B.C. 8, and was buried on the Esquiline. He left 
 no children, and he bequeathed his property to 
 Augustus. — Maecenas had amassed an enormous 
 fortune. He had purchased a tract of ground on 
 the Esquiline hill, which had formerly served as a 
 burial-place for the lower orders. (Hor. Sat. i. 8. 7.) 
 Here he had planted a garden, and built a house, 
 remarkable for its loftiness, on account of a tower 
 by which it was surmounted, and from the top of 
 which Nero "is said to have afterwards contem- 
 plated the burning of Rome. In this residence he 
 seems to have passed the greater part of his time, 
 and to have visited the country but seldom. His 
 house was the rendezvous of all the wits of Rome; 
 and whoever could contribute to the amusement of 
 the company was always welcome to a seat at his 
 table. But his really intimate friends consisted of 
 the greatest geniuses and most learned men of 
 Rome; and if it was from his universal inclination 
 towards men of talent that he obtained the repu- 
 tation of a literary patron, it was by his friendship 
 for such poets as Virgil and Horace that he de- 
 served it. Virgil was indebted to him for the 
 recovery of his farm, which had been appropriated 
 by the soldiery in the division of lands, in B.C. 41; 
 and it was at the request of Maecenas that he 
 undertook the Georc/ics, the most finished of all his 
 poems- To Horace he was a still greater benefactor. 
 He presented him with the means of comfortable 
 subsistence, a farm in the Sabine country. If the 
 estate was but a moderate one, we learn from 
 Horace himself that the bounty of Maecenas was 
 regulated by his own contented views, and not by 
 his patron's want of generosity. {Cai-7n. ii. IS. 14, 
 Carm. iii. 16. 38.) — Of Maecenas's own literary 
 productions only u few fragments exist. From 
 these, however, and firom the notices which we 
 find of his writings in ancient authors, we are led 
 to think that we have not suffered any great loss 
 by their destniction; for, although a good judge of 
 literary merit in others, he does not appear to 
 have been an author of much taste himself. In 
 his way of life Maecenas was addicted to every 
 species of luxury. We find several allusions in 
 the ancient authors to the effeminacy of his dress. 
 He was fond of theatrical entertainments, especially ■ 
 
MAECIUS, 
 
 pftEtomiraes; as may be inferred from his patronage 
 of Bathyllus, the celebrated dancer, ■vvho was a 
 freedman of his. That moderation of character 
 which led him to be content with his equestrian 
 rank, probably arose from his love of ease and 
 luxury, or it might have been the result of more 
 prudent and political viewa. As a politician, the 
 principal trait in his character was fidelity to his 
 master, and the main end of all his cares was the 
 consolidation of the empire. But at the same time 
 he recommended Augustus to put no check on the 
 free expression of public opinion; and above all to 
 avoid that cruelty, which, for so many years, had 
 stained the Roman annals with blood. 
 
 Maecius Tarpa. [Tarpa.] 
 
 Slaedica (MkiSik-^), the country of the Maedi, 
 a powerful people in the W. of Thrace, on the W. 
 bajik of the Strymon, and the S. slope of Mt, 
 Scomius. They frequently made inroads into the 
 country of the Macedonians, till at length they 
 were conquered by the latter people, and their 
 land incorporated with Macedonia, of which it 
 formed the N.E. district. 
 
 Maelius, Sp.,the richest of the plebeian knights, 
 employed his fortime in buying up corn in Etruria 
 in the great famine at Rome in b. c. 440. This 
 com he sold to the poor at a small price, or distri- 
 buted it gratuitously. Such liberality gained him 
 the favour of the plebeians, but at the same time 
 exposed hira to the hatred of the ruling class. 
 Accordingly in the following year he was accused 
 of having fonned a conspiracy for the purpose of 
 seizing the kingly power. Thereupon Cincinnatus 
 was appointed dictator, and C. Servilius Ahala, the 
 master of the horse. Maelius was summoned to 
 appear before the tribunal of the dictator j but as 
 he refused to go, Ahala, with an armed band 
 of patrician youths, rushed into the crowd, and 
 slew him. His property was confiscated, and his 
 house pulled down ; its racant site, which was 
 called the Aequimaelium^ continued to subsequent 
 ages a memorial of his fate. Later ages fully be- 
 lieved the story of Maelius's conspiracy, and Cicero 
 repeatedly praises the glorious deed of Ahala. But 
 his guilt is very doubtful. None of the alleged 
 accomplices of Maelius were punished ; and Ahala 
 was brought to trial, and only escaped con- 
 demnation by a voluntary exile. 
 
 Maenaca {MaivaKT}), a town in the S. of His- 
 pania Baetica on the coast, the most W.-ly colony 
 of the Phocaeans. 
 
 Maenades (Mati/aSes), a name of the Bacchantes, 
 from fiaiyo/xai, " to be mad," because they were 
 frenzied in the worship of Dionysus or Bacchus. 
 
 Maenalus {rh MalyaXoy or yiaivdXiov Bpos: 
 Boinon\ a mountain in Arcadia, which extended 
 from Megalopolis to Tegea, was celebrated as the 
 favourite haunt of the god Pan. From this moun- 
 tain the surrounding country was called MaenHlia 
 (Maivahia) ; and on the mountain was a town 
 Maenalus. The momitain was so celebrated that 
 the Roman poets frequently use the adjectives 
 Maenalius and Maenalis as equivalent to Arcadian. 
 
 Maenius. 1. C, consul, b. c. 338, with L. Fu- 
 rius Camillus. The 2 consuls completed the subju- 
 gation of Latium ; they were both rewarded with a 
 triumph ; and equestrian statues were erected to 
 their honour in the forum. The statue of Maenius 
 was placed upon a column, which is spoken of by 
 later writers, under the name of Columna Maenia^ 
 and which appears to have stood near the end of 
 
 MAERA. 
 
 407 
 
 the forum, on the Capitoline. Maenius was dictator 
 in 320, and censor in 318. In his censorship he 
 allowed balconies to be added to the various build- 
 ings surrounding the forum, in order that the 
 spectators might obtain more room for beholding 
 the games which were exhibited in the forum; and 
 these balconies were called after him Mueniana 
 (sc. aedijicia),^-~2. The proposer of the law, about 
 286, wliich required the patres to give their sanc- 
 tion to the election of the magistrates before they 
 had been elected, or in other words to confer, or 
 agree to confer, the imperiura on the person whom 
 the comitia should elect. — 3. A contemporary of 
 Lucilius, was a great spendthrift, who squandered 
 all hia property, and afterwards supported himself 
 by playing the buffoon. He possessed a house in 
 the fomm, which Cato in his censorship (184) 
 purchased of hira, for the purpose of building the 
 basilica Porcia. Some of the scholiasts on Horace 
 ridiculously relate, that when Maenius sold his 
 house, he reserved for himself one column, the 
 Columna Maenia, from which he built a balcony, 
 that he might thence witness the games. The true 
 origin of the Columna Maeniei, and of the balconies 
 called Maeniana, has been explained above. (Hor. 
 Sat. i. 1.^101, i. 3. 2], Epist i. 15. 26.) 
 
 Maenoba, a town in the S.E. of Hispania Bae- 
 tica, near the coast, situated on a river of the same 
 name, and 12 miles E. of Malaca. 
 
 Maeon (Ma^wv). 1. Son of Haemon of Thebes. 
 He and Lycophontes were the leaders of the band 
 that lay in ambush against Tydeus, in the war of 
 the Seven against Thebes. Maeon was the only 
 one whose life was spared by Tydeus. Maeon in 
 return buried Tydeus, when the latter was slain. 
 — 2. Husband of Dindyme, the mother of Cybele. 
 
 Maeonia. [Lydia.] 
 
 Maeonides (Maioj/iS?)*), i. e. Homer, either be- 
 cause he was a son of Maeon, or because he was a 
 native of Maeonia, the ancient name of Lydia. 
 Hence he is also called Maeonius senex, and his 
 poems the Maeoniae cliariae^or: Maeoniutn carmen. 
 ^Maeonis, also occurs as a surname of Omphale, 
 and of Arachne, because both were Lydians. 
 
 Haeotae. [Maeotis Palus.] 
 
 Maeotis Palus (9) MaiWTis Ki^vq : Sea of 
 Azov\ an inland sea on the borders of Europe and 
 Asia, N. of the Pontus Euxinus {Black Sea\ with 
 which it communicates by the Bosporus Cimme- 
 Rius. Its form may be described roughly as a 
 triangle, with its vertex at its N. E. extremity, 
 where it receives the waters of the great river 
 Tanais {Don) : it discharges its superfluous water 
 by a constant current into the Euxine. The an- 
 cients had very vague notions of its true form and 
 size : the earlier geographers thought that both it 
 and the Caspian Sea were gulfs of the great N. 
 Ocean. The Scythian tribes on its banks were 
 called by the collective name of Maeotae or Maeo- 
 tici (Moiwrai, IHiamriKoi). The sea had also the 
 names of Cimmerium or Bosporicum Mare. Aeschy- 
 lus {Prom. 731) applies the name of Maeotic Strait 
 to the Cimmerian Bosporus {avKiav* MaiwTiKtJj/). 
 
 Haera {Ua'tpa). 1. The dog of Icarius, the 
 father of Erigone. [Icarius, No.l.]— 2. Daughter 
 of Proetus and Antea, a companion of Artemis, by 
 whom she was killed, after she had become by 
 Zeus the mother of Locrus. Others state that she 
 died a virgin. ^ 3. Daughter of Atlas, was married 
 to Tegeates, the son of Lycaon. Her tomb was 
 shown both at Tegea and Mantinea in Arcadia. 
 
408 
 
 MAESA. 
 
 Maeaa, Julia, sister-in-law of SeptimiusSeverus, 
 aunt of Car.icalla, and grandmother ot Elagabalua 
 and Alexander Severus. She was a native of 
 Emesa in Syria, and seems, after the elevation of 
 Septimius Severns, the husband of her sister Julia 
 Domna, to have lived at the imperial court until 
 the death of Caracalla, and to have accumulated 
 great wealth. She contrived and executed the 
 plot which transferred the supreme power from 
 Macrinus to her grandson Elagabalus. When 
 she foresaw the downfall of the latter, she prevailed 
 on him to adopt his cousin Alexander Severus. 
 By Severus she was always treated with the 
 greatest respect ; she enjoyed the title of Augusta 
 during her life, and received divine honours after 
 her death. 
 
 Haevius. [Bavius.] 
 
 Kagaba, a mountain in Galatia, 10 Roman 
 miles E. of Ancyra. 
 
 Magas (Mayas), king of Cyrene, was a step-son 
 of Ptolemy Soter, being the offspring of Berenice 
 by a former marriage. He was a Macedonian by 
 birth ; and he seems to have accompanied his mother 
 to Egypt, where he soon rose to a high place in the 
 favour of Ptolemy. In b. c. 308 he was appointed 
 by that monarch to the command of the expedition 
 destined for the recovery of Cyrene after the death 
 of Ophelias. The enterprise was completely suc- 
 cessful, and Magas obtained from his step-father 
 the government of the province. At first he ruled 
 over the province only as a dependency of Egypt, 
 but after the death of Ptolemy Soter he not only 
 assumed the character of an independent monarch, 
 but even made war on the king of Egypt. He 
 married Apama, daughter of Antiochus Soter, by 
 whom he had a daughter, Berenice, afterwards the 
 ■wife of Ptolemy Euergetes. He died 258. 
 
 Magdolum (MdydoXov^ MdySwXov: O.T.Mig- 
 dol), a city of Lower Egypt, near the N. E. frontier, 
 about 1*2 miles S. W. of Pelusiura : where Pharaoh 
 Necho defeated the Syrians, according to Hero- 
 dotus (ii. 159). 
 
 Magetobria {Moigte de Broie^ on the Saone), 
 a town on the W. frontiers of the Sequani, near 
 which the Gauls were defeated by the Germans 
 shortly before Caesar's arrival in Gaul. 
 
 Magi (Mt£70i), the name of the order of priests 
 and religious teachers among the Medes and Per- 
 sians, is said to be derived from the Persian word 
 fiiag^ 7noff, or mttffh, i. e. a priest. There is strong 
 evidence that a class similar to the Magi, and in 
 some cases bearing the same name, existed among 
 other Eastern nations, especially the Chaldaeans of 
 Babylon ; nor is it at all probable that either the 
 Magi, or their religion, were of strictly' Median or 
 Persian origin : but-, in classical literature, they 
 are presented to us almost exclusively in connection 
 with Medo-Persian history. Herodotus represents 
 them as one of the 6 tribes into which the Median 
 people were divided. Under the Median empire, 
 before the supremacy passed to the Persians, they 
 were so closely connected with the tlirone, and had 
 so great an influence in the state, that they evi- 
 dently retained their position after the revolution ; 
 and they had power enough to be almost successful 
 in the attempt they made to overthrow the Persian 
 dynasty after the death of Cambyses, by putting 
 forward one of their own number as a pretender to 
 the throne, alleging that he was Smerdis, the son 
 of Cyrus, who had been put to death by his brother 
 Cambyses. It is clear that this was a plot to re- 
 
 MAGNENTIUS. 
 
 store the Median supremacy ; but whether it arose 
 from mere ambition, or from any diminution of the 
 power of the Magi under the vigorous government 
 of Cyrus, cannot be said with certainty. The de- 
 feat of this Magiau conspiracy by Darius the son 
 of Hystaspes and the other Persian nobles was fol- 
 lovved by a general massacre ot the Magi, which was 
 celebrated by an annual festival (to Mayo(p6via), 
 during which no Magian was permitted to appear 
 in public. Still their position as the only ministers 
 of religion remained unaltered. The breaking up 
 of the Persian empire must liave greatly altered 
 their condition ; but they still continue to appear 
 in history down to the time of the later Roman 
 empire. The "wise men" who came from the 
 East to Jerusalem at the time of our Saviour's 
 birth were Magi (;ua7oi is their name in the ori- 
 ginal, McUi. ii. 1). Siraon, who had deceived the 
 people of Samaria before Philip preached to them 
 (Ads, viii.), and Elymas, who tried to hinder the 
 conversion of Sergius Paulus at Cyprus (Acts, xiii.), 
 are both called Magi;ms ; but in these cases the 
 words fidyos and fiayevwy are used in a secondary 
 sense, for a person who pretends to the wisdom, or 
 practises the arts, of the Magi. This use of the 
 name occurs very early among the Greeks, and from 
 it we get our word magic (tj fiayiK-f}^ i. e. ilie art or 
 science of iJie Magi). — The constitution of the Magi 
 as an order is ascribed by tradition to Zoroastres, or 
 Zoroaster as the Greeks and Romans called him, 
 the Zarathustra of the Zendavesta (the sacred 
 books of the ancient Persians), and the Zerdusht 
 of the modern Persians ; but whether he was their 
 founder, their reformer, or the mythical representa- 
 tive of their unknown origin, cannot be decided. 
 He is said to have restored the true knowledge of 
 the supreme good principle (Orrauzd), and to have 
 taught his worship to the Magi, whom he divided 
 into 3 classes, learners, masters, and perfect scholars. 
 They alone could teach the truths and perform tlie 
 ceremonies of religion, foretell the future, interpret 
 dreams and omens, and ascertain the will of 
 Ormnzd by the arts of divination. They had 3 
 chief methods of divination, by calling up the dead, 
 by cups or dishes, and by waters. The forms of 
 worship and divination were strictly defined, and 
 were handed down among the Magi by tradition. 
 Like all early priesthobds, they seem to have been 
 the sole possessors of all the science of their age. 
 To be instructed in their learning was esteemed 
 the highest of privileges, and was permitted, with 
 rare exceptions, to none but the princes of the 
 royal family. Their learning became celebrated 
 at an early period in Greece, by the name of fid- 
 7610, and was made the subject of speculation by 
 the philosophers, whose knowledge of it seems, 
 however, to have been very limited ; while their 
 high pretensions, and the tricks by which their 
 knowledge of science enabled them to impose upon 
 the ignorant, soon attached to their name among 
 the Greeks and Romans that bad meaning which 
 is still commonly connected with the words derived 
 from it. — Besides being priests and men of learn- 
 ing, the Magi appear to have discharged judicial 
 functions. 
 
 Magna Graecia. [Ghaecia.] 
 
 Magna Mater. [Rhea.] 
 
 Magnentius, Roman emperor in the West, 
 A. D. 350—353, wiiose full name was Flavius 
 PoPiLius Magnentius. He was a German by 
 birth, and.aftt-r serving as a common soldier, was 
 
HAGNES. 
 
 eventually intrusted by Constfins, the son of 
 Constantine the Great, with tlie command of the 
 Jovian and Herculian battalions who had replaced 
 the ancient praetorian guards when the empire was 
 remodelled by Diocletian. He availed himself of 
 his position to organise a conspiracy against the 
 ■weak and profligate Constans, who was put to 
 death by his emissaries. Magnentius thereupon 
 "was acknowledged as emperor in all the Western 
 provinces, except lUyria, where Vetranio had as- 
 sumed the purple. Constantius hurried from the 
 frontier of Persia to crush the usurpers. Vetranio 
 submitted to Constantius at Sardica in December, 
 350. Magnentius was first defeated by Con- 
 stantius at the sanguinary battle of Mursa on the 
 Drave, in the autumn of 351, and was obliged to 
 fly into Gaul. He was defeated a second time in 
 the passes of the Cottian Alps, and put an end to 
 his own life about the middle of August, 353. 
 Magnentius was a man of commanding stature and 
 great bodily strength ; but not one spark of virtue 
 relieved the blackness of his career as a sovereign. 
 The power which he obtained by treachery and 
 murder he maintained by extortion and cruelty. 
 
 Magnes (Mdyyrj^), one of the most important of 
 the earlier Athenian comic poets of the old comedy, 
 was a native of the demus of Icaria or Icarius, in 
 Attica. He flourished b. c. 460, and onwards, 
 and died at an advanced age, shortly before the 
 representation of the Knights of Aristophanes, that 
 is, in 4"23. (Aristoph. Eguit. 524.) His plays con- 
 tained a great deal of coarse buffooneiy. 
 
 Mag"nesia {Mayvqa-ia : MayvTjs^ pi. Ma7;'7iT€^). 
 1. The most E.-ly district of Thessaly, was a 
 long narrow slip of country, extending from the 
 Peneus on the N. to the Pagasaean gulf on the S., 
 and bounded on the W. by the great Thessallan 
 plain. It was a mountainous country, as it com- 
 prehended the Mts. Ossa and Pelion. Its in- 
 habitants, the Magnetes, are said to have founded 
 the 2 cities in Asia mentioned below. — 2. M. ad 
 Sipylum (M. irphs :Snrv\tp or irirh %7rv\cp ; Ma- 
 nissa^ Ru.), a city in the N.W. of Lj-^dia, in Asia 
 Minor, at the foot of the N.W. declivity of Mt. 
 Sipylus, and on the S. bank of the Hermus, is fa- 
 mous in history as the scene of the victory gained 
 by the 2 Scipios over Antiochus the Great, which 
 secured to the Romans the empire of the East, 
 B. c, 190. After the Mithridatic war, the Romans 
 made it a libera civitas- It suffered, with other 
 cities of Asia Minor, from the great earthquake 
 in the reign of Tiberius ; but it was still a place 
 of importance in the 5th century. ^3. !D(L adMae- 
 andriim (M. tJ trphs Ulatdv^pi^^ M. iirX Matdvdpa; 
 Inek-hnzar^ Ru.), a city in the S.W, of Lydia, in 
 Asia Minor, was situated on the river Lethaeus, 
 a N. tributary of the Maeander. It was destroyed 
 by the Cimmerians (probably about b. c, 700) and 
 rebuilt by colonists from Miletus, so that it became 
 an Ionian city by race as well as position. It was 
 one of the cities given to Themistocles by Arta- 
 xerxes. It was celebrated for its temple of Ar- 
 temis Leucophryene, one of most beautiful in Asia 
 Minor, the ruins of which still exist. 
 
 Magnopolis (Ivia7»'(J7ro\is),orEiipatoria Mag- 
 nopoUs, a city of Pontus, in Asia Minor, near the 
 confluence of the rivers Lycus and Iris, begun by 
 Mithridates Eiipator and finished by Pompey, but 
 probably destroyed before very long. 
 
 Mago (Mtiywv). 1. A Cartliaginian, said to 
 Iiave been the founder of the military power of 
 
 MAGONTIACUM. 
 
 409 
 
 that city, by introducing a regular discipline and 
 organisation into her armies. He flourished from 
 B, c. 550 to 500, and was probably the faLher of 
 Hasdrubal, who was slain in the battle against 
 Gelo at Himera [Hamilcak, No. 1.] —2. Com- 
 mander of the Carthaginian fleet under Himilco in 
 the war against Dionysius, 396. When Himilco 
 returned to Africa after the disastrous termination 
 of the expedition, Mago appears to have been in- 
 vested with the chief command in Sicily. He 
 carried on the war with Dionysius, but in 392 was 
 compelled to conclude a treaty of peace, by which 
 he abandoned his allies the Sicilians to the power 
 of Dionysius. In 383 he again invaded Sicily, but 
 was defeated by Dionysius and slain in tlie battle. 
 ^3. Commander of the Carthaginian army in Sicily 
 in 344. He assisted Hicetas in the war against 
 Timoleon; but becoming apprehensive of treachery, 
 he sailed away to Carthage. Here he put an end 
 to liis own life, to avoid a worse fate at the hands 
 of his countrymen, who, nevertheless crucified his 
 lifeless bod3^ — 4. Son of Hamilcar Barcn, and 
 youngest brother of the famous Hannibal. He 
 accompanied Hannibal to Italj-, and after the 
 battle of Cannae (216) carried the news of this 
 great victory to Carthage. But instead of returning 
 to Italy, he was sent into Spain with a considerable 
 force to the support of his other brother Hasdrubal, 
 who was hard pressed by the 2 Scipios (215). He 
 continued in this country for many years j and 
 after his brother Hasdrubal quitted Spain in 208, 
 in order to march to the assistance of Hannibal in 
 Italy, the command in Spain devolved upon him 
 and upon Hasdrubal, the son of Gisco. After their 
 decisive defeat by Scipio at Silpia in 206, Mago 
 retired to Gades, and subsequently passed tiie 
 winter in the lesser of the Balearic islands, where 
 the memory of his sojourn is still preserved, in the 
 name of the celebrated harbour, Portus Magonis, 
 or Port Mdhon. Early in the ensuing summer 
 (205) Mago landed in Liguria, where he surprised 
 the town of Genoa. Here he maintained himself 
 for 2 years, but in 203 he was defeated with great 
 loss in Cisalpine Gaul, by Quintilius Varus, and 
 was himself severely wounded. Shortly afterwards 
 he embarked his troops in order to return to Africa, 
 but he died of his wound before reaching Africa, 
 Cornelius Nepos, in opposition to all other autho- 
 rities, represents Mago as surviving the battle of 
 Zama, and says that he perished in a shipwreck, 
 or was assassinated by his slaves. — 6. Surnamed 
 the Samnite, was one of the chief officers of Han- 
 nibal in Italy, where he held for a considei-able 
 time the chief command in Bruttium. ^6. Com- 
 mander of the garrison of New Carthage when that 
 city was taken by Scipio Africanus, 209. Mago 
 was sent a prisoner to Rome. — 7. A Carthaginian 
 of uncertain date, who wrote a work upon agricul- 
 ture in the Punic language, in 28 books. So great 
 was the reputation of this work even at Rome, 
 that after the destruction of Carthage, the senate 
 ordered that it should be translated into Latin by 
 competent persons, at the head of whom was D. 
 Silanus. It was subsequently translated into Greek, 
 though with some abridgment and alteration, by 
 Cassius Dionysius of Utica. Mago's precepts on 
 agricultural matters are continually cited by the 
 Roman writers on those subjects in terms of the 
 higliest commendation. 
 Magonis Portus. [Mago, No. 4.] 
 JBIagfontiacum. [Mogontiacum.J 
 
410 
 
 MAHARBAL. 
 
 Maliartal (MaapSas), son of Himilco, and one 
 of the most distinguished officers of Hannibal in 
 the 2nd Punic war. He is first mentioned at the 
 siege of Saguntum. After the battle of Cannae he 
 urged Hannibal to push on at once with his cavalry 
 upon Rome itself; and on the refusal of his com- 
 mander, he is said to have observed, that Hannibal 
 knew indeed how to gain victories, but not how to 
 use them. 
 
 Maia (MaTa or Maias), daughter of Atlas and 
 Pleione, was the eldest of the Pleiades, and the 
 most beautiful of the 7 sisters. In a grotto of Mt. 
 Cyllene in Arcadia she became by Zeus the mother 
 of Hermes. Areas, the son of Zeus by Callisto, was 
 given to her to be reared. [Pleiades.] — Maia was 
 likewise thenameof a divinity worshipped at Rome, 
 who was also called Majesta. She is mentioned in 
 connection with Vulcan, and was regarded by 
 some as the wife of that god, though it seems for 
 no other reason but because a priest of Vulcan 
 offered a sacrifice to her on the 1st of May. In 
 the popular superstition of later times she was 
 identified with Maia, the daughter of Atlas. 
 
 Majoriamis, Julius Valerius, Roman emperor 
 in the West, a. d. 457 — 461, was raised to the 
 empire by Ricimer. His reign was chiefly occupied 
 in making preparations to invade the Vandals in 
 Africa ; but the immense fleet which he had col- 
 lected for this purpose in the harbour of New 
 Carthfig« in Spain was destroyed by the Vandals 
 in 460. Thereupon he concluded a peace with 
 Genseric. His activity and popularity excited 
 the Jealousy of Ricimer, who compelled him to 
 abdicate and then put an end to his life. 
 
 Majiinia. [Constantia, No. 3.] 
 
 Malaca {Malaga)^ an important town on the 
 coast of Hispania Baetica, and on a river of the 
 same name [Gtiadalmedina)^ was founded by the 
 Phoenicians, and has always been a flourishing 
 place of commerce from the earliest times to the 
 present day. 
 
 Malalas. [Malelas.] 
 
 Malanga (MaAa77a), a city of India, probably 
 the modem I\faclras. 
 
 Malchua (MaAxos), of Philadelphia in Syria, a 
 Byzantine historian and rhetorician, wrote a history 
 of the empire from a. i>. 474 to 480, of which we 
 have some extracts, published along with, Dexippus 
 by Bekker and Niebuhr, Bonn, 1829. 
 
 Malea (MaAea ^Kpa: C. Afai-ia), the S. pro- 
 montory of the island of Lesbos. 
 
 Halea (MaAea or MaAeai: C. St. Arujeh oi Malio 
 di Si. Angela)^ a promontoiy on the S.E. of Laconia, 
 separating the Argolic and Laconic gulfs ; the 
 passage rcund it was much dreaded by sailors. 
 Here was a temple of Apollo, who hence bore the 
 surname Maleates. 
 
 Malelas, or Malalas, Joannes (^lwivv7]s & Ma- 
 AeAa or MaAaAa), a native of Antioch, and a 
 Byzantine historian, lived shortly after Justinian 
 the Great. The word Malalas signifies in Syriac 
 an orator. He wrote a chronicle of universal his- 
 tory from the creation of the world to the reign of 
 Justinian jnclusive. Edited by Dindorf, Bonn, 1831, 
 
 Malene (MaA^(/7j), a city of Mysia, only men- 
 tioned by Herodotus (vi. 29). 
 
 Maliacus Sinus {MaKtuKhs K6\iros : Bay of 
 Zeitun), a narrow bay in the S. of Thessaly, 
 running W. from the N.W. point of the island of 
 Euboea. On one side of it is the pass of Thermo- 
 pylae. It derived its name from the Malienses, 
 
 MAMILIA. 
 
 who dwelt on its shores. It is sometimes called 
 the Lamiacus Sinus, from the town of Lamia in its 
 neighbourhood. 
 
 Mails (MaAis 77), Ionic and Att. Mt/AIs yij : 
 MoAieus or M7)Aieiis, Maliensis), a district in the 
 S. of Thessaly, on the shores of the Maliacus 
 Sinus, and opposite the N.W. point of the island 
 of Euboea. It extended as far as the pass of 
 Thennopylae. Its inhabitants, the Malians, were 
 Dorians, and belonged to the Amphictyonic league. 
 
 Malli (MoAAoi), an Indian people on both sides 
 of the Hydraotes : their capital is supposed to 
 have been on the site of the celebrated fortress of 
 Afooltan. 
 
 Mallus (MoAAtJs), a very ancient city of Cilicia, 
 on a hill a little E. of the mouth of the river Py- 
 ramus, was said to have been founded at the time 
 of the Trojan War by Mopsus and Amphilochus. 
 It had a port called Magarsa, 
 
 Maluginensis, a celebrated patrician family of 
 the Cornelia gens in the early ages of the republic, 
 the members of which frequently held the consul- 
 ship. It disappears from history before the time 
 of the Samnite wars. 
 
 Malva. [Mulucha.] 
 
 Mamaea, Julia, a native of Emesa in Syria, 
 was daughter of Julia Maesa, and mother of Alex- 
 ander Severus. She was a woman of integrity and 
 virtue, and brought up her son with the utmost 
 care. She was put to death by the soldiers along 
 with her son, a. n. 235. 
 
 Mamercus. 1. Son of king Numa, according to 
 one tradition, and son of Mars and Silvia, according 
 to another. — 2. Tyrant of Catana, when Timoleon 
 landed in Sicily, B.C. 344. After his defeat by 
 Timoleon he fled to Messana, and took refuge with 
 Hippon, tyrant of that city. But when Timoleon 
 laid siege to Messana, Hippon took to flight, and 
 Mamercus surrendered, stipulating only for a re- 
 gular trial before the Syracusans. But as soon as 
 he was brought into the assembly of the people 
 there, he was condemned by acclamation, and ex- 
 ecuted like a common malefactor. 
 
 Mamercus or Mamercinus, Aemilius, a dis- 
 tinguished patrician family which professed to 
 derive its name from Mamercus in the reign of 
 Numa. 1. L., thrice consul, namely, b. c. 484, 
 478, 473.-2. Tib., twice consul, 470 and 467. 
 — 3. Mam., thrice dictator, 437, 433, and 426. 
 In his first dictatorship he carried on war against 
 the Veientines and Fidenae. Lar Tolumnius, the 
 king of Veil, is said to have been killed in single 
 combai in this year by Cornelius Cossus. In his 
 2nd dictatorship Aemilius carried a law limiting 
 to 18 months the duration of the censorship, which 
 had formerly lasted for 5 years. This measure 
 was received with great approbation by the people; 
 but the censors then in office were so enraged at 
 it, that they removed him from his tribe, and re- 
 duced him to the condition of an aerarian.^ 4. L., 
 a distinguished general in the Samnite wars, was 
 twice consul 341 and 329, and once dictator 335. 
 In his 2nd consulship he took Privernum, and 
 hence received the surname of Privemas. 
 
 Mamers, the Oscfm name of the god Mars. 
 
 Mamertini. [Messana.] 
 
 Mamertium (Mamertini), a town in Bruttium, 
 of uncertain site, founded by a band of Samnites, 
 who had left their mother country under the pro- 
 tection of Mamers or Mars, to seek a new home. 
 
 Mamilia Gens, plebeian, was originally a dis- 
 
MAMMULA. 
 tinguishcd family in Tusculum. They traced their 
 raine and origin to Mamilia, the daughter of 
 Telegonus, the founder of Tusculum, and the son of 
 Ulysses and the goddess Circe. It was to a 
 member of this family, Octavius Mamilius, that 
 Tarquinius betrothed his daughter ; and on his 
 expulsion from Rome, he took refuge with his 
 son-ill-law, who, according to the beautiful lay 
 preserved by Livy, roused the Latin people against 
 the infant republic, and perished in the great battle 
 at the lake Regillus. In B. c. 458, the Roman 
 citizenship was given to L. Mamilius the dictator 
 of Tusculum, because he had 2 years before marched 
 to the assistance of the city when it was attacked 
 by Herdonius. The gens was divided into 3 fa- 
 milies, Limetaniis^ Turrinus^ and VitiduSf but none 
 of them became of much importance. 
 
 Mammula, the name of a patrician family of 
 the Cornelia gens, which never became of much 
 importance in the state. 
 
 Mamtirius Veturius. [Veturius.] 
 Mamurra, a Roman equea, bom at Formiae, 
 was the commander of the engineers {praefedjis 
 fubrum) in Julius Caesar's army in GauL He 
 amassed great riches, the greater part of which, 
 however, he owed to Caesar's liberality. He waa 
 the first person at Rome who covered all the walls 
 of his house with layers of marble, and also the 
 first, all of the columns in whose house were made 
 of solid marble. He was violently attacked by 
 Catullus in his poems, who called him decocior 
 Formianus. Mamurra seems to have been alive in 
 the time of Horace, who calls Formiae, in ridicule, 
 Mamurrarum urbs (Sat. i. 5. 37), from which we 
 may infer that his name had become a byword 
 of contempt 
 
 Hancla, Helvitia, a Roman orator, about b. c. 
 90, who was remarkably ugly, and whose name is 
 recorded chiefly in consequence of a laugh being 
 raised against him on account of his deformity by 
 C. Julius Caesar Strabo, who was opposed to him 
 on one occasion in some lawsuit. 
 
 Mancinus, Hostilitis. 1. A., was praetor ui- 
 banus B. c. 180, and consul 170, when he had the 
 conduct of the war against Peraeuis, king of Mace- 
 donia. He remained in Greece for part of the 
 next year (169) as proconsul. ^3. L., was legate 
 of the consul L. Calpumius Piso (148) in the siege 
 of Carthage, in the 3rd Punic war. He was consul 
 145.^3. C, consul 137, had the conduct of the 
 war against Numantia, He was defeated by the 
 INuniantines, and purchased the safety of the re- 
 mainder of his army by making a peace with the 
 Numantines. The senate refused to recognise it, 
 and went through the hypocritical ceremony of 
 delivering him over to the enemy, by means of the 
 fetiales. This was done with the consent of Man- 
 cinus, but the enemy refused to accept him. On 
 his return to Rome Mancinus took his seat in the 
 senate, as heretofore, but was violently expelled 
 from it by the tribune P. Rutilius, on the ground 
 that he had lost his citizenship. As the enemy 
 had not received him, it was a disputed question 
 whether he was a citizen or not by the Jus Post- 
 liminii (see Dkt. of Ant. s. v. Postliminium), but 
 the better opinion was that he had lost his civic 
 rights, and they were accordingly restored to him 
 by a lex. 
 Mandane. [Cyrus.] 
 Mandomus. [Indibilis.] 
 Mandrupinm, Mandropus, or Mandriipolis 
 
 .MANIA. 
 
 411 
 
 (Maj'Spoi/mAis), a town in the S. of Phrygia, on 
 the lake Caralitis. 
 
 Kandubii, a people in Gallia Lugdunensis, in 
 the modern Burgundy, whose chief town was 
 Alesia. 
 
 Manduiia {UavUpiav in Plut. : Casal Nuovo), 
 a town in Calabria, on the road from Tarentum to 
 Hydruntum, and near a small lake, which is said 
 to have been always full to the edge, whatever 
 water was added to or taken from it. Here 
 Archidamus III., king of Sparta, was defeated 
 and slain in battle by the Messapians and Luca- 
 nians, b. c. 338. 
 
 Manes, the general name by which the Romans 
 designated the souls of the departed ; but as it ia 
 a natural tendency to consider the souls of departed 
 friends as blessed spirits, the Manes were regarded 
 as gods, and were worshipped with divine honours. 
 Hence on Roman sepulchres we find D. M. S., 
 that is, Dzs Manibus Sacrum. [Lares.] At cer- 
 tain seasons, which were looked upon as sacred 
 days {feriae denicales), sacrifices were offered to 
 the spirits of the departed. An annual festival, 
 which belonged to all the Manes in general, was 
 celebrated on the 19th of February, under the 
 name of Feralia or Parmtalia, because it was 
 the duty of children and heirs to offer sacrifices to 
 the shades of their parents and benefactors. 
 . Dlazietlio {Mav^Q<iis or MavsQciiv), an Egyptian 
 priest of the town of Sebennytus, who lived in the 
 reign of the first Ptolemy. He was the first 
 Egyptian who gave in the Greek language an 
 account of the religion and history of his country. 
 He based his information upon the ancient works 
 of the Egyptians themselves, and more especially 
 upon their sacred books. The work in which he 
 gave an account of the theology of the Egyptians 
 and of the origin of the gods and the world, bore 
 the title of THiv ^vaiKiiv ^EiriTofi-i}, His historical 
 work was entitled a History of Egypt. It was 
 divided into 3 parts or books. The first contained 
 the history of the country previous to the 30 
 dynasties, or what may be termed the mythology 
 of Egypt, and also of the first dynasties. The 2iid 
 opened with the 11th, 12th, and concluded with 
 the 19th dynasty. The 3rd gave the history of 
 the remainining 11 dynasties, and concluded with 
 an account of Nectanebus, the last of the native 
 Egyptian kings. The work of Manetho is lost ; 
 but a list of the dynasties is preserved in Julius 
 Africanus and Eusebius (most correct in the 
 Armenian version), who, however, has introduced 
 various interpolations. According to the calculation 
 of Manetho, the 30 dynasties, beginning with 
 Menes, filled a period of 3555 years. The lists of 
 the Egyptian kings and the duration of their 
 several reigns were undoubtedly derived by him 
 from genuine documents, and their coiTectness so 
 far as they are not interpolated, is said to be con- 
 firmed by the hieroglyphic inscriptions on the 
 monumenta. There exists an astrological poem, 
 entitled "A7roreA.e(rfiaTiKa, in 6 books, which bears 
 the name of Manetho j but this poem is spurious, 
 and cannot have been written before the 6th cen- 
 tury of our era. .Edited by Axt and Rigler, 
 Cologne, 1832. *■ ' 
 
 Mania, a formidable Italian, probably Etruscan, 
 divinity of the lower world, called the mother of 
 the Manes or Lares. The festival of the Com- 
 pitalia was celebrated as a propitiation to Mania 
 in common with the Lares. 
 
412 MANILIUS. 
 
 Manilla. 1. M., was consul B.C. 149, tlie 
 first year of the 3rd Punic wnr, and carried on 
 ■\var against Carthage. He was celehrated as a 
 jurist, and is one of the speakers in Cicero's De Re 
 Pubtica (i. 12).— 2. C, tribune of the plebs, b- c. 
 GQ^ proposed the law, granting to Ponipey the 
 coraniand of the war against Mithridates and 
 Tigranes, and the government of the provinces of 
 Asia, Ciiicia, and Bithynia. This bill was warmly 
 opposed by Q. Catulua, Q. Hortensius, and the 
 leaders of the aristocratical party, but was sup- 
 ported by Cicero, in an cation which has come 
 down to us. At the end of his year Manilius was 
 brought to trial by the aristocratical party, and 
 was condemned ; but we do not know of what 
 offence he was accused. — 3. Also called Manlius 
 or Malliua, a Roman poet of uncertain age, but is 
 conjectured to have lived iu the time of Augustus. 
 He is the author of an astrological poem in 5 
 books, entitled Astronomica. The style of this 
 poem is extremely faulty, being harsh and obscure, 
 and abounding in repetitions and in forced meta- 
 phors. But the author seems to have consulted 
 the best authorities, and to have adopted their 
 most sagacious views. The best edition is by 
 Bentley, Lond. 1739. 
 
 Manlia Gens, an ancient and celebrated patri- 
 cian gens at Rnrae. The chief families were those 
 of AciDiNUS, ToRQUATus and VULSO. 
 
 Manliana (MacXtaya; il-/t/zff7za, Ru.), a city of 
 importance in Mauretanla Caesariensis, where one 
 of Pompey'a sons died. 
 
 M. Manlius, consul B.C. 392, took refuge in 
 the Capitnl when Rome was taken by the Gauls 
 in 390. One night, when the Gauls endeavoured 
 to ascend the Capitol, Manlius was roused from 
 his sleep by the cackling of the geese ; collecting 
 hastily a body of men, he succeeded in driving 
 back the enemy, who had just reached the 
 summit of the hill. From this heroic deed he 
 is said to have received the surname of Capi- 
 tolinus. In 385, he defended the cause of the 
 plebeians, who were suffering severely from their 
 debts tind from the harsh and cruel treatment of 
 their patrician creditors. Tlie patricians accused 
 him of aspiring to royal power, and he was thrown 
 into prison by the dictator Cornelius Cossus. The 
 plebeians put on mourning for their champion, and 
 were read}'' to take up arms in his behalf. The 
 patricians in alarm liberated Manlius ; but this 
 act of concession only made him bolder, and he 
 now did not scniple to instigate the plebeians to 
 open violence. In the following year the patricians 
 charged him with high treason, and brought him 
 before the people assembled in the campus 
 Martins ; but as the Capitol which had once been 
 saved by him could be seen from this place, the 
 court was removed to the Poetelinian grove out- 
 side the porta Noraentana. Here Manlius was 
 condemned, and the tribunes threw him down the 
 Tarpeian rock. The members of the Manlia gens 
 accordingly resolved that none of them should ever 
 bear in future the praenoraen of Mnrcus. 
 
 Mannus, a son of Tuisco, was regarded by the 
 ancient Germans, along with his father, as the 
 founders of their race. They further a.-crlbed to 
 Mannus 3 song, from whom the 3 tribes of the 
 In^aevones, Hemiiones, and Istaevunes derived 
 their names. 
 
 Mantiana Palus. [Arsissa Palup.] 
 Mantinea (Macrffeia : Mavrivevs : Paleopoli), 
 
 MARATHESIUM. 
 
 one of the most ancient and imporLmt towns in 
 Arcadia, situated on the small river Ophis, near 
 the centre of the E. frontier of the country. It is 
 celebrated in history for the great battle fought 
 under its walls between the Spartans and Thebans, 
 in'which Epaminondas fell, b. a 362. According 
 to tradition, Mantinea was founded by Mantineus, 
 the son of Lycaon, but it was fomied in reality 
 out of the union of 4 or 5 hamlets. Till the 
 foundation of Megalopolis, it was the largest city 
 in Arcadia, and it long exercised a kind of su- 
 premacy over the other Arcadian towns ; but in 
 the Peloponnesian war the Spartans attacked the 
 city, and destroyed it by turning the waters of 
 the Ophis against its walls, which were built of 
 bricks. After the battle of Leuctra the city re- 
 covered its independence. At a later period it 
 joined the Achaean league, but notwithstanding 
 formed a close connection with its old enemy 
 Sparta, in consequence of which it was severely 
 punished by Aratua, who put to death its leading 
 citizens and sold the rest of its inhabitants as 
 slaves. It never recovered the effects of this 
 blow. Its name was now changed into Antigoma^ 
 in honour of Antigonus Doson, who had assisted 
 Aratus in his campaign against the town. The 
 emperor Hadrian restored to the place its ancient 
 appellation, and rebuilt part of it in honour of his 
 favourite Antinous, the Bithynian, who derived 
 his family &om Manttnea. 
 
 Ulantius (Mayrtoy), son of Melampus, and 
 brother of Antiphates. [Melampus.] 
 
 Hanto {MavT<i}^'Ovs). 1. Daughter of the Theban 
 soothsayer Tiresias, was herself prophetess of the 
 Ismenian Apollo at Thebes. After the capture of 
 Thebes by the Epigoni, she was sent to Delphi 
 with other captives, as an offering to Apollo, and 
 there became the prophetess of this god. Apollo 
 afterwards sent her and her companions to Asia, 
 where they founded the sanctuary of Apollo near 
 the place where the town of Colophon was after- 
 wards built. Rhacius, a Cretan, who had settled 
 there, married Manto, and became by her the 
 fatlier of Mopsus. According to Euripides, she 
 had previously become the mother of Amphilochus 
 and Tisiphone, by Alcmaeon, the leader of the 
 Epigoni. Being a prophetess of Apollo, she is also 
 called Daphne^ i. e. the laurel virgin. — 2. Daugh- 
 ter of Hercules, was likewise a prophetess, and 
 the person from whom the town of Mantua re- 
 ceived its name. (Virg. Aen. x. 199.) 
 
 ]yiantiia (Mantuanus : Mantua\ a town in 
 Gallia Transpadana, on an island in the river 
 Mincius, was not a place of importance, but is 
 celebrated because Virgil, who was born at the 
 neighbouring village of Andes, regarded Mantua 
 as his birthplace. It was originally an Etruscan 
 city, and is said to have derived its name from 
 Manto, the daughter of Hercules. 
 
 Maracanda {-rb. MapdicavBa -. Sainarka7ul\ the 
 capital of the Persian province of Sogdiana, in tlie 
 N. part of the country, was 70 stadia (7 geog, miles) 
 in circuit. It was here that Alexander the Great 
 killed his friend Clitus. 
 
 Maraphii (Mapa^noi), one of the 3 noblest 
 tribes of the Persians, standing, with the Maspii, 
 next in honour to the Pasargadac. 
 
 Mar atlie Slum {MapaQi\aiou)^ a town on the 
 coast of Ionia, between Ephesus and Neapolis : it 
 belonged to the Samians, who exchanged it with 
 the Ephesians for Neapolis, which lay nearer to their 
 
MAIIATHON. 
 
 Island. The modern Scala Nova marks the site of 
 one of these towns, but it is doubtful which. 
 
 Maratlion (Mapadwv: MapadJJvios), a dennia 
 in Attica, belonging to the tribe Leontis, was si- 
 tuated near a bay on the E. coast of Attica, 22 
 miles from Athens by one road, and 26 miles by 
 another. It originally belonged to the Attic tetra- 
 polis, and is said to liave derived its name from 
 the hero Marathon. This hero, according to one 
 account, was the son of Epopeus, king of Sicyon, 
 ■who having been expelled from Peloponnesus by 
 the violence of his father, settled in Attica ; while, 
 according to another account, he was an Arcadian 
 who took part in the expedition of the Tyndaridae 
 against Attica, and devoted himself to death before 
 the battle. The site of the ancient town of Mara- 
 thon was probably not at the modern village of 
 Marathon^ but at a place called Vrana, a little 
 to the S. of Marathon. Marathon was situated in 
 a plain, which extends along the sea-shore, about 
 6 miles in length, and from 3 miles to one mile 
 and, a half in breadth. It is surrounded on the 
 other three sides by rocky hills and rugged moun- 
 tains. Two marshes bound the extremity of the 
 plain ; the northern is more than a square mile 
 in extent, but the southern is much smaller, and is 
 almost dry at the conclusion of the great heats. 
 Through the centre of the plain runs a small 
 brook. In this plain was fought the celebrated 
 battle between the Persians and Athenians, b. c. 
 490. The Persians were drawn up on the plain, 
 and the Athenians on some portion of the high 
 ground above the plain ; but the exact ground oc- 
 cupied by the 2 armies cannot be identified, not- 
 withstanding the investigations of modem tra- 
 vellers. The tumulus, raised over the Athenians 
 who fell in the battle, is still to be seen, 
 
 MaratlitiS (Mdpados), an important city on the 
 coast of Phoenicia, opposite to Aradus and near 
 Antaradus: it was destroyed by the people of 
 Aradus in the time of the Syrian king, Alexander 
 Balas, a little before b. c. 150. 
 
 Harcella. 1. Daughter of C. Marcellus and 
 Octavia, the sister of Augustus. She was thrice 
 married : 1st to M. Vipsanius Agrippa, who sepa- 
 rated from her in b. c. 21, in order to many Julia, 
 the daughter of Augustus ; 2ndIyto Julus Antonius, 
 the son of the triumvir, by whom she had a son 
 Lucius ; Srdly to Sext. Appuleius, consul a. d, 14, 
 by whom she had a daughter, Appuleia Varilia.^ 
 2. Wife of the poet Martial, to whom he has 
 addressed 2 epigrams (xii. 21,31). She was a 
 native of Spain, and brought him as her dowry an 
 estate. As Martial was married previously to 
 Cleopatra, he espoused Marcella probably after his 
 return to Spain about a. d. 96. 
 
 Marcellinus, the author of the life of Thucy- 
 dides. [Thucydides.] 
 
 Marcellus, Claudius, an illustrious plebeian 
 family. 1. M-, celebrated as 5 times consul, and 
 the conqueror of Syracuse. In his first consulship, 
 B. c. 222, Marcellus and his colleague conquered 
 the Insnbrians in Cisalpine Gaul, and took their 
 capital Mediolanum, Marcellus distinguished him- 
 self by slaying in battle with his own hand Brito- 
 martus or Viridomarus, the king of the enemy, 
 whose spoils he afterwards dedicated as spolia 
 opima in the temple of Jupiter Feretrius. This 
 was the 3rd and last instance in Roman history in 
 which such an oiFering was made. — In 216 Mar- 
 cellus was appointed praetor, and rendered impor- 
 
 MARCRLLU3. 
 
 413 
 
 taut service to the Roman cause in the S. of Italy- 
 after the disastrous battle of Cannae. In 215 he 
 remained in the S. of Italy, with the title of pro- 
 consul. In the course of the same year he wjia 
 elected consul in the place of Postumius Albinus, 
 who had been killed in Cisalpine Gaul ; but as the 
 senate declared that the omens were unfavourable, 
 Marcellus resigned the consulship. In 214 Mar- 
 cellus was consul a 3rd time, and still continued in 
 the S. of Italy, where he carried on the war with 
 ability, but without obtaining any decisive results. 
 In the summer of this year he was sent into Sicily, 
 since the party favourable to the Carthaginians had 
 obtained the upper hand in many of the cities in 
 the island. After takiiig Leontini, he proceeded 
 to lay siege to Syracuse, both by sea and land. 
 His attacks were vigorous .and unremitting ; but 
 though he brought many powerful military engines 
 against the walls, these were rendered wholly un- 
 availing by the superior skill and science of "Archi- 
 medes, who directed those of the besieged. Mar- 
 cellus- was at last compelled to give up all hopes of 
 carrying the city by open force, and to turn the 
 siege into a blockade. It was not till 212 that, he 
 obtJiined possession of the place. It was given up 
 to plunder, and Archimedes was one of the inha- 
 bitants slain by the Roman soldiers. Tiie booty 
 found in the captured city was immense ; and 
 Marcellus also carried off many of the works of 
 art with which the city had been adonied, to grace 
 the temples at Rome. This was the first instance 
 of a practice which afterwards became so general. 
 In 210 he was consul a 4th time, and again had 
 the conduct of the war against Hannibal. He 
 fought a battle with the Carthaginian general near 
 Nuraistro in Lucania, but without any decisive 
 result. In 20.0 he retained the command of his ■ 
 army with the rank of proconsul. In 208 he was 
 consul for the 5th time. He and his colleague 
 were defeated by Hannibal near Venusia, and Mar- 
 cellus himself was slain in the battle. He was 
 buried with all due honours b}'" order of Hannibal. 
 — Marcellus appears to have been a rude stern 
 soldier, brave and daring to excess, but harsh, un- 
 yielding, and cruel. The great praises bestowed 
 upon Marcellus by the Roman historians are cer- 
 tainly undeserved, and probably found their way 
 into history from his funeral oration by his son, 
 which was used as an authority by some of the 
 earlier annalists. ^2. M., son of the preceding, 
 accompanied his father as military tribune, in 208, 
 and was present with him at the time of his death. 
 In 204 he was tribune of the people ; in 200 curule 
 aedile ; in 198 praetor ; and in 196 consul. In 
 his consulsjiip he carried on the war against the 
 Insubrians and Boii in Cisalpine Gaul. He was 
 censor in 189. —3. M., consul 183, carried on the 
 war against the Ligurians. — 4. M., son of No. 2, 
 was thrice consul, 1st in 166, when he gained a 
 victory over the Alpine tribes of the Gauls ; 2ndlv 
 in 155, when he defeated the Ligurians ; and Srdly 
 in 152, when he carried on the war against the 
 Celtiberians in Spain. In 148 he was sent ambas- 
 sador to Masinissa, king of Numidia, but was 
 shipwrecked on the voyage, and perished. — 6. M., 
 an intimate friend of Cicero, is first mentioned as 
 curule aedile with P. Clodius in 56. He was 
 consul in 51, and showed himself a bitter enemy 
 to Caesar. Among other ways in which he dis- 
 played his enmity, he caused a citizen of Comum 
 to be scourged, in order to show hia contempt for 
 
414 
 
 MARCELLIIS. 
 
 the privileges lately bestowed Ly Caesar upon that 
 colony. But the animosity of Marcellus did not 
 blind him to the imprudence of forcing on a war 
 for which his party was unprepared ; and at the be- 
 ginning of 49 he in vain suggested the necessity of 
 making levies of troops, before any open steps were 
 taken against Caesar. His advice was overruled, 
 and he was among the first to fly from Rome and 
 Italy. After the battle of Pharsalia (48) he aban- 
 doned all thoughts of prolonging the contest, and 
 withdrew to Mytilene, where he gave himself up 
 to the pursuits of rhetoric and philosophy. Mar- 
 celhis himself was unwilling to sue to the conqueror 
 for forgiveness, but his friends at Home were not 
 backward in their exertions for that purpose. At 
 length, in 46, in a full assembly of the senate, C. 
 Marcellus, the cousin of the exile, threw himself at 
 Caesar's feet to implore the pardon of his kinsman, 
 and his example was followed by the whole body 
 of the assembly. Caesar yielded to this demon- 
 stration of opinion, and Marcellus was declared to 
 be forgiven. Cicero thereupon returned thanks to 
 Caesar, in the oration Pt^ Marcello, which has 
 come down to us. Marcellus set out on his return ; 
 but he was murdered at the Piraeus, by one of his 
 own attendants, P. Magius Chilo. — 6. C, brother 
 of the preceding, was consul 49. He is constantly 
 confounded with his cousin, C. Marcellus [No. 8], 
 ■who was consul in 50. He accompanied his col- 
 league, Lentulus, in his flight from Home, and 
 eventually crossed over to Greece. In the follow- 
 ing year (48) he commanded part of Pompey's 
 fleet ; but this is the last we hear of him. — 7. C, 
 uncle of the 2 preceding, was praetor in 80, and 
 afterwards succeeded M. Lepidus in the govern- 
 ment of Sicily. His administration of the province 
 is frequently praised by Cicero in his speeches 
 against Vorres, as affording the mast striking con- 
 trast to that of the accused. Marcellus himself was 
 present on that occasion, as one of the judges of 
 Verres. — 8. C, son of the preceding, and first 
 cousin of M. Marcellus [No. 5], whom he succeeded 
 ill the consulship, 50. He enjoyed the friendship 
 of Cicero from an early age, and attached himself 
 to the party of Pompey, notwithstanding his con- 
 nection with Caesar by his marriage with Octavia. 
 In his consulship he was the advocate of all the 
 most violent measures against Caesar ; but when 
 the war actually broke out, he displayed the utmost 
 timidity and helplessness. He could not make up 
 his mind to join the Pompeian party in Greece ; 
 and after much hesitation he at length determined 
 to remain in Italy. He readily obtained the for- 
 giveness of Caesar, and thus was able to intercede ; 
 with the dictator in favour of his cousin, M. Mar- 
 cellus [No. 5]. He must have lived till near the 
 close of 41, as his widow, Octavia, was pregnant ■ 
 by him when betrothed to Antony in the following 
 year.^9. M., son of the preceding and of Octavia, 
 the daughter of C. Octavius and sister of Augustus, 
 was born in 43. As early as 39 he was betrothed 
 in marriage to the daughter of Sex. Pompey ; but 
 the marrrage never took place, as Pompey's death, 
 in 35, removed the occasion for it. Augustus, who 
 had probably destined the young Marcellus as his 
 successor, adopted him as his son in 25, and at the 
 same time gave him his daughter Julia in marriage. 
 In 23 he was curule aedile, but in the autumn 
 of the same year he was attacked by the disease of 
 which he died shortly after at Baiae, notwith- 
 standing all the skill and care of the celebrated 
 
 MARCIA. 
 
 physician Antimius Musa. He was in the 20th 
 year of his age, and was thought to have given so 
 much promise of future excellence, that his death 
 was mourned as a public calamity ; and the grief 
 of Augustus, as well as that of his mother Octavia, 
 was for a time unbounded. Augustus himself pro- 
 nounced the funeral oration over his remains, which 
 were deposited in the mausoleum lately erected for 
 the Julian family. At a subsequent period (14) 
 Augustus dedicated in bis name the magnificent 
 theatre near the Forum Olitorium, of which the 
 remains are still visible. But the most durable 
 monument to the memory of Marcellus is to be 
 found in the well-known passage of Virgil (Aen. vi. 
 360 — 806), which must have been recited to Au- 
 gustus and Octavia before the end of 22. •—10. M., 
 called by Cicero, for distinction's sake, the fathor 
 of Aeseminus {Brut. 36), served under Marius in 
 Gaul in 102, and as one of the lieutenants of L. 
 Julius Caesar in the Marsic war, 90.^11. M. 
 Claudius Marcellus Aeseminus, son or grandson 
 of No. 1 0, quaestor in Spain in 48, under Q. Cassius 
 Longinus, look part in the mutiny of the soldiers 
 against Cassius.— 12. P. Cornelius Leutulus lHar- 
 cellinus, son of No. 10, must have been adopted 
 by one of the Cornelii Lentuli. He was one 
 of Pompey's lieutenants in the war against the 
 pirates, b. c. 67. ^13. Cn. Cornelius' Lentulus 
 Marcellinus, son of the preceding, was praetor 59, 
 after which he governed the province of Syria for 
 nearly 2 years, and was consul 5Q^ when he showed 
 himself a friend of the ariatocratical party, and op- 
 posed all the measures of the triumvirate. 
 
 Marcellus, Eprius, born of an obscure family 
 at Capua, rose by his oratorical talents to distinction 
 at Home in the reigns of Claudius, Nern, and Ves- 
 pasian. He was one of the principal delators under 
 Nero, and accused many of the most distinguished 
 men of his time. He was brought to trial in the 
 reign of Vespasian, but was acquitted, and enjoyed 
 the patronage and favour of this emperor as well. 
 In A. D. 69, however, he was convicted of having 
 taken part in the conspiracy of Alienus Caecina, 
 and therefore put an end to his own life. 
 
 Marcellus, Nonius, a Latin grammarian, the 
 author of an important treatise, entitled De Com- 
 pendiosa Doctrina per Litteras ad Filiwn, sometimes 
 but erroneously called De PropHetate Sennonis. 
 He must have lived between the 2nd and 6th cen- 
 turies of the Christian era. His work is divided 
 into 18 chapters, but of these the first 12 are in 
 reality separate treatises on different grammatical 
 subjects. The last 6 are in the style of the Ono- 
 masticon of Julius Pollux, each containing a series 
 of technical terms in some one department. The 
 whole work contains numerous quotations from the 
 earlier Latin writers. The best edition is by Ger- 
 lach and Roth, Basil. 1842. 
 
 Marcellus Sidetes, a native of Side in Pam- 
 phylia, lived in the reigns of Hadrian and Antoni- 
 nus Pius, A. D. 117 — 161. He wrote a long 
 medical poem in Greek hexameter verse, consisting 
 of 42 books, of which 2 fragments remain. 
 
 Marcellus, TJlpius, a jurist, lived under Anto- 
 ninus Pius and M. Aurelius. He is often cited in 
 the Digest. 
 
 Marcia. 1. "Wife of M. Regulus. who was taken 
 prisoner by the Carthaginians. — 2. Wife of M. 
 Cato Uticensia, daughter of L. Marcius Philippus, 
 consul B. c. !iQ. It was about SQ that Cato is re- 
 lated to have ceded her to his friend Q. Hortensius, 
 
MARCIA. 
 
 ■with the approbation of her father. She continued 
 to live with Hortensius till the death of the latter, 
 in 60, after which she returned to Cato. — 3. Wife 
 of Fabius Maximus, the friend of Augustus, learnt 
 from her husband the secret visit of the emperor to 
 his grandson Agrippa, and informed Livia of it, in 
 consequence of which she became the cause of her 
 husband's death, a. d. 13 or 14. She is mentioned 
 on 2 or 3 occasions by Ovid. — 4. Daughter of 
 Cremutias Cordus. [Cord us.] ^6. The favourite 
 concubine of Coramodus, organised the plot by 
 which the emperor perished. [Commodus.] She 
 subsequently became the wife of Eclectus, his 
 chamberlain, also a conspirator, and was eventually 
 put to death by Julianus, along with Laetus, who 
 also had been actively engaged in the plot. 
 
 Marcia Gens, claimed to be descended from 
 Ancus Marcius, the 4th king of Rome. [Angus 
 Marcius.] Hence one of its families subsequently 
 assumed the name of Rex, and the heads of Numa 
 Pompilius and Ancus Mnrcius were placed upon 
 tlie coins of the Marcii. But notwithstanding these 
 claims to such high antiquity, no patricians of this 
 name, with the exception of Coriolanus, are men- 
 tioned in the early history of the republic [Corio- 
 LANUs] ; and it was not till after the enactment 
 of the Licinian laws that any member of the gens 
 obtained the consulship. The names of the most 
 distinguished families are Censorinus,Philippus, 
 Rex, and Rutilus. 
 
 Marciana, the sister of Trajan, and mother of 
 Matidia, who was the mother of Sabina, the wife 
 of the emperor Hadrian. 
 
 Marcianopolis (MapKiavovTro\ts), an important 
 city in the interior of Moesia Inferior, W. of 
 Odessus, founded by Trajan, and named, after his 
 sister Marciana. It was situated on, the high 
 road from Constantinople to the Danube. It sub- 
 sequently became the capital of the Bulgarians, 
 who called it Pristhlava {Ilpt(rd\d€a), whence its 
 modem name PrestUaw, but the Greeks still call 
 it Marcenopoli. 
 
 Marcianus. 1. Emperor of the East a. d. 450 
 — 457, was a native of Thrace or lUyricura, and 
 served for many years as a common soldier in the 
 imperial army. Of his early history we have only 
 a few particulars ; but he had attained such dis- 
 tinction at the death of Theodosius II. in 450, that 
 the widow of the latter, the celebrated Pulcheria, 
 offered her hand and the imperial title to Marcian, 
 who thus became emperor of the East. Marcian 
 was a man of resolution and bravery ; and when 
 Attila sent to demand the tribute which the 
 younger Theodosius had engaged to pay annually, 
 the emperor sternly replied, " I have iron for Attila, 
 but no gold." Attila swore vengeance ; but he 
 first invaded the Western Empire, and his death, 
 2 years afterwards, saved the East. In 451 Mar- 
 cian assembled the council of Chalcedon, in which 
 the doctrines of the Eutychians were condemned. 
 He died in 457, and was succeeded by Leo.— 2. Of 
 Heraclea in Pontus, a Greek geographer, of uncer- 
 tain date, but who perhaps lived in the 5th century 
 of the Christian era. He wrote a work in prose, 
 entitled, " A Penplus of the External Sea, both 
 eastern and western, and of the largest Islands in 
 it." The External Sea he used in opposition to 
 the Mediterranean. This work was in 2 books ; 
 of which the former, on the E. and S. seas, has come 
 down to us entire ; but of the latter, which treated 
 of the W..and N. seas, we possess .only the 3 last 
 
 MARDONIUS. 
 
 415 
 
 chapters on Africa, and a mutilated one on the 
 distance from Rome to the principal cities in the 
 world. In this work he chiefly follows Ptolemy. 
 He also made an epitome of the Penplus of Arte- 
 miodonis of Ephesus [Artemiodohus, No. 4], 
 of which we possess the introduction, and the peri- 
 plus of Pontus, Bithynia, and Paphlagonia. Mar- 
 cianus likewise published an edition of Menippus 
 with additions and corrections. [Menippus.] The 
 works of Marcianus are edited by Hudson, in tho 
 GeograpJii Graeci Minores^ and separately by Hoff- 
 mann, Marciani Periplus, &c.. Lips. 1841. 
 
 Marcianus, Aelius, a Roman jurist, who lived 
 under Caracalla and Alexander Severus. His 
 works are frequently cited in the Digest. 
 
 Marcianus Capella. [Capella.] 
 
 Marcius, an Italian seer, whose prophetic verses 
 {Cairrnina Marciana) were first discovered by M. 
 Atilius, the praetor, in B.C. 213. They were 
 written in Latin, and 2 extracts from them are 
 given by Livy, one containing a prophecy of the 
 defeat of the Romans at Cannae, and the 2nd, com- 
 manding the institution of the Ludi ApoUinarcs. 
 The Marcian prophecies were subsequently pre- 
 served in the Capitol with the Sibylline books. 
 Some writers mention only one person of this name, 
 but others speak of 2 brothers, llie Marcii. 
 
 Marcius. [Marcia Gens.] 
 
 Marcomanni, that is, men of the mark or 
 border, a powerful German people of the Sucvic 
 race, originally dwelt in the S.W. of Gernianj', 
 between the Rhine and the Danube, on the banks 
 of the Main ; but under the guidance of their 
 chieftain Maroboduus, who had been brought up 
 at the court of Augustus, they migrated into the 
 land of the Boii, a Celtic race, who inhabited 
 Bohemia and part of Bavaria. Here they settled 
 after subduing the Boii, and founded a powerful 
 kingdom, which extended S. as far as the Danube. 
 [Maroboduus,] At a later time, the Marco- 
 manni, in conjunction with the Quadi and other 
 German tribes, carried on a long and bloody war 
 with the emperor M. Aurelius, which lasted 
 during the greater part of his reign, and was only 
 brought to a conclusion by his son Commodus 
 purchasing peace of the barbarians as soon as he 
 ascended the throne, a. d. 180. 
 
 Mardene or Mardyene [Mapl-qvii^ MapSvqvr]), 
 a district of Persis, extending N. from Taocene to 
 the W. frontier and to the sea-coast. It seems to 
 have taken its name from some branch of the great 
 people called Mardi or Amardi, who are found in 
 various parts of W. and central Asia ; for example, 
 in Armenia, Media, Margiana, and, under the 
 same form of name as those in Persis, in Sogdiana, 
 
 Mardi. [Amardi ; Mardene.] 
 
 Mardonius(Map5(J»'ios), a distinguished Persian, 
 was the son of Gobryas, and the son-in-law of 
 Darius Hystaspis. In B.C. 492 he was sent by 
 Darius, with a large armament, to punish Eretria 
 and Athens for the aid they had given to the 
 lonians. But his expedition was an entire failure. 
 His fleet was destroyed by a stonn off Mt. Athos, 
 and the greater part of his land forces was destroyed 
 on his passage through Macedonia, by the Brygians, 
 a Thracian tribe. In consequence of his failure he 
 was superseded in the command by Datis and Ar- 
 taphernes, 490. On the accession of Xerxos, Mar- 
 donius was one of the chief instigators of the ex- 
 pedition against Greece, with the government of 
 which he hoped to be invested after its conquest ; 
 
41(? 
 
 MARDUS. 
 
 and he was appointed one of the generals of the land 
 army. After the battle of Salamis (480), he be- 
 came alarmed for the consequences of the advice he 
 had given, and persuaded Xerxes to return home 
 with the rest of the array, leaving 300,000 men 
 TUider his command for the subjugation of Greece. 
 He was defeated in the following year (479), near 
 Plataeae, by the combined Greek forces under the 
 command of Pausanias, and was slain in the battle. 
 
 Mardus. [Amaruus.] 
 
 Mardyeue, Mardyeni. [Mardene.] 
 
 ^area, -ea, -ia (Mape'?], Mapei'a, Mapia' Ma- 
 pecoTTis, Mareota : Maiiouth, Ru.), a town of 
 Lower Egypt, in the district of Mareotis, on the 
 S. side of the lake Mareotis, at themoutli of a canal. 
 
 Mareotis (Mapecons). 1. Also called MapewTijs 
 No/x(5s, a district of Lower Egypt, on the extreme 
 N.W., on the borders of the Libyae Nemos ; it 
 produced good wine. -^2. A town in the interior 
 of the Libyae Noraos, between the Oasis of Ara- 
 mon and the Oasis Minor. 
 
 Mareotis or Marea or (-ia) Lacus (ij MapeSris, 
 Maoeta, Mapla \{/j.v7J : Bh-Jcet-Mariouth, or Sl~ 
 Kreit], a considerable lake in the N.W. of Lower 
 Egypt, separated from the Mediterranean by the 
 neclc of land on which Alexandria stood, and sup- 
 plied with water by the Canopic branch of the 
 Nile, and by canals. It was less than 300 stadia 
 {30 geog. miles) long, and more than 150 wide. 
 It was surrounded with vines, palms, and papyrus. 
 It served as the port of Alexandria for vessels na- 
 vigating the Nile. 
 
 Mares (Mope?), a people of Asia, on the N. 
 citast of the Euxine, who served in the army of 
 Xerxes, being equipped with helmets of wicker- 
 work, leathern shields, and javelins. 
 
 Maresa, Maresclia {Maprjcd, Mapitra, Mapio-frd, 
 Mape(rx<^ : prob. Ru, S. E. of Beit Jibnn), an 
 ancient fortress of Palestine, in the S. of Judaea, of 
 some importance in the history of the early kings 
 of Jiidah and of the Maccabees. The Parthians 
 had destroyed it before the time of Eusebius ; and 
 it is probable that its ruins contributed to the erec- 
 tion of the city of Eleutheropolis ( BeiiJihr'm), which 
 was afterwards built on the site of the ancient 
 Baetogabra, 2 Roman miles N.W. of Maresa. 
 
 Maresclia. [Maresa.] 
 
 Margiana (17 Mapyiavi] : the S. part of KIdva, 
 S.W. part of Bokhara, and N.E. part oi Khoras- 
 su7i), a province of the ancient Persian empire, and 
 afterwards of the Greco-Syrian, Parthian, and 
 Persian kingdoms, in Central Asia, N. of the moun- 
 tains called Sariphi {Glioor)^ a part of the chain of 
 tlie Indian Caucasus, which divided it from Aria j 
 and bounded on the E. by Bactriana, on the N.E. 
 and N. by the river Oxus, which divided it from 
 Sogdiana and Scythla, and on the W. by Hyrcania. 
 It received its name from the river Margus {Moor- 
 ghab)^ which flows through it, from S. E. to N.W., 
 and is lost in tlie sands of the Deseii, of Khiva, 
 On this river, near its termination, stood the ca- 
 pital of the district, Antiochia Margiana (Mem). 
 With the exception of the districts round this and 
 the minor rivers, which produced excellent wine, 
 the country was for the most part a sandy desert. 
 Its chief inhabitants were the Derbices, Parni, 
 Tapuri, and branches of the great tribes of the 
 Massagetae, Dahae, and Mardi. The country be- 
 e.ime known to the Greeks by the expeditions of 
 Alexander and Antiochu.s I., the first of whom 
 founded, and tlie second rebuilt, Antiochia ; aud the 
 
 MAIUUS. 
 Romans of the age of Augustas obtained furtlier 
 information about it from the returned captives 
 who had been taken by the Parthiaps and had re- 
 sided at Antiochia,, 
 
 Margites. [Homerus, p. 328, a.] 
 
 Margnm or Margus, a fortified place in Moesia 
 Superior, W. of Viminacium, situated on the river 
 Margus(Mora'ua)atit3 confluence with the Danube. 
 Here Diocletian gained a decisive victory over 
 Carinus. The river Margus, which is one of the 
 most important of the southern tributaries of the 
 Danube, rises in Mt. Orbelus. 
 
 MargTis. [Margiana.] 
 
 Maria. [Marea, Mareotis.] 
 
 Mariaba. [Saba.] 
 
 Mariamma [Mapidfxixi], -idfx-n^ -idfitfT]), a city 
 of Coele-Syria, some miles W. of Eraesa, assigned 
 by Alexander the Great to the territory of Aradub. 
 
 Mariamne. [Herodes.] 
 
 Mariamns Turris, a tower at Jerusalem, built 
 by Herod the Great. 
 
 Marianae Fossae. [Fossa.] 
 
 Mariandyni {MapiayBuvoi)^ an ancient people 
 of Asia Minor, on the N. coast, E. of the river 
 Sangarins, in the N.E. part of Bithynia. With 
 respect to their ethnical affinities, it seems doubtful 
 whether they were connected with the Thracian 
 tribes (the Thyni and Bithyni) on the W., or the 
 Paphlagonians on the E. ; but the latter appears 
 the more probable. 
 
 Marianus Mens (Sierra MoreTzo). a mountain in 
 Hispania Baetica, properly only a western offshoot 
 of the Orospeda. The eastern part of it was called 
 Saltus Castulonensis, and derived its name from 
 the town of Castulo. 
 
 Marica, a Latin nymph, the mother of Latinus 
 by Faunus, was worshipped by the inhabitants of 
 Mintumae in a grove on the river Liris. Hence 
 the country round Mlnturnae is called by Horace 
 (Carm. m. 17. 7) Marieae litora. 
 
 Marimis {Vlaptvos) 1. Of Tyre, a Greek 
 geographer, who lived in the middle of the 2nd 
 century of the Christian era, and was the imme- 
 diate predecessor of Ptolemy. Marinns was un- 
 doubtedly the founder of mathematical geography 
 in antiquity ; and Ptolemy based his whole work 
 upon that of Marinus. [Ptolemaeus.] The 
 chief merit of Marinus was, that he put an end to 
 the uncertainty that had hitherto prevailed re- 
 specting the positions of places, by assigning to 
 each its latitude and longitude. — 2. Of Flavia 
 Neapolis, in Palestine, a philosopher and rheto- 
 rician, was the pupil and successor of Proclus, 
 whose life he wrote, a work which is still extant, 
 edited by Boissonade, Lips. 1014. 
 
 Mariaus (IMaroscU), called Maris (Mcipis) by 
 Herodotus, a river of Dacia, which, according to 
 the ancient writers, falls into the Danube, but 
 which iu r?allty falls into tlie Theiss, and, along 
 with this river, into the Danube. 
 
 Maritima, a sea-port town of the Avatici, and a 
 Roman colony in Gallia Narbonensis. 
 
 Marius, 1. C, the celebrated Roman, who was 
 7 times consul, was born in B.C. 157, neat Ar- 
 pinum, of an obscure and bumble family. His 
 father's name was C. Marius, and his mother's 
 Fulcinia ; and his parents, as well as Marius 
 himself, were clients of the noble plebeian house 
 of the Herennii. So indigent, indeed, is the family 
 represented to have been, that young Marius is 
 said to have worked as a common peasant Utz 
 
MARIUS. 
 
 •wages, before te entered the ranks of tte Roman 
 army. (Comp. Juv. viii. 246.) The meanness of 
 his origin has probably been somewhat exag- 
 gerated ; and at all events he distinguished him- 
 self so much by his valour at the siege of Numantia 
 in Spain (134), as to attract the notice of Scipio 
 Africanus, who is said to have foretold his future 
 greatness. His name does not occur again for 1.5 
 years ; but in 119 he was elected tribune^ of the 
 pleba, when he was 38 years of age. In this office 
 he came forward as a popular leader, and proposed 
 a law to give greater freedom to the people at the 
 elections ; and when the senate attempted to over- 
 awe him, he commanded one of his officers to 
 carry the consul Metellus to prison. He now 
 became a marked man, and the aristocracy op- 
 posed him with all their might. He lost his 
 election to the aedileship, and with difficulty 
 obtained the praetorship ; but he acquired influ- 
 ■ence and importance by his marriage with Julia, 
 the sister of C. Julius Caesar, who was the father 
 of the future ruler of Rome. In 109 Marius 
 crossed over into Africa as legate of the consul 
 Q. Metellus. Here, in the war against Jngurtha, 
 the military genius of Marius had ample oppor- 
 tunity of displaying itself, and he was soon re- 
 garded as the most distinguished officer in the 
 army. He also ingratiated himself with the 
 coldiers, who praised him in the highest terms in 
 their letters to their friends at Rome. His popu- 
 larity became so great that he resolved to return 
 to Rome, and become at once a candidate for the 
 consulship ; but it was with great difficulty that 
 he obtained from Metellus permission to leave 
 Africa. On his arrival at Rome he was elected 
 consul with an enthusiasm which bore down all 
 opposition before it ; and he received from the 
 -people the province of Numidia, and the conduct 
 of the war against Jngurtha (107). On his return 
 to Numidia he carried on the war with great 
 vigour ; and in the following year (106) .lugurtha 
 'was surrendered to him by the treachery of 
 Bocchus,king of Mauretania. [Jugurtha.] Ma- 
 rius sent his quaestor Sulla to receive the Nu- 
 midian king from Bocchus. This circumstance 
 sowed the seeds of the personal hatred which 
 afterwards existed between Marius and Sulla, 
 since the enemies of Marius claimed for Sulla the 
 merit of bringing the war to a close by obtaining 
 possession of the person of Jugiirtha. Meantime 
 Italy was threatened by a vast horde of barbarians, 
 "who had migrated from the N. of Germany. The 
 2 leading nations of which they consisted were 
 •called Cimbri and Teutoni, the former of whom 
 are supposed to have been Celts, and the latter 
 Gauls. To these two great races were added the 
 Ambrones, and some of the Swiss tribes, such as 
 the Tigurini. The whole host is said to have con- 
 tained 300,000 fighting men, besides a much 
 larger number of women and children. They had 
 defeated one Roman army after another, and it 
 appeared that nothing could check their progress. 
 The utmost alarm prevailed throughout Italy ; all 
 party quarrels were hushed. Every one felt that 
 Marius was the only man capable of saving the 
 state, and he was accordingly elected consul a 
 2nd time during his absence in Africa. Marius 
 entered Rome in triumph on the 1st of January, 
 104, the first day of his 2nd consulship. Mean- 
 while, the threatened danger was for a while 
 averted. Instead of crossing the Alps, the Cimbri 
 
 MARIUS. 
 
 417 
 
 ninrched into Spain, which they ravaged for the 
 next 2 or 3 years. But as the return of the bar- 
 barians was constantly expected, Marius was elected 
 consul a 3rd time in 103, and a 4th time in 102. 
 In the latter of these years the Cimbri returned 
 into Gaul. The barbarians now divided their 
 forces. The Cimbri marched round the northern 
 foot of the Alps, in order to enter Italy by the 
 N. E., crossing the Tyrolese Alps by the defiles of 
 Tridentum (Trent). The Teutoni and Ambrones, 
 on the other hand, marched against Marius, who 
 had taken up a position in a fortified camp on the 
 Rhone. The decisive battle was fought near 
 Aquae Sextiae (Jim). The carnage was dreadful. 
 The whole nation was annihilated, for those who 
 did not fall in the battle put an end to their own 
 lives. The Cimbri, meantime, had forced theirway 
 into Italy. Marius was elected consul a Sth time 
 (101), and joined the proconsul Catulus in the 
 N. of Italy. The 2 generals gained a great victory 
 over the enemy on a plain called the Campi Raudii, 
 near Vercellae ( Vercelli). The Cimbri met with 
 the same fate as the Teutoni ; the whole nation 
 was destroyed. Marius was received at Rome 
 with unprecedented honours. He was hailed as 
 the saviour of the state ; his name was coupled 
 with the gods in the libations and at banquets, 
 and he received the title of 3rd . founder of Rome. 
 Hitherto the career of Marius had been a glorious 
 one ; but the remainder of his life is full of horrors,, 
 and brings out the worat features of his character. 
 In order to secure the consulship a 6th time, he 
 entered into close connection with two of the worst 
 demagogues that ever appeared at Rome, Satur- 
 ninus and Glaucia. Pie gained his object, and was 
 consul a 6th time in 100. In this year he drove 
 into exile his old enemy Metellus ; and shortly 
 afterwards, when Saturninus and Glaucia took up 
 arms against the state, Marius crushed the insur- 
 rection by command of the senate. [Saturninus.] 
 His conduct in this affair was greatly blamed by 
 the people, who looked upon him as a traitor to 
 his former friends. For the next few years Marius 
 took little part in public affairs. He possessed 
 none of the qualifications which were necessary to 
 maintain influence in the state during a time of 
 peace, being an unlettered soldier, rude in manners, 
 and arrogant in conduct. The Social war again 
 called him into active service (90). He served as 
 legate of the consul P. Rutilius Lupus ; and after 
 the latter had fallen in battle, he defeated the Marsi 
 in 2 successive engagements. Marius was now 
 67, and his body had grown stout and unwield}^ ; 
 but he was still as greedy of honour and dis- 
 tinction as he had ever been. He had set his 
 heart upon obtaining the command of the war 
 against Mithridates, which the senate had be- 
 stowed upon the consul Sulla at the end of the 
 Social war (88). In order to gain his object, 
 Marius allied himself to the tribune, P. Sulpicius 
 Rufus, who brought forward a law for distributing 
 the Italian allies, who had just obtained the Ro- 
 man franchise, among all the Roman tribes. As 
 those new citizens greatly exceeded the old citizens 
 in number, they would of course be able to carry 
 whatever they pleased in the comitia. The law 
 was carried notwithstanding the violent opposition 
 of the consuls ; and the tribes, in which the new 
 citizens now had the majority, appointed Marius 
 to the command of the war against Mithridates. 
 Sulla fied to his army, which was stationed at 
 
418 
 
 MAKIUS. 
 
 Nola ; and when Marius sent thither 2 military ' 
 tribunes, to take the command of the troops, Sulla 
 not only refused to surrender the command, but 
 marched upon Rome at the head of his army. 
 Marius was now obliged to take to flight. After 
 "wandering along the coast of Latium, and encoun- 
 tering terrible sufferings and privations, which he 
 bore with unflinching fortitude, he was at length 
 taken prisoner in the marshes formed by the river 
 Liris, near Minturnae. The magistrates of this 
 place resolved to put him to death, in accordance 
 with a command which Sulla had sent to all the 
 towns in Italy. A Gallic or Cimbrian soldier un- 
 dertook to carry their sentence into effect, and 
 with a drawn sword entered the apartment where 
 Marius was confined. The part of the room in 
 which Marius lay was in the shade ; and to the 
 frightened barbarian the eyes of Marius seemed to 
 dart out fire, and from the darkness a terrible 
 voice exclaimed — "Man, durst thou murder C. 
 Marius?" The barbarian immediately threw down 
 his sword, and rushed out of the house. Straight- 
 way there was a revulsion of feeling among the 
 inhabitants of Minturnae. They got ready a 
 ship, and placed Marius on board. He reached 
 Africa in safety, and landed at Carthage ; but 
 he had scarcely put his foot on shore before the 
 Roman governor sent an officer to bid him leave 
 the country. This last blow almost unmanned 
 Marius: his only reply was — "Tell the praetor 
 that you have seen C. Marius a fugitive sit- 
 ting on the ruins of Carthage."" Soon afterwards 
 Marius was joined by his son, and they took refuge 
 in the island of Cercina. During this time a re- 
 volution had taken place at "Rome, in consequence 
 of which Marius was enabled to return to Italy. 
 The consul Cinna (07) who belonged to the Marian 
 party, had been driven out of Rome by his colleague 
 Octavius, and had subsequently been deprived by 
 the senate of the consulate. Cinna collected iin 
 army, and resolved to recover his honours by force 
 of arms. As soon as Marius heard of these changes 
 he left Africa, and joined Cinna in Italy. Marius 
 and Cinna now laid siege to Rome. The failure 
 of provisions compelk'd the senate to yield, and 
 Marius and Cinna entered Rome as conquerors. 
 The most frightful scenes followed. The guards of 
 Marius stabbed everyone whom he did not salute, 
 and the streets ran with the blood of the noblest of 
 the Roman aristocracy. Among the victims of his 
 vengeance, were the great orator M. Antonius and 
 his former colleague Q. Catulus. Without going 
 through the form of an election, Marius and Cinna 
 named themselves consuls for the following year 
 (86). But he did not long enjoy the honour : he 
 was now in his 71st yenr; his body was worn out 
 by the fatigues and sufferings he had recently un- 
 dergone; and on the 18th day of his consulship he 
 died of an attack of pleuris}', after 7 days' ill- 
 ■nesa. ^3. C, the son of the preceding, but only 
 by adoption. He followed in the footsteps of his 
 father, and was equally distinguished by merciless 
 severity ngalnst his enemies. He was consul in 
 82, when he was 27 years of age. In this year 
 he was defeated by Sulla near Sacriportus on 
 the frontiers of Latium, whereupon he took refuge 
 in the strongly fortified town of Praeneste. Here 
 he was besieged for some time ; but after Sulla's 
 great victory at the Colline gate of Rome over Pon- 
 tius Telesinus, Marius put an end to his own life, 
 after making an unsuccessful attempt to escope. — 
 
 MARON. 
 
 3. The false Marius. [Amatius.] — 4.M. Atu'cUus 
 Haritis, one of the 30 tyrants, was the 4th of the 
 usurpers who in succession ruled Gaul, in defiance of 
 Gallienus. He reigned only 2 or 3 days, but there 
 are coins of his extant. — 5. Marius Celsus. 
 [Celsus.]^6. Marius Mazimus, a Roman his- 
 torian, who is repeatedly cited by the Augustan 
 historians. He probably flourished under Alex- 
 ander Severus, and appears to have written the 
 biographies of tiie Roman emperors, beginning with 
 Ti-ajan and ending with Elagabalus. ^ 7. Marius 
 Mercator, an ecclesiastical writer, distinguished as 
 a zealous antagonist of the Pelagians and the Nes- 
 torian?. He appears to have commenced his literary 
 career during the pontificate of Zosimus, A. d. 418, 
 at Rome, and he afterwards repaired to Constan- 
 tinople. Mercator seems undoubtedly to have been 
 a layman, but we are ignorant of evcrj' circumstance 
 connected with his origin, and personal history. 
 The works of Mercator refer exclusively to the 
 Pelagian and Nestorian heresies, and consist, for 
 the most part, of passages extracted and translated 
 from the chief Greek authorities. The best edition 
 is by Baluze, Par. 1684. 
 
 Maxmarica (?;' MapfiapiK-^' Mapfxapi^at : E, 
 part of Tripoli and N,W,part of Egypt)^ a district 
 of N. Africa, between Cyrenaica and Egypt, but 
 by some ancient geographers reckoned as a part 
 of Cyrenaica, and by others as a part of Egypt ; 
 while others, again, call only the W. part of it, 
 from the borders of Cyrenaica to the Catabathmus 
 Magnus, by the name of Marmarica, and the E. 
 part, from the Catabathmus Magnus to the Sinus 
 Plinthinetes, Libyae Nomos. Inland it extended 
 as far afl the Oasis of Ammon. It was, for the 
 most part, a sand}*" desert, intersected with low 
 ranges of hills. — Its inhabitants were called by 
 the general name of Marmaridae. Their chief 
 tribes -were the Adyrmachidae and Giligammae, 
 on the coast, and the Nasamones and Angilae, in 
 the interior. 
 
 Marmarium (Map/idpiou : Map/taptoy : Mai-- 
 mari)^ a place on the S. W. coast of Euboea, with 
 a temple of Apollo Marmarius, and celebrated 
 marble quarries, which belonged to Carystus. 
 
 Maro, Virgilius. [Vikgilius.] 
 
 Maroboduus, the Latinised form of the German 
 Marbod, king of the Marcomanni, was a Sueviau 
 by birth, and was bom about B.C. 18. He was 
 sent in his boyhood with other hostages to Rome, 
 where he attracted the notice of Augustus, and 
 recei red a liberal education. After his return to 
 his native country, he succeeded in establishing a 
 powerful kingdom in central Germany, along the 
 N. bank of the Danube, from Regensberg nearly 
 to the borders of Hungary, and which stretched 
 far into tl e interior. His power excited the jea- 
 lousy of Augustus, who had determined to send a 
 fcrmidable army to invade his dominions ; but the 
 revolt of the Pannonians and Dalmatians (a. d. 6) 
 prevented the emperor from carrying his design 
 into e.fect. Maroboduus eventually became an 
 object q' suspicion to the other German tribes, and 
 was at hngth expelled from his dominions by 
 Catualda, a ^hief of the Gothonea, about a. d. 19. 
 He took retuge in Italy, where Tiberius allowed 
 him to remain, and he passed the remainder of his 
 life at Ravenna. He died in 35 at the age of 53 
 years. 
 
 Maron (Mapwv), son of Evanthe3,and grandson 
 of Dionysus and Ariadne, priest of Apollo at Maro- 
 
MARONEA. 
 
 nea in Thrace. Tie was the hero of sweet wine, and 
 is mentioned among the companions of Dionysus. 
 
 Maronea {^apdi/eia : MapwveiTTis : Marogna)^ 
 a town] on the S. coast of Thrace, situated on the 
 N. bank of the lake Ismaris and on the river 
 Sthenaa, more anciently called Ortagurea. It be- 
 longed originally to the Cicones, but afterwards 
 received colonists from Chios. It was celebrated for 
 its excellent wine, which even Homer mentions, 
 
 Marpessa (MapTTTjco-a), daughter of Evenus and 
 Alcippe. For details see Idas. 
 
 Marpessa (Mapir^jiro-a), a mountain in Paros, 
 from which the celebrated Parian marble was 
 obtained. Hence Virgil (^Aen. vi. 471) speaks of 
 Marpesia cauies. 
 
 Marrucini, a brave and warlike people in Italy 
 of the Sabellian race, occupj'ing a narrow slip of 
 country along the right bank of the river Atemiw, 
 and bounded on the N. by the Vestini, on the "W. 
 by the Peligni and Marsi, on the S. by the Fren- 
 tani, and on the E. by the Adriatic sea. Their 
 chief town was Teate, and at the mouth of the 
 Atemiis, they possessed, in common with the Ve- 
 stini, the seaport Aternum. Along with the 
 Marsi, Peligni, and the other Sabellian tribes they 
 fought against Rome; and together with them they 
 submitted to the Romans in b. c. 304, and con- 
 cluded a peace with the republic. 
 
 MarruviTim or ffiaruvitim. 1. {S. Benedetto)^ 
 the chief town of the Marsi (who are therefore 
 called _^e72s Maruvia, Virg. Aen. vii. 750), situated 
 on the E. bank of the lake Fucinus, and on the 
 road between Corfinium and Alba Fucentia. — 2. 
 ( A/orro), an ancient town of the Aborigines in the 
 country of the Sabines, not to be confounded with 
 the Marsic Marruvium. 
 
 Mars, an ancient Roman god, who was at an 
 early period identified by the Romans with the 
 Greek Area, or the god delighting in bloody wai", 
 [Ares.] The name of the god in the Sabine and 
 Oscan Avas Mamers; and Mars itself is a contraction 
 of Mavers or Mavors. Next to Jupiter, Mars 
 enjoyed the highest honours at Rome. He is 
 frequently designated as father Afars, whence the 
 forms Marsjriter and Maspiter, analogous to Jupiter. 
 Jupiter, Mars, and Quirinus were the 3 tutelary 
 divinities of Rome, to each of whom king Numa 
 appointed a flamen. He was worshipped at Rome 
 as the god of war, and war itself was frequently 
 designated hy the name of Mars. His priests, the 
 Salii, danced in full armour, and the place dedicated 
 to warlike exercises was called after his name 
 {Campus MaHius). But being the father of the 
 Romans, Mars was also the protector of the most 
 honourable pursuit, i. e. agriculture; and under the 
 name of Silvanus, he was worshipped as the guar- 
 dian of cattle. Mara was also identified with Qui- 
 rinus, who was the deity watching over the Roman 
 citizens in their civil capacity as Quirites. Tims 
 Mars appears under 3 aspects. As the warlike 
 god, he was called Gradivus ; as the rustic god, he 
 was called Silvanus ; while, in his relation to the 
 state, he bore the name of Quirinus. His wife was 
 called Kfeiia or Neriene, the feminine of Nero^ 
 which in the Sabine language signified " strong." 
 The wolf and the woodpecker (picus) were sacred 
 to Mara. Numerous temples were dedicated to 
 him at Rome, the most important of which was 
 that outside the Porta Capena, on the Appian road, 
 and tliat of Mars Ultor, which was built by 
 Augustus in the forum. 
 
 MARSYAS. 
 
 419 
 
 Marsi. 1. A brave and warlike people of the 
 Sabellian race, dwelt in the centre of Italy, in the 
 high land surrounded by the mountains of the 
 Apennines, in which the lake Fucinus is situated. 
 Along with their neighbours the Peligni, Marru- 
 cini, &c., they concluded a peace with Rome, e. c. 
 304. Their bravery was proverbial; and they were 
 the prime movers of the celebrated war waged 
 against Rome by the Socii or Italian allies in order 
 to obtain the Roman franchise, and which is known 
 by the name of the Marsic or Social war. Their 
 chief town was Marruvium. — The Marsi appear 
 to have been acquainted with the medicinal pro- 
 perties of several of the plants growing upon their 
 mountains, and to have employed them as remedies 
 against the bites of serpents, and iu other cases. 
 Hence they were regarded as magicians, and were 
 said to be descended from a son of Circe. Others 
 again derived their origin from the Phrj-^gian Mar- 
 sj'as, simply on account of the resemblance of the 
 name. ^2. A people in Germany, appear to have 
 dwelt originally on both banks of the Ems, and to 
 have been only a tribe of the Cherusci, although 
 Tacitus makes them one of the most ancient peoples 
 in Germany. They joined the Cherusci in the war 
 against the Romans, which terminated in the defeat 
 of Varus, but they were subsequentl}'- driven into 
 the interior of the country by Germanicus. 
 
 Marsigui, a people in the S. E, of Germany, of 
 Suevic extraction. 
 
 Marsus, Domitius, a Roman poet of the Au- 
 gustan age. He wrote poems of various kinds, but 
 his epigrams were the most celebrated of his pro- 
 ductions. Hence he is frequently mentioned by 
 Martial, who speaks of him in terms of the highest 
 admiration. He wrote a beautiful epitaph on 
 Tibullus, which has come down to us. 
 
 Marsyas {Mapo-vas). 1. A mythological per- 
 sonage, connected with the earliest period of Greek 
 music. He is variously called the son of Hyagnis, 
 or of Oeagrus, or of Olympus. Some make him a 
 satyr, others a peasant. All agree in placing him 
 in Phrygia. The following is the outline of his 
 story: — Athena having, while playing the flute, 
 seen the reflection of herself in water, and observed 
 the distortion of her features, threw awa}'- the 
 instrument in disgust. It was picked up by Mar- 
 syas, who no sooner began to blow through it, than 
 the flute, having once been inspired by the breath 
 of a goddess, emitted of its own accord the most 
 beautiful strains. Elated by his success, Marsyas 
 was rash enough to challenge Apollo to a musical 
 contest, the conditions of which were that the 
 victor should do what he pleased with the van- 
 quished. The Muses, or, according to others, the 
 Nysaeana, were the umpires. Apollo pla3-ed upon 
 the cithara, and Marsyas upon the flute ; and it 
 was not till the former added his voice to the 
 music of his lyre that the contest was decided in 
 his favour. As a just punishment for the pre- 
 sumption of Marsyas, Apollo bound him to a tree, 
 and flayed him alive. His blood was the source 
 of the river Marsyas, and Apollo hung up his skin 
 in the cave out of which that river flows. His 
 flutes (for, according to some, the instrument on 
 which he played was the double flute) were carried 
 by the river Marsyas into the Maeander, and again 
 emerging in the Asopus, were thrown on land by 
 it in the Sicyonian territory, and were dedicated 
 to Apollo in his temple at Sicyon. The fable evi- 
 dently refers to the struggle between the citharoedic 
 
 E B 2 
 
420 
 
 MARSYAS. 
 
 and auloedic styles of music, of which the former 
 was connected with the worship of Apollo among 
 the Dorians, and the latter with tlie orgiastic rites 
 of Cybele in Phrygia. In the fora of ancient cities 
 there was frequently placed a statue of Marsyas, 
 which was probably intended to hold forth an 
 example of the severe punishment of arrogant pre- 
 sumption. The statue of Marsyas in the forum of 
 Rome is well known by the allusions of Horace 
 (Sat. L 6. 120), Juvenal (ix. 1, 2), and Martial 
 (ii. 64. 7). ^2. A Greek historian, was the son of 
 Periander, a native of Pella in Macedonia, a con- 
 temporary of Alexander, with whom he is said to 
 have been educated. His principal work was a 
 history of Macedonia, in 10 books, from the earliest 
 times to the wars of Alexander. He also wrote 
 other works, the titles of which are given by 
 Suidas. — 3. Of Philippi, commonly called the 
 Younger, to distinguish him from the preceding, 
 ■was also a Greek historian. The period at which 
 he flourished is uncertain : the earliest writers by 
 whom he is cited are Pliny and Athenaeus. 
 
 Marsyas (Moptruos). 1. A small and rapid river 
 of Phrygia, a tributary of the Maeander, took its 
 rise, according to Xenophon, in the palace of the 
 Persian kings at Celaenae, beneath the Acropolit, 
 and fell into the Maeander, outside of the city. 
 Pliny, however, states that its source was in the 
 valley called Aulocrene, about 10 miles from 
 Apamea Cibotus (which city was on or near the 
 site of Celaenae), and that after a subterraneous 
 course, it first came out to light at Apamea. Co- 
 lonel Leake reconciles these statements by tlie na- 
 tural explanation that the place where the river 
 first broke forth from its subterraneous course, was 
 regarded as its true origin. Tradition ascribed its 
 name to the fable of Marsyas. ^2. (Chinar-Chai), 
 a considerable river of Caria, having its source in 
 the district called Idrias, flowing N.W. and N. 
 through the middle of Caria, past Stratonicea and 
 Alabanda, and falling into the S. side of the 
 Maeander, nearly opposite to Tralles. ^ 3. In 
 Syria, a small tributary of the Orontes, into which 
 it falls on the E. side, near Apamea. ^ 4. A name 
 given to the extensive plain in Syria, through 
 which the upper course of the Orontes flows, lying 
 between the ranges of Casius and Lebanon, and 
 reaching from Apamea on the N. to Laodicea ad 
 Libanum on the S. 
 
 Partialis. 1. M. Valerius, the epigrammatic 
 poet, was bom atBilbilis in Spain, in the 3rd year 
 of Claudius, a. d. 43. He came to Rome in the 
 13th year of Nero, 66; and after residing in the 
 metropolis 35 years, he returned to the place of his 
 birth, in the 3rd year of Trajan, 100. He lived 
 there for upwards of 3 years at least, on the pro- 
 perty of his wife, a lady named Marcella, whom 
 he seems to have married after his return to Bilbilis. 
 His death cannot have taken place before 104, 
 His fame was extended and his books were eagerly 
 sought for, not only in the city, but also in Gaul, 
 Germany, and Britain ; he secured the patronage of 
 the emperors Titus and Domitian, obtained by his 
 influence the freedom of the state for several of his 
 friends,andreceived for himself, although apparently 
 without family, the privileges accorded to those who 
 were the fathers of three children (jus trium libe- 
 rorum), together with the rank of tribunus and the 
 rights of the equestrian order. His circumstances 
 appear to have been easy during his residence at 
 Rome, for he had a mansion in the city whose 
 
 MARTIAtlS. 
 
 situation he describes, and a suburban villa near 
 Nomentum, to which he frequently alludes with 
 pride. — The extant works of Martial consist of a 
 collection of short poems, all included under the 
 general appellation Epigrammata^ upwards of 1500 
 in number, divided into 14 books. Those which 
 form the 2 last books, usually distinguished re- 
 spectively as Xenia and Apophoreta, amounting to 
 350, consist of distichs, descriptive of a vast 
 variety of small objects, chiefly articles of food or 
 clothing, such as were usually sent as presents 
 among friends during the Saturnalia, and on other 
 festive occasions. In addition to the above, nearly 
 all the printed copies include 33 epigrams, forming 
 a book apart from the rest, which has been com- 
 monly known as Liber de SpectaezUis, because the 
 contents relate to the shows exhibited by Titus 
 and Domitian, but there is no ancient authority 
 for the title. The different books were collected 
 and published by the author, sometimes singly and 
 sometimes several at one time. The Liber de 
 Spectaculis and the first 9 books of the regular 
 series involve a great number of historical allusions, 
 extending from the games of Titus (80) down to 
 the return of Domitian from the Sarmatian expe- 
 dition, in January, 94. All these books were 
 composed at Rome, except the 3rd, which was 
 written during a tour in Gallia Togata. The 10th 
 book was published twice : the first edition was 
 given hastily to the world ; the second, that which, 
 we now read (x. 2), celebrates the amval of 
 Trajan at Rome, after his accession to the throne 
 (99). The ] 1th book seems to have been published 
 at Rome, early in 100, and at the close of the year 
 he returned to Bilbilis. After keeping silence for 
 3 years (xii. prooem.), the 12th book was despatched 
 from Bilbilis to Rome (xii. 3, 10), and must there- 
 fore be assigned to 104. Books xiii. and xiv., 
 Xenia and JpopJioreta, were written chiefly under 
 Domitian, although the composition may have been 
 spread over the holidays of many years. It is well 
 known that the word Epigram^ which originally 
 denoted simply aii inscription, was, in process of 
 time, applied to any brief metrical effusion, what- 
 ever the subject might be, or whatever the form 
 under which it was presented. Martial, however, 
 first placed the epigram upon the narrow basis 
 which it now occupies, and from his time the term 
 has been in a great measure restricted to denote a 
 short poem, in which all the thoughts and ex- 
 pressions converge to one sharp point, which forms 
 the termination of the piece. Martial's epigrams 
 are distinguished by singular fertility of imagination, 
 prodigious flow of wit, and delicate felicity of 
 language ; and from no source do we derive more 
 copious information on the national customs and 
 social habits of the Romans during the first cen- 
 tury of the empire. But, however much we may 
 admire the genius of the author, we feel no respect 
 for the character of the man. The servility of 
 adulation with which he loads Domitian, proves 
 that he was a courtier of the lowest class ; and 
 his works are defiled by the moat cold-blooded 
 filth, too clearly denoting habitual impurity of 
 thought, combined with habitual impurity of ex- 
 pression. The best edition is by Schneidewinn, 
 Grem. 1842. — 2. Gargilius, a Roman histo- 
 rian, and a contemporary of Alexander Severus, 
 who is cited by Vopiscus, There is extant a short 
 fragment on veterinary surgery, bearing the name 
 of Gargiliua Martialis ; and Angelo Mai discovered 
 
MARTINIANUS. 
 
 on a palimpsest in the roj'al library at Naples, part 
 of a work De Hortis^ also ascribed to Gargilius 
 Martialis. But whether Gargilius Martialis the 
 Listorian, Gargilius Martialis the horticulturist, 
 and Gargilius Martialis the veterinarian, are all, or 
 any two of them, the same, or all different per- 
 sonages, cannot be determined. 
 
 Martinianus, was elevated to the dignity of 
 Caesar, by Licinius, when he was making prepa- 
 rations for the last struggle against Constantine. 
 After the defeat of Licinius, Martinianus was put 
 to death by Constantine, a. d. 323. 
 
 Martiua Campus. [Campus Martius.] 
 
 Martyxopolis (MapTvp6Tro\i5 : Meia Farekin)^ 
 n city of Sophene. in Armenia Major, on the river 
 Nymphus, a tributary of the Tigris ; under Justi- 
 nian, a strong fortress, and the residence of the 
 first Dux Armeniae. 
 
 Marullus, C. Epidius, tribune of the plebs, 
 B.C. 44, removed, in conjunction with his colleague 
 L. Caesetius Flavus, the diadem which had been 
 placed upon the statue of C. JuHus Caesar, and 
 attempted to bring to trial the persons who had 
 saluted the dictator as king. Caesar, in conse- 
 quence, deprived him of the tribunate, and expelled 
 him from the senate. 
 
 Maruvium. [Marruvium.] 
 
 Mascas (Mao-Kos-, Matr/cSs : Wady-el-Scha), an 
 E. tributary of the Euphrates, in Mesopotamia, 
 mentioned only by Xenophon {Anah. i. 5), who 
 describes it as surrounding the city of Corsote, 
 and as being 35 parasangs from the Chaboras. It 
 appears to be the same river as the Saocoras of 
 Ptolemy. 
 
 leases (Mao-ijy : Ma(ri7Tios), a town on the S, 
 coast of Argolis, the harbour of Hermlone. 
 
 Masinissa (Mao'(ro;'ao'<r7js)„ king of the Nu- 
 midians, was the sou of Gala, king of the Massy- 
 lians, the easternmost of the 2 great tribes into 
 which the Numidians were at that time divided; 
 but he was brought up at Carthage, where 'he ap- 
 pears to have received an education superior to that 
 usual among his countrymen. In b. c. 213 the 
 Carthaginians persuaded Gala to declare war 
 against Syphax, king of the neighbouring tribe of 
 the Massaesylians, who had lately entered into an 
 alliance with Rome. Masinissa was appointed by 
 his father to command the invading force, with 
 which he attacked and totally defeated Syphax. 
 In the next year (212) Masinissa crossed over into 
 Spain, and supported the Carthaginian generals 
 there with a large body of Numidian horse. He 
 fought on the side of the Carthaginians for some 
 years; but after their great defeat by Scipio in 206, 
 he secretly promised the latter to support the 
 Romans as soon as they should send an army into 
 Africa. In his desertion of the Carthaginians he 
 is said to have been also actuated by resentment 
 against Hasdrubal, who had previously betrothed 
 to him his beautiful daughter Sophonisba, but vio- 
 lated his engagement, in order to bestow her hand 
 upon Syphax. — During the absence of Masinissa 
 in Spain, his father Gala had died, and the throne 
 had been seized by an usurper ; but Masinissa on 
 his return soon expelled the usurper and obtained 
 possession of the kingdom. He was now attacked 
 by Syphax and the Carthaginians, who were 
 anxious to cnish him before he could receive as- 
 fiistance from Rome. He was repeatedly defeated 
 by Syphax and his generals, and with difficulty 
 escaped fallhig into the hands of his enemies. But 
 
 MASSA. 
 
 421 
 
 the arrival of Scipio in Africa (204) soon changed 
 the posture of affairs. He instantly joined the 
 Roman general, and rendered the most important 
 services to him during the remainder of the war. 
 He took a prominent part in the defeat of the 
 combined forces of Syphax and Hasdrubal, and in 
 conjunction with Laelius he reduced Cirta, the 
 capital of Syphax. Among the captives that fell 
 into their hands on this occasion was Sophonisba, 
 the wife of Syphax, and the same who had been 
 formerly promised in marriage to Masinissa himself. 
 The story of his hasty marriage with her, and its 
 tragical termination, is related elsewhere. [So- 
 phonisba.] In the decisive battle of Zama (202), 
 Masinissa commanded the cavalry of the right 
 wing, and contributed in no small degree to the 
 successful result of the day. On the conclusion of 
 the final peace between Rome and Carthage, he 
 was rewarded with the greater part of the terri- 
 tories which had belonged to Syphax, in addition 
 to his hereditary dominions. For the next SO years 
 Masinissa reigned in peace, though constantly 
 making aggressions upon the Carthaginian territory. 
 At length in 150 he declared open war against 
 Carthage, and these hostilities led to the outbreak 
 of the 3rd Punic war. Masinissa died in the 2nd 
 year of the war, 148. From this time till the 
 commencement of the 3rd Punic war there elapsed 
 an interval of more than 50 years, during the 
 whole of which period Masinissa continued to 
 reign with imdisputed authority over the countriea 
 thus subjected to his rule. On his deathbed he 
 had sent for Scipio Africanus the younger, at that 
 time serving in Africa as a military tribune, but 
 he expired before his arrival, leaving it to the 
 young officer to settle the affairs of his kingdom. 
 He died at the advanced age of 90, having retained 
 in an extraordinarj'' degree his bodily strength and 
 activity to the last, bo that in the war against the 
 Carthaginians, only 2 years before, he not only 
 commanded his army in person, but was able to go 
 through all his military exercises with the agility 
 and vigour of a young man. His character has 
 been extolled by the Roman writers far beyond 
 his true merits. He possessed indeed unconquerable 
 energy and fortitude ; but he was faithless to the 
 Carthaginians as soon as fortune began to turn 
 against them; and though he afterwards continued 
 steady to the cause of the Romans, it was because 
 he found it uniformly his interest to do so. He 
 was the father of a very numerous family ; but it 
 appears that 3 only of his legitimate sons survived 
 him, Micipsa, Mastanabal, and Gulussa. Between 
 these 3 the kingdom was portioned out by Scipio, 
 according to the dying directions of the old king. 
 
 Masius Mens (t5 ^aatov Spos : Karajch Dagh), 
 a mountain chain in the N. of Mesopotamia, be- 
 tween the upper course of the Tigris and the 
 Euphrates, running from the main chain of the 
 Taurus S.E. along the border of Mygdonia. 
 
 Maso, C. Papirius, consul b. c. 231, carried on 
 war against the Corsicans, whom he subdued ; and 
 from the booty obtained in this war, he dedicated a 
 temple to Fons. Maso was the maternal grandfather 
 of Scipio Africanus the younger, his daughter Pa- 
 piria marrying Aemilius Paulus. 
 
 Massa, Baebius, or Bebius, was accused by 
 Pliny the younger and Herennius Senecio, of plun- 
 dering the province of Baetica, of whii.-h he had 
 been governor, a. d. 93. He was condemned, but 
 escaped punishment by the favour of Domitian j 
 
422 MASSAESYLI. 
 
 and from thia time he became one of the informers 
 and favouriteg of the tyrant. 
 
 Massaesyli or -ii. [Mauretania: Numidia.] 
 
 Massaga (ra Mdffa-ayd), the capital city of the 
 Indian people Assaceni. 
 
 Massagetae (Ma(rcTay4Tat)^ a wild and warlike 
 people of Central Asia, in Scythia intra ImaUm, 
 N. of the Jaxartes (the Araxes of Herodotus) 
 and the 5c« of AraU and on the peninsula between 
 this lake and the Caspian. Their country corre- 
 sponds to that of the Kirghiz Tartars in the N. of 
 Independent Tartary. Some of the ancient geo- 
 graphers give them a greater extent towards the 
 S.E., and Herodotus appears to include under tlie 
 name all the nomad tribes of Asia E. of the 
 Caspian. They appear to have been of the Turko- 
 man race ; their manners and customs resembled 
 those of the Scythians in general ; but they had 
 some peculiarities, such as the killing and eating 
 of their aged people. Their chief appearance in 
 ancient history is in connection with the expedi- 
 tion undertaken against them by C3'rus the Great, 
 in which Cyrus was defeated and slain. [Cyrus.] 
 
 Massani (Macro-ai'ot), a people of India intra 
 Gangem, on the lower course of the Indus, near 
 the Island of Pattalene. 
 
 Massicus Moils, a mountain in the N. W. of 
 Campania near the frontiers of Latium, celebrated 
 for its excellent wine, the produce of the vineyards 
 on the southern slope of the mountain. The cele- 
 brated Falernian wine came from the eastern side 
 of this mountain. 
 
 IHassicytus or Massicytea (Mao-i/rurTjs), one 
 of the principal mountain chains of Lycia. 
 
 Massilia (Mao-(rixAia: MacrcraAiwTTjs-, Massili- 
 ensis : Marseilles), a Greek city in Gallia Narho- 
 nensis, on the coast of the Mediterranean, in the 
 country of the Salyes. It was situated on a pro- 
 montoiy, which was connected with the mainland 
 by a narrow isthmus, and was washed on 3 sides 
 by the sea. Its excellent harbour, called Lacydon^ 
 was formed by a small inlet of the sea. about half 
 a mile long, and a quarter of a mile broad. This 
 harbour had only a narrow opening, and before it 
 lay an island, where ships had good anchorage. 
 Massilia was founded by the Phocaeans of Asia 
 Minor about b. c. 600, and soon became a very 
 ilourishing city. It extended its dominion over 
 the barbarous tribes in its neighbourhond, and 
 planted several colonies on the coast of Gaul and 
 Spain, such as Antipolis, Nicaea and Empo- 
 rium. Its naval power and commercial greatness 
 soon excited the jealousy of the Carthaginians, 
 who made war upon the city, but the Massilians 
 not only maintained their independence, but de- 
 feated the Carthaginians in a sea-fight. At an 
 early period they cultivated the friendship of the 
 Romans, to whonr they always continued faithful 
 allies. Accordingly when the S. E. corner of Gaul 
 was made a Roman province, the Ptomans allowed 
 lilassilia to retain its independence and its own 
 constitution. This constitution was aristocratic. 
 The city was governed by a senate of 600 persons 
 called Timuchi. From these were selected 15 
 presidents, who formed a sort of committee for 
 carrying on the ordinary business of the govern- 
 ment, and 3 of these were intrusted with the 
 executive power. The inhabitants retained the 
 religious rites of their mother country, and they 
 cultivated with especial reverence the worship of 
 the Ephesian Artemis or Diana. Massilia was for 
 
 MATISCO. 
 many centuries one of the most important com- 
 mercial cities in the ancient world. In the civil 
 war between Caesar and Pompey (b. c. 49), it 
 espoused the cause of the latter, but after a pro- 
 tracted siege, in which it lost its fleet, it was obliged 
 to submit to Caesar. From the effects of this blow 
 it never fully recovered. Its inhabitants had long 
 paid attention to literature and philosophy ; and 
 under the early emperors it became one of the chief 
 seats of learning, to which the sons of many illus- 
 trious Romans resorted to complete their studies. 
 — The modern Marseilles occupies the site of the 
 ancient town, but contains no remains of ancient 
 buildings. 
 
 Massiva. 1. A Numidian, grandson of Gala, 
 king of the Massylians, and nephew of Masinlssa, 
 whom he accompanied into Spain. —3. Son of 
 Gulussn, and grandson of Masiuissa, was assassi- 
 nated at Rome by order of Jiigurtha, because he 
 had put in his claim to the kingdom of Numidia. 
 
 Massurius Sabinus. [Sabinus.] 
 
 Massyli or -ii. [Mauretania : Numidia.] 
 
 Maatanabal or Manastabal, the youngest of 
 the 3 legitimate sons of Masinissa, between whom 
 the kingdom of Numidia was divided by Scipio 
 after the death of the aged king' (b. c. 148). He 
 died before his brother Micipsa, and left 2 sons, 
 Jugurtha and Cauda. 
 
 Mastaura {rh. Mda-raupa : Mastawa-Kales^l, 
 Ru,), a cityof Lydia on the borders of Caria, near 
 Nysa. 
 
 Mastramela, a towm on the S. coast of Gallia 
 Narbonensis, E. of the Rhone, and a lake of the 
 same name, called by Mela Avaticoi-um stagmim. 
 
 Hastiisia. 1. The S. W. point of the Thracian 
 Chersonesus, opposite Sigeum. — 2. A mountain of 
 Lydia, on the S. slope of which Smyrna la}'. 
 
 Maternns, Curiatius, a Roman rhetorician and 
 tragic poet, one of the speakers in the Dialogus de 
 Oroiorihus ascribed to Tacitus. 
 
 Matemus Firmicus. [Firmicus.] 
 
 Matho. 1. One of the leaders of the Cartha- 
 ginian mercenaries in their war against Carthage, 
 after the conclusion of the Ist Punic war, e. c. 241. 
 He was eventually taken prisoner, and put to 
 death. — 2. A pompous blustering advocate, ridi- 
 culed by Juvenal and Martial. 
 
 Matho, Pomponius. 1. M'., consul b. c. 233, 
 carried on war against the Sardinians, whom he 
 defeated. In 217 he was magister equitum ; in 
 216 praetor ; and in 215 propraetor in Cisalpine 
 Gaul. — S. M., brother of the preceding, consul 
 231, also carried on war against the Sardinians. 
 Ho was likewise praetor in 217- He died in 204. 
 — 3. M., probably son of No. 2., aedile 206, and 
 praetor 204, with Sicily as his province. 
 
 Matiana [yiariavi], yiariavol^ -V^V, -'f]voi, 
 Herod.), the S.W.-most district of Media Atropa- 
 tone, along the mountains separatinsj Media from 
 Assyria, which were also called Matiani. The 
 great salt lake of Spauja (JlJlanavh \ip.vr\ : Lake 
 of Urmi) was in this district. Herodotus also 
 mentions a people on the Halys in Asia Minor by 
 the name of Matieni. 
 
 Matinus, a mountain in Apulia, running out 
 into the sea, was one of the offshoots of Mt. Gar- 
 ganus, and is frequently mentioned by Horace in 
 consequence of his being a native of Apulia. 
 
 Matisco (il/afoft), a town of the Aedui in 
 Gallia Lugdunensis on the Arar, and on the road 
 from Lugdunum to Augustodunum. 
 
MATIUS. 
 
 llatius Calvena, C, a Roman eques, and a 
 friend of Caesar and Cicero. After Caesar^'s death 
 he espoused the side of Octavianus, with whom he 
 became very intimate. 
 
 Matron (MdTpwv), of Pitana, a celebrated 
 writer of parodies upon Homer, probably lived a 
 little before the time of Philip of Macedon. 
 
 Matrona (Marne\ a river in Gaul, which foraied 
 the boundary between Gallia Lugdunensia and 
 Belgica, and which falls into the Sequana, a little 
 S. of Paris. 
 
 Mattiaci, a people in Germany, who dwelt on the 
 E. bank of the Rhine, between the Main and the 
 Lahn, and were a branch of the Chatti. They 
 were subdued by the Romans, who, in the reign 
 of Claudius, had fortresses and silver-mines in their 
 country. After the death of Nero they revolted 
 against the Romans and took part with the Ctiatti 
 and other German tribes in the siege of Mogunti- 
 acum. From this time they disappear from history; 
 and their country was subsequently inhabited b}' 
 the Aleraanni. Their chief towns were Aquae 
 Mattiacae ( Wiesbaden), and Mattiacum {Marl^trg)^ 
 which must not be confounded with Mattium, the 
 capital of the Chatti. 
 
 Mattium (Madere), the chief town of tlie Chatti, 
 situated on the Adrana {Eder), was destroyed by 
 Germ aniens. 
 
 Matuta, commonly called Hater Matiita, is 
 usually considered as the goddess of the dawn of 
 morning, and her name is considered to be con- 
 nected with maturus or matuiinus. It seems, how- 
 ever, to be well attested that Matuta was only a 
 surname of Juno ; and it is probable that the 
 name is connected with mater, so that Mater 
 Matuta is an analogous expression with Hostus 
 Hostilius, Faunus Fatuus, Aius Locutius, and 
 others. Her festival, the Matralia, was celebrated 
 on the 11th of June {Did. of Ant. art. Matralia). 
 The Romans identified Matuta with the Greek 
 Leucothea. A temple was dedicated to Matuta 
 at Rome by king Servius, and was restored by the 
 dictator Camillus, after the taking of Veii. There 
 was also a temple of Matuta at Satricum. 
 
 Mauretania or Mauritania (^ Mavpova-ia; 
 Mai/poutrtot, Mavpot, Mauri), the W.-most of the 
 principal divisions of N. Africa, lay between the 
 Atlantic on the W., the Mediterranean on the N., 
 J^j'uinidia on the E., and Gaetulia on the S, ; but 
 the districts embraced under the names of Maure- 
 tania and Numidia respectively were of very dif- 
 ferent extent at different periods. The earliest 
 known inhabitants of aU N. Africa W. of the 
 Syrtes were the Gaetulians, who were displaced 
 and driven inland by peoples of Asiatic origin, 
 who are found, in the earliest historical accounts, 
 settled along the N. coast under various names ; 
 their chief tribes being the Mauri or Maurusil, 
 W. of the river Malva or Malucha (Miduia or 
 Mohalou) ; thence the Massaesylii to (or nearly 
 to) the river Ampsaga ( Wady-elKehir), and the 
 Massylii between the Ampsaga and the Tusca 
 {Wady-Zain), the W. boundary of the Carthagi- 
 nian territory. Of these people, the Mauri, who 
 possessed a greater breadth of fertile country be- 
 tween the Atlas and the coasts, seem to have ap- 
 plied themselves more to the settled pursuits of 
 agriculture than their kindred neighbours on the 
 E. whose unsettled warlike habits were moreover 
 confirmed by their greater exposure to the in- 
 trusions of the Phoenician settlers. Hence arose 
 
 MAUSOLUS. 
 
 40^ 
 £.0 
 
 a difference, which the Greeks marked by apply- 
 ing the general name of No/iaSes to the tribes 
 between the Malva and the Tuaca ; whence came 
 the Roman names of Numidia for the district, and 
 Nnmldae for its people. [Numidia.] Thus 
 Mauretania was at first only the country W. of 
 the Malva, and corresponded to the later district 
 of Maiiretania Tingitana, and to the modem em- 
 pire of Marocco^ except that the latter extends 
 further S. ; the ancient boundary on the S. was 
 the Atlas. The ri.omans first became acquainted 
 with tlie couiitiy during the war with Jugurtha, 
 B.C. lUS ; of their relations with it, till it became 
 a Roman province, about 33, an account is given 
 under Bocchus. During this period the kingdom 
 of Mauretania had been increased by the addition 
 of tJie W. part of Numidia, as far as Saldae, 
 which Julius Caesar bestowed on Bogud, as a re- 
 ward for his services in the African war. A new 
 arrangement was made about 25, when Augustus 
 gave Mauretania to Juba II., in exchange for his 
 paternal kingdom of Numidia. Upon the murder 
 of Juba's son, Ptolemaeus, by Caligula (a. d. 40), 
 Mauretania became finally a Roman province, and 
 was formally constituted as such by Claudius, 
 who added to it nearly half of what was still left 
 of Numidia, namely, as far as the Ampsaga, and 
 divided it into 2 parts, of which the W. was called 
 Tingitana, from its capital Tingis ( 7'a?e^'e;-),and the 
 E.Caesariensis from its capittilJulia Caesarea {Zer- 
 shell), the boundaiy between them being the river 
 Malva, the old limit of the kingdom of Bocchus I. 
 The latter corresponded to the W. and central part 
 of the modern regency (and now French colony) 
 of Algiers. These " Mauretaniae duae" were 
 governed by an equestrian procurator. In the 
 later division of the empire under Diocletian and 
 Constantine, the E. part of M. Caesariensis, from 
 Saldae to the Ampsaga, was erected into a new 
 province, and called M. Sitifensls from the inland 
 town of Sitifi {Setif) ; at the same time the W. 
 province, M. Tingitana, seems to have been placed 
 under the same government as Spain, so that we 
 still find mention of the " Mauretaniae duae," 
 meaning now, however, Caesariensis and Sitifensis. 
 From A. D. 429 to 534 Mauretania was in the 
 hands of the Vandals, and in 650 and the follow- 
 ing years it was conquered by the Arabs. Its 
 ancient inhabitants still exist as powerful tribes in 
 Marocco and Afgiei; under the names of Berbers, 
 Schillus, Kalules, and Tuariks. Its chief physical 
 features are described under Africa and Atlas. 
 Under the later Roman emperors it was remark- 
 able for the great number of its episcopal sees, 
 
 Mauri. [Mauretania.] 
 
 Mauricianus, Junius, a Roman jurist, lived 
 under Antonius Pius (a. D. VAW — 161). His works 
 are cited a few times in the Digest. 
 
 Mauricuo, Junius, an intimate friend of Pliny, 
 was banished by Domitian, but recalled from exile 
 hy Nerva. 
 
 Mauritania. [Mauretania.] 
 
 Maurus, Terentianus. [Terentianus.] 
 
 Maurusil. [Mauretania.] 
 
 Mausolus {Uav(To}\os or Maiitro-wAos), king of 
 Caria, was the eldest son of Hecatomnus, whom he 
 succeeded in the sovereigntj', u. c. 377. In 362 
 he took part in the general revolt of the satraps 
 against Artaxerxes Mnemon, and availed himself of 
 that opportunity to extend his dominions. In 358 
 he joined with the Rhodians and others in the 
 
 K E 4 
 
424 
 
 MAYORS. 
 
 ■war waged by them against the Athenians, known 
 by the name of the Social war. He died in 
 353, leaving no children, and was succeeded by 
 his wife and sister Artemisia. The extravagant 
 grief of the latter for his death, and the honours 
 she paid to his memory — especially by the erec- 
 tion of the costly monument, which was called 
 from him the Mausoleum — are related elsev/here. 
 [Artemisia.] 
 
 Mavors. [Mars.] 
 
 MaxentitLS, Roman emperor a. d. 306 — 312, 
 whose full name was M. Aurelius Valerius Max- 
 entius. He was the son of Maximinnus and Eu- 
 tropia, and received in maiTiage the daughter of 
 Galeriiis ; but he was passed over in the division 
 of the empire which followed the abdication of his 
 father and Diocletian in a. d. 305. Maxentius, 
 however, did not tamely acquiesce in this arrange- 
 ment, and, being supported by the praetorian troops, 
 ■who had been recently deprived of their exclusive 
 privileges, he was proclaimed emperor at Rome in 
 306. He summoned his father, Maximianus, from 
 his retirement in Lucania, who again assumed the 
 purple. The military abilities of Maximianus were 
 of great service to his son, who was of indolent and 
 dissolute habits. Maximianus compelled the Caesar 
 Severus, who had marched upom Rome, to retreat 
 in haste to Ravenna, and soon afterwards put the 
 latter to death when he had treacherously got him 
 into his power (307). The emperor Galerius now 
 marched in person against Rome, but Maximi.inus 
 compelled him likewise to retreat. Maxentius, re- 
 lieved from these imminent dangers, proceeded to 
 disentangle himself from the control which his 
 father sought to exercise, and succeeded in driving 
 him from his court. Soon afterwards Maxentius 
 crossed over to Africa, which he ravaged with fire 
 and sword, because it had submitted to the inde- 
 pendent authority of a certain Alexander. Upon 
 his return to Rome Maxentius openly aspired to 
 dominion over all the Western provinces ; and soon 
 afterwards declared war against Constantine, alleg- 
 ing, as a pretext, that the latter had put to death his 
 father Maximianus. He began to make preparations 
 to pass into Gaul ; but Constantine anticipated his 
 movements, and invaded Italy. The straggle was 
 brought to a close by the defeat of Maxentius at 
 Saxa Rubra near Rome, October 27th, 312. Max- 
 entius tried to escape over the Milvian bridge into 
 Rome, but perished in the river. Maxentius is 
 represented by all historians as a monster of ra- 
 pacity, cruelty, and lust. The only favoured class 
 was the military, upon whom he depended for 
 safety ; and in order to secure their devotion and 
 to gratify his own passions, all his other subjects 
 ■were made the victims of the most revolting li- 
 centiousness, and ruined by the most grinding 
 exactions. 
 
 Maxilua, a town in Hispania Baetica, where 
 bricks were made so light as to swim upon w.iter. 
 See Calentum. 
 
 Maxima Caesariensis. [Britannia, p. 126.] 
 
 Maximianopolis, previously called Porsulae, a 
 tovm in Thrace on the Via Egnatia, E. of Abdera, 
 probably the same place as the town called Mosy- 
 nopolis (MofTut/ovvoKis) by the Byzantine writers. 
 
 Maximianopolis (Mafi|Uiayou7roAir: 0. T. Hadad 
 Rimmon), a city of Palestine, in the valley of 
 Megiddo, a little to the S.W. of Megiddo. 
 
 Maximianus. I. Roman emperor, a. d. 286— 
 305j whose full name was M. Aurelius Valerius 
 
 MAXIMINUS. 
 
 Maximianus. He was bom of humble parents ire 
 Pannonia, and had acquired such fame by his 
 services in the army, that Diocletian selected this 
 rough soldier for his colleague, as one whose abi- 
 lities were likely to prove valuable in the disturbed 
 state of public affairs, and accordingly created him 
 first Caesar (285), and then Augustus (286), con- 
 ferring at the same time the honorary appellation 
 of Ilerculius^ while he himself assumed that of 
 Joviiis. The subsequent history of Maximian has 
 been fully detailed in former, articles. [Diocle- 
 TIANUS: CONSTANTINUS I.: Maxentius.] It 
 is sufficient to relate here, that after having been 
 reluctantly compelled to abdicate, at Milan (305),. 
 he was again invested with the imperial title by 
 his son Maxentius, in the following year (306), 
 to whom he rendered the most important services 
 in the war with Severus and Galerius. Having 
 been expelled from Rome shortly afterwards by 
 his son, he took refuge in Gaul with Constantine, 
 to whom he had previously given his daughter 
 Fausta in marriage. Here he again attempted tO' 
 resume the imperial throne, but was easily deposed 
 by Constantine (308). Two years afterwards, he 
 endeavoured to induce his daughter Fausta to de- 
 stroy her husband, and was in consequence com- 
 pelled by Constantine to put an end to his own 
 life. ^ II., Roman emperor, a. d. 305 — 311, 
 usually called 6-alerius. His full name was Ga- 
 lerius Valerius Maximianus. He was born near 
 Sardica in Dacia, and was the son of a shepherd. 
 He rose from the ranks to the highest commands in 
 the army, and was appointed Caesar by Diocletian, 
 along with Constantius Chlorus, in 292. At the 
 same time he was adopted by Diocletian, whose- 
 daughter Valeria he received in marriage, and was 
 entrusted with the command of Illyria and Thrace. 
 In 297 he undertook an expedition against the 
 Persian monarch Narses, in which he was unsuc- 
 cessful, but in the following year (298) he defeated 
 Narses with great slaughter, and compelled him to 
 conclude a peace. Upon the abdication of Dio- 
 cletian and Maximian (305), Galerius became 
 Augustus or emperor. In 307 he made an unsuc- 
 cessful attempt to recover Italj^ which had owned 
 the authority of the usurper Maxentius. [Max- 
 entius,] He died in 311, of the disgusting dis- 
 ease, kno^vn in modern times by the name of 
 morbus pediculosus. He was a cruel persecutor 
 of the Christians ; and it was at his instigation: 
 that Diocletian issued the fatal ordinance ( 303), 
 which for so many years deluged the world witb 
 innocent blood. 
 
 Maximinus. L, Roman emperor a. d. 235 — 
 238, whose full name was C. Julius Verus Maxi- 
 minus. He was born in a village on the confines 
 of Thrace, of barbarian parentage, his father being- 
 a Goth, and his mother a German from the tribe 
 of the Alani. Brought up as a shepherd, he at- 
 tracted the attention of Septimius Severus, by his 
 gigantic stature and marvellous feats of strength, 
 and was permitted to enter the army. He even- 
 tually rose to the highest rank in the service ; and 
 on the murder of Alexander Severus by the mu- 
 tinous troops in Gaul (235), he was proclaimed 
 emperor. He immediately bestowed the title of 
 Caesar on his son Maximus. During the 3 years 
 of his reign he carried on war against the Germans 
 with success ; but his government was characterised 
 by a degree of oppression and sanguinary excesa 
 hitheito unexampled. The Roman world becama 
 
MAXIMUS. 
 
 at length tired of this monster. The senato and 
 the provinces gladly acknowledged the 2 Gordiani, 
 who had been proclaimed emperors in Africa; and 
 after their death the senate itself proclaimed Maxi- 
 mug and Balbinus emperors (238). As soon as 
 Maximiims heard of the elevation of the Gordians, 
 he hastened, from his winter-quarters as Sirmium. 
 Having crossed the Alps he laid siege to Aquileia, 
 and was tliere slain by his own soldiers along with 
 his son Maximus, in April. The most extraordinary 
 tales are related of the physical powers of Maxi- 
 minus, which seem to have been almost incre- 
 dible. His height exceeded 8 feet. The circum- 
 ference of his thumb was equal to that of a woman ''s 
 wrist, so that the bracelet of his wife served him 
 for a ring. It is said, that he was able single- 
 handed to drag a loaded waggon, could with his 
 fist knock out the grinders, and with a kick break 
 the leg of a horse; while his appetite was such, 
 that in one day he could eat 40 pounds of meat, and 
 drink an amphora of wine, — II., Roman emperor 
 305 — 314, originally called Daza, and subsequently 
 Galerius Valerius Maziminus. He was the 
 nephew of Galerius b}'" a sister, and in early life 
 followed the occupation of a shepherd in Iiis native 
 Illyria. Having entered the army, he rose to the 
 highest rank in the service ; and upon the abdi- 
 cation of Diocletian in 305, he was adopted by 
 Galerius and received the title of Caesar. In 308 
 Galerius gave him the title of Augustus ; and on the 
 death of the latter in 311, Maximinus and Licinius 
 divided the East between them. In 313 Maximinus 
 attacked the dominions of Licinius, who had gone to 
 Milan, for the purpose of receiving in marriage the 
 sister of Constantine. He was, however, defeated by 
 Licinius near Heraclea, and fled to Tarsus, where he 
 Boon after died. Maximinus possessed no military 
 talents. He owed his elevation to his family con- 
 nection. He surpassed all his contemporaries in the 
 profligacy of his private life, in the general cruelty 
 of his administration, and in the furious hatred with 
 which he persecuted the Christians. 
 
 maximus. 1. Of Ephesus or Smyrna, one of the 
 teachers of the emperor Julian, to whom he was 
 introduced by Aedesius. Maximus was a philoso- 
 pher of the New Platonic school, and, like many 
 others of that school, both believed in and practised 
 magic. It is said that Julian through his persuasion 
 was induced to abjure Christianity. On the ac- 
 cession of Julian, Maximus was held in high 
 honour at the court, and accompanied the emperor 
 on his fatal expedition against the Persians, which 
 he had prophesied would he successful. In 364 he 
 was accused of having caused by sorcery the illness 
 of the emperors Valens and Valentinian, and was 
 thrown into prison, where he was exposed to cruel 
 tortures. He owed his liberation to the philosopher 
 Themistius. In 371 Maximus was accused of 
 taking part in a conspiracy against Valens, and was 
 put to death. — 2. Of Epirus, or perhaps of By- 
 zantium, was also an instructor of the emperor 
 Julian in philosophy and heathen theology. He 
 wrote in Greek, t>e insoluhilihus Oppositionibus, 
 puhlished by H. Stephanus, Paris, 1554, appended 
 to the edition of Dionysiua Halicarnassua, as well 
 as other works. 
 
 Maximus, Fabius. — 1. Q. Pahius Maximus 
 Bulliauus, was the son of M. Fabius Ambustua, 
 consul B. c. 360. Fabius was master of the horse 
 to the dictator L. Papirius Cursor in 325, whose 
 anger he incurred by giving battle to the Samiiites 
 
 MAXIMUS. 
 
 425 
 
 during the dictator's absence, and contrary to hia 
 orders. Victory availed Fabius nothing in excul- 
 pation. A hasty flight to Rome, where the senate, 
 the people, and his aged father interceded for him 
 with Papirius, barely rescued his life, but could 
 not avert his degradation from office. In 322 
 Fabius obtained his first consulship. It was the 
 2nd year of the 2nd Samnite war, and Fabius was 
 the most eminent of the Roman generals in that 
 long and arduous struggle for the empire of Italy, 
 Yet nearly all authentic traces are lost of the seat 
 and circumstances of his numerous campaigns. His 
 defeats have been suppressed or extenuated ; and 
 the achievements of others ascribed to him alone.. 
 In 315 he was dictator, and was completely de- 
 feated by the Samnites at Lautulae. In 310 he 
 was consul for the 2nd time, and carried on the 
 war against the Etruscans. In 308 he was consul 
 a 3rd time, and is said to have defeated the Sam- 
 nites and Umbrians. He was censor in 304, when 
 he seems to have confined the libertini to the 4 
 city tribes, and to have increased the political im- 
 portance of the equites. In 297 he was consul for 
 the 5th time, and in 296 for the 6th time. In the 
 latter year he commanded at the great battle of 
 Sentinum, when the combined armies of the Sam- 
 nites, Gauls, Etruscans, and Umbrians, were de- 
 feated by the Romans. — 2. Q. Fabius Maximus 
 Gurges, or the Glutton, from the dissoluteness of 
 his youth, son of the last. His matiure manhood 
 atoned for his early irregularities. He was consul 
 292, and was completely defeated by the Pentrian 
 Samnites. He escaped degradation from the con- 
 sulate, only through his father's offer to serve as 
 his lieutenant for the remainder of the war. In a 
 2nd battle the consul retrieved his reputation, and 
 was rewarded with a triumph of which the most 
 remarkable feature was old Fabius riding beside- 
 his son's chariot. He was consul the 2nd time 276, 
 Shortly afterwards he went as legatus from the 
 senate to Ptolemy Philadelphus, king of Egypt. 
 He was consul a 3rd time, 265. — 3. Q. Fabius 
 Maximus, with the agnomens Verrucosus, from a 
 wart on his upper lip, Ovicula, or the Lamb, from 
 the mildness or apathy of his temper, and Cunc- 
 tator, from his caution in war, was grandson of 
 Fabius Gurges, He was consul for the 1st time 
 233, when Liguria was his province ; censor 230; 
 consul a 2nd time 228; opposed the agrarian law 
 of C. Flaminius 227; was dictator for holding the 
 comitia in 221 ; and in 218 was legatus from the 
 senate to Carthage, to demand reparation for the 
 attack on Saguntura. In 217, immediately after 
 the defeat at Thrasymenus, Fabius was appointed 
 dictator. From this period, so long as the war with 
 Hannibal was merely defensive, Fabius became 
 the leading man at Rome. On taking the field he 
 laid down a simple and immutable plan of action. 
 He avoided all direct encounter with the enemy; 
 moved his camp from highland to highland, where 
 the Numidian horse and Spanish infantry could 
 not follow him ; watched Hannibal's movements 
 with unrelaxing vigilance, and cut oflF his stragglers 
 and foragers. His enclosure of Hannibal in one of 
 the upland valleys between Cales and the Vultur- 
 nus,^ and the Carthaginian's adroit escape by 
 driving oxen with blazing faggots fixed to their horns, 
 up the hill-sides, are well-known facts. But &t 
 Rome and in his own camp the caution of Fabius 
 was misinterpreted; and the people in consequence 
 divided the command between him and M, Miuu- 
 
4-26 MAXIMUS. 
 
 cius Rufus, his master of the horse. Minucius was 
 speedily entrapped, and would have been destroyed 
 by Hannibal, bad not Fabius generously hastened 
 to his rescue. Fabius was consul for the 3rd time 
 in 215, and for the 4th time in 214. In 213 he 
 served as legatus to his own son, Q. Fabius, consul 
 in that year, and an anecdote is preserved which 
 exemplifies the strictness of the Roman discipline. 
 On entering the camp at Suessula, Fabius advanced 
 on horseback to greet his son. He was passing 
 the lictors when the consul sternly bade him dis- 
 mount. *' My son," exclaimed the elder Fabius 
 alighting, " I wished to see whether you would 
 remember that you were consul." Fabius was 
 consul for the 5th time in 209, in which year he 
 retook Tarentum. In the closing years of the 2nd 
 Punic war Fabius appears to less advantage. The 
 "war had become aggressive under a new race of 
 generals. Fabius disapproved of the new tactics; he 
 dreaded the political supremacy of Scipio, and was 
 his uncompromising opponent in his scheme of in- 
 vading Africa. He died in 203. — 4. Q. Fabius 
 Maximus, elder son of the preceding, was praetor 
 214 and consul 213. He was legatus to the consul 
 M. Livius Salinator 207. He died soon after this 
 period, and his funeral oration was pronounced by 
 his fiither.— 5. Q. Fabius Maximus Aemilianus, 
 ■was by birth the eldest son of L. Aemilius Paulus, 
 the conqueror of Perseus, and was adopted hj 
 No. 3. Fabius served under his father (AemlHus) 
 in the Macedonian war, 168, and was despatched 
 by him to Rome with the news of his victory at 
 Pydna. He was praetor in Sicily 149 — 148, and 
 consul in 145. Spain was his province, where he 
 encountered, and at length defeated Viriathus. 
 Fabius was the pupil and patron of the historian 
 Polybius.— 6. Q. Fabius Blazimus Allobrogicus, 
 son of the last. He was consul 121 ; and he derived 
 his surname from the victory which he gained in 
 this year over the AUobroges and their ally, Bitui- 
 tus, king of the Arverni in Gaul. He was censor 
 in 103. He was an orator and a man of letters.- 
 -— 7. Q. Fabius Mazimng Servilianus, was 
 adopted from the gens Servilia, by No. 5. He was 
 uterine brother of Cn. Servilius Caepio, consul in 
 141. He himself was consul in 142, when he 
 carried on war with Viriathus, 
 
 Mazimus, Hagnus Clemens, Roman emperor, 
 A. D. 383 — 388, in Gaul, Britain, and Spain, was 
 a native of Spain. He was proclaimed emperor by 
 the legions in Britain in 383, and forthwith crossed 
 over to Gaul to oppose Gratian, who was defeated 
 by Maxiraus, and was shortly afterwards put to 
 death. Theodosius found it expedient to recognise 
 Maximus as emperor of Gaul, Britain, and Spain, 
 in order to secure Valentinian in the possession of 
 Italy. Maximus however aspired to the undivided 
 empire of the "West, and accordingly in 387 he 
 invaded Italy at the head of a formidable army. 
 Valentinian was unable to resist him, and fled to 
 Theodosius in the East. Theodosius forthwith 
 prepared to avenge his colleague. In 388 he forced 
 his way through the Noric Alps, which had been 
 guarded by the troops of Maximus, and shortly 
 afterwards took the city of Aquileia by storm and 
 there put Maximus to death. Victor, the son of 
 Maximus, was defeated and slain in Gaul by Ar- 
 bogates, the general of Theodosius. 
 
 Mazinius, Petronlus, Ptoman emperor, A. d. 
 455, belonged to a noble Roman family, and en- 
 jpyed some of the highest offices of state under 
 
 MEDEA. 
 
 Honorius and Valentinian III. In consequence of 
 the violence offered to his wife by Valentinian, 
 Maximus formed a conspiracy against this emperor, 
 who was assassinated, and Maximus himself pro- 
 claimed emperor in his stead. His reign however 
 lasted only 2 or 3 months. Having forced Eudoxia, 
 the widow of Valentinian, to marry him, she re- 
 solved to avenge the death of her former husband, 
 and accordingly Genseric was invited to invade 
 Italy. When Genseric landed at the mouth of 
 the Tiber, Maximus prepared to fly from Rome, 
 but was slain by a band of Burgundian mercena- 
 ries, commanded by some old officers of Valentinian. 
 
 Maximus Planudes. [Planudes.] 
 
 Mazimus Tyrius, a native of Tyre, a Greek 
 rhetorician and Platonic philosopher, lived during 
 the reigns of the Antonines and of Commodus. 
 Some writers suppose that he was one of the tutors 
 of M. Aurelius; but it is more probable that he 
 was a different person from Claudius Maximus, 
 tlie Stoic, who was the tutor of this emperor. 
 Maximus Tyrius appears to have spent the greater 
 part of his life in Greece, but he visited Rome 
 once or twice. There are extant 41 Dissertations 
 (AiaAe|eis or ASjol) of Maxiraus Tyrius on theo- 
 logical, ethical, and other philosophical sflbjects, 
 written in an easy and pleasing style, but not 
 characterised by much depth of thought. The best 
 edition is by Reiske, Lips. 1774 — 5, 2 vols. 8vo. 
 
 Kazamus, Valerius. [VALERitJs.] 
 
 Iffiaziila. [Ades.] 
 
 lyZazyes (Mdluej), a people of N. Africa, on 
 the coast of the Lesser Syrtjs, on the W. bank of 
 the river Triton, who claimed descent from the 
 Trojans. They allowed their hair to grow only 
 on the left side of the head, and they painted their 
 bodies with vermilion ; customs still preserved by 
 some tribes in the same regions. 
 
 Maaaca. [Oaesak.ea, No. 1.] 
 
 Elazara (Ma^'dpa: Ma(apoaios : Mazzara), a 
 town on the W. coast of Sicily, situated on a river 
 of the same name, between Lilybaeum and Selinus, 
 and founded by the latter city, was taken by the 
 Romans in the 1st Punic war. 
 
 Slazices (Ma^iKes), a people of N. Africa, in 
 Mauretania Caesariensis, on the S. slope of M. 
 Zalacus. They, as well as the Maxyes, are 
 tiinught to be the ancestors of the AmazirgJiS. 
 
 'M.ecj'ber[ia.{Mr]icv€epva:Jf/lriKvS€pifa7os:Molivo), 
 a town of Macedonia in Chalcidice, at the head of the 
 Toronaic gulf, E. of Olynthus, of which it was the 
 seaport. From this town part of the Toronaic 
 gulf was subsequently called Sinus Mecybernaeus. 
 
 Medaba (MTJSaga), a city of Peraea in Palestine. 
 
 Medama, Medma, or Hesma, a Greek town on 
 the W. coast of Bruttium, founded by the Locrians, 
 with a celebrated fomitain and a harbour, called 
 Emporium. 
 
 Medauxa, Ad Medera, or Amedera {Ayedrah^ 
 Ru.), a flourishing city of N. Africa, on the 
 borders of Numidia and Byzacena, between Lares 
 and Theveste ; a Roman colony j and the birth- 
 place of Appuleius. 
 
 Medea (MiiSeia), daughter of Aeetes, king of 
 Colchis, by the Oceunid Idyia, or, according to 
 others, by Hecate, the daughter of Perses. She 
 was celebrated for her skill in magic. The prm- 
 cipal parts of her story are given under Absyb- 
 Tus, Akgonautae, and .Iason. It is sufficient 
 to state here that, when Jason came to Colchis to 
 fetch the golden fleece, she fell in love with the 
 
MEDEON. 
 
 hero, assisted him in accomplishing the object for 
 which he had visited Colchis, and afterwards fled 
 with hira as his wife to Greece ; that having been 
 desei:ted by Jason for the youthful daughter of 
 Creon, king of Corinth, she took fearful vengeance 
 upon her faithless spouse by murdering the two 
 children which she had had by him, and by de- 
 stroying his young wife by a poisoned garment ; 
 and that she then fled to Athens in a chariot drawn 
 by winged dragons. So far her story has been re- 
 lated elsewhere. At Athens she is said to have 
 married king Aegeus, or to have been beloved by 
 Sis^'phus. Zeus himself is said to have sued for 
 her, but in vain, because Medea dreaded the anger 
 of Hera j and the latter rewarded her by promis- 
 ing innnortality to her children. Her children are, 
 according to some accounts, Mennerus, Pheres, or 
 Thessalus, Alcimenes, and Tisander ; according to 
 others, she had 7 sons and 7 daughters, wliile 
 others mention only 2 children, Medus (some call 
 him Polyxenus) and Eriopis, or one son Argus. 
 Kespecting her flight from Corinth, there are diffe- 
 rent traditions. Some say, as we remarked above, 
 that she fled to Athens and married Aegeus, but 
 when it was discovered that she liad laid snares for 
 Theseus, she escaped and went to Asia, the inha^ 
 bitants of which were called after her Medes. 
 Others relate that she first fled from Corinth to 
 Hercules at Thebes, who had promised her his as- 
 sistance while yet in Colchis, in case of Jason being 
 unfaithful to her. Slie cured Hercules, who was 
 seized with madness ; and as he could not afford 
 her the assistance he had promised, sht; went to 
 Athens. She is said to have given birth to her son 
 Medus after her arrival in Asia, where she had 
 married a king ; whereas others state that her son 
 Medus accompanied her from Athens to Colchis, 
 where her son slew Perses, and restored her father 
 Aeetes to his kingdom. The restoration of Aeetes, 
 however, is attributed by some to Jason, who ac- 
 companied Medea to Colchis. At length Medea 
 is said to have become immortal, to have been ho- 
 noured with divine worsliip, and to have mai-ried 
 Achilles in Elysium. 
 
 Medeon (MeSewj/: m^Bet^vios). 1. Or Medion 
 {Katuna)^ a town in the interior of Acarnania, near 
 the road which led from Limnaea to Stratos. — 3. 
 A town on the coast of Phocia near Anticyra, de- 
 stroyed in the sacred war, and never rebuilt. — 3. 
 An ancient town in Boeotia, mentioned hy Homer, 
 situated at the foot of Mt. Phoenicus, near Onches- 
 tus and the lake Copais. ^4. A town of the Lor 
 beates in Dalmatia, near Scodra. 
 
 Media (i? MTjSi'a: MtjSos, Medus), an important 
 country of W. Asia, occupying the extreme W. of 
 the great table-land of Inm^ and lying between 
 Armenia on the N. and N.W., Assyria and Su- 
 siana on the W. and S.W., Persis on the S., the 
 great desert of Aria on the E., and Parthia, 
 Hyrcania, and the Caspian on the N.E. Its 
 boundaries were, on the N. the Araxes, on the 
 W. and S."W. the range of mountains called 
 Zagros and Parachoatras {Mts. of Kurdidan and 
 Zouristan), which divided it from the Tigris and 
 Euphrates valley, on the E. the Desert, and on 
 tlie N.E. the Caspii Montes {Elhnrx iW.), the 
 country between which and the Caspian, though 
 reckoned as a part of Media, was possessed by 
 the Gelae, Mardi, and other independent tribes. 
 Media thus corresponded nearly to the modern 
 province of Irak-Jjemi. It was for the most part 
 
 MEDIOLANUM. 
 
 427 
 
 a fertile country, producing wine, figs, oranges 
 and citrons, and honey, and supporting an excel- 
 lent breed of horses. It was well peopled, and 
 was altogether one of the most important provinces 
 of the ancient Persian empire. After the Mace- 
 donian conquest, it was divided into 2 parts. 
 Great Media (tJ (xeydkr} M^jSfa), and Atropatene. 
 [Atropatene.] The earliest history of Media 
 is involved in much obscurity.^ Herodotus and 
 Ctesias (in Diodonis) give different chronologies 
 for its early kings. Ctesias makes Arbaces the 
 founder of tlie raonarch}', about b. c. 842, and 
 reckons 8 kings from him to the overthrow of the 
 kingdom by Cyrus. Herodotus reckons only 4 kings 
 of Media, namely: 1. Deioces, b.c, 710 — 657 ; 
 2. Phraortes, 657 — 635 ; 3. Cvaxares, 635 
 — 595 ; 4. Astyages, 5i)5 — 560. The last king 
 was dethroned by a revolution, which trans- 
 ferred the supremacy to the Persians, who had 
 formerly been the subordinate people in the united 
 Medo-Persian empire. [Cvrus.] The Medes made 
 more than one attempt to regain their supremacy ; 
 the usurpation of the Magian Pseudo-Smerdis 
 was no doubt such an attempt [Magi] ; and an- 
 other occurred in the reign of Darius II., when 
 the Medes revolted, but were soon subdued (b.c, 
 408). With the rest of the Persian Empire, 
 Media fell under the power of Alexander ; it next 
 formed a part of the kingdom of the Seleucidae, 
 from whom it was conquered by the Parthians, in 
 the 2nd century b. c,, from which time it belonged 
 to the Parthian, and then to the later Persian 
 empire. The people of Media were a branch of 
 the Indo-Germanic family, and nearly allied to 
 the Persians ; their language was a dialect of the 
 Zend, and their religion the Magian. They called 
 themselves Arii, which, like the native name of 
 the Persians (Artaei) means nolle. They were 
 divided, according to Herodotus, into 6 tribes, the 
 Buzae, Parataceni, Struchates, Arizanti, Budii, and 
 Magi. In the early period of their history, they 
 were eminent warriors, especially as horse-archers ; 
 but the long prevalence of peace, wealth, and luxury 
 reduced them to a by- word for efFeminancy. — It 
 is important to notice the use of the names Kedus 
 and Medi by the Roman poets, for the nations of 
 Asia E. of the Tigris in general, and the Parthians 
 in particular. 
 
 Mediae Murus (rh Mt/Sfas KaXov^evov reixos), 
 an artificial wall, which ran from the Euphrates 
 to the Tigris, at the point where they approach 
 nearest, a little above 33° N. lat. and divided 
 Mesopotamia from Babylonia. It is described by 
 Xenophon {Anab. ii. 4), as being 20 pai'asangs 
 long, 100 feet high, and 20 thick, and as built 
 of baked bricks, cemented with asphalt. Its erec- 
 tion was ascribed to Semiramis, and hence it was 
 also called rh ^eixipafxidos SiaTeixitr/^a. 
 
 Mediolanum (Mediolanensis), mure frequently 
 called by Greek writers Mediolanxum. (MeSioAa- 
 vioi/), the name of several cities founded by the 
 Celts. 1. {Mikm\ the capital of the Insubrea in 
 Gallia Transpadana, was situated in an extensive 
 plain between the rivers Ticinus and Addua. It 
 was taken by the Romans B. c. 222, and afterwards 
 became both a municipium and a colony. On the 
 new division of the empire made by Diocletian, it 
 became the residence of his colleague Maximianus, 
 and continued to be the usual residence of the em- 
 perors of the "West, till the irruption of Attila, who 
 took and plundered the town, induced them to 
 
428 
 
 MEDIOMATRICI. 
 
 transfer the seat of government to the more strongly 
 fortified town of Ravenna. Mediolanum was at 
 this time one of the first cities of the empire ; it 
 possessed an imperial mint, and Tvas the seat of an 
 archbishopric. It is celebrated in ecclesiastical 
 history as the see of St. Ambrose. On the fall of 
 the Western empire, it became the residence of 
 Theodoric the Great and the capital of the Ostro- 
 gothic kingdom, and surpassed even Rome itself in 
 populousness and prosperity. It received a fearful 
 blow in A. D. 539, when, in consequence of having 
 Bided with Belisarius, it was taken by the Goths 
 under Vitiges, a great part of it destroyed, and its 
 inhabitants put to the sword. It however gradually 
 recovered from the effects of this blow, and was a 
 place of importance under the Lombards, whose ca- 
 pital, however, was Pavia. The modem Milan con- 
 tains no remains of antiquity, with the exception of 
 16 handsome fluted pillars near the church of S. 
 Lorenzo. — 2. (Saintes), a town of the Santones 
 in Aquitania, N. E. of the mouth of the Garumna ; 
 subsequently called Santones after the people, 
 whence its modem name. — 3. (Chateau Median), 
 a town of the Bituriges Cubi in Aquitania, N.E. 
 of the town last mentioned. ^4. {Evreux\ a town 
 of the Aulerci Eburovices in the N. of Gallia Lug- 
 dunensis, S. of the Sequana, on the road from 
 Rotomagus to Lutetia Parisiorum ; subsequently 
 called Civitas Ebroicorum, whence its modem name, 
 ^5. A town of the Segusiani in the S. of Gallia 
 liUgdunensis. — 6. A toAvn in Grallia Belgica, on 
 the road from Colonia Trajanato ColoniaAgrippina. 
 
 Mediomatrici, a people in the S.E. of Gallia 
 Belgica on the Moaella, S. of the Treviri. Their 
 territory originally extended to the Rhine, but in 
 the time of Augustus they had been driven from 
 the banks of this river by the Vangiones, Nemetes, 
 and other German tribes. Their chief town was 
 Divodumm (Metz). 
 
 Hediterraneum Mare. [Internum Mare.] 
 
 Heditnna, a Roman divinity of the art of heal- 
 ing, in whose honour the festival of the Meditrinalia 
 was celebrated in the month of October. {Diet, of 
 Ant. art Meditnnalia.') 
 
 Medma. [Medama.] 
 
 Medoacus or Heduacns, a river in Venetia in 
 the N. of Italy, formed by the union of 2 rivers, 
 the Medoacus Major {Brenla) and Medoacus Mi- 
 nor {Bacchiglione), which falls into the Adriatic 
 sea near Edron, the harbour of Patavium. 
 
 Medobriga {Marvao, on the frontiers of Por- 
 tugal)^ a to-rni in Lusitania, on the road from Eme- 
 rita to Scalabis. 
 
 Medocus. [Amadocus.] 
 
 Kedon (MeSoji/). 1, Son of Oileus, and brother 
 of the lesser Ajax, fought against Troy, and was 
 fllain by Aeneas. ^ 2. Son of Codnis. [Codrus.] 
 
 Dlediili, a people in Aquitania on the coast of ' 
 the Ocean, S. of the mouth of the Gammna, in the 
 modem Medoc. There were excellent oysters 
 found on their shores. 
 
 Medulli, a people on the E. frontier of Gallia 
 Narbonensis and in the Maritime Alps, in whose 
 country the Dmentia {Durance) and Duria {Doria 
 Minor) took their rise. 
 
 MedulHa (Medulllnus : St. Angela), a colony 
 of Alba, in the land of the Sabineg, was situated 
 between the Tiber and the Anio, in the neighbour- 
 hood of Comiculum and Ameriola. Tarquinius 
 Priscus incorporated their territory with the Roman 
 State. 
 
 MEGALOPOLIS. 
 
 Medullinus, Ftirius, an ancient patrician family 
 at Rome, the members of which held the highest 
 offices of state in the early times of the republic. 
 
 Hedullus, a mountain in HispaniaTarraconensis, 
 near the Minius. 
 
 Medus, a son of Medea. [Medea.] 
 
 Medus (MtjSos), a small river of Persis, flowing 
 from the confines of Media, and falling into the 
 Araxes (Bend-Emit-) near Persepolis. 
 
 Medusa. [Gorgones.] 
 
 Megabazus or Megabyzus, 1. One of the 7 
 Persian nobles who conspired against the Magian 
 Smerdis, B.C. 521. Darius left him behind with 
 an army in Europe, when he himself recrossed the 
 Hellespont, on his return from Scythia, 506. Me- 
 gabazus sub duedtPerin thus and the other cities on 
 the Hellespont and along the coast of Thrace. — 2. 
 Son of Zopyrus, and grandson of the above, was 
 one of the commanders in the army of Xerxes, 480. 
 He afterwards commanded the army sent against 
 the Athenians in Egypt, 458. 
 
 Hegacles (MeyaKkiis), 1. A name home by 
 several of the Athenian family of the Alcmaeonidae. 
 The most important of these was the Megacles 
 who put to death Cylon and his adherents, after 
 they had taken refuge at the altar of Athena, b. c, 
 612. [Cylon.] — 2. A Syracusan, brother of Dion, 
 and brother-in-law of the elder Dionysius. He 
 accompanied Dion in his flight from Syracuse, 358, 
 and afterwards returned with him to Sicily. 
 
 Megaera. [Eumenides.] 
 
 Hegalia or Uegaris, a small island in the 
 Tyrrhene sea, opposite Neapolis. 
 
 Megalopolis (?) yieydXr} TTtJAir, Miya\6iro\is : 
 MsyaKoTroXlTrts), 1. (Sinano or Sinami), the moat 
 recent, but the most important of the cities of Ar- 
 cadia, was founded on the advice of Epaminondaa, 
 after the battle of Leuctra, b. c. 371, and was 
 formed out of the inhabitants of 38 villages. It 
 was situated in the district Maenalia, near the 
 frontiers of Messenia, on the river Helisson, which 
 flowed through the city, dividing it into nearly 2 
 equal parts. It stood on the site of the ancient 
 town Orestion or Orestia ; was 50 stadia (6 miles) 
 in circumference ; and contained, when it was be- 
 sieged by Polysperchon, about 15,000 men capable 
 of bearing arms, which would give us a population 
 of about 70,000 inhabitants. Megalopolis was for a 
 time subject to the Macedonians ; but soon after the 
 death of Alexander the Great, it was governed by 
 a series of native tyrants, the last of whom, Ly- 
 diades, voluntarily resig^ned the government, and 
 united the city to the Achaean league, b. c. 234. 
 It became in consequence opposed to Sparta, and 
 was taken and plundered by Cleomenes, who either 
 killed or drove into banishment all its inhabitants, 
 and destroyed a great part of the city, 222. After 
 the battle of Sellasia in the following year, it was 
 restored by Philopoemen, who again collected its 
 inhabitants ; but it never recovered its former pros- 
 perity, and gradually sunk into insignificance. 
 Philopoemen and the historian Polybius were 
 natives of Megalopolis. The ruins of its theatre, 
 once the largest in Greece, are the only remains 
 of the ancient town to be seen in the village of 
 Sinano. ^2. A town in Caria. [Aphrodisias.] 
 — 3. A town in Pontus. [Sebastia.1 — 4.^ A 
 town in the N. of Africa, was a Carthaginian city 
 in the interior of Byzacena, in a beautiful situa- 
 tion ; it was taken and destroyed by the troops of 
 Agathocles. 
 
MEGAN IRA. 
 
 Meganira {^/leydveipa), wife of Celeus, usually 
 called Metanika. 
 
 Megapenthes (MeyaTreVOijs). 1. Son of Proe- 
 tu3, father of Anaxagoraa and Iphianira, and king 
 of Argos. He exchanged his dominion for that of 
 PerseuB, so that the latter received Tiryns instead 
 of Argos. ^ 2. Son of Menelaus by an Aetolian 
 slave, Pieris or Teridae. Menelaus brought about 
 a marriage between Megapenthes and a daughter 
 of Alector. According to a Rhodian ti*adition, 
 Megapenthes, after the death of his father, ex- 
 pelled Helen from Argos, who thereupon fled to 
 Polyxo at Rhodes. 
 
 Ilegara (Mijdpa), daughter of Creon, king of 
 Thebes, and wife of Hercules. See p. 308. 
 
 Megara (ra Meyapa, in Lat. Megara, -ae, and 
 pi. Megara, -orum : Meyapevs, Megai'ensis). 1. 
 (Megara), the capital of Megaris, was situated 
 8 stadia (1 mile) from the sea opposite the island 
 Salamis, about 26 miles from Athens and 31 miles 
 from Corinth. It consisted of 3 parts: 1. The 
 ancient Pelasgian citadel, called Caria, said to have 
 been built by Car, the son of Phoroneus, which 
 •was situated on a hill N. W. of the later city. 
 This citadel contained the ancient and celebrated 
 JVlegaron (fieyapoy) or temple of Demeter, from 
 "which the town is supposed to have derived its 
 name. 2. The modem citadel, situated on a lower 
 hill to the S.W. of the preceding, and called Alca- 
 tJious, from its reputed founder Alcathous, son of 
 Pelops. 3. The town properly so called, situated 
 at the foot of the two citadels, said to have been 
 founded by the Pelopidae under Alcathous, and 
 subsequently enlarged by a Doric colony under 
 Alethes and Athemenes at the time of Codrus. It 
 appears to have been originally called Policline 
 (Tlo\ixv7i). The town contained many public 
 buildings which are described at length by Pausa- 
 nias. Its seaport was Nisaea (NtVata), which 
 was connected with Megara by 2 walls, 8 stadia in 
 length, built by the Athenians when they had 
 possession of Megara, B. c. 461 — 445. Nisaea is 
 said to have been built by Nisus, the son of Pan- 
 dion ; and the inhabitants of Megara are some- 
 times called Nisaean Megarians (ol Ntaatot Me- 
 7ape7y) to distinguish them from the Hyblaean 
 Megarians (of 'TS\a7oi MeyapcTs) in Sicily. In 
 front of Nisaea lay the small island Minoa (MiVtwa), 
 which added greatly to the security of the harbour. 
 — In the most ancient times Megara and the sur- 
 rounding country was inhabited by Leieges. It 
 subsequently became annexed to Attica ; and Me- 
 garis formed one of the 4 ancient divisions of 
 Attica. It was next conquered by the Dorians, 
 and was for a time subject to Corinth ; but it 
 finally asserted its independence, and rapidly be- 
 came a wealthy and powerful city. To none of 
 these events can any date be assigned with cer- 
 tainty. Its power at an early period is attested by 
 the flourishing colonies which it founded, of which 
 Selymbria, Chalcedon, and Byzantium, and the 
 Hyblaean Megara in Sicily, were the most import- 
 ant. Its navy was a match for that of Athens, 
 with which it contested the island of Salamis ; and 
 it was not till after a long struggle that the Athe- 
 nians succeeded in obtaining possession of this 
 island. The government was originally an aristo- 
 cracy as in most of the Doric cities ; but Theagenes, 
 who put himself at the head of the popular party, 
 obtained the supreme power about B. c. 620. Thea- 
 genes was afterwards expelled ; and a democratical 
 
 MEGIDDO. 429 
 
 form of government established. After the Persian 
 wars, Megara was for some time at war with Co- 
 rinth, and was thus led to form an alliance with 
 Athens, and to receive an Athenian garrison into 
 the city, 4G1 ; but the oligarchical party having 
 got the upper hand the Athenians were expelled, 
 441. Megara is not often mentioned after this 
 period. It was taken and its walls destroyed by 
 Demetrius Poliorcetes ; it was taken again by the 
 Romans under Q. Metellus ; and in the time of 
 Augustus it had ceased to be a place of importance. 
 — Megara is celebrated in the history of philosophy, 
 as the seat of a philosophical school, usually called 
 the Megarian, which was founded by Euclid, a 
 native of the city, and a disciple of Socrates. 
 [EucLiDES, No. 2.] — There are no remains of 
 any importance of the ancient city of Megara. ^ 
 3. A town in Sicily on the E. coast, N. of Syracuse, 
 founded by Dorians from Megara in Greece, b. c. 
 728, on the site of a small to\vn Hybla, and hence 
 called Megara Hyblaea, and its inhabitants Me- 
 garenses Hyblaei {Vleyapih "tSKatoi). From the 
 time of Gelon it belonged to Syracuse. It was 
 taken and plundered by the Romans in the 2nd 
 Panic war, and from that time sunk into insignifi- 
 cance, but it is still mentioned by Cicero under the 
 name of Megaris. 
 
 Megareus (MeyapEtJs), son of Onchestus, also 
 called a son of Poseidon and Oenope, of Hippo- 
 menes, of Apollo, or of Aegeus. He was a brother 
 of Abrote, the wife of Nisus, king of Megara, and 
 the father of Evippus, Timalcus, Hippomenes, and 
 Evaechme. Megara is said to have derived its name 
 from him. 
 
 Megaris (?; Meyapis or i} MeyapmT?, sc. 7^), a 
 small district in Greece between the Corinthian and 
 Saronic gulfs, originally reckoned part of Hellas 
 proper, but subsequently included in the Pelopon- 
 nesus It was bounded on the N. by Boeotia, on 
 the E. and N. E. by Attica, and on the S. by the 
 territory of Corinth. It contained about 720 
 square miles. The country was very mountainous ; 
 and its only plain was the one in which the city of 
 Megara was situated. It was separated from Boeotia 
 by Mt. Cithaeron, and from Attica by the moun- 
 tains called the Horns (ra K^para) on account of 
 their 2 projecting summits. The Oenean moun- 
 tains extended through the greater part of the 
 country, and formed its S. boundary towards Co- 
 rinth. There were 2 roads through these moun- 
 tains from Corinth, one called the Scironian pass 
 which ran along the Saronic gulf, passed by Crora- 
 myon and Megara, and was the direct road from 
 Corinth to Athens ; the other ran along the Corin- 
 thian gulf, passed by Geranea and Pegae, and was 
 the road from Corinth into Boeotia. The only town 
 of importance in Megaris was its capital Meoara. 
 [Megaea.] ° 
 
 Megasthenes (Mf^ao-eeVTis), a Greek writer, 
 who was sent by Seleucus Nicator as ambassador 
 to Sandracottus, king of the Prasii, where he re- 
 sided some time. He wrote a work on India, in 
 4 books, entitled Indica (to; 'IcSiKct), to which 
 later Greek writers were chiefly indebted for their 
 accounts of the country. 
 
 Meges (M€77)s), son of Phyleus, and grandson 
 of Augeas, was one of the suitors of Helen, and led 
 his bands from Dulichium and the Echinades 
 against Troy. 
 
 Megiddo (MayeSSai, MayeSu : Lejjun ?), a consi- 
 derable city of Palestine, on the river Kishon, in 
 
430 
 
 MEGISTANI. 
 
 a valley of the same name, which formed a part 
 of the great plain of Jezreel or Esdraelon, on the 
 confines of Galilee and Samaria. It was a resi- 
 dence of the Canaanitish kings before the conquest 
 of Palestine by the Jews. It was fortified by 
 Solomon. It was prohably the same place which 
 was called Legio under the Romans. 
 
 Megistani, a people of Armenia, in the district 
 of Sophene, near the Euphrates. 
 
 Mela, river. [Mella.] 
 
 Mela, Fabius, a Roman jurist, who 13 often 
 cited in the Digest, probably lived in the time of 
 Antoninus Pius. 
 
 Mela, or Mella, M. Anuaeus, tlie youngest son 
 of M. Annaeus Seneca, the rhetorician, and bro- 
 ther of L. Seneca the philosopher, and Galiio. By 
 his wife Acilia he had at leas4-one son, the cele- 
 brated Lucan. After Lucan^'s death, a. d. 65^ Mela 
 laid claim to his property ; and as he was rich, he 
 was accused of being privy to Piso^s conspiracy, 
 and anticipated a certain sentence by suicide. 
 
 Mela, Pompomas, the first Roman author who 
 composed a formal treatise upon Geography, was a 
 native of Spain, and probably flourished under the 
 emperor Claudius. His work is entitled De Situ 
 Chins Libri III. It contains a brief description of 
 the whole world as known to the Romans. The 
 text is often corrupt, but the style is simple, and 
 the Latinity is pure ; and although every thing is 
 compressed within the narrowest limits, we find 
 the monotony of the catalogue occasionally diver- 
 sified by animated and pleasing pictures. The best 
 edition is by Tzschuckius, 7 parts, tJvo. Lips. 1 807. 
 
 Melaena Acra (17 M4\aiva &Kpa). 1. (Kara 
 BuTTiu, which means the same as the Greek name, 
 i. e. the Black Cape)^ the N.W. promontory of the 
 great peninsula of Ionia : formed by Mt. Mimas ; 
 celebrated for the millstones hewn from it. — 2. 
 (C. St. Nicolo), the N.W. promontory of the island 
 of Chios. — 3. (Kara Burnu) a promontory of 
 Bithynia, a little E. of the Bosporus, between the 
 rivers Rhebas and Artanes ; also called KaKivaKpov 
 and BiQvvias 6.Kpov. 
 
 Melaenae (MeXaival: M^Aaiueus). 1- OrMe- 
 laeneae (MeAaii'eai), a town in the W. of Arcadia 
 on the Alpheus, N.W. of Buphagium, and S. E. of 
 Heraea. — 2. A demus in Attica, on the frontiers 
 of Boeotia, belonging to the tribe Antiochis. 
 
 Meiambiitm. (M.e\diJ.€Lov), a town of Thessaly 
 in Pelasgiotis, belonging to the territory of Scotussa. 
 
 Melampus (MeAa^aTrous). 1. Son of Amythaon 
 by Tdoraene, or, according to others, by Aglaia or 
 Rhodope, and a brother of Bias. He was looked 
 upon by the ancients as the first mortal who had 
 been endowed with prophetic powers, as the per- 
 son who first practised the medical art, and who 
 established the worship of Dionysus in Greece. 
 He is said to have been married to Iphianassa 
 (others call her Iphianira or Cyrianassa), by whom 
 he became the father of Mantius and Antiphates. 
 Abas, Bias, Manto, and Pronoe are also named by 
 some writers as his children. Before his house 
 there stood an oak tree containing a serpent's nest. 
 The old serpents were killed by his servants, but 
 Melampus took care of the young ones and fed 
 them carefully. One day, when he was asleep, 
 they cleaned his ears with their tongues. On his 
 waking he perceived, to his astonishment, that he 
 now understood the language of birds, and that 
 v.ith their assistance he could foretell the future. 
 In addition to this he acq^uired the power of pro- 
 
 MELANIPPIDES. 
 
 phesying from the victims that were offered to 
 the gods ; and, after having an interview with 
 Apollo on the banks of the Alpheus, he became a 
 most renowned soothsayer. During his residence 
 at Pylos his brother Bias was one of the suitors 
 for the hand of Pero, the daughter of Neleus. 
 The latter promised his daughter to the man who 
 should bring him the oxon. of Iphiclus, which were 
 guarded by a dog whom neither man nor animal 
 could approach. Melampus undertook the task of 
 procuring the oxen for his brother, although he 
 knew that the thief would be caught and kept in 
 imprisonment for a year, after which he was to come 
 into possession of the oxen. Things turned out as he 
 had said ; Melampus was thrown into prison, and 
 in his captivity he learned from the wood-worms 
 that the building in which he was imprisoned 
 would soon break down. He accordingly demanded 
 to be let out, and as Phylacus and Iphiclus thus 
 became acquainted with his prophetic powers, they 
 asked him in what manner Iphiclus, who had no 
 children, was to become father. Melampus, on the 
 suggestion of a vidture, advised Iphiclus to take 
 the rust from the knife with which Phylacus had 
 once cut his son, and drink it in water during ten 
 days. This was done, and Iphiclus became the 
 father of Podarces. Melampus now received the 
 oxen as a reward for his good services, drove them 
 to Pylos, and thus gained Pero for his brother. 
 Afterwards Melampus obtained possession of a 
 third of the kingdom of Argos in the following 
 manner : — In the reign of Anaxagoras, king of 
 Argos, the women of the kingdom were seized 
 with madness, and roamed about the country in a 
 frantic state. Melampus cured them of their frenzy, 
 on condition that he and his brother Bias should 
 receive an equal share with Anaxagoras in the 
 kingdom of Argos. Melampus and Bias married 
 the two daughters of Proetus, and ruled over two- 
 thirds of Argos. — 2. The author of 2 little Greek 
 works still extant, entitled Divinatio ex Falpita- 
 tione and £>e IVaevis Oleaceis in Corpore. He lived 
 probably in the 3rd century b. c. at Alexandria. 
 Both the works are full of superstitions and absur- 
 dities. Edited by Franz, in his Scriptores Physio- 
 gnomiae Veteres, Altenburg, 1780. 
 
 MelancMaeni {Me\dyx>^aLvoi), a people in the 
 N. of Sarmatia Asiatica, about the upper course 
 of the river Tana'is (Don), resembling the Scythians 
 in manners, though of a different race. Their 
 Greek name was derived from their dark clothing, 
 
 Melanippe (M.eKaviivTVT])^ daughter of Chiron, 
 also called Evippe. Being with child by Aeolus, 
 she fled to mount Pelion ; and in order that her 
 condition might not become known, she prayed 
 to be metamorphosed into a mare. Artemis granted 
 her prayer, and in the form of a horse she was 
 placed among the stars. Another account describes 
 her metamorphosis as a punishment for having 
 despised Artemis or for having divulged the comi- 
 sels of the gods. 
 
 Melanippides (M^XavnnrlBTjs)^ of Melos, a cele- 
 brated lyric poet in tlie department of the dithy- 
 ramb. He flourished about B.C. 440, and lived 
 for some time at the court of Perdiccas, of Mace- 
 donia, and there died. His high reputation as a 
 poet is intimated by Xenophon, who makes Aris- 
 todemus give him the first place among dithyram- 
 bic poets, by the side of Homer, Sophocles, Poly- 
 cletus, and Zeuxis, as the chief masters in their 
 respective arte ; and by Plutarch, who mentions 
 
hira, with Simonides and Euripides, as among the 
 most distinguished masters of music. Several 
 verses of his poetry are still preserved. See Bergk, 
 Poet. Ia/t. Graec. pp. 847 — 850. Some writers, 
 following the authority of Suidas, make 2 poets of 
 this name. 
 
 Melanippus (M^Xdvnnros), son of Astacus of 
 Thebes, who, in the attack of the Seven on liis 
 native city, slew Tydeus and Mecisteus. His 
 tomb ,was shown in the neighbourhood of Thebes 
 on the road to Chalcis. 
 
 Melanogaetuli. [Gaetulia.] 
 
 Melaathiua (MeAoyfltos). 1. Also called Me- 
 lantheus, son of Dolius, was a goat-herd of Ulysses, 
 who sided with the suitors of Penelope, and was 
 killed by Ulysses.— 2. An Athenian tragic poet, of 
 whom little is known beyond the attacks made on 
 him by Aristophanes and the other comic poets. 
 The most important passage respecting him is in the 
 Peace of Aristophanes (796, &c.). He was cele- 
 brated for his wit, of which several specimens are 
 preserved by Plutarch.— 3. Or Melanthus, an 
 eminent Greek painter of the Sicyonian school, 
 was contemporary with Apelles (b. c. 33'2), with 
 whom he studied under Pamphilus. He was one 
 of the best colourist of all the Greek painters. 
 
 Melantluus (MeAaf^ioy, prob. Melet-Irma\ a 
 river of Pontus, in Asia Minor, E. of the Prom. 
 Jasonium ; the boundary between Pontus Pole- 
 raoniacus and Pontus Cappadocius. 
 
 Melanthus or Melantbius (MeAavQoj), one of 
 the Nelidae, and king of Messenia, whence he was 
 driven out by the Heraclidae, on their conquest of 
 the Peloponnesus ; and, following the instructions 
 of the Delphic oracle, took refuge in Attica. In a 
 war between the Athenians and Boeotians, Xan- 
 thus, the Boeotian king, challenged Thymoetes, 
 king of Athens and the last of the Thesidae, to 
 single combat. Thymoetes declined the challenge 
 on the ground of age and infirmity. So ran the 
 story, which strove afterwards to disguise the 
 violent change of dynasty ; and Melanthus under- 
 took it on condition of being rewarded with the 
 throne in the event of success. He slew Xanthus, 
 and became king, to the exclusion of the Thesidae. 
 According to Pausanias, the conqueror of Xanthus 
 was Andropompus, the father of Melanthus ; ac- 
 cording to Aristotle, it was Codrus, his son. 
 
 Melas (MeAas), the name of several rivers, whose 
 waters were of a dark colour. 1. {Mauro Nero or 
 3'Iauro Potamo), a small river in Boeotia, which 
 rises 7 stadia N. of Orchomenus, becomes navigable 
 almost from its source, flows between Orchomenus 
 and Aspledon, and loses the greater part of its 
 waters in the marshes connected with lake Copais. 
 A small portion of its waters fell in ancient times 
 into the river Cephissus. — 3. A river of Theasaly 
 in the district Malls, flows near Heraclea and 
 Trachis, and fall^ into the Maliac gulf. -^3. A 
 river of Thessaly in Phthiotis, falls into the Api- 
 danus. ^ 4. A river of Thrace, flows first S.W., 
 then N.W., and falls N. of Cardia into the Melas 
 Sinus. ^ 5. A river in the N. E. of Sicil}^ which 
 flows into the sea between Mylae and Naulochus, 
 through excellent meadows, in wliich the oxen of 
 the sun are said to have fed. ^6. {Manaitgat- 
 Su), a navigable river, 50 stadia (5 geog. miles) 
 E. of Side, was the boundary between Pamphylia 
 and Cilicia. — 7. (Kara-Su, i. e. the Black River), 
 in Cappadocia, rises in M. Argaeus, flows past 
 Mazaca, and, after forming a succession of morasses, 
 
 MELEAGER. 
 
 4dl 
 
 fiills into the Halys, and not (as Strabo says) into 
 the Euphrates. 
 
 Melas Sinus {Ue\as kSXttos : GuI/of Saros), 
 a gulf of the Aegaean sea, between the coast of 
 Thrace on the N.W. and the Thracirm Chersone- 
 sus on the S. E., into which the river Melas flows. 
 
 Meldi or Meldae, a people in Gallia Lugdu- 
 nensis on the borders of Belgica, and upon the 
 river Sequana (Sp-ine), in whose territory Caesar 
 built 40 ships for his expedition against Britain. 
 
 Meleager (MeAeaypoy). 1. Son of Oeneus and 
 Althaea, the daughter of Thestius, husband of 
 Cleopatra, and father of Polydora. Others call 
 him a son of Ares and Althaea. He was one of 
 the most famous Aetolian heroes of Calydon, and 
 distinguished himself by his skill in throwing the 
 javelin. He took part in the Argonautic expe- 
 dition. On his return home, the fields of Calydon 
 were laid waste by a monstrous boar, which Arte- 
 mis had sent against the country as a punishment, 
 because Oeneus, the king of the place, once neg- 
 lected to offer up a sacrifice to the goddess. No 
 one dared encounter the terrible animal, till at 
 length Meleager, with a band of other heroes, 
 went out to hunt the boar. He slew the animal ; 
 but the Calydonians and Curetes quarrelled about 
 the head and hide, and at length waged open war 
 against each other. The Calydonians were always 
 victorious, so long as Meleager went out with 
 them. But when his mother Althaea pronounced 
 a curse upon him, enraged at the death of her 
 brother who had fallen in the fight, Meleager 
 stayed at home with his wife Cleopatra. The 
 Curetes now began to press Calydon very hard. It 
 was in vain that the old men of the town made 
 him the most brilliant promises if he would again 
 join in the fight, and that his father, his sisters, 
 and his mother supplicated him. At length, how- 
 ever, he yielded to the prayers of his wife, Cleo- 
 patra: he put the Curetes to flight, but he never 
 returned home, for the Erinnys, who had heard 
 the curse of his mother, overtook him. . Such is 
 the more ancient form of the legend, as we find it 
 in Homer. (J/, ix. 527, seq.) In the later tra- 
 ditions Meleager collects the heroes from all parts 
 of Greece to join him in the hunt. Among othera 
 was the fair maiden Atalanta ; but the heroes 
 refuged to hunt with her, until Meleager, who wag 
 in love with her, overcame their opposition. Ata- 
 lanta gave the animal the first wound, which was 
 at length slain by Meleager. He presented the 
 hide to Atalanta, but the sons of Thestius took it 
 from her, whereupon Meleager in a rage slew 
 them. This, however, was the cause of his own 
 death which came to pass in the following war. 
 When he was 7 days old the Moerae appeared, 
 declaring that the boy would die as soon as the 
 piece of wood which was burning on the hearth should 
 be consumed. Althaea, upon hearing this, extin- 
 guished the firebrand, and concealed it in a chest. 
 Meleager himself becam^Jfei vulnerable ; but after 
 he had killed the brothers of his mother, she 
 lighted the piece of wood, and Meleager died. 
 Althaea, too late repenting of what she had done, 
 put an end to her life ; and Cleopatra died of 
 grief. The sisters of Meleager wept imceasingly 
 after his death, until Artemis changed them into 
 guinea-hens {(McK^aypl^es), which were transferred 
 to the island of Leros. Even in this condition 
 they mourned during a certain part of the year for 
 their brother. Two of them, Gorge and Deianira, 
 
4B2 
 
 MELETUS. 
 
 through the mediation of Dionysus, were not raeta- 
 morphosed. — 2. Son of Neoptolemus, a Mficedo- 
 aiian officer in the service of Alexander the Great. 
 After the death of Alexander the Great (b.c. 323) 
 Meleager resisted the claims of Perdiccas to the 
 regency, and was eventually associated with the 
 latter in this office. Shortly afterwards, however, 
 he was put to death by order of Perdiccas.— 
 3. Son of Encrates, the celebrated writer and col- 
 lector of epigrams, was a native of Gadara in Pa- 
 lestine, and lived about b. c. 60. There are 131 
 of his epigrams in the Greek Anthology, written 
 in a good Greek style, though somewhat affected, 
 and distinguished by sophistic acumen and amatory 
 fancy. An account of his collection of epigrams is 
 given under Planudks, 
 
 Meletus or Melitus (MeATjTos; MeAxros), an 
 obscure tragic poet, but notorious as one of the 
 accusers of Socrates, was an Athenian, of the Pit- 
 thean deraus. He is represented by Plato and 
 Aristophanes and their scholiasts as a frigid and 
 licentious poet, and a worthless and profligate man. 
 In the accusation of Socrates it was Meletus who 
 laid the indictment before the Archon Basileus ; but 
 in reality he was the most insignificant of the 
 accusers ; and according to one account he was 
 bribed by Anytus and Lycon to take part in the 
 affair. Soon after the death of Socrates, the Athe- 
 nians repented of their injustice, and Meletus was 
 stoned to death as one of the authors of their folly. 
 
 Melia (MeAi'a), a nymph, daughter of Oceanus, 
 became by Inachus the mother of Phoroneus and. 
 Aegialeus or Pegeus ; and by Silenus the mother 
 of the centaur, Pholus ; and by Poseidon of Amy- 
 cus. She was carried off by Apollo, and became 
 by him the mother of Israenius, and of the seer 
 Tenerus. She was worshipped in the Ismeniura, 
 the sanctuary of Apollo, near Thebes. In the 
 plural form, the Meliae or Meliades (MeA^ai, 
 MeAiciSes) are the nymphs, who, along with the 
 Gigantes and Erinnyes, sprang from the drops of 
 blood that fell from Uranus and were received by 
 Gaea. The nymphs that nursed Zeus are likewise 
 called Meliae. 
 
 Mellboea (MeXiSoia : Me?u.Soevs). 1. A town on 
 the coast of Thessaly in Magnesia, between Mt. 
 Ossa and Mt. Pelion, is said to have been built by 
 Magnes, and to have been named Meliboea in 
 honour of his wife. It is mentioned by Homer as 
 belonging to the dominions of Philoctetes, who is 
 hence called by Virgil {Aen. iii. 401) dux Meli- 
 hoeus. It was celebrated for its purple dye. (Lu- 
 cret. ii. 499 ; Virg. Aeiu v. 251.) — 3. A small 
 island at the mouth of the river Orontes in Syria. 
 
 Melicertes. [Palaemon.] 
 
 Melissa (MeAto-o-a). 1. A nymph said to have 
 ^iiscovered the use of honey, and from whom bees 
 were believed to have received their name {jueAio-- 
 ■<rai). There can be no doubt, however, that the 
 name really came from jLteAi, honey, and was 
 hence given to nymph^ According to some tra- 
 ditions bees were nymphs metamorphosed. Hence 
 the nymphs who fed the infant Zeus with honey 
 are called Melissae. — 2. The name of priestesses 
 in general, but more especially of the priestesses of 
 Demeter, Persephone, Apollo, and Artemis. — 
 3. Wife of Periander, tyrant of Corinth, and 
 daughter of Procles, tyrant of Epidaurus, was slain 
 by her husband. [Periander.] 
 
 Melissus (Me'Ato-tros). 1. Of Samos, a Greek 
 philosopher, the son of Ithagenes, was, according to 
 
 MELITENE. 
 
 the common account, the commander of the fleet 
 opposed to Pericles, B.C. 440. But he is not men- 
 tioned by Thucydides, and ought probably to be 
 placed much earlier, as he is said to have been 
 connected with Heraclitus, and to have been a 
 disciple of Parmenides. It appears from the frag- 
 ments of his work, which was written in prose, 
 and in the Ionic dialect, that he adopted the doc- 
 trines of the Eleatics. — 2, A Latin grammarian 
 and a comic poet, was a freedman of Maecenas, 
 and was entrusted by Augustus with the arrange- 
 ment of the library in the portico of Octavia. 
 
 Melita or Melite (MeAiV??: MeAiratos, Meli- 
 tensis). 1. (Malta)^ an island in the Mediterranean 
 sea, situated 58 miles from the nearest point of 
 Sicily, and 179 miles from the nearest point of 
 Africa. Its greatest length is 17^ miles, and its 
 greatest breadth 9^ miles. The island was first 
 colonised by the Phoenicians, who used it as a 
 place of refuge for their ships, on account of its 
 excellent harbours. It afterwards passed into the 
 hands of the Carthaginians, but was taken pos- 
 session of by the Romans in the 2nd Punic war, 
 and annexed to the province of Sicily. The Romans 
 however appear to have neglected the island, and 
 it is mentioned by Cicero as a frequent resort of 
 pirates. It contained a town of the same name 
 founded by the Carthaginians, and 2 celebrated 
 temples, one of Juno on a promontory near the 
 town, and another of Hercules in the S. E. of the 
 island. It is celebrated in sacred history as the 
 island on which the Apostle Paul was shipwrecked; 
 though some writers erroneously suppose that the 
 apostle was shipwrecked on the island of the same 
 name off the lUyrian coast. The inhabitants ma- 
 nufactured fine cloth, which was in much request 
 at Rome. They also exported a considerable 
 quantity of honey ; and from this island, according 
 to some authorities, came the cahili Melitaei, the 
 favourite lapdogs of the Roman ladies, though 
 other writers make them come from the island off 
 the Illyrian coast. — 2. {Meleda), a small island in 
 the Adriatic sea off the coast of Illyria (Dalmatia), 
 N. W. of Epidaurus. ^ 3. A demus in Attica, 
 which also foiined part of the city of Athens, was 
 situated S. of the inner Ceramicus, and probably 
 included the hill of the Museum. It was said to 
 have derived its name from a nymph Melite, with 
 whom Hercules was in love, and it therefore con- 
 tained a temple of this god. One of the gates of 
 Athens was called the Melitian gate, because it 
 led to this demus. [See p. 103, a.] —4. A lake 
 in Aetolia near the mouth of the Achelous, be- 
 longing to the territory of the town Oeniadae. 
 
 Melitaea, Melitea or Melitia (MeAiTam, Me- 
 \iT€La, MeAiTi'a : MeAiTateus-), a town of Thessaly 
 in Phthiotis, on the N. slope of Mt. Otiirys, and 
 near the river Enipeus. It is said to have been 
 called Pyrrha in more ancient times, and the 
 sepulchre of Hellen was shown in its market-place. 
 
 Melite (MeAfxTj), a nymph, one of the Nereides, 
 a daughter of Nereus and Doris. 
 
 Meiitene (MeAiTTjy^), a district of Armenia 
 Minor, between the Anti-Taurus and the Eu- 
 phrates, celebrated for its fertility, and especially 
 for its fniit-trees, oil, and wine. It possessed no 
 great town until the Ist century of our era, when 
 a city, also called Melitene (now Malatiyah) was 
 built on a tributary of the Euphrates, and near 
 that river itself, probably on the site of a very 
 ancient fort. This became a place of considerable 
 
MELITO. 
 
 importance ; the centre of several roads ; the sta- 
 tion, xinder Titus, of the 12th legion ; and, in the 
 later division of the provinces, tlie capital of 
 Armenia Secunda. In a.d. 577, it Avas the scene 
 of a victory gained by the Romans over the 
 Persians under Chosroes I. 
 
 Melito (MeAiTWj/), a Christian writer of consi- 
 'derable eminence, was bishop of Sardes in the 
 reign of M. Aurelius, to whom he presented an 
 Apology for the Christians. Of his numerous 
 'Works only fragments are extant. 
 
 Mella or Mela {MeUa\ a river in Gallia Trans- 
 ■padana, which flows by Brixia and falls into the 
 Ollius {Oglio). 
 
 Mellaria. 1. A town of the Bastuli in Hispania 
 Baetica between Belon and Calpe, on the road 
 from Gades to Malaca. ^2. A town in the same 
 province, considerably N. of the former, on tlie 
 road from Corduba to Emerita. 
 
 Melodunum {Melun\ a town of the Senones in 
 Gallia Lugdunensis, on an island of the Sequana 
 (Seme), and on the road from Agcndicum to Lutetia 
 Parisiomm^ 
 
 Melos (MTjAoy; MtjAios: Milo), an island in 
 the Aegaean sea, and the most W.-ly of the group 
 of the Cyclades, whence it was called Zephyria by 
 Aristotle. It is about 70 miles N. of the coast of 
 Crete, and Qh E. of the coast of Peloponnesus. 
 Its length is about 14 miles from E. to "W., and its 
 breadth about miles. It contains on the N. a 
 deep ba}', which forms an excellent harbour, and 
 on which was situated a town, bearing the same 
 name as the island. The island is of volcanic 
 origin ; it contains hot springs, and mines of sul- 
 phur and alum. Its soil is very fertile, and it 
 produced in antiquity, as it does at present, abun- 
 dance of corn, oil, wine, &c. It was first colonised 
 by the Phoenicians, who are said to have called it 
 Byblus ov Bz/hlis, ahei the Phoenician townByblus. 
 St was afterwards colonised by Lacedaemonians, or 
 at least by Dorians ; and consequently in the Pelo- 
 ponnesian war it embraced the side of Sparta. In 
 B. c. 426 the Athenians made an unsuccessful 
 attack upon the island; but in 416 thej- obtained 
 possession of the town after a siege of several 
 months, whereupon they killed all the adult males. 
 Bold the women and children as slaves, and peopled 
 the island by an Athenian colony. — Melos was the 
 birthplace of Diagoras, the atheist, whence Aristo- 
 phanes calls Socrates also the Melian. 
 
 Melpomene (MeXTro^eVrj), i. e, the singing 
 goddess, one of the 9 Muses, who presided over 
 Tragedj'. See Musae. 
 
 Memini, a people in Gallia Narbonensis, on the 
 W. bank of the Durentia, whose chief town was 
 Carpentoracte {Carpe.niras). 
 
 Memmia Gens, a plebeian house at Rome, 
 Tvhose members do not occur in history before B.C. 
 173, but who pretended to be descended from the 
 Trojan Mnestheus. (Virg. Aen, v. 117.) 
 
 Memmius. 1. C, tribune of the plebs B.C. Ill, 
 was an ardent opponent of the oligarchical party 
 :at Rome during the Jugurthine war. Among the 
 nobles impeached by Memmitis were L. Calpumius 
 Bestia and M. Aemilius Scaurus. Memmius was 
 slain by the mob of Saturninus and Glaucia, while 
 3. candidate for the consulship in '100.-2. C. 
 Hemmius Gremellus, tribune of the plebs 66, cu- 
 rule aedile 60, and praetor 58. He belonged at that 
 time to the Senatorian party, since he impeached 
 P, Vatinius, opposed P. Clodius, and was Yche- 
 
 MEMNON. 
 
 433 
 
 ment in his invectives against Julius Caesar. But 
 before he competed for the consulship, 54, he had 
 been reconciled to Caesar, who supported him 
 with all his interest. Memmius, however, again 
 offended Caesar by revealing a certain coalition 
 with his opponents at the comitia. He was im- 
 peached for ambitus, and, receiving no aid from 
 Caesar, withdrew from Rome to Mytilene, where 
 he was living in the year of Cicero's proconsulate. 
 Memmius married Fausta, a daughter of the dictator 
 Sulla, whom he divoi-ced after having by her at 
 least one son C. Memmius. [No. 3.] Pie was 
 eminent both in literature and in eloquence. Lu- 
 cretius dedicated his poem, De Reritm Nutura, to 
 him. He was a man of profligate character, and 
 wrote indecent popms, ^ 3. C. Memmius, son of 
 the preceding, was tribune of the plebs 54, when 
 he prosecuted A. Gabiuius for malversation in his 
 province of Syria, and Domitiiis Calvinus for am- 
 bitus at his consular comitia. Memmius was step- 
 son of T. Annius Mile who married his mother 
 Fausta after her divorce. He was consul suffectus 
 34.^4. P. Memmius Begulus, consul suffectus 
 A. D. 31, afterwards praefect of Macedonia and 
 Achaia. He was the husband of LoUia Paulina, 
 and was compelled by Caligula to divorce her. 
 
 Memnon (Me^tt'wj'). 1. The beautiful son of Ti- 
 thonus and Eos (Aurora), and brother of Emathion. 
 He is rarely mentioned by Homer, and must be re- 
 garded essentially as a post-Homeric hero. Accord- 
 ing to these later traditions, he was a prince of the 
 Ethiopians, who came to the assistance of his uncle 
 Priam, for Tithonus and Priam were half-brothers, 
 being both sons of Laomedon by different mothers. 
 Respecting his expedition to Troy there are dif- 
 ferent legends. According to some Memnon the 
 Ethiopian first went to Egypt, thence to Susa, and 
 thence to Troy. At Susa, which had been founded 
 by Tithonus, Memnon built the acropolis, which 
 was called after him the Memnonium. According 
 to others Tithonus was the governor of a Persian 
 province, and the favourite of Teutaraus ; and 
 Memnon obtained the command of a large host of 
 Ethiopians and Susans to succour Priam. Memnon 
 came to the war in armour made for him by 
 Hephaestus. He slew Antilochu?, the son of 
 Nestor, but was himself slain by Achilles, after a 
 long and fierce combat. While the two heroes 
 were fighting, Zeus weighed their fates, and the 
 scale containing Memnon''s sank. His mother 
 was incojisolable at his death. She wept for 
 him every morning ; and the dew-drops of the 
 morning are the tears of Eos. To soothe the grief 
 of his mother, Zeus caused a number of birds to 
 issue out of the funeral pile, on which the body of 
 Memnon was burning, which, after flying thrice 
 around the burning pile, divided into two separate 
 bodies, which fought so fiercely, that half of them 
 fell down upon the ashes of the hero, and thus 
 formed a funeral sacrifice for him. These birds 
 were called Memnonides^ and according to a story 
 current on the Hellespont, they visited every year 
 the tomb of the hero. At the entreaties of Eos, 
 Zeus conferred immortality upon Memnon. At a 
 comparatively late period, the Greeks gave the 
 name of Memnon to the colossal statue in the 
 neighbourhood of Thebes, which was said to give 
 forth a sound like the snapping asunder of a chord, 
 when it was struck by the first rays of the rising 
 sun. Although the Greeks gave this name to the 
 statue, they were well aware that the Egyptians 
 
4U 
 
 MEMNONItTM. 
 
 did, net call the statue Memnon, but Amenophia. 
 This fin;ure was made of black stone, in a sitting 
 posture, with its feet close together, and the hands 
 leaning on the seat. Several very ingenious con- 
 jectures have been propounded respecting the al- 
 leged meaning of the so-called statue of Memnon. 
 Some have asserted that it served for astronomical 
 purposes, and others that it had reference to the 
 mystic worship of the sun and light, but there can 
 be little doubt that the statue represented nothing 
 else than the Egyptian king Amenophis. ^ 2, A 
 native of Rhodes, joined Artabazus, satrap of 
 Lower Phrj'gia, who had married his sister, in his 
 revolt against Darius Ochus. "When fortune de- 
 serted the insurgents they fled to the court of 
 Philip. Mentor, the brother of Memnon, being 
 high in favour with Darius, interceded on behalf 
 of Artabazus and Memnon, who were pardoned 
 and again received into favour. On the death of 
 Mentor, Memnon, who possessed great military 
 skill and experience, succeeded him in his autho- 
 rity, which extended over all the W. coast of Asia 
 Minor (about B. c. 336). When Alexander in- 
 vaded Asia, Memnon defended Halicamassus 
 against Alexander, until it was no longer possible 
 to hold out. He then collected an army and a 
 fleet, with the design of carrying the war into 
 Greece, but died at Mytilene in 333, before he 
 could carry his plan into execution. His death 
 was an irreparable loss to the Persian cause ; for 
 several Greek states were prepared to join him, 
 had he carried the war into Greece.-^ 3. A native 
 of Heraclea Pontica, wrote a large work on the 
 history of that city. Of how many books it con- 
 sisted we do not know. Photius had read from 
 the 9th to the 16th inclusive, of which portion he 
 has made a tolerably copious abstract. The first 
 8 books he had not read, and he speaks of other 
 books after the 16th. The 9th book began with 
 an account of the tyrant Clearchus, the disciple of 
 Plato and Isocrates, and the 16th book came 
 down to the time of Julius Caesar, after the latter 
 had obtained the supreme power. The work was 
 probably written in the time of Augustus, and 
 certainly not later than the time of Hadrian or 
 the Antonines. The Excerpta of Photius are 
 published separately, by Orelli, Lips. 1816. 
 
 Memnonaum and -ia (MefivSveiov^ Me[xv6veia)^ 
 were names applied by the Greeks to certain very 
 ancient buildings and monuments in Egypt and 
 Asia, which they supposed to have been erected 
 by or in honour of Memnon. 1. The most cele- 
 brated of these was a great temple at Thebes, de- 
 scribed by Strabo, and commonly identified by 
 modem travellers witb the m.agnificent ruins of 
 the temple of Remeses the Great, at W. Thebes, 
 or, as it is usually called, the tomb of Osymandyas, 
 from its agreement with the description of that 
 monument given by Diodoms. There are, how- 
 ever, strong grounds for supposing that the true 
 Memnonium, described by Strabo, stood behind 
 the 2 colossal sitting statues on the plain of 
 Thebes, one of which is clearly the celebrated 
 vocal statue of Memnon, and that it has entirely 
 disappeared. — 2. [Abydos, No, 2.] —3. The 
 citadel of Susa was so called, and its erection 
 was ascribed to the Memnon who appears in the 
 legends of the Trojan war ; but there is no reason 
 to suppose that this connection of Memnon with 
 the Persian capital existed before the Persian con- 
 quest of Egypt. 
 
 MENANDER. 
 
 Memphis (M4fx<pis, M€V(p ■ 0. T. Moph : Me^u- 
 (piT7]s^ Meraphites: Men/ tmd Meirahennj/^ Rii.), 
 a great city of Egypt, second in importance only 
 to Thebes, after the fall of which it became the 
 capital of the whole country, a position which it 
 had previously shared with Thebes. It was of 
 unknown antiquity, its foundation being ascribed 
 to Menes. It stood on the left (W.) bank of the 
 Nile, about 10 miles above the pyramids of Jitze/i, 
 near the N. limit of the Heptanomis, or Middle 
 Egypt, a nome of which {MefKplTrjs) was named 
 after the city. It was connected by canals with 
 the lakes of Moeris and Mareotis, and was the 
 great centre of the commerce of Egypt until the 
 Persian conquest (b. c. 524), when Cambyses par- 
 tially destroyed the city. After the foundation of 
 Alexandria, it sank into insignificance, and was 
 finally destroyed at the Arab conquest in the 7th 
 century. In the time of its splendour it is said to 
 have been 150 stadia in circumference, and half a 
 day's journey in every direction. Of the splendid 
 buildings with which it was adorned, the chief 
 were the palace of the Pharaohs ; the temple- 
 palace of the god-buU Apis ; the temple of Serapis, 
 with its avenue of sphinxes, now covered by the 
 sand of the desert ; and the temple of Hephaes- 
 tus, the Egyptian Phtha, of whose worship Mem- 
 phis was the chief seat. The ruins of this temple, 
 and of other buildings, still cover a large portion 
 of the plain between the Nile and the W. range 
 of hills which skirt its valley. 
 
 Menaenum or Menae (Menenius Cic, Menani- 
 nus Plin., but on coins Menaenus : Mineo), a town 
 on the E. coast of Sicily, S. of Hybla, the birth- 
 place and residence of the Sicel chief Ducetius, 
 who was long a formidable enemy of the Greek 
 cities in Sicily. [Ducetius.] On his fall the 
 town lost all its importance. 
 
 Menalippus. [Melanippus.] 
 
 Menander (MeuavSpos)^ of Athens, the most 
 distinguished poet of the New Comedy, was 
 the son of Diopithes and Hegesistrate, and flou- 
 rished in the time of the successors of Alexander. 
 He was bom B.C. 342. His father, Diopithes, 
 commanded the Athenian forces on the Hellespont 
 in the year of his son's birth. Alexia, the comic 
 poet, was the uncle of Menander, on the father''3 
 side ; and we may naturally suppose that the 
 young Menander derived from his uncle his taste 
 for the comic drama, and was instructed by him 
 in its rules of composition. His character must 
 have been greatly influenced by his intimacy with 
 Theophrastus and Epicurus, of whom the former 
 was his teacher and the latter his intimate friend. 
 His taste and sympathies were altogether with 
 the philosophy of Epicunis ; and in an epigram he 
 declared that " as Themistocles rescued Greece 
 from slavery, so Epicurus from unreason." From 
 Theophrastus, on the other hand, be must have 
 derived much of that skill in the discrimination of 
 character which we so much admire in the CJia^ 
 racicres of the philosopher, and which formed the 
 great charm of the comedies of Menander. His 
 master's attention to external elegance and comfort 
 he not only imitated, but, as was natural in a man 
 of an elegant person, a joyous spirit, and a serene 
 and easy temper, he carried it to the extreme of 
 luxury and effeminacy. The moral character of 
 Menander is defended by modem writers against 
 the aspersions of Suidaa and others. Thus much 
 is certain, that his comedies contain nothing of- 
 
MENAPIA. 
 
 fensive, at least to the taste of liis own and the 
 following ages, none of the purest, it must be ad- 
 mitted, as they were frequently acted at private 
 banquets. Of the actual events of his life we 
 know but little. He enjoyed the friendship of 
 Demetrius Phalereus, whose attention was first 
 drawn to him by admiration of his works. Ptolemy, 
 the son of Lagus, was also one of his admirers ; 
 and he invited the poet to his court at Alexandria ; 
 but Menander seems to have declined the proffered 
 honour. He died at Athens B. c 291, at the age 
 of 52, and is said to have been drowned while 
 swimming in the harbour of Piraeus. Notwith- 
 standing Menander's fame as a poet, his public 
 dramatic career was not eminently successful ; for, 
 though he composed upwards of 100 comedies, he 
 only gained the prize 8 times. His preference for 
 elegant exhibitions of character above coarse jest- 
 ing may have been the reason why he was not so 
 great a favourite with the common people as his 
 principal rival, Philemon, who is said, moreover, 
 to have used unfair means of gaining popularity. 
 Menander appears to have borne the popular ne- 
 glect very lightly, in the consciousness of his su- 
 periority ; and once, when he happened to meet 
 Philemon, he is said to have asked him, " Pniy, 
 Philemon, do not you blush when you gain a 
 victory over me?" The neglect of Menander's 
 contemporaries has been amply compensated by 
 his posthumous fame. His comedies retained their 
 place on the stage down to the time of Plutarch, 
 and the unanimous consent of antiquity placed 
 him at the head of the New Comedy, and on an 
 equality with the great masters of the various 
 kinds of poetry. His comedies were imitated by 
 the Roman dramatists, particularly by Terence, 
 who was little more than a translator of Menander. 
 But we cannot form, from any one play of Terence, 
 a fair notion of the corresponding play of Menander, 
 as the Roman poet frequently compressed two of 
 Menander's plays into one. It was this mixing 
 up of different plays that Caesar pointed to by the 
 phrase O dimidiate Menander^ in the epigram 
 which he wrote upon Terence. Of Menander's 
 comedies only fragments are extant. The best 
 edition of thera is by Meineke, in his Fragmenta 
 Comicorum Graecorum, Berol. 1841. 
 
 Menapia (Meyairfo), a city of Bactriana, on 
 the river Zariaspis. 
 
 Menapii, a powerful people in the N. of Gallia 
 Belgica, originally dwelt on both banks of the 
 Rhine, but were afterwards driven out of their 
 possessions on the right bank by the Usipetes and 
 Tenchteri, and inhabited only the left bank near 
 its mouth, and W. of the Mosa. Their country 
 was covered with forests and swamps. They had a 
 fortress on the Moaa called Castellum Menapiorum 
 {Kessel). 
 
 Menas (MTjvas), also called Menodorus {Mt\v6- 
 Zwpos) by Appian, a freedman of Pompey the 
 Great, was one of the principal commanders of the 
 fleet of Sext. "Pompey in his war against Octaviau 
 and Antony, B.C. 40. In 39 he tried in vain to 
 dissuade his master from concluding a peace with 
 Octavian and Antony ; and, at an entertainment 
 given to them by Sextus on board his ship at 
 Misenum, Menas suggested to him to cut the 
 cables of the vessel, and, running it out to sea, 
 despatch both his rivals. The treacherous pro- 
 posal, however, was rejected by Pompey. On 
 the breaking out of the war again in 38, Menas 
 
 MENEUEMUS. 
 
 435 
 
 deserted Pompey and went over to Octavian. In 
 36 he returned to his old master's service ; but in 
 the course of the same year he again played the 
 deserter, and joined Octavian. In 35 he accom- 
 panied Octavian, in the Pannonian campaign, and 
 was slain at the siege of Siscia. According to the 
 old scholiasts, this Menas is the person so vehe- 
 mently attacked by Horace in his 4th epode. This 
 statement has been called in question by many 
 modem commentators ; but their arguments are far 
 from satisfactory. 
 
 Mende orMendae (MeVS?;, Mei/Jato?), a toivn on 
 the W. coast of the Macedonian peninsula Pellene 
 and on the Thermaic gulf, was a colony of the 
 Erefrians, and was celebrated for its wine. It was 
 for some time a place of considerable importance, 
 but waa ruined by the foundation of Cassandrea. 
 
 Mendes (MeVJTjs: Mei/STjo-io? : Ru. near Ma- 
 tarieh), a considerable city of the Delta of Egypt, 
 on the S- side of the lake of Tanis (Menzaleh)^ 
 and on the bank of one of the lesser arms of the 
 Nile, named after it Mcj/StjiTioi/ (n6ixa: the chief 
 seat of the worship of Mendes. 
 
 Menecles (Meve/cATjs). 1. Of Barce in Cyrene, 
 an historian of uncertain date. — 2. Of Alabanda, 
 a celebrated rhetorician. He and his brother Hie- 
 rocles taught rhetoric at Rhodes, where the orator 
 M. Antonius heard them, about B.C. 94. 
 
 Menecrates (MeveKpdTTis). 1. A Syracusan 
 physician at the court of Philip, king of Macedon, 
 B. c. 359 — 336. He made himself ridiculous by 
 calling himself "Jupiter," and assuming divine 
 honours. There is a tale that he was invited one 
 day by Philip to a magnificent entertainment, 
 where the other guests were sumptuously fed, 
 while he himself had nothing but incense and liba- 
 tions, as not being subject to the human infirmity 
 of hunger. He was at first pleased with his re- 
 ception, but afterwards perceiving the joke, and 
 finding that no more substantial food was offered 
 him, he left the party in disgust. — 2. Tiberius 
 Claudius Menecrates, a physician mentioned by 
 Galen, composed more than 150 medical works, of 
 which only a few fragments remain. 
 
 Menedemus (Me^'eSTj^ios), a Greek philosopher, 
 was a native of Eretria, and though of noble birth 
 was poor, and worked for a livelihood either as a 
 builder or as a tent-maker. According t6 one 
 story he seized the opportunity afforded by his 
 being sent on some military service to Megara to 
 hear Plato, and abandoned the army to addict 
 himself to philosophy ; but it may be questioned 
 whether he was old enough to have heard Plato 
 before the death of the latter. According to an- 
 other story, he and his friend Asclepiades got 
 their livelihood as millers, working during the 
 night, that they might have leisure for philo- 
 sophy in the day. The 2 friends afterwards 
 became disciples of Stilpo at Megara. From 
 Megara they went to Elia, and placed themselves 
 under the instruction of some disciples of Phaedo. 
 On his return to Eretria Menedemus established a 
 school of philosophy, which was called the Ere- 
 trian. He did not, however, confine himself to 
 philosophical pursuits, but took an active part in 
 the political affairs of his native city, and came to 
 be the leading man in the state. He went on 
 various embassies to Lysimachus, Demetrius, and 
 others ; but being suspected of the treacherous in- 
 tention of betraying Eretria into the power of 
 Antigonus, he quitted his native city secretly, and 
 
436 
 
 MENELAI. 
 
 took refuge with Antigonus in Asia. Here he 
 starved himself to death in the 74tli year of his 
 age, probably about B.C. 277. Of the philosophy 
 of Menedcmus little is known, except that it closely 
 resembled that of the Megarian school. [Eu- 
 CLIDES, No. 2.] 
 
 Menelai, or -ua, Portus (MeueKdios Ai/xtji', Me- 
 p4\aos: Marsa-Toiihrouk., or Tias-d-Milhr9)j axi 
 ancient city on the coast of Marmarica, in N. 
 Africa, founded, according to tradition, by Mene- 
 laus. It is remarkable in history as the place 
 where Agesilaus died. 
 
 Menelaium (Mei'eAatoi'), a mountain in Laconia, 
 S. E. of Sparta near Therapne, on which the he- 
 roum of Menelaus was situated, the foundations of 
 which temple were discovered in the year 1034. 
 
 Menelaus (Mei/e'Aoos, MereAewy, or Mej/eAas). 
 1. Son of Piisthenes or Atreus, and younger brother 
 of Agamemnon. His early life is related under 
 Agamemnon. He was king of Lacedaemon, 
 and maiTied to the beautiful Helen, by whom 
 he became the father of Hennionc. "Wiien 
 Helen had been carried off by Paris, Menelaus 
 and Ulysses sailed to Troy in order to demand her 
 restitution. Menelaus was hospitably treated by 
 Antenor, but the journey was of no avail ; and the 
 Trojan Antimacbiis even advised his fellow-citizens 
 to kill Menelaus and Ulysses. Thereupon Mene- 
 laus and his brother Agamemnon resolved to march 
 against Troy with all the forces that Greece could 
 muster. Agamemnon was chosen the commander- 
 in-chief. In the Trojan war Menelaus was under 
 the special protection of Hera and Athena, and 
 distinguished himself by his bravery in battle. He 
 killed many illu-strions Trojans, and would have slain 
 Paris also in single combat, had not the latter been 
 carried off by Aphrodite in a cloud. Menelaus 
 was one of the heroes concealed in the wooden 
 horse ; and as soon as Troy was taken he and 
 Ulysses hastened to the house of Deiphobus, who 
 had married Helen after the death of Paris, and 
 put him to death in a barbarous manner. Mene- 
 laus is said to have been secretly introduced into 
 the chamber of Deiphobus by Helen, who thus be- 
 came reconciled to her former husband. He was 
 among the first that sailed away from Troj^ ac- 
 companied by his wife Helen and Nestor ; but he 
 was 8 3'ears wandering about the shores of the 
 Mediterranean, before he reached home. He ar- 
 rived at Sparta on the very day on which Orestes 
 was engaged in burying Clytaeranestra and Aegis- 
 thus. Henceforward he lived with Helen at Sparta 
 in peace and wealth, and his palace shone in its 
 splendour like the sun or the moon. When Tele- 
 machus visited Sparta to inquire after his father, 
 Menelaus v,as solemnising the marriage of his 
 daughter Hermione with Neoptolemus, and of his 
 son Megapenthes with a daughter of Alector. In 
 the Homeric poems Menelaus is described as a 
 man of an athletic figure ; he spoke little, but what 
 he said was always impressive ; he was brave and 
 courageous, but milder than Agamemnon, intelli- 
 gent and hospitable. .According to the prophecy 
 of Proteus in the Odyssey, Menelaus and Helen 
 were not to die, but the gods were to conduct them 
 to Elysium, According to a later tradition, he 
 and Helen went to theTaurians, where they were 
 sacrificed by Iphigenia to Artemis. Menelaus was 
 worshipped as a hero at Therapne, where his tomb 
 and that of Helen were shown. Respecting the 
 tale that Helen never went to Troy, but was de- 
 
 MENINX. 
 
 tained in Egypt, see Helena.— 3. Son of Lagus, 
 and brother of Ptolemy Soter, held possession of 
 Cyprus for his brother, but was defeated and driven 
 out of the island by Demetrius Poliorcetes, b. c. 
 306. — 3. A Greek mathematician, a native of 
 Alexandria, the author of an extant treatise in 3 
 books, on the Sphere. He made some astrono- 
 mical observations at Rome in the 1st year of the 
 emperor Trajan, a. d. 98. 
 
 Menelaus (M€v4\aos)^ a city of Lower Egypt, 
 on the Canopic branch of the Nile, named after 
 the brother of Ptolemy the son of Lagus. It 
 was made the capital of the district between the 
 lakes of Moeris and Mareotis {vo/xh^ Msve\atTr}s). 
 Menenius Lanatus. 1. Agrippa, consul, b. c, 
 503, conquered the Sabines. It was owing to his me- 
 diation that the first great rupture between the pa- 
 tricians and plebeians, when the latter seceded to the 
 Sacred Mount, was brought to a happy and peaceful 
 termination in 493 ; and it was upon this occa- 
 sion he is said to have related to the plebeians his 
 well-known fable of the belly and its members.— 
 2. T., consul 477, was defeated by tiie Etruscans. 
 He had previously allowed the Fabii to be de- 
 stroyed by the Etruscans, although he might have 
 assisted them with his army. For this act of 
 treachery he was brought to trial by the tribunes 
 and condemned to pay a fine. He took his punish- 
 ment so much to heart, that he shut himself up in 
 his bouse and died of grief. 
 
 Mines [Mtjvtjs), first king of Egypt, according 
 to the traditions of the Egyptians themselves. 
 Herodotus records of him that he built Memphis 
 on a piece of ground which he had rescued from 
 the river by turning it from its former coiu-se, and 
 erected therein a magnificent temple to Plephaestus 
 (Pthah), Diodorus tells us that he introduced 
 into Egypt the worship of the gods and the prac- 
 tice of sacrifices, as well as a more elegant and 
 luxmious style of living. That he was a con- 
 queror, like other founders of kingdoms, we learn 
 from an extract from Manetho preserved by Eu- 
 sebius. By Marsham and others he has been iden- 
 tified with the Mizraim of Scripture. According to 
 some accounts he was killed by a hippopotamus. 
 
 Menesthei Portus {Puerto de S. ATaiia), a 
 harbour in Hispania Bactica, not far from Gades, 
 with an oracle of Menestheus, who is said in some 
 legends to have settled in Spain. 
 
 Menestheus {^Euea-devs). 1. Son of Peteus, 
 an Athenian king, who led the Athenians against 
 Troy, and surpassed all other mortals in arranging 
 the war-steeds and men for battle. With the 
 assistance of the Tyndarids, he is said to have 
 driven Theseus from his kingdom. ^2. Son of 
 Iphicrates, the famous Athenian general, by the 
 daughter of Cotys, king of Thrace. He married 
 the daughter of Timotheus ; and in 356 was chosen 
 commander in the Social war, his father and his 
 father-in-law being appointed to aid him with 
 their counsel and experience. They were all three 
 impeached by their colleague, Chares, for alleged 
 misconduct and treachery in the campaign; but 
 Iphicrates and Menestheus were acquitted. 
 
 Meninx or Lotophagitis, aft. Girba (Mrjyiy^, 
 AwTocpayTTtSj AwTotpdycvu vijcos : Jerbah), a con- 
 siderable island, close to the coast of Africa Pro- 
 pria, at the S.E. extremity of the Lesser Syrtis, 
 with 2 cities, Meninx (Menaz) on the N.E., and 
 Girba, or Gen-a, on tlie S.W. It was the birth- 
 place of the emperors Vibius Gallus and Volusianus, 
 
MENIPPE. 
 
 Kenippe (MeyfirTnj), daughter of Orion and 
 sister of Metioche. These 2 sisters put themselves 
 to death of their own accord in order to propitiate 
 the 2 Ennnyea, -who had visited Aonia with a 
 plague. They were metamorphosed by Persephone 
 and Hades into comets, and the Aonians erected 
 to them a sanctuary near Orchonienos. 
 
 Menippus (MeVtinros), a cynic philosopher, and 
 originally a slave, was a native of Gadara in Coele- 
 Syria. He seems to have been a hearer of Dio- 
 geDes, and flourished about b. c. 60. Pie amassed 
 great wealth as a usurer (Tj/iiepoSaceto-TTjs), but 
 was cheated out of it all, and committed suicide. 
 We are told that he wrote nothing serious, but 
 that his books were full of jests ; whence it would 
 appear that he was one of those cynic philosophers 
 who threw all .their teaching into a satirical fonn. 
 In this character he is several times introduced by 
 Xiucian. His works are now entirely lost; but 
 we have considerable fragments of Varro's Saiurae 
 Meiii/ypeaey written in imitation of Menippus. 
 
 Mennis, a city of Adiabene, in Assyria, only 
 mentioned by Curtius (v. 1). 
 
 Kenodotus (MrjvSBoros)^ a physician of Nico- 
 media in Bithynia, who was a pupil of Antiochus, 
 of Laodicea, and tutor to Herodotus of Tarsus ; he 
 belonged to the medical sect of the Empirici, and 
 lived probably about the beginning of the 2ud 
 century after Christ. 
 
 Menoeceus (MevoiKevs). 1. A Theban, grand- 
 son of Pentheus, and father of Hipponome, Jocasta, 
 and Creon. ^2. Grandson of the former, and son 
 of Creon. He put an end to his life because Tire- 
 sias had declared that his death would bring vic- 
 tory to his countr}'-, when the 7 Argive heroes 
 inarched against Thebes. His tomb was shown at 
 Thebes near the Neitian gate. 
 
 Menoetius (Mefomos). 1. Sonof Tapetus and 
 Clymene or Asia, and brother of Atlas, Prome- 
 theus, and Epimetheus. He was killed by Zeus 
 with a flash of lightning, in the battle with, the 
 Titans, and was hurled into Tartarus. — 2, Son of 
 Actor and Aegina, husband of Polymele or Sthe- 
 nele, and father of Patroclus, who is hence called 
 Menoctiades. After Patroclus had slain the son of 
 Amphidamas, Menoetius fled with him to Peleus 
 in Phthia, and had him educated there. 
 
 Henon (MeVwi/), a Thessalian adventurer, was 
 one of the generals of the Greek mercenaries in the 
 army of Cyrus the Younger when the latter 
 inarched into Upper Asia against his brother Ar- 
 taxerxes, b. c. 401. After the death of Cyrus he 
 was apprehended along with the other Greek gene- 
 rals by Tissaphernes, and was put to death by 
 lingering tortures, which. lasted for a whole year. 
 His character is drawn in the blackest colours by 
 Xcnophon. He is the same as the Menon introduced 
 in the dialogue of Plato, which bears his name. 
 
 Mens, a personification of mind, worshipped by 
 the Romans. She had a sanctuary on the Capitol ; 
 and the object of her worship was, that the citizens 
 might always be guided by a right spirit. 
 
 Mentesa (Mentesanus). 1. Surnamed Bastia, 
 a town of the Oretani in Hiapania Tarraconensis, 
 on the road from Castulo to Carthago Nova. ^2. 
 A small town of the Bastuli in the S. of Hispania 
 Baetica. 
 
 Mentor (MeVrajp). 1. Son of Alcimus and a 
 faithful friend of Ulysses, frequently mentioned in 
 the Odyssey. — 2. A Greek of Rhodes, who, with 
 his brother Meninon, rendered active assistance to 
 
 MEROBAUDES. 
 
 437 
 
 Artabazus. When the latter found himself com- 
 pelled to take refuge at the court of Philip, Mentor 
 entered the service of Nectanabis, king of Egypt. 
 He was sent to the assistance of Tennes, king of 
 Sidon, in his revolt against Darius Ochus ; and 
 when Tennes went over to the Persians, Mentor 
 was taken into the service of Daritis. He rose 
 rapidly in the favour of Darius, and eventually 
 received a satrapy, including all the western coast 
 of Asia Minor. His influence with Darius enabled 
 him to procure the pardon of his brother Memnon. 
 He died in possession of his satrapy, and was 
 succeeded by his brotlier Memnon. [Memnon.] — 
 3, The most celebrated silver-chaser among the 
 Greeks, who must have flourished before B.C. 356. 
 His works were vases and cups, which were most 
 highly prized by the Romans. 
 
 Mercurii Promontorium. [Hermaeum.] 
 Merciirius, a Roman divinity of commerce and 
 gain. The character of the gnd is clear from his 
 name, which is connected with mcrx and mercari. 
 A temple was built to him as early as B.C. 495 
 near the Circus Maximus; an altar of the god 
 existed near the Porta C.ipena, by the side of a 
 well ; and in later times a temple seems to have 
 been built on the same spot. Under the name of 
 the ill-willed {malevolus\ he had a statue in what 
 was called the vicm sobnus, or the sober street, in 
 which no shops were allowed to be kept, and milk 
 was offered to him there instead of wine. This 
 statue had a purse in its hand, to indicate his func- 
 tions. His festival was celebrated on the 25th of 
 May, and chiefly by merchants, who also visited the 
 well near the Porta Capena, to which magic powers 
 were ascribed ; and with water from that well they 
 used to sprinkle themselves and their merchandise, 
 that they might be purified, and yield a large 
 profit. The Romans of later times identified Mer- 
 curius, the patron of merchants and tradespeople, 
 with the Greek Hermes, and transferred all the 
 attributes and myths of the latter to the former. 
 The Fetiales, however, never recognised the iden- 
 tity ; and instead of the caduceus used a sacred 
 branch as the emblem of peace. The resemblance 
 between Mercm-ius and Hermes is indeed very 
 slight ; and their identification is a proof of the 
 thoughtless manner in which the Romans acted in 
 this respect. [Hermes.] 
 Mercurius Trismegistus. [Hermes Tris- 
 
 MEGISTUS.] 
 
 Meriones (MvpiSviis), a Cretan hero, son of 
 Molaa, who, conjointly with Idomeneus, led the 
 Cretans in 80 ships against Troy. He was one of 
 the bravest heroes in the Trojan war, and usually 
 acted together with his friend Idomeneus. Later 
 traditions relate, that on his way homeward he 
 was thrown on the coast of Sicily, where he was 
 received by the Cretans who had settled there; 
 whereas, according to others, he returned safely to 
 Crete, and was buried and worshipped as a hero, 
 together with Idomeneus, at Cnossus. 
 
 Mermerus (Mf'p^fpos). 1. Son of Jason and 
 Medea, also called Macareus or Mormorua, was 
 murdered, together with his brother Pheres, by 
 his mother at Corinth. ^2. Son of Pheres, and 
 grandson of Jason and Medea. 
 
 Mermessua or Myrmessus (Mep/iTjfTo-rfy, Mup- 
 /ti]o-o-(Js),also written MannessuB and Marpessua, 
 a town of Mysia, in the territory of Lampsacus, 
 not far from Polichna ; the native place of a sibyl. 
 
 Merobaudes, Tlavius, a general and a poet, 
 
 F P .^ 
 
438 
 
 MEROE. 
 
 whose merits are recorded in an inscription on the 
 base of a statue dug up in Uie Ulpian forum at 
 Rome in the year 1812 or 1813. \Ve learn from 
 the inscription that the statue was erected in 
 A. D. 435. Some fragments of the poeras of Mero- 
 baudes were discovered by Niebuhr upon a palimp- 
 sest belonging to the monastery of St. Gall, and 
 were published by him at Bonn, 1823. 
 
 Meroe (MeptJ?;: pts. ai Nubia and Sennar), the 
 island, so-called, and almost an island in reality, 
 formed by the rivers Astapus {Blue Nile) and 
 Astaboras (Atbarah), and the portion of the Nile 
 between their mouths, was a district of Ethiopia. 
 Its capital, also called Meroe, stood near the N. 
 point of the island, on the E. bank of the Nile, 
 below the modern Sfiendj/^ where the plain, near 
 the village of Assour, is covered with ruins of 
 temples, pyramids, and other works, in a style 
 closely resembling the Egyptian. Standing in a 
 fertile district, rich in timber and minerals, at 
 the foot of the highlands o^ Abi/ssinia, and at the 
 jimction of 2 great rivers, Meroe became at a very 
 early period a chief emporium for the trade be- 
 tween Egypt, N. Africa, Ethiopia, Arabia, and 
 India, and the capital of a powerful state. The 
 government was a hierarchical monarchy, entirely 
 in the hands of a ruling caste of priests, who chose 
 a king from among themselves, bound him to 
 govern according to their laws, and put him to 
 death when they chose ; until king Ergamenes 
 (about E. c. 300) threw off the yoke of the priests, 
 whom he massacred, and converted his kingdom 
 into an absolute monarchy. The priests of Meroe 
 were closely connected in origin and customs with 
 those of Egypt ; and, according to some traditions, 
 the latier sprang from the former, and they from 
 India ; but the settlement of this point involves 
 an important ethnical question, which lies beyond 
 the limits of this book. For further details re- 
 specting the kingdom of Meroe, see Aethiopia. 
 Meroe had a celebrated oracle of Ammon. 
 Merom Lacus. [Semechonitis.] 
 Merope (MeptJinj). 1. One of the Heliades or 
 sisters of Phaethon.^2. Daughter of Atlas, one of 
 the Pleiades, and wife of Sisyphus of Corinth, by 
 whom she became the mother of Glaucus. In the 
 constellation of the Pleiades she is the 7th and the 
 least visible star, because she is ashamed of liaviiig 
 had intercourse with a mortal man. ^3. Daughter 
 of Cypselus, wife of Cresphontes, and motlier of 
 Aepytus. For details, see Aepytus. 
 
 Merops (Mepoi//). 1. King of the island of Cos, 
 husband of the nymph Ethemea, and father of 
 Eumelus. His wife was killed by Aitemis, because 
 she had neglected to worship that goddess. Me- 
 rops, in order to rejoin his wife, wished to make 
 away with himself, but Hera changed bim into an 
 eagle, whom she placed among the stars. ^2. King 
 of the Ethiopians, by whose wife, Clymene, Helios 
 became the fether of Phaethon. — 3. King of 
 Rhyndacus, on the Hellespont, also called iVIacar 
 or Macareus, was a celebrated soothsayer, and 
 father of Clite, Arisbe, Amphius, and Adrastus. 
 
 Meriila, L. Cornelius, was flamen dialis, and, 
 on the deposition of L. Cinna in b. C. 87, was 
 elected consul in his place. On the capture of 
 Rome by Jifarius and Cinna at the close of the 
 same year, Menila put an end to his own life, in 
 order to escape the hands of the executioner. 
 
 Mesambna ( Meo-a^g^iT; : Bushehr\ a peninsula 
 'On the coast of Persls, near the river Padargus. 
 
 MESPILA. 
 
 Meschela (M€o-x^A.a : prob. near Bonah), a large 
 city on the coast of N. Africa, said to have been 
 founded by Greeks returning from the Trojan 
 war. It was taken by Eumachus, the lieutenant 
 of Agathocles. 
 
 Mesembria (Meo-n^Spta, Herod. Mea-afiepi-q -. 
 Me(n}fx§piav6s). 1. {Missivria or Messuri), a ce- 
 lebrated town of Thrace on the Pontus Euxinus, 
 and at the foot of Mt. Haemus, founded by the 
 inhabitants of Chalcedon and Bj-^zantium in the 
 time of Diirius Hystaspis, and hence called a colony 
 of Megai"a, since those 2 towns were founded by 
 the Megarians. — 3. A town in Thrace, but of 
 much less importance, on the coast of the Aegaean 
 sea, and in the territory of the Cicones, near the 
 mouth of the Lissus, and the most W.-ly of the 
 Samothracian settlements on the mainland. 
 
 Mesene (Meo-TjcTj, i. e. Midland)^ a name given 
 to that part of Babylonia which consisted of the 
 great island formed by the Euphrates, the Tigris, 
 and the Roj-al Canal ; and contained, therefore, 
 the greater part of Babylonia. 
 
 Mesoa or Messoa. [Sparta.] 
 
 Mesogis. [Messogis.] 
 
 Mesomedes {Mf(rofj.7}dT}s), a lyric and epigram- 
 matic poet under Hadrian and the Antonines, was a 
 native of Crete, and a freedman of Hadrian, whose 
 favourite Antinous he celebrated in a poem. A 
 salary, which he had received from Hadrian, was 
 diminished by Antoninus Pius. Three poems of 
 his are preserved in the Greek Anthology. 
 
 Mesopotamia (MecoTroTa/iio, M^ffTj ti^v Trora- 
 fj-cov : 0. T. Aram Naharaim, i. e. Syria between the 
 Jiivcrs: LXX. MeiroTrora/Ja ^vpias: Al-Jesira^ i.e. 
 TVie Idand), a district of W. Asia, named from, 
 its position between the Euphrates and the Tigris, 
 of which rivers the former divided it from Syria 
 and Arabia on the W., the latter from Assyria on 
 the E.: on the N. it was separated from Armenia 
 by a branch of the Taurus, called Masius, and on 
 the S. from Babylonin, by the Median Wall. The 
 name was first used by the Greeks in the time of 
 the Seleucidae. In eai'lier times the country was 
 reckoned a part, sometimes of Sj'ria, and some- 
 times of Assyria. Nor in the division of the 
 Persian empire was it recognised as a distinct 
 country, but it belonged to the satrapy of Baby- 
 lonia. Excepting the mountainous region on the 
 N. and N.E. formed by the chain of Masius, 
 and its prolongation parallel to the Tigris, the, 
 country formed a vast plain, broken by few hills, 
 well watered by rivers and canals, and very fer- 
 tile, except in the S. part, which was more like 
 the Arabian Desert, on the opposite side of the 
 Euphrates. Besides corn, and fruits, and spices 
 (e. g. the amomum)^ it produced fine timber, and 
 supported large herds of cattle ; in the S., or desert 
 part, there were numerous wild animals, such as 
 wild asses, gazelles, ostriches, and lions. Its chief 
 mineral products were naphtha and jet. The N. 
 part of Mesopotamia was divided into the districts 
 of Mygdonia and Osroene. It belonged suc- 
 cessively to the Assyrian, Babylonian, Persian, 
 Macedonian, Syro-Greclan, Parthian, and later 
 Persian, empires. In a wider sense, the name is 
 sometimes applied to the whole country between 
 the Euphrates and the Tigris. 
 
 Mespila (^ MeVn-iAa: Ru. at Kouyounjik, opp. 
 to /ilomdy Layard: others give different sites for 
 it), a city of Assyria, on the E. side of the Tigris, 
 which Xenophon {Anab. iii. 4) mentions as having 
 
MESSA. 
 
 been foiinerly a great city, inhabited by Medes. 
 but in his time fallen to decay. It had a wall 6 
 parasangs in circuit, composed of 2 parts ; namely, 
 a basfi 50 feet thick and 50 high, of polished stone 
 full of sbells (the limestone of the country), upon 
 which was built a brick wall 50 feet thick and 100 
 high. It had served, according to tradition, as 
 the refuge for the Median queen, when the Per- 
 sians overthrew the empire of the Medes, and it 
 resisted all the efforts of the Persian king to take 
 it, until a thunder storm frightened the inhabitants 
 into a surrender. 
 
 Messa (Meo-ca, MeVffTj: Alezapo), a town and 
 harbour in Laconia near C. Taenarum. 
 
 Messabatene or -ice (Mectra&aTTi:'?], Mecrco- 
 €ariKr] : Mca-aaSdrai), a small district on the S.E, 
 margin of the Tigris and Euphrates valley, on the 
 borders of Media, Persia, and Susiana, reckoned 
 sometimes to Persis and sometimes to Susiana. 
 The name seems to be derived from the mountain 
 passes in the district. 
 
 Messala or Messalla, the name of a distin- 
 guished family of the Valeria gens at Rome. They 
 appear for the first time on the consular Fasti in 
 B.C. 263, and for the last in a. d. 506. — 1. M', 
 Valerius Maximus Corvinu.s Messala, was con- 
 sul B. c. 263, and, in conjunction with his colleague 
 M. Otacilius, carried on the war with success 
 against the Carthaginians in Sicily. The 2 consuls 
 concluded a peace with Hieron. In consequence 
 of his relieving Messana he obtained the cognomen 
 of Messala. His triumph was distinguished by 
 two remarkable monuments of his victory' — by a 
 pictorial representation of a battle with the Sici- 
 lian and Punic armies, which he placed in the 
 Curia Hostilia, and by a sim-dial (Horologium), 
 from tlie booty of Catana, which was set up on a 
 colimin behind the rostra, in the forum. Messala 
 was censor in 252.^2. M.. Valerius Messala, 
 consul 226.-3. M. Valerius Messala, praetor 
 peregrinus 194, and consul 188, when he had the 
 province of Liguria. — 4. M.Valerius Messala, 
 consul 161, and censor 154. — 5. M. Valerius 
 Messala Niger, praetor 63 ; consul 61 ; and censor 
 55. He belonged to the aristocrat ical party. He 
 married a sister of the orator Q. Hortensius, by 
 whom he had at least one son. ^6. M, Valerius 
 Messala, son of the preceding; consul 53; be- 
 longed, like his father, to the aristocratical party ; 
 but in consequence probably of his enmity to 
 Pompey, he joined Caesar in the civil war, and 
 served under him in Africa. He was. in high 
 repute for his skill in augur}', on which science he 
 wrote. ^7. M. Valerius Messala Corvinus, son 
 of the preceding, was partly educated at Athens, 
 where probably began his intimacy with Horace 
 and L. Bibulus. After Caesar's death (44) he 
 joined the republican party, and attached himself 
 especially to Cassius, whom, long after, when he 
 had become the friend of Augustus, he was accus- 
 tomed to call "my general." Messala was pro- 
 scribed ; but since his kinsmen proved his absence 
 from Rome at the time of Caesar's assassination, 
 the triumvirs erased his name from the list, and 
 offered him security for his person and property. 
 Messala, however, rejected their offers, followed 
 Cassius into Asia, and at Philippi, in the first 
 day's battle, turned Augustus's flank, stormed his 
 camp, and narrowly missed taking him prisoner. 
 After the death of Brutus and Cassius, Messala, 
 with a numerous body of fugitives, took refuge 
 
 MESSALA, 
 
 439 
 
 in the island of Thasos. His followers, though 
 defeated, were not disorganised, and offered him 
 the command. But he induced them to accept 
 honourable tenns from Antony, to whom he at- 
 tached liimself until Cleopatra's influence made 
 his ruin certain and easy to be foreseen. Mes- 
 sala then again changed his party, and served 
 Augustus effectively in Sicily, 36 ; against the 
 Salassians, a mountain tribe lying between the 
 Graian and the Pennine Alps, 34 ; and at Actium, 
 31. A decree of the senate had abrogated An- 
 tony's consulship for 31, and Messala was ap- 
 pointed to the vacant place. He was proconsul of 
 Aquitania in 2fi — 27, and obtained a triumph for 
 his reduction of that province. Shortly before or 
 immediately after his administration of Aquitania, 
 Messala held a prefecture in Asia Minor. He was 
 deputed by the senate, probably in 30, to greet 
 Augustus with the title of " Pater Patriae;''' and 
 the opening of his address on that occasion is pre- 
 served by Suetonius. During the disturbances at 
 the comitia in 27, Augustus nominated Messala to 
 the revived office of warden of the city ; but he 
 resigned it in a few days. Messala soon after- 
 wards withdrew from all public employments ex- 
 cept his augurship, to which Augustus had specially 
 appointed him, altlmugli, at the time of his admis- 
 sion, there was no vacancy in the augural college. 
 About 2 years before his death, which happened 
 about the middle of Augustus's reign, b. c. 3— a. d. 3, 
 Mossala's memory failed him, and he often could not 
 recall his own name. His tomb was of remarkable 
 splendour. Messala was as much distinguished in 
 the literary as in the political world of Rome. He 
 was a patron of learning and the arts, and was 
 himself an historian, a poet, a grammarian, and an 
 orator. He wrote commentaries on the civil wars 
 after Caesar's denth, and a genealogical work, De 
 Romanis Familiis. The treatise, however, De 
 Progenie Augusti^ which sometimes accompanies 
 Eutropius and the minor Roman historians, is the 
 forgery of a much later age. Messala's poems 
 were of a satirical or even licentious character. 
 His writings as a grammarian were numerous and 
 minute, comprising treatises on collocation and 
 lexicography, and on the powers and uses of single 
 letters. His eloquence reflected the character of 
 his age. More smooth and correct than vigorous 
 or original, he persuaded rather than convinced, 
 and conciliated rather than persuaded. His health 
 was feeble, and the prooemia of his speeches gene- 
 rally pleaded indisposition and solicited indulgence. 
 He mostly took the defendant's side, and was fre- 
 quently associated in causes with C. Asinius PoUio. 
 He recommended and practised translation from 
 the Greek orators; and his version of the Ph-yne 
 of Hyperides was thought to exhibit remarkable 
 skill in either language. His political eminence, 
 the wealth he inherited or acquired in the civil 
 wars, and the favour of Antony and Augustus, 
 rendered Messala one of the principal persons of 
 his age, and an effective patron of its literature. 
 His friendship for Horace and his intimacy with 
 Tibullus are well known. In the elegies of the 
 latter poet, the name of Messala is continually 
 introduced. The dedication of the CiHs^ a doubt- 
 ful work, is not suflicient proof of his friendship 
 with Virgil ; but the companion of " Plotius and 
 Varius, of Maecenas and Octavius" (Hor. Sat. i. 
 10. 01), cannot well have been unknown to the 
 author of the Eclogues and Georgics. He dn:ected 
 
 p F 4 
 
440 
 
 MESSALINA. 
 
 Ovid's early studies (ex Pojit iv. 16), and Tiberius 
 sought his acquaintance in early manhood, and 
 took him for his model in eloquence. — 8. M. Va- 
 lerius Messala Barbatus Appianus, was consul 
 B.C. \'2. and died in his year of office. He was 
 the father (or grandfather) of the empress Mes- 
 Ealina. — 9. L. Valerius Messala Volesus, consul 
 A. D. 5, and afterwards proconsiU of Aaia, where 
 his cruelties drew on him the anger of Augustus 
 and a condemnatory decree from the senate.— 
 10. L. Vipstanus Messala, legionary tribune in 
 Vespa5ian''s army, a. d. 70, was brother of Aqui- 
 liu3 Regulus, the notorious delator in Domitian''3 
 reign. He is one of Tacitus' authorities for the 
 history of the civil wars after Galba's death, and a 
 principal interlocutor iu the dialogue De OratoHhiis, 
 ascribed to Tacitus. 
 
 Messalina. 1. Statilia, granddaughter of T. 
 Statilius Taurus, cos. a. d. 11, was the 3rd wife of 
 the emperor Nero, who married her in a. d. GQ. 
 She had previously espoused Atticus Vestinus, 
 whom Nero put to death without accusation or 
 trial, merely tliat he might marry Messalina. — 2. 
 Valeria, daughter of M. Valerius Messala Bar- 
 batus and of Domitia Lepida, was the 3rd wife of 
 the emperor Claudius. She married Claudius, to 
 whom she was previously related, before his ac- 
 cession to the empire. Her profligacy and licen- 
 tiousness were notorious; and the absence of virtue 
 was not concealed by a lingering sense of shame or 
 even by a specious veil of decorum. She was as 
 cruel as she was profligate; and many members of 
 the most illustrious families of Rome were sacrificed 
 to her fears or her hatred. She long exercised au 
 unbounded empire over her weak husband, who 
 alone was ignorant of her infidelities. For some 
 time she was supported in her career of crime by 
 the frecdnien of Claudius; but when Narcissus, the 
 most powerful of the emperor's freedmen, perceived 
 that he should probably fall a victim to Messalina's 
 intrigues, he determined to get rid of her. The 
 insane folly of Messalina furnished the means of 
 her own destruction. Having conceived a violent 
 passion for a handsome Roman youth, C. Silius, 
 she publicly married him with all the rites of a 
 legal connubium dming the absence of Claudius at 
 Ostia, A. D. 48. Narcissus persuaded the emperor 
 that Silius and Messalina would not have dared 
 such an outrage had they not determined ako to 
 deprive him of empire and life. Claudius wavered 
 long, and at length Narcissus himself issued Mes- 
 salina^'s death-warrant. She was put to death by 
 a tribune of the guards in the gardens of Lu- 
 cullus. 
 
 Messana (Meo-crara Dor., Vleaa-I^VTi : Metro-awo j : 
 Messina)^ a celebrated town on the N. E. coast of 
 Sicily, on the straits separating Italy from this 
 island, which are here about 4 miles broad. The 
 Romans called the town Messrma, according to its 
 Doric pronunciation, but Mcsse-ne was its more 
 usual name among the Greeks. It was originally 
 a town of the Siceli, and was called Zancle 
 (Ziiy/cA?]), or a sickle, on account of the shape of 
 its harbour, which is formed by a singular curve 
 of sand and shells. The first Greek colonists 
 were, according to Thucydldes, pirates from the 
 Chalcidian town of Cumae in Ital}', who were 
 joined by Clialcidians from Euboea, and, according 
 to Strabo, by Naxians ; but these 2 accounts are not 
 con trad ictoiy, for since Naxos in Sicily was also a 
 colony from Chalcis, we may easily suppose that the 
 
 MESSAPIUM, 
 
 Naxians joined the other Chalcidians in the fomr- 
 dation of the town. Zancle soon became so powerful 
 that it founded the town of Himer.r, about B.C. 64^. 
 After the capture of Miletus by the Persians, the- 
 inhabitants of Zancle invited the lonians, who had 
 been expelled from their native country, to settle on 
 their "beautiful coast" {KaXi} aKrij^ Herod, vi, 2'2.)^. 
 and a number of Samians and other Ionic Greeks 
 accepted their offer. On landing in the S. of Italy, 
 they were persuaded by Anaxilas, tyrant of Khe- 
 giura, to take possession of Zancle during the 
 absence of Scythes, the tyrant of the city, who was 
 engaged in the siege of some other Sicilian town. 
 But their treachery was soon punished; for Anaxi- 
 las himself shortly afterwards drove the Samians 
 out of Zancle, and made himself master of the- 
 town, the name of which he changed into Messana 
 or Messeite^ both because he was himself a Messe- 
 nian, and because he transferred to the place a 
 body of Messenians from Rhegium. Anaxilas died 
 476; and about 10 years afterwards (466) his sons- 
 were driven out of Messana and Rhegium, and 
 republican governments established in these cities.. 
 Messana now enjoyed great prosperity for several 
 years, and in consequence of its excellent harbour 
 and advantageous position, it became a place of 
 great commercial importance. But in 396 it was 
 taken by the Carthaginians, who destroyed the- 
 town because they saw that they should be unable- 
 to maintain so distant a possession against the 
 power of Dionysius of Syracuse. Dionysius began^ 
 to rebuild it in the same year, and besides collecting- 
 the remains of the former population, he added a 
 number of Locrians, Messenians, and others, so 
 that its inhabitants were of a very mixed kind. 
 After the banishment of the younger Dionysius, 
 Messana was for a short time free, but it fell inta 
 the power of Agathocles about 312. Among the- 
 mercenaries of this tyrant were a number of Ma- 
 mertini, an Oscan people from Campania, who had 
 been sent from home under the protection of the- 
 god Mamei"s or Mars to seek their fortune in other- 
 lands. These Mamertini were quartered in Mes- 
 sana ; and after the death of Agathocles (2fJ2) 
 they made themselves masters of the town, killed 
 the male inhabitants, and took possession of their 
 wives, their children, and their property. The 
 town was now called Mamertiua, and the inha- 
 bitants Mamertini; but its ancient name of 
 Messana continued to be in more general use. The 
 new inhabitants could not lay aside their old pre- 
 datory habits, and in consequence became involved 
 in a war with Hieron of Syracuse, who defeated 
 them in several battles, and would probably hav© 
 conquered the town, had not the Carthaginians 
 come in to the aid of the Mamertini, and, under 
 the pretext of assisting them, taken possession of 
 their citadel. The Mamertini had at the same 
 time applied to the Romans for help, who gladly 
 availed themselves of the opportunity to obtain a 
 footing in Sicily. Thus Messana was the imme- 
 diate cause of the 1st Punic war, 264. The Ma- . 
 mertini expelled the Carthaginian garrison, and 
 received the Romans, in whose power Messana 
 remained till the latest times. There are scarcely 
 any remains of the ancient city at Messina. 
 
 Measapia (Meo-traTrfa). 1. The Greek name of 
 Calabria. — 2. (Messagna), a town in Calabria, 
 between Uria and Brundusium. 
 
 Messapium (rh Meaadmov 5pos), a mountain 
 in Boeotia on the E. coast, near the tov/n Anthedon, 
 
MESSAPUS. 
 from which Messapus is said to have sailed to the 
 S. of Italy. 
 
 Messapus (MeVcaTros), a Boeotian, from whom 
 Messapia in the S. of Italy was believed to have 
 derived its name. 
 
 Messene (lVIeo-a"r]cij), daughter of Triopas, and 
 •ft'ife of Polycaon, whom she induced to take pos- 
 session of the country which was called after her, 
 Messenia. She is also said to have introduced 
 there the worship of Zeus and the mysteries of the 
 great goddess of Eleusis. 
 
 Messene (Mco-o'^i'tj : Metrc^i'tos). L (Mavro- 
 maii)^ the later capital of Messenia, was founded 
 by Epaminondas b, c. 369, and completed and for- 
 tified within the space of 85 days. It was situated 
 at the foot of the steep hill of Ithome, which was 
 so celebrated as a fortress in the history of the 
 Messenian wars, and which now formed the acro- 
 polis of the new city. Messene was one of the 
 most strongly fortified cities of Greece. It was 
 surrounded by massive walls bnilt entirely of stone 
 and flanked with numerous towers. There are still 
 considerable remains of some of these towers, as 
 well as the foundations of the walls, and of several 
 public buildings. They are described by a modem 
 traveller as " built of the most regular kind of 
 masonry, and formed of large stones fitted together 
 with great acciuracy." The northern gate of the 
 city is also extant, and opens into a circular court, 
 62 feet in diameter. The city was supplied with 
 water from a fountain called Clepsydra^ which is 
 still a fine spring, from which the modern village 
 of Mavromati derives its name, meaning Black 
 Spring, or literally. Black Eye. ^2. See Messana. 
 
 Messenia (Meo-o-Tjj'ia : Metrff^i/ios), a country in 
 Peloponnesus, bounded on the E. by Laconia, on 
 the N. by Elis and Arcadia, and on the S. and W. 
 by the sea. It was separated from Laconia by Mt, 
 Taygetus; but part of the W. slope of Taygetus 
 belonged to Laconia; and it is difficult to determine 
 the exact boundaries between the 2 countries, as 
 they were different at different periods. In the 
 most ancient times the river Nedon formed the 
 boundary between Messenia and Laconia towards 
 the sea ; but Pausanias places the frontier line 
 further E. at a woody hollow called Choerius, 20 
 stadia S. of Abia. The river Neda formed the N. 
 frontier between Messenia and Elis. The area of 
 Messenia is about 1162 square miles. It was for 
 the most part a mountainous country, and contained 
 only 2 plains of any extent, in the N. the plain of 
 Stenyderus, and in the S. a still larger plain, 
 through which the Pamisus flowed, and which 
 was called Macaria or the Blessed, on account of 
 its great fertility. There were, however, many 
 smaller valleys among the mountains ; and the 
 country was much less rugged and far more pro- 
 ductive than the neighbouring Laconia. Hence 
 Messenia is described by Pausanias as the most 
 fertile country in Peloponnesus ; and it is praised 
 by Euripides on account of its climate, which was 
 neither too cold iu winter nor too hot in summer. 
 The most ancient inhabitants of Messenia were 
 Leleges, intermingled with Argives. According to 
 tradition Polycaon, the younger son of Lelex, 
 married the Argive Messene, a daughter of Triopas, 
 and named the country Messene in honour of his 
 wife. This is the name by which it is called in 
 Homer who does not use the form Messenia. 
 Five generations afterwards Aeolians settled in 
 the country, under the guidance of Perieres, a son 
 
 MESYLA. 
 
 441 
 
 of Aeolus. His son Aphareus gave a home to 
 Neleus, who had been driven out of Thessaly, and 
 who founded the town of Pylos, which became the 
 capital of an independent sovereignty. For a long 
 time there was properly no Messenian kingdom. 
 Tlie western part of the land belonged to the 
 dominions of the Neleid princes of Pylos, of whom 
 Nestor was the most celebrated, and the eastern 
 to the Lacedaemonian monarchy. Thus it appears 
 to have remained till the conquest of Peloponnesus 
 by the Dorians, when Messenia fell to the share of 
 Cresphontes, who destroyed the kingdom of Pylos, 
 and united the whole country under his sway. 
 The nUing class were now Dorians, and they con- 
 tinued to speak the purest Doric down to the latest 
 times. The Spartans soon coveted the more fertile 
 territory of their brother Dorians ; and after many 
 disputes between the 2 nations, and various inroads 
 into each other's territories, open war at length 
 broke out. This war, called the 1st Messenian 
 war, lasted 20 years, b. c. 743 — 723; and notwith- 
 standing the giillant resistance of the Messenian 
 king, Aristodemus, the Messenians were obliged to 
 submit to the Spartans after the capture of their 
 fortress Ithome, and to become their subjects. 
 [Aristodemus.] After bearing the yoke 38 years, 
 the Messenians again took up arms under their 
 heroic leader Aristomenes. [Aristomenes.] The 
 2nd Messenian war lasted 17 years, b. c. 685 — 
 663, and terminated with the conquest of Ira and 
 the complete subjugation of the country. Most of 
 the Messenians emigi-ated to foreign countries, and 
 those who remained behind were reduced to the 
 condition of Helots or serfs. In this state they 
 remained till 464, when the Messenians and other 
 Helots took advantage of the devastation occasioned 
 by the great earthquake at Sparta, to rise against 
 their oppressors. This 3rd Messenian war lasted 
 10 years, 464 — 155, and ended by the Messenians 
 surrendering Ithome to the Spartans on condition 
 of their being allowed a free departure from Pelo- 
 ponnesus. They settled at Naupactus on the 
 Corinthian gulf opposite Peloponnesus, which town 
 the Athenians had lately taken from the Locri 
 Ozolae, and gladly granted to such deadly enemies 
 of Sparta. At the conclusion of the Peloponnesian 
 war (404), the unfortunate Messenians were obliged 
 to leave Naupactus and take refuge in Italy, Sicily, 
 and other countries ; but when the supremacy of 
 Sparta was overthrown by the battle of Leuctra, 
 Epaminondas resolved to restore the independence 
 of Messenia. He accordingly gathered together 
 the Messenian exiles from the various lands in 
 >vhich they were scattered ; and in the summer of 
 369 he founded the town of Messene at the foot 
 of Mt. Ithome. [Messene.] Messenia was never 
 again subdued by the Spartans, and it maintained 
 its independence till the conquest of the Achaeana 
 and the rest of Greece by the Romans, 146. 
 
 Mestleta (Meo-T\^Ta), a city of Iberia, in Asia, 
 probably on the river Cyrus. 
 
 Mesta^a (M^o^/ja), daughter of Erysichthon, and 
 granddaughter of Triopas, whence she is called 
 Tnope'is by Ovid. She was sold by her hungry 
 father, that he might obtain the^eans of satisfying 
 his hunger. In order to escape from slavery, she 
 prayed to Poseidon, who loved her, and who con- 
 ferred upon her the power of metamorphosing her- 
 self whenever she was sold. 
 
 Mesyla, a town of Pontus, m Asia Minor, on 
 the road from Taviuin to Comana. 
 
442 
 
 METAGONITIS. 
 
 Metagonitis {M^rayajviTis : M 6x070) ctrai, Me- 
 tagonltae), a name applied to the N. coast of 
 Mauretania Tingitana (Marocco), between the 
 Fretum Gaditanuni and the river Mulucha ; derived 
 probably from the Carthaginian colonies {fiera- 
 ycot/ia) settled along it. There was at some point 
 of this coast a promontory called Metagonium or 
 Metagonites, probably the same aa Kussadir (^Ras- 
 ud-Dir, or C. Tres Forcas). 
 
 Metagonium. [Metagonitis.] 
 jyEetaUinum or Metellinum (Metallinensis : 
 Medellin\ a Roman colony in Liisitania ou the 
 Anas, not far from Augusta Emerita. 
 
 Metanira (Merdi'eipa), wife of Celeus, and 
 mother of Triptolemus, received Demeter on her 
 arrival in Attica. Pausanias calls her Meganaera. 
 For details see Celeus. 
 
 Metaplirastes, Symeon {'Zv^l^o^v 6 yieracppdir- 
 njs), a celebrated Byzantine writer, lived in the 
 9th rnd 10th centuries, and held many high offices 
 at the Byzantine court. His surname Metaphrastcs 
 was given to him on account of his having composed 
 a celebrated paraphrase of the lives of the saints. 
 Besides his other works, he wrote a Byzantine 
 history, entitled Annales, beginning with the em- 
 peror Leo Armenus, a. d. 813, and finishing with 
 Komanus, the son of Constantine Porphvrogenitus, 
 963. Edited by BeUker, Bonn, 1838. ' 
 
 Metapontium called Metapontum by the Ro- 
 mans (MeraTTtii'Tiof : Merairtit'Tfos, Metapontinus : 
 Torre di Mare), a celebrated Greek city in the S. 
 of Italy, on the Tarentine gulf, and on the E. coast 
 of Lucania, is said to have been originally called 
 Metabum (MeVaSo^). There were various tradi- 
 tions respecting its foundation, all of which point 
 to its high antiquity, but from which we cannot 
 gather any certain information on the subject. It 
 is said to have been afterwards destroyed by the 
 Samnites, and to have been repeopled by a colony 
 of Achaeans, who had been invited for that purpose 
 by the inhabitants of Sybaris. Hence it is called 
 by Livy an Achaean town, and is regarded by 
 some writers as a colony from Sybaris. It fell into 
 the hands of tha Romans with the other Greek 
 cities in the S- of Italy in the war against Pyrrhus; 
 but it revolted to Hannibal after the battle of 
 Cannae. From the time of the 2nd Punic war it 
 disappears from history, and was in ruins in the 
 time of Pausanias. 
 
 Metatimm. [Metaurus, No. 2.] 
 Metaurus. 1, (Metaro), a small river in Umbria, 
 flowing into the Adriatic sea, but rendered memo- 
 rable by the defeat and death of Hasdrubal, the 
 brother of Hannibal, on its banks, b. c. 207. — 3. 
 (iVc/7To), a river on the E. coast of Bruttlum, at 
 whose mouth was the town of Metaurum. 
 Metella. [Caecilia.] 
 
 Metellus, a distinguished plebeian family of the 
 Caecilia gens at Rome. 1. L. CaecUius Metellus, 
 consul B.C. 2.51, carried on the war in Sicily 
 against the Carthaginians. In the following year 
 he gained a great victory over Hasdrubal, the 
 Carthaginian general. The elephants which he 
 took in this battle were exhibited in his triumph 
 at Rome. Metellus was consul a 2nd time 
 in 249, and was elected pontifex maximus in 
 243, and held this dignity for 22 years. He 
 must, therefore, have died shortly before the com- 
 mencement of the 2iid Punic war. In 241 he 
 rescued the Palladium when the temple of Vesta 
 was on fire, but lost his sight in conseq^uence. He 
 
 METELLUS. 
 was dictator in 224, for the purpose of holding the 
 comitla. — 2. Q. Caeciliua Metellus, son of the 
 preceding, was plebeian aedile 209 ; curule aedile 
 208; served in the army of the consul Claudius 
 Nero 207, and was one of the legates sent to Rome 
 to convey the joyful news of the defeat and death 
 of Hasdnibal ; and was consul with L. Veturiua 
 Philo, 206. In his consulship he and his colleague 
 carried on the war against Hannibal in Bruttium, 
 where he remained as proconsul during the follow- 
 ing year. In 205 he was dictator for the purpose 
 of holding the comitia. Metellus survived the 2nd 
 Punic war many years, and was employed in 
 several public commissions. — 3. Q. Caecilius Me- 
 tellus Macedonicus, son of the last, was praetor 
 148, and carried on war in Macedonia against the 
 usurper Andriscus, whom he defeated and took 
 prisoner. He next turned his arms against the 
 Achaeans, whom he defeated at the beginning 
 of 146, On his return to Rome in 146, he 
 triumphed, and received the surname of Mace- 
 donicus, Metellus was consul in 143, and received 
 the province of Nearer Spain, where he carried on 
 the war with success for 2 years against the Celti- 
 beri. He was succeeded by Q. Pompeius in 141- 
 Metellus was censor 131. He died 115, full of 
 years and honours. He is frequently quoted by 
 the ancient writers as an extraordinary instance of 
 human felicity. He bad filled all the highest 
 ofilces of the state with reputation and glory, and 
 was carried to the funeral pile by 4 sons, 3 of 
 whom had obtained the consulship in his lifetime, 
 while the 4th was a candidate for the office at the 
 time of his death. — 4. L. Caecilius Metellus 
 Calvus, bi'other of the last, consul 142.^5. Q. 
 Caecilius Metellus Balearicus, eldest son of 
 No. 3, was consul 123, when he subdued the in- 
 habitants of the Balearic islands, and received in 
 consequence the surname of Balearicus. He was 
 censor 120. — 6. L. Caecilius Metellus Diade- 
 matus, 2nd son of No. 3, has been frequently 
 confounded with Metellus Dalmaticus, consul 119 
 [No. 9.]. Metellus Diadematus received the latter 
 surname from hia wearing for a long time a bandage 
 round his forehead, in consequence of an ulcer. 
 He was consul 117. — 7. M. Caecilius Metellus, 
 3rd son of No. 3, was consul 115, the year in 
 whiclx his father died. In 1 1 4 he was sent into 
 Sardinia as proconsul, and suppressed an insurrec- 
 tion in the island, in consequence of which he 
 obtained a triumph in 113 on the same day as his 
 brother Caprarius. ^ 8. C. Caecilius Metellus 
 Caprarius, 4th son of No. 3. The origin of his 
 surname is quite uncertain. He was consul 113, 
 and carried on war in Macedonia against the 
 Thracians, whom be subdued. He obtained a 
 triumph in consequence in the same year and on 
 the same day with his brother Marcus. He was 
 censor 102 with his cousin Metellus Numidicus.— 
 9. L. Caecilius Metellus Dalmaticus, elder son 
 of No. 4, and frequently confounded, as has been 
 already remarked, with Diadematus [No. SJ, 
 was consul 119, when he subdued the Dalmatians, 
 and obtained in consequence the surname Dalma- 
 ticus. He was censor with Cn. Domitius Aheno- 
 barbus in 115; and he was also pontifex maximus. 
 He was alive in 100, when he is mentioned as one 
 of the senators of high rank, who took up arms 
 against Saturninus. -~ 10. Q. Caecilius Metellus 
 Numidicus, younger son of No. 4, was one of the 
 most distinguished members of hia family. The 
 
METELLUS. 
 
 character of Metellus stood very high among hia 
 contemporaries ; in an age of growing corruption 
 his personal integrity remained unsullied ; and he 
 was distinguished for liis abilities in war and peace. 
 He was one of the chief leaders of the aristocrat! cal 
 party at Rome. He was consul 109, and carried 
 on. the war against Jugurtha in Numidia with 
 great success. [Jugurtha.] He remained in 
 Numidia during the following year as proconsul ; 
 but as he was unable to bring the war to a con- 
 clusion, his legate C. Marius industriously circulated 
 reports in the camp and the city that Metellus de- 
 signedly protracted the war, for the purpose of 
 continuing in the command. These rumours had 
 the desired effect. Marius was raised to the con- 
 sulship, Numidia was assigned to him as his 
 province, and Metellus saw the lionour of finishing 
 the war snatched from his grasp. [Marius.] On 
 his return to Rome in 107 he was received with 
 the greatest honour. He celebrated a splendid 
 triumph, and received the surname of Numidicus, 
 In 102 he was censor wiih his cousin Metellus 
 Caprarius. In 100 the tribune Saturninus and 
 Mai'ius resolved to ruin Metellus. Saturninus 
 proposed an agrarian law, to which he added the 
 clause, that the senate should swear obedience to 
 it within 5 days after its enactment, and that 
 whosoever should refuse to do so should be expelled 
 the senate, and pay a heavy fine. Metellus re- 
 fused to take the oath, and was therefore expelled 
 the senate ; but Saturninus, not content with this, 
 brought forward a bill to punish him with exile. 
 The friends of Metellus were ready to take up 
 arms in his defence; but Metellus quitted the city, 
 and retired to Rhodes, where he bore his mis- 
 fortune with great calmness. He was however 
 recalled to Rome in the following year (99) on the 
 proposition of the tribune Q. Calidius. The orations 
 of Metellus are spoken of with praise by Cicero, 
 and they continued to be read with admiration in 
 the time of Fronto. — 11. Q. Caecilius Metellus 
 Nepos, son of Balearicus [No. 5], and grandson 
 of Macedonicus [No. 3], appears to have received 
 the surname of Nepos, because he was the eldest 
 gi-ardson of the latter. Metellus Nepos exerted 
 himself in obtaining the recall of his kinsman Me- 
 tellus Numidicus from banishment in 99^ and was 
 consul in 98, with T. Didius. In this year the 2 
 consuls carried the lex Caecilia Didia. ^12. Q. 
 Caecilius Metellus Pius, son of Numidicus 
 [No. 10], received the surname of Pius on account 
 of the love which he displayed for his father when 
 he besought the people to recall him from banish- 
 ment in 99. He was praetor 89, and was one of 
 the commanders in the Marsic or Social war. He 
 was still in arms in 87, prosecuting the war against 
 the Samnites, when Marius landed in Italy and 
 joined the consul Cinna. The senate, in alarm, 
 summoned Metellus to Rome; but as he was unable 
 to defend the city against Marius and Cinna, he 
 crossed over to Africa. After remaining in Africa 
 3 years he returned to Italy, and joined Sulla, 
 who also returned to Italy in 83. In the war 
 which followed against the Marian party, Metellus 
 was one of the most successful of Sulla's generals, 
 and gained several important victories both in 
 Umbria, and in Cisalpine Gaul. In 80, Metellus 
 was consul with Sulla himself; and in the following 
 year (79)^ he went as proconsul into Spain, in 
 order to prosecute the war against Sertorius, who 
 adhered to the Marian party. Here he remained 
 
 METELLUS. 
 
 UZ 
 
 for the next 8 years, and found it so difficult to 
 obtain any advantages over Sertorius, that the 
 senate sent Pompey to his assistance with procon- 
 sular power and another army. Sertorius, how- 
 ever, was a match for them both, and would pro- 
 bably have continued to defy all the efforts of 
 Metellus and Pompey, if he had not been murdered 
 by Perperna and his friends in 72. [Sertorius,] 
 Metellus was pontifex maximus, and, as he was 
 succeeded in this dignity by Julius Caesar in 63, 
 he must have died either in this year or at the end 
 of the preceding. — 13. Q. Caecilius Metellus 
 Celer, elder son of Nepos [No. 11.]. In 66 he 
 served as legate in the anny of Pompey in Asia; 
 and was praetor in 63, the year in which Cicero 
 was consul. During his year of office he afforded 
 warm and efficient support to the aristocratical 
 party. He prevented the condemnation of C. Ra- 
 birius by removing the military flag from the 
 Janiculum, He co-operated with Cicero in opposing 
 the schemes of Catiline ; and, when the latter left 
 the city to make war upon the republic, Metellus 
 had the charge of the Picentine and Senonian dis- 
 tricts. By blocking up the passes he prevented 
 Catiline from crossing the Apennines and pene- 
 trating into Gaul, and thus compelled him to turn 
 round and face Antonius, who was marching against 
 him from Etruria. In the following year, 62, 
 Metellus went with the title of proconsul into the 
 province of Cisalpine Gaul, which Cicero had re- 
 linquished because he was unwilling to leave the 
 city. In 60, Metellus was consul with L. Afranius, 
 and opposed all the efforts of his colleague to obtain 
 the ratification of Pompey's acts in Asia, and an 
 assignment of lands for his soldiers. He died in 
 59, and it was suspected that he had been poisoned 
 by his wife Clodia, with whom he lived on the 
 most unhappy terms, and who was a woman of the 
 utmost profligacy. ^ 14. Q. Caecilius Metellus 
 Wepos, younger son of the elder Nepos [No. 11.]. 
 He served as legate of Pompey in the war against 
 the pirates and in Asia from 67 to 64. He re- 
 turned to Rome in 63 in order to become a ciindi- 
 date for the tribunate, that he might thereby favour 
 the views of Pompey. His election was opposed 
 by the aristocracy, but without success. His year 
 of office was a stormy one. One of his first acts 
 in entering upon his office on the 10th of De- 
 cember, 63, was a violent attack upon Cicero. He 
 maintained that the man who had condemned 
 Roman citizens without a hearing ought not to be 
 heard himself, and accordingly prevented Cicero 
 from addressing the people on the last day of his 
 consulship, and only allowed him to take the usual 
 oath, whereupon Cicero swore that he had saved 
 the state. In the following year (62) Metellus 
 brought forward a bill to summon Pompey, v/ith 
 his army, to Rome, in order to restore peace, but 
 on the day on which the bill was to be read, the 
 two parties came to open blows; and Metellus was 
 obliged to take to flight. He repaired to Pompey, 
 with whom he returned to Rome in 61. He was 
 praetor in 60, and consul in 57 with P. Lentulus 
 Spinther. Notwithstanding his previous enmity 
 with Cicero, he did not oppose his recall from 
 exile. In 56 Metellus administered the province 
 of Nearer Spain, where he carried on war against 
 the Vaccaei. He died in 55. Metellus did not 
 adhere strictly to the political principles of his 
 family. He did not support the aristocracy, like 
 his brother; nor, on the other hand, can he be said 
 
444 
 
 METELLUS. 
 
 to have been a leader of the democracy. He was 
 in fact little more than a servant of Porapey, and 
 according to his bidding at one time opposed, and 
 at another supported Cicero. —15. Q. Caecilius 
 Metellus Pius Scipio, the adopted son of Metellus 
 Pius [No. 12.]. He was the son of P. Scipio 
 Nasica, praetor 94. Hence his name is given in 
 ■various forms. Sometimes he is called P. Scipio 
 Nasica, sometimes Q. Metellus Scipio, and some- 
 times simply Scipio or Metellus. He was tribune 
 of the plebs in 59, and was a candidate for the con- 
 sulship along with Plautius Hypsaeus and Mile in 
 S3. He was supported by the Clodian mob, since 
 he was opposed to Milo, but in consequence of the 
 disturbances in the city, the comitia could not be 
 held for the election of consuls. After the murder 
 of Clodius at the beginning of 52, Pompey was 
 elected sole consul- In the course of the same 
 year Pompey married Cornelia, the daughter of 
 Scipio, and on the 1st of August he made his 
 father-in-law his colleague in the consulship. Scipio 
 showed his gratitude by using every effort to 
 destroy the power of Caesar and strengthen that 
 of Pompey. He took an active part in all the 
 proceedings, which led to the breaking out of the 
 civil war in 49 ; and in the division of the provinces, 
 made among the Pompeian party, he obtained 
 Syria to which he hastened without delay. After 
 plundering the province in the most unmerciful 
 manner, he crossed over into Greece in 43 to join 
 Pompey. He commanded the centre of the Pom- 
 peian army at the battle of Pharsalia. After the 
 loss of the battle he fled, first to Corcyra and then 
 to Africa, where he received the chief command of 
 the Pompeian troops. He was defeated by Caesar 
 at the decisive battle of Thapsus in 46. He at- 
 tempted to escape by sea, but his squadron having 
 been overpowered by P. Sittius, he put an end to 
 his own life. Metellus Scipio never exhibited any 
 proofs of striking abilities either in war or in 
 peace. In public, he showed himself cruel, vin- 
 dictive, and oppressive ; in private, he was mean, 
 avaricious, and licentious, even beyond most of 
 his contemporaries. ■— 16. Q. Caecilius Metellus 
 Creticus, was consul 69^ and carried on war against 
 Crete, which he subdued in the course of 3 years. 
 He returned to Rome in 66^ but was unable to 
 obtain a triumph in consequence of the opposition 
 of Pompey, to whom he had refused to siu:render 
 his command in Crete, which Pompey had claimed 
 in virtue of the Gabinian law, which had given 
 him the supreme command in the whole of the 
 Mediterranean. Metellus, however, would not 
 relinquish hia claim to a triumph, and accordingly 
 resolved to wait in the neighbourhood of the city 
 till more favourable circumstances. He was still 
 before the city in 63, when the conspiracy of 
 Catiline broke out. He was sent into Apulia to 
 prevent an apprehended rising of the slaves ; and 
 in the following year, 62, after the death of Cati- 
 line, he was at length permitted to make his 
 triumphal entrance into Rome, and received the 
 surname of Creticus. Metellus, as was to be ex- 
 pected, joined the aristocracy in their opposition 
 to Pompey, and succeeded in preventing the latter 
 from obtaining the ratification of his acts in Asia. 
 —17. L. Caecilius Metellus, brother of the last, 
 was praetor 71, and as propraetor succeeded Verres 
 in the government of Sicily in 70. He defeated 
 the pirates, and compelled them to leave the island. 
 His administration is praised by Cicero; but he 
 
 METIS. 
 
 nevertheless attempted, in conjunction with his 
 brothers, to shield Verres from justice. He was 
 consul 68 with Q. Marcius Rex, but died at the 
 beginning of the year.^18. M. Caecilius Metellus, 
 brother of the 2 last, was praetor 69^ in the same 
 year that his eldest brother was consul. The lot 
 gave him the presidency in the court de pecnniis 
 repeiundis^ and Verres was very anxious that his 
 trial should come on before Metellus. — 19. L. 
 Caecilius Metellus Creticus, was tribune of the 
 plebs, 49, and a warm supporter of the aristocrac}''. 
 He did not fly from Rome with Pompey and the 
 rest of his party; and he attempted to prevent Caesar 
 from taking possession of the sacred treasury, and. 
 only gave way upon being threatened with death. 
 
 Methana, [Methone, No. 4.] 
 
 Metharme (Me0ap;ti7/), daughter of king Pyg- 
 malion, and wife of Cinyras. See Cinyras. 
 
 Methone (MeBwvn : Meduvatos). 1. Or Mothone 
 (Mo9a>v7): Modon)^ a town at the S. W. corner of 
 Messenia, with an excellent harbour, protected 
 from the sea b}"- a reef of rocks, of which the largest 
 was called Mothon. The ancients regarded Me- 
 thone as the Pedasus of Homer. After the conquest 
 of Messenia, it became one of the Lacedaemonian 
 harbours, and is mentioned as such in the Pelo- 
 ponnesian war. The emperor Trajan conferred 
 several privileges upon the city. — 2. {Eleuiliero- 
 khori\ a Greek town in Macedonia on the Therraaic 
 gulf, 40 stadia N. E. of Pydna, was founded by 
 the Eretrians, and is celebrated from Philip having 
 lost an eye at the siege of the place. After its 
 capture by Philip it was destroyed, but was sub- 
 sequently rebuilt, and is mentioned by Strabo as 
 one of the towns of Macedonia. — 3. A town-"in 
 Thessaly mentioned by Homer, but does not occur 
 in historical times. The ancients placed it in 
 Magnesia. — 4. Or Methaua (Me^aya: Methana 
 or Mitone), an ancient town in Argolis, situated on 
 a peninsula of the same name, opposite the island 
 of Aegina, The peninsula runs a considerable way 
 into the sea, and is connected with the mainland 
 by a narrow isthmus, lying between the towns of 
 Troezen and Epidaurus. The town of Methana 
 lay at the foot of a mountain of volcanic origin. 
 
 Methora (Me'eopa, M6Soupa i} twv @ewt/ : Ma- 
 tra, the sacred city of Krishna), a city of India 
 intra Gangem, on the river Jomanes (Jumna), in 
 the territory of the Surasenae, a tribe subject to 
 the Prasii. It was a great seat of the worship of 
 the Indian god whom the Greeks identified with 
 Hercules. 
 
 Methynma (^ MtJOujuco, Mefly^ut^a, the former 
 generally in the best writers ; also on coins the 
 Aeolic form 'Mddvfiva : MriOvfj-vatoSj MsQvfivaios : 
 Molivo), the second city of Lesbos, stood at the 
 north extremity of the island, and had a good 
 harbour. It was the birthplace of the musician 
 and dithyrarabic poet Arion, and of the historian 
 Hellanicus. The celebrated Lesbian wine grew 
 in its neighbourhood. In the Peloponnesian war 
 it remained faithful to Athens, even during the 
 great Lesbian revolt [Mytilenk] : afterwards it 
 was sacked by the Spartans (b. c. 406) and. never 
 quite recovered its prosperity. 
 
 Metion (MTjTioj:'), son of Erechtheus and Praxi- 
 thea, and husband of Alcippe. His sons, the 
 Metionidae, expelled their cousin Pandion from 
 his kingdom of Athens, but were themselves after- 
 wards expelled by the sons of Pandion. 
 
 Metis (Mi^Tis), the personification of prudence. 
 
METIUS. 
 
 3s described as a daughter of Oceanus and Tethys, 
 and the Ist wife of Zeus. Afraid lest she should 
 give birth to a child wiser and more powerful than 
 himself, Zeus devoured her in the first month of 
 her pregnancy. Afterwards he gave birth to 
 Athena, who sprang from his head. [See p. 101, a.J 
 
 Metius. [Mettius.] 
 
 Meton (Meraii'), an astronomer of Athens, who, 
 in conjunction with Euctemon, introduced the 
 cycle of 1.9 years, by which he adjusted the course 
 of the sun and moon, since he had observed that 
 235 lunar months correspond very nearly to 19 
 solar years. The commencement of this cycle has 
 been placed B. c. 432. We have no details of 
 Meton's life, with the exception that his father's 
 name was Pausanias, and that he feigned insanity 
 to avoid sailing for Sicily in the ill-fated expe- 
 dition of which he is stated to have had an evil 
 presentiment. 
 
 Metrodoms (M-qTpSdcapos). 1. Of Cos, son of 
 Epichannus, and grandson of Thyrsus. Like 
 several of that family, he addicted himself partly 
 to the study of the Pythagorean philosophy, partly 
 to the science of medicine. He wrote a treatise 
 upon the works of Epicharmus. He flourished 
 about B.C. 460. "^2. Of Lampsacus, a contempo- 
 rary and friend of Anaxagoras. He wrote on 
 Homer, the leading feature of his system of inter- 
 pretation being that the deities and stories in 
 Homer were to be understood as allegorical modes 
 of representing physical powers and phenomena. 
 He died 464.-3. Of Chios, a disciple of Demo- 
 critus, or, according to other accounts, of Nessus 
 of Chios, flourished about 330. He was a phi- 
 losopher of considerable reputation, and professed 
 the doctrine of the sceptics in their fullest sense. 
 He also studied, if he did not practise, medi- 
 cine, on which he wrote a good deal. He was 
 the instructor of Hippocrates and Anaxarchus. 
 — 4. A native of Lampsacus or Athens, was the 
 most distinguished of the disciples of Epicurus, 
 with whom he lived on terms of the closest friend- 
 ship. He died 277, in the 53rd year of his age, 
 7 years before Epiciurus, who would liave appointed 
 him his successor had he survived him. The phi- 
 losophy of Metrodorus appears to have been of a 
 more grossly sensual kind than that of Epicurus. 
 Perfect happiness, according to Cicero's account, 
 he made to consist in having a well-constituted 
 body. He found fault with his brother Timocrates 
 for not admitting that the belly was the test and 
 measure of every thing that pertained to a happy 
 life. He was the author of several works, quoted 
 by the ancient writers. ^ 6. Of Scepsis, a philo- 
 sopher, who was raised to a position of great in- 
 fluence and tnist by Mithridates Eupator, being 
 appointed supreme judge without appeal even to 
 the kin-T. Subsequently he was led to desert his 
 allegiance, when sent by Mithridates on an em- 
 bassy to Tigranes, king of Armenia. Tigranes 
 sent him back to Mithridates, but he died on the 
 road. According to some accounts he was de- 
 spatched by order of the king ; according to others 
 he died of disease. He is frequently mentioned 
 bv Cicero ; he seems to have been particularly 
 celebrated for his powers of memory. In conse- 
 quence of his hostility to the Romans he was sur- 
 named the Roman-hater.'— *Q. Of Stratonice in 
 Caria, was at first a disciple of the school of Epi- 
 curus, but afterwards attached himself to Car- 
 neades. He flourished about 110. 
 
 MICIPSA. 
 
 445 
 
 Metropolis (MJirpfJiroXts). 1. The most an- 
 cient capital of Phrygia, but in historical times 
 an inconsiderable place. Its position is doubtful. 
 Some identify it with Jfionm-Kara-Bisar near 
 the centre of Great Phrygia, which agrees well 
 enough with the position of the Campus Metro- 
 politanus of Livy (xxxviii. 15), while others find 
 it in the ruins at Pismesh-Kalcssi in the N. of 
 Phrygia, and suppose a second Metropolis in the 
 S., as that to which the Campus Metropolitanus 
 belonged.— 2. In Lydia (Turbali, Ru.), a city 
 in the plain of the Cayster, between Ephesus 
 and Smyrna, 120 stadia from the former and 200 
 from the latter. — There were other cities of Asia 
 BO called ; but they are either unimportant, or 
 better known by other names, such as Ancyra, 
 Bostra, Caesarea in Palestine, Edessa, and others.— 
 3. {Kasii-i), a town of Thessaly in Histiaeotis, near 
 the Peneus, and between Gomphi and Pharsalus, 
 formed by the union of several small towns, to 
 which Ithome also belonged. — 4. A town of 
 Acamania in the district Amphilochia, between the 
 Anibracian gulf and the river Achelous. 
 
 Metroum aft. Aulia {Mrjrpuov, on coins M^rpor, 
 AuA^a, AuXaia), a city of Bithynia. 
 
 Mettius or Metius. 1. Curtius, [Curtius.] 
 — 2. Pufietius, dictator of Alba in the reign of 
 Tullus Hostilius, third king of Rome. After the 
 combat between the Horatii and Curiatii had de- 
 termined the supremacy of the Romans, Mettius 
 was summoned to aid them in a war with Fidenae 
 and the Veientines. On the field of battle Mettius 
 drew off his Albans to the hills, and awaited the 
 issue of the battle. On the following day the 
 Albans were all deprived of their arms, and Met- 
 tius himself, as the punishment of his treachery, 
 was torn asmider by chariots driven in opposite 
 directions. 
 
 Hetulum, the chief town of the lapydes in 
 Iliyricum, was near the frontiers of Liburnia, and 
 was situated on 2 peaks of a steep mountain. 
 Augustus nearly lost his life in reducing this place, 
 the inhabitants of which fought against him with 
 the most desperate courage, 
 
 Mevania (Mevanas, atis : Berac/na), an ancient 
 city in the interior of Umbria on the river Tinea, 
 was situated on the road from Rome to Ancona in 
 a very fertile country, and was celebrated for its 
 breed of beautiful white oxen. It was a strongly 
 fortified place, though its walls were built only of 
 brick. According to some accounts Propertius was 
 a native of this place, 
 
 Mezentius (MetreVrios), king of the Tyrrhe- 
 nians or Etruscans, at Caere or Agylla, was ex- 
 pelled by his subjects on account of his cruelty, 
 and took refuge with Turnus, king of the Rutu- 
 lians, whom he assisted in the war against Aeneas 
 and the Trojans. Mezentius and his son Lausus 
 were slain in battle by Aeneas. This is the ac- 
 count of Virgil. Livy and Dionysius, however, 
 say nothing about the expulsion of Mezentius from 
 Caere, but represent him as an ally of Turnus, and 
 relate that Aeneas disappeared during the battle 
 against the Rutulians and Etruscans at Lanuviura. 
 Dionysius adds, that Ascanius was besieged by 
 Mezentius aud Lausus ; that the besieged in a 
 sally by night slew Lausus, and then concluded a 
 peace with Mezentius, who from henceforth con- 
 tinued to be their ally. 
 
 Micipsa (Mi;Ji//as), king of Numidia, tlie eldest 
 of the sons of Masiuissa. After the death of the 
 
446 
 
 MICON. 
 
 latter (b.c. 148), the sovereign power was divided 
 by Scipio between Micipaa and his two brothers, 
 Gulussa and Mastanabal, in such a manner that 
 the possession of Cirta, the capital of Numidia, 
 together with the financial administration of the 
 kingdom, fell to the share of Micipsa. It was not 
 long, however, before the death of both his brothers 
 left him in possession of the undivided sovereignty 
 of Numidia, which he held from that time without 
 interruption till his death. He died in 118, leav- 
 ing the kingdom to his 2 sons, Adberbal and 
 Hiempsal, and their adopted brother Jugurtha. 
 
 Micon (yiiKtav), of Athens, son of Phanochus, 
 was a very distinguished painter and statuary, 
 contemporary with Polygnotus, about b. c. 460. 
 
 Midaeum (MtSaeioi'), a city of Phrygia Epicte- 
 tus, between Dorylaeum and Pessinus ; the place 
 where Sextua Pompeius was captured by the 
 troops of Antony, b, c. 35, 
 
 Midas (MTSos), son of Gordius and C3'bele, is 
 said to have been a wealthy but effeminate king 
 of Phrygia, a pupil of Orpheus, and a great patron 
 of the worship of Dionysus. His wealth is alluded 
 to in a story connected with his childhood, for it is 
 said that while a child, ants carried grains of wheat 
 into his mouth, to indicate that one day he should 
 be the richest of all mortals. Midas was intro- 
 duced into the Satyric drama of the Greeks, and 
 was represented with the ears of a satyr, which 
 were afterwards lengthened into the ears of an 
 ass. He is said to have built the town of Ancyra, 
 and as king of Phrygia he is called Berecyntidus 
 Iteros (Ov. Met. xi. 1 06). There are several stories 
 connected with Midas, of which the following are 
 the most celebrated. 1. Silenus, the companion 
 and teacher of Dionysus, had gone astray in a 
 state of intoxication, and was caught by country 
 people in the rose gardens of Midas. He w.is 
 bound with wreaths of flowers and led before the 
 king. These gardens were in Macedonia, near 
 Mount Bermionor Bromion, where Midas was king 
 of the Briges, with whom he afterwards emigrated to 
 Asia, where their name was changed into Pliryges. 
 Midas received Silenus kindly ; and, after treating 
 him with hospitality, he led him back to Dionysus, 
 who allowed Midaa to ask a favour of him. Midas in 
 his folly desired that all things which he touched 
 should be changed into gold. The request was 
 granted ; but as even the food which he touched 
 became gold, he implored the god to take his 
 favour back. Dionysus accordingly ordered him 
 to bathe in the source of Pactolus near Mount 
 Tmolus. This bath saved Midas, but the river 
 from th:it time had an abundance of gold in its 
 sand — 2. Midas, -who was himself related to the 
 race of Satyrs, once had a visit from a Satyr, who 
 indulged in all kinds of jokes at the king's ex- 
 pence. Thereupon Midas mixed wine in a well ; 
 and when the Satyr had drunk of it, he fell asleep 
 and was caught. This well of Midas was at dif- 
 ferent times assigned to different localities. Xeno- 
 phon {Anah. i. 2. § 13) places it in the neighbour- 
 hood of Thymbrium and Tyraeura, and Pausanias 
 at Ancyra. — 3. Once when Pan and Apollo were 
 engaged in a musical contest on the flute and lyre, 
 Midas was chosen to decide between them. The 
 king decided in favour of Pan, whereupon Apollo 
 changed his ears into those of an ass. Midas 
 contrived to conceal them under his Phrygian cap, 
 but the servant who used to cut his hair discovered 
 them. The secret so much harassed this man. 
 
 MILETUS. 
 
 ' that as he could not betray it to a human being, 
 he dug a hole in the earth, and whispered into it, 
 " King Midas has ass's ears." He then filled the 
 hole up again, and his heart was released. But on 
 the same spot a reed grew up, which in its whis- 
 pers betrayed the secret. Midas is said to have 
 killed himself by drinking the blood of an ox. 
 
 Midea or Midea (MiSeia, MiSe'a : MiSectTT/s), a 
 town in Argolis, of uncertain site, is said to have 
 been originally called Persepolis, because it had 
 been fortified by Perseus. It was destroyed by 
 the Argives. 
 
 Midianitae. [Madianitae]. 
 
 Midias ( MeiSfas), an Athenian of wealth and 
 influence, was a violent enemy of Demosthenes, 
 the orator. In b. c. 354 Midias assaulted De- 
 mosthenes when he was discharging the duties of 
 Choregus, during the celebration of the great Dio- 
 nysia. Demosthenes brought an accusation against 
 Midias ; but the speech, which he wrote for the 
 occasion, and which is extant, was never published, 
 since Demosthenes dropped the accusation, in con- 
 sequence of his receiving the sum of 30 minae. 
 
 Mieza (Mi'efa: MiefeiJs), a town of Macedonia 
 in Emathia, S.W. of Pella, and not far from the 
 frontiers of Thessaly. 
 
 Unazuon (MciAewW), son of Amphidamas, 
 and husband of Atalanta. For details, see Ata- 
 
 LANTA. 
 
 MiIetop51is (MiXijrtJTroXis: Multalich, or Ha- 
 mamW? Ru.), a city of Mysia, in Asia Minor, 
 at the confluence of the river Rhyndacus and 
 Macestus, and somewhat E. of the lake which 
 was named after it, Lacus Miletopolitis (Mi\7;- 
 TOTToK'LTis AifxPT} I Lake of Alardyas). This lake, 
 which was also called Artynia, lies some miles 
 W. of the larger lake of ApoUonia {Ahullionte). 
 
 Miletopolis. [Borysthenes]. 
 
 Miletus (Mi'Atjtos), son of Apollo and Aria of 
 Crete. Being beloved by Minos and Sarpedon, he 
 attached himself to the latter, and fled from Minos 
 to Asia, where he built the city of Miletus. Ovid 
 {MctAxAil) calls him a son of Apollo and Deione, 
 and hence De'ionides. 
 
 Miletus (M f\77Toy, Dor. MiAaros : MiX-qa-ios, and 
 on inscriptions, Mu\-^(tios: Milesius), one of the 
 greatest cities of Asia Minor, belonged terri- 
 torially to Caria and politically to Ionia, being 
 the S.-most of the 12 cities of the Ionian con- 
 federac}'. It is mentioned by Homer as a Carian 
 city ; and one of its early names, Lelege'is, is 
 a sign that the Leleges also formed a part of 
 its population. Its first Greek colonists were 
 said to have been Cretans who were expelled 
 by Minos ; the next were led to it by Neleus 
 at the time of the sn-called Ionic migration. Its 
 name was derived from the mythical leader of 
 the Cretan colonists, Miletus : it was also called 
 Pityusa (niTuoiJo-a), and Anactoria (^kvaKTopia), 
 The city stood upon the S. headland of the Sinus 
 Latmicus, opposite to the mouth of the Maeander, 
 and possessed 4 distinct harbours, protected by a 
 group of islets, called Lade, Dromiscus, and Perne. 
 The city wall enclosed two distinct towns, called 
 the outer and the inner ; the latter, which was 
 also called Old Miletus, stood upon an eminence 
 overhanging the sea, and was of great strength. 
 Its territory extended on both sides of the Mae- 
 ander, as far apparently as the promontories of 
 Mycale on the N. and Posidiura on the S. It 
 was rich in flocks ; and the city was celebrated 
 
MILICHUS. 
 
 for its woollen fabrics, the MUesia vellera. At a 
 Tery early period it "became a great maritime state, 
 extending its commerce throughout the Mediter- 
 ranean, and even beyond the Pillars of Hercules, 
 but more especially in the direction of the Euxine, 
 along the shore of which the Milesians planted 
 several important colonies, such as Cyzicus, Sinope, 
 Abydos, Istropolis, Tomi, Olbia or Borysthenes, 
 ApoUonia, Odessus, and Panticapaeum. Nau- 
 cratis in Egypt was also a colony of Miletus. It 
 also occupies a high place in the early history 
 of Greek literature, as the birthplace of the phi- 
 losophers Thales, Anaximander, and Anaxime- 
 nes, and of the historians Cadmus and Heca- 
 taeus. After the rise of the Lydian monarchy, 
 Miletus, by its naval strength, resisted the attacks 
 of Alyattes and Sadyattes for 11 years, but fell be- 
 fore Croesus, whose success may perhaps be ascribed 
 to the intestine factions which for a long period 
 weakened the city. With the rest of Ionia, it was 
 conquered by Harpagus, the general of Cyrus, in 
 B. c. 557 ; and under the dominion of the Persians 
 it stiU retained its prosperity till the great Ionian 
 revolt, of which Miletus was the centre [Arista- 
 GORAS, HiSTiAEus], and after the suppression of 
 which it was destroyed by the Persians (b. c. 
 4^9i). It recovered sufficient importance to oppose 
 a vain resistance to Alexander the Great, which 
 brought upon it a second ruin. Under the Roman 
 empire it still appears as a place of some conse- 
 quence, until its final destruction by the Turks. 
 — Its ruins are difficult to discover, on account of 
 the great change made in the coast by the river 
 Maeander. [Maeander,] They are usually 
 supposed to be those at the wretched village of 
 Falatia, on the S. bank of the Mendereh^ a little 
 above its present mouth ; but Forbiger has shown 
 that these are more probably the ruins of Myus, 
 and that those of Miletus are buried in a lake 
 formed by the Mendereli at the foot of Mt, 
 Latmus. 
 
 Miliclitis, a Phoenician god, represented as the 
 eon of a satyr and of the nymph Myrlce, and with 
 horns on his head- (Sil. Ital. iii. 103.) 
 
 Miliclius (MeiAixo^? ^ small river in Acbaia, 
 which flowed by the town of Patrae, and is said 
 to have been originally called Amilichus {'A/x^i- 
 MX'^s) on account of the human victims sacrificed 
 on its banks to Artemis. 
 
 M51o or Milon {yii\wy). 1. Of Crotona, son of 
 Diotimus, an athlete, famous for his extraordinary 
 bodily strength. He was 6 times victor in wrestling 
 at the Olympic games, and as often at thjj Py- 
 thian ; but having entered the lists at Olympia a 
 7th time, he was worsted by the superior agility 
 of his adversar}'. By these successes he obtained 
 great distinction among his countrymen, so that he 
 was even appointed to command the army which 
 defeated the Sybarites, b. c. 511. Many stories 
 are related by ancient writers of Milo's extraordi- 
 nary feats of strength ; such as his carrying a 
 heifer of four years old on his shoulders through 
 the stadium at Olympia, and afterwards eating 
 the whole of it in a single day. The mode of his 
 death is thus related: as he was passing through 
 a forest when enfeebled by age, he saw the trunk 
 of a tree which had been partially split open by 
 woodcutters, and attempted to rend it further, but 
 the wood closed upon his hands, and thus held 
 him fast, in which state he was attacked and de- 
 voured by Tvolves.— 3. A general in the service 
 
 MILO. 
 
 447 
 
 of Pyrrhus king of Epirus, who sent him forward 
 with a body of troops to garrison the citadel of 
 Tarentum, previous to his own arrival in Italy. 
 When Pyrrhus finally quitted that country and 
 withdrew into Epirus, he still left Milo in charge 
 of the citadel of Tarentum, together with his son 
 Helenus. ^ 3. T. Annius Milo Papinianus, was 
 the son of C. Papius Celsus and Annia, and was 
 adopted by his maternal grandfather T. Annius 
 LuBcus. He was born at Lanuvium, of which place 
 he was in b. c. 53 dictator or chief magistrate. Milo 
 was a man of a daring and unscrupulous character ; 
 and as he was deeply in debt, he resolved to ob- 
 tain a wealthy province. For this purpose he 
 connected himself with the aristocracy. As tribune 
 of the plebs, b. c. 57, he took an active part in 
 obtaining Cicero''s recall from exile, and from this 
 tirne he carried on a fierce and memorable contest 
 with P. Clodius. In 53 Milo was candidate for 
 the consulship, and Clodius for the praetorshjp of 
 the ensuing year. Each of the candidates kept a 
 gang of gladiators, and there were frequent combats 
 between the rival ruffians in the streets of Rome. 
 At length, on the 20th of January, 52, Milo and 
 Clodius met apparently by accident at Bovillae on 
 the Appian road. An aifray ensued between their 
 followers, in which Clodius was slain. At Rome 
 such tumults followed upon the burial of Clodius, 
 that Pompey was appointed sole consul in order to 
 restore order to the state. Pompey immediately 
 brought forward various laws in connection with 
 the late disturbances. As soon as these were 
 passed, Milo was formally accused. All Pompey's 
 influence was directed against him ; but Milo was 
 not without hope, since the higher aristocracy, 
 from jealousy of Pompey, supported him, and 
 Cicero undertook his defence. His trial opened 
 on the 4th of April, 52. He was impeached on 
 3 counts — de Vi, de Amhitu^ or briberj% and dc 
 Sodalitiis, or illegal interference with the freedom of 
 elections. L. Doraitius Ahenobarbus, a consular, 
 was appointed quaesitor by a special law of Pom- 
 pey's, and all Rome and thousands of spectators 
 from Italy thronged the forum and its avenues. 
 But Milo's chances of acquittil were wholly marred 
 by the virulence of his adversaries, who insulted 
 and obstructed the witnesses, the process, and 
 the conductors of the defence. Pompey availed 
 himself of these disorders to line the forum and its 
 encompassing hills with soldiers. Cicero was in- 
 timidated, and Milo was condemned. Had he even 
 been acquitted on the 1st count, de Vi, the two 
 other charges of bribery and conspiracy awaited 
 him. He therefore went into exile. Cicero, who 
 could not deliver, re-wrote and expanded the de- 
 fence of Milo — the extant oration — and sent it 
 to him at Marseilles. Milo remarked, " I am glad 
 this was not spoken, since I must have been ac- 
 quitted, and then had never kno^vn the delicate 
 flavour of these Marseilles-mullets." Caesar re- 
 fused to recall Milo from exile in 49, when he 
 permitted many of the other exiles to return. In 
 the following year (48) M. Caelius, the praetor, 
 had, during Caesar's absence, promulgated a bill 
 for the adjustment of debts. Needing desperate 
 allies, Caelius accordingly invited Milo to Italy, 
 as the fittest tool for his purposes. At the head 
 of a band of criminals and run-away slaves, Milo 
 appeared in the S. of Italy, but was opposed by 
 the praetor Q. Pedius, and slain under the walls 
 of an obscure fort m the district of Thurii. Milo, 
 
448 
 
 MILTIADES. 
 
 in 57, married Fausta, a daughter of the dictator 
 ■Sulla. She proved a fuithless wife, and Sallust, 
 the historian, was soundly scourged by Milo for 
 an intrimie with her. 
 
 Miltiades (MiXridS-ns). 1. Son of Cypselus, 
 ■was a man of considerable distinction in Athens in 
 the time of Pisistratus. The Doloncians, a Thra- 
 cian tribe dwelling in the Chersonesus, being hard 
 pressed in war by the Absinthians, applied to the 
 Delphic oracle for advice, and were directed to 
 admit a colony led by the man who should be the 
 iirst to entertain them after they left the temple. 
 This was Miltiades, who, eager to escape from the 
 rule of Pisistratus, gladly took the lead of a colony 
 under the sanction of the oracle, and became 
 tyrant of the Chersonesus, which he fortified by a 
 wall built across its isthmus. In a war with the 
 people of Lampsacus he was taken prisoner, but 
 was set at liberty on the demand of Croesus. He 
 died without leaving any children, and his sove- 
 reignty passed into the hands of Stesagoras, the son 
 of his half-brother Cimon. Sacrifices and games 
 were instituted in his honour, in which no Lamp- 
 sacene was suffered to take part. —2. Son of Cimon 
 and brother of Stesagoras, became tyrant of the 
 Chersonesus on the death of the latter, being sent 
 out by Pisistratus from Athens to take possession 
 of the vacant inheritance. By a stratagem he got 
 the chief men of the Chersonesus into his power 
 and threw them into prison, and took a force of 
 mercenaries into his pay. In order to strengthen 
 his position still more, he married Hegesipyla, the 
 daughter of a Thracian prince named Olorus. He 
 joined Darius Hystaspis on his expedition against 
 the Scythians, and was left with the other Greeks 
 in charge of the bridge over the Danube. When 
 the appointed time had expired, and Darius had 
 not returned, Miltiades recommended the Greeks 
 to destroy the bridge and leave Darius to his fate. 
 Some time after the expedition of Darius an inroad 
 of the Scythians drove Miltiades from liis posses- 
 sions ; but after the enemy had retired the Dolon- 
 cians brought him back. It appears to have been 
 between this period and his withdrawal to Athens, 
 that Miltiades conquered and expelled the Pelas- 
 gian inhabitants of Lemnos and Irabros and sub- 
 jected the islands to the dominion of Attica. 
 Lemnos and Imbros belonged to the Persian do- 
 minions ; and it is probable that this encroach- 
 ment on the Persian possessions was the cause 
 which drew upon Miltiades the hostility of Darius, 
 and led him to fiy from the Chersonesus, when the 
 Plioenician fleet approached, after the subjugation 
 of Ionia. Miltiades reached Athens in safety, but 
 his eldest son Metiochus fell into the hands of the 
 Persians, At Athens Miltiades was arraigned, as 
 being amenable to the penalties enacted against 
 tyranny, but was acquitted. When Attica was 
 threatened with invasion by the Persians under 
 Datis and Artaphemes, Miltiades was chosen one 
 of the ten generals. Miltiades by his arguments 
 induced the polemarch Callimachus to give the 
 casting vote in favour of risking a battle with the 
 enemy, the opinions of the ten generals being 
 equally divided. Miltiades waited till his turn 
 came, and then drew his army up in battle array 
 on the ever memorable field of Marathon. [Ma- 
 rathon.] After the defeat of the Persians Mil- 
 tiades endeavoured to urge the Athenians to mea- 
 sures of retaliation, and induced them to entnist to 
 him an armament of 70 ships, without knowing the 
 
 MINAEI. 
 
 purpose for which they were designed. He pro- 
 ceeded to attack the island of Paros, for the pur- 
 pose of gratifying a private enmity. His attacks, 
 however, were unsuccessful ; and after receiving a 
 dangerous hurt in the leg, while penetrating into a 
 sacred enclosure on some superstitious errand, he 
 was compelled to raise the siege and return to 
 Athens, where he was impeached by Xanthippus 
 for having deceived the people. His wound had 
 turned into a gangrene, and being unable to plead 
 his cause in person, he was brought into court on 
 a couch, his brother Tisagoras conducting his de- 
 fence for him. He was condemned ; but on the 
 ground of liis services to the state the penalty was 
 commuted to a fine of 50 talents, the cost of tlie 
 equipment of the armament. Being unable to pay 
 this, he was thrown into prison, where he not long 
 after died of his wound. The fine was subsequently 
 paid by his son Cimon. 
 
 Milvius Pons. [Roma.] 
 
 Milyas (ij Mt\vd^ : MiA-i/m, Milyae), was origi- 
 nally the name of all Lycia ; but it was afterwards 
 applied to the high table land in the N, of L3'cia, 
 between the Cadmus and the Taurus, and extend- 
 ing considerably into Pisidia. Its people seem to 
 have been the descendants of the original inhal)it- 
 ants of Lycia. It contained a city of the same 
 name. After the defeat of Antiochus the Great, 
 the Romans gave it to Eumenes, king of Pergamus, 
 but its real government seems to have been in the 
 hands of Pisidian princes. 
 
 MimaUon (MiiJ.aWwi'), the Macedonian name 
 of the Bacchantes, or, according to others, of Bac- 
 chic Amazons. Ovid {Ars Am. i. 541) uses the 
 form Miraallonides. 
 
 Kimas (M(juas-), a giant, said to have been 
 killed by Ares, or by Zeus, with a flash of light- 
 ning. The island of Prochyte, near Sicily, was 
 believed to rest upon his body. 
 
 JMimnermus (Mifiyepp-os), a celebrated elegiac 
 poet, was generally called a Colophonian, but was 
 properly a native of Smyrna, and was descended 
 from those Colophonians who reconquered Smyrna 
 from the Aeolians. He flourished from about 
 B.C. 634 to 600, He was a contemporary of 
 Solon, who, in an extant fragment of one of his 
 poems, addresses him as still living. Only a 
 few fragments of the compositions of Mimnermus 
 have come down to us. They belong chiefly to 
 a poem entitled Nanno, and are addressed to the 
 flute-player of that name. The compositions of 
 Mimnermus form an epoch in the history of elegiac 
 poetry. Before his time the elegy had been de- 
 voted chiefly either to warlike or national, or to 
 convivial and joj'-ous subjects. Archilochus had, 
 indeed, occasionally employed the elegy for strains 
 of lamentation, but Mimnermus was the first who 
 systematically made it the vehicle for plaintive, 
 mournful, and erotic strains. The instability of 
 human happiness, the helplessness of man, the 
 cares and miseries to which life is exposed, the 
 brief season that man has to enjoy himself in, the 
 wretchedness of old age, are plaintively dwelt 
 upon by him, while love is held up as the only 
 consolation that men possess, life not being worth 
 having when it can no longer be enjoyed. The 
 latter topic was most frequently dwelt upon, and 
 as an erotic poet he was held in high estimation in 
 antiquity. (Hor. Bpist. ii. 2. 100.) The fragments 
 are published separately by Bach, Lips. 1826. 
 
 Minaei (Mi^'oToi), one of the chief peoples of 
 
MINAS. 
 
 Arabia, dwelt on the W. coast of Arabia Felix, 
 and in the interior of the peninsula, and carried 
 on a large trade in spices, incense, and the other 
 products of tlie land. 
 
 Minas Sabbatha (Melpas 2a&ctT0a), a fort in 
 Babylonia, built in the time of the later Roman 
 empire, on the site of Seleucia, which the Romans 
 had destroyed. 
 
 Mincius {Miiicio)^ a river in Gallia Transpa- 
 dana, flows throujrli the lake Benacus {Lugo di 
 Garda)^ and falls into the Po, a little below Mantua. 
 
 Miudarus (Mi;/5apos), a Lacedaemonian, suc- 
 ceeded Astyochus in tlie command of the Lacedae- 
 monian fleet, B. c. 411. He was defeated and slain 
 in battle by the Athenians near Cyzicus in the 
 following year. 
 
 Minerva, called Athena by the Greeks. The 
 Greek goddess is spoken of in a separate article. 
 [Athena.] Minerva was one of the great Ro- 
 man divinities. Her name seems to be of the 
 Bame root as mens; and she is accordingly the 
 thinking, calculating, and inventive power per- 
 sonified. Jupiter was the 1st, Juno the "2ud, and 
 Minerva the 3rd in the number of the Capitollne 
 divinities. Tarquin, the son of Demaratus, was 
 believed to have united the 3 divinities in one 
 common temple, and hence, when repasts were 
 prepared ibr the gods, these 3 always went toge- 
 ther. She was the daughter of Jupiter, and is 
 said to have sometimes wielded the thunderbolts of 
 her fatlier. As Minerva was a virgin divinity, 
 and her father the supreme god, the Romans easily 
 identified her with the Greek Athena, and accord- 
 ingly all the attributes of Athena were gradually 
 transferred to the Roman Minerva. But we con- 
 fine ourselves at present to those which were 
 peculiar to the Roman goddess. Being a maiden 
 goddess, her sacrifices consisted of calves which 
 had not home the yoke. She is said to have in- 
 vented numbers ; and it is added that the law 
 respecting the driving in of the annual nail was 
 for this reason attached to the temple of Minerva. 
 She was worshipped as the patroness of all the 
 arts and trades, and at her festival she was parti- 
 cularly invoked by all who desired to distinguish 
 themselves in any art or craft, such as painting, 
 poetry, the art of teaching, medicine, dyeing, sjiin- 
 ning, weaving, and the like. This character of the 
 goddess may be perceived also from the proverbs 
 *■• to do a thing pingui IMiiiPA-va^'*'' i. e. to do a thing 
 in an awkward or clumsy manner ; and sus Mi- 
 nervavij of a stupid person who presumed to set 
 right an intelligent one. Minerva, however, was 
 the patroness, not only of females, on wiiom she 
 conferred skill in sewing, spinning, weaving, &c., 
 but she also guided men in the dangers of war, 
 ■where victory is gained by cunning, prudence, 
 courage, and perseverance. Plence she was repre- 
 sented with a helmet, shield, and a coat of mail ; 
 and the booty made in war was frequently dedi- 
 cated to her. Minerva was further believed to he 
 the inventor of musical instruments, especially 
 ivind instruments, the use of which was very im- 
 portant in religious worship, and which were ac- 
 cordingly subjected to a sort of purification every 
 year on the last day of the festival of Minerva. 
 This festival lasted 5 days, from the 19th to the 
 23rd of March, and was called Quinqiiatrus, because 
 it began on the 5th day after the ides of the month. 
 This number of days was not accidental, for we 
 are told that the number 5 was sacred to Minerva, 
 
 MINOS. 
 
 449 
 
 I Tfic most ancient temple of Minerva at Rome was 
 probablj' that on the Capitol ; another existed on the 
 Aventine ; and she had a chapel at the foot of the 
 Caelian hill, where she bore the surname of Capta. 
 
 Minervae Arx or Minervinm (Casiro), a ItiU 
 on the coast of Calabria, where Aeneas is said to 
 have landed. 
 
 Minervae Promontorium (Punla della Campa- 
 nella or della Minerva)^ a rocky promontory in 
 Campania, running out a long way into the sea, 6 
 miles S.E. of Surrentum, on whose summit was a 
 temple of Minerva, which was said to have been 
 built by Ulysses, and which was still standing in 
 the time of Seneca. Here the Sirens are reported 
 to have dwelt. The Greeks regarded it as the 
 N.W. boundary of Oenoti'ia. 
 
 Minio {Mignone)^ a small river in Etruria, 
 which rises near Satrium, and falls into the Tyr- 
 rhene sea between Graviscae and Centum Celiac. 
 
 Mining (A/mho), a river in the N.W. of Spain, 
 rises in the Cantabrian mountains in the N. of 
 Gallaecia, and falls into the ocean. It was also 
 called Baenis, and derived its name of Minius 
 from the minium, or vermilion carried down by its 
 waters. 
 
 Minoa (MiyoJa). 1. A small island in the Saronic 
 gulf, off the coast of Megaris, and opposite a pro- 
 montory of the same name, was united to the 
 mainland by a bridge, and formed, with the pro- 
 montory, the harbour of Nisaea. [See p. 429.] 
 ^2. A town on the E. coast of Laconia, and on 
 a promontory of the same name, N.E. of Epidau- 
 rns Limera. ^3. A town on the W. part of the 
 N. coast of Crete, between the promontories Dre- 
 panum and Psacum. — 4. A town on the E. part 
 of the N. coast of Crete, belonging to the territonr 
 of Lyctus, and situated on the narrowest part of' 
 the island. — 5, A town in Sicily. See Heiiaclea. 
 Minoa. 
 
 Minos (MtVoJs). 1. Son of Zeus and Eviropa,. 
 brother of Rhadamanthus, was the king and legis- 
 lator of Crete. After his death he became one of 
 the judges of the shades in Hades. He was the - 
 father of Deucalion and Ariadne ; and, according 
 to Apollodorus, the brother of Sarpedon. Some 
 traditions relate that Minos married Itone, daugh- 
 ter of Lyctius, by whom he had a son, Lycastus, . 
 and that the latter became, by Ida, the daughter 
 of Cnrybas, the father of another Minos. But it . 
 should be observed, that Homer and Hesiod know 
 only of one Minos, the ruler of Cnossus, and the 
 son and friend of Zeus ; and that they relate nearly 
 the same things about him which later traditions 
 assign to a second Minos, the grandson of the 
 former. In this case, as in many other mythical, 
 traditions, a rationalistic criticism attempted to- 
 solve contradictions and difficulties in the stories' 
 about a person, by assuming that the contradictory 
 accounts must refer to two dilferent personages. 
 — 2. Grandson of the former, and a son of Lv- 
 castus and Ida, ^vas likewise a king and law- 
 giver of Crete. He is described as the husband of 
 Pasiphae, a daughter of Helios ; and as the father 
 of Catreus, Deucalion, Glaucus, Androgeus, Acalle, 
 Xenodice, Ariadne, and Phaedra. After the death 
 of Asterius, Minos aimed at the supremacy of 
 Crete, and declared that it was destined to him by 
 the gods ; in proof of which, he asserted that the 
 gods always answered his prayers. Accordingly, 
 as he was oflfering up a sacrifice to Poseidon, he 
 prayed that a bull might come forth from the sea, 
 
 G 6 
 
450 
 
 MINOTAURUS. 
 
 and promised to sacrifice the animal. The bull 
 appeared, and Minos became king of Crete. 
 (Others say that Minos disputed the government 
 ■with his brother, Sai*pedon, and conquered.) But 
 Minos, who admired the beauty of the bull, did 
 not sacrifice him, and substituted another in his 
 place. Poseidon therefore rendered the bull furious, 
 and made Pasiphae conceive a passion for the 
 animal. Daedalus enabled Pasiphae to gratify 
 her passion, and she became by the bull the 
 mother of the Minotaurus, a monster with a 
 himnan body and a bull's head, or, according to 
 others, with a bull's body and a human head. 
 The monster was kept in the labyrinth at Cnossus, 
 constructed by Daedalus. Daedalus fled from 
 Crete to escape the wrath of Minos and took re- 
 fuge in Sicily. Minos followed him to Sicily, 
 and was there slain by Cocalus and his daughters. 
 — Minos is further said to have divided Crete into 
 3 parts, and to have ruled 9 years. The Cretans 
 traced their legal and political institutions to 
 Minos. He is said to have been instructed in the 
 art of lawgiving by Zeus himself ; and the Spartan, 
 Lycurgus, was believed to have taken the legis- 
 lation of Minos as his model. In his time Crete 
 ■was a powerful maritime state ; and Minos not 
 only checked the piratical pursuits of his contem- 
 poraries, but made himself master of the Greek 
 islands of the Aegean. The most ancient legends 
 describe Minos as a just and wise law-giver, 
 whereas the later accounts represent him as an 
 unjust and cruel tyrant. In order to avenge the 
 ■wrong done to his son Androgens [Androgeus] 
 at Athens, he made war against the Athenians 
 and Megarians. He subdued Megara, and com- 
 pelled the Athenians either every year or every 9 
 years, to send him as a tribute 7 youths and 7 
 maidens, who were devoured in the labyrinth by 
 the Minotam:us. The monster -was slain by 
 Theseus. 
 
 Minotauras. [Minos.] 
 
 Mintha (M.ivd7}), a daughter of Cocytus, beloved 
 by Hades, was metamorphosed by Deraeter or 
 Persephone into a plant called after her mintlia^ 
 or mint. In the neighbourhood of Pylos there was 
 a hill called after her, and at its foot there was a 
 temple of Pluto, and a grove of Demeter. 
 
 liintlie (MiV07j : Vunuka)^ a mountain of Elis 
 in Triphylia, near Pylos. 
 
 Mintumae (Mintumensis: Trajetta\ an im- 
 portant town in Latium, on the frontiers of Cam- 
 pania, was situated on the Appia Via, and on 
 both banks of the Liris, and near the mouth of 
 this river. It was an ancient town of the Ausones 
 or Aurunci, but surrendered to the Romans of its 
 own accord, and received a Roman colony b. c. 
 296. It was subsequently recolonised by Julius 
 Caesar. In its neighbourhood was a grove aacred 
 to the nymph Marica, and also extensive marshes 
 (Palitdes Mintumenses\ formed by the overflowing 
 of the river Liris, in which Marius was taken 
 prisoner. [See p. 418, a.] The neighbourhood of 
 Mintumae produced good wine. There are the 
 ruins of an amphitheatre and of an aqueduct at the 
 modem Trajelta. 
 
 Minuciauxia {KivovKiav6s), 1. A Greek rhe- 
 torician, was a contemporary of the celebrated 
 rhetorician Hermogenes of Tarsus (fl. a. D. 170), 
 with whom he ■was at variance. ^2. An Athenian, 
 the son of Nicagoras, was also a Greek rhetorician, 
 and Kved in the reign of Gallienus (a. d. 260 — 
 
 MINYAS. 
 
 268), He was the author of several rhetorical 
 works, and a portion of his Tkxv] Pfiropuci] is ex- 
 tant, and is published in the 9th volume of Walz's 
 Rhetores Gracci. 
 
 Minucius Augnnnus. [Augurinup.] 
 
 Miniicius Basilus. [Basilus.] 
 
 Minucius Eufus. 1. M., consul b. c. 221, when 
 he carried on war against the Istrians. In 217 
 he was maglster equltum to the dictator Q. Fabius 
 Maximus. The cautious policy of Fabius dis- 
 pleased Minucius ; and accordingly when Fabius 
 was called away to Rome, Minucius disobeyed 
 the positive commands of the dictator, and risked 
 a battle with a portion of Hannibal's troops. He 
 was fortunate enough to gain a victory ; in conse- 
 quence of which he became so popular at Rome, 
 that a bill was passed, giving him equal military 
 power with the dictator. The Roman army was 
 now divided, and each portion encamped separately 
 under its own general. Anxious for distinction, 
 Minucius eagerly accepted a battle which was of- 
 fered him by Hannibal, but was defeated, and his 
 troops were only saved from total destruction by 
 the timely arrival of Fabius, with all his forces. 
 Thereupon Minucius generously acknowledged his 
 error, gave up his separate command, and placed 
 himself again under the authority of the dictator. 
 He fell at the battle of Cannae in the following 
 year. — 2. Q,., plebeian aedile 201, praetor 200, 
 and consul 197, when he carried on war against 
 the Boii with, success. In 189 he was one of the 
 10 commissioners sent into Asia after the conquest 
 of Antiochus the Great ; and in 183 he was one of 
 the 3 ambassadors sent into Gaul.— 3. M., praetor 
 197-^4, M., tribune of the plebs 121, brought 
 forward a bill to repeal the laws of C, Gracchus. 
 This Marcus Minucius and his brother Quintus 
 are mentioned as arbiters between the inhabitants 
 of Genua and the Viturii, in a very interesting in- 
 scription, which was discovered in the year 1506, 
 about 10 miles from the modern city of Genoa. ^ 
 5. Q. , consul 110, obtained Macedonia as his 
 province, caixied on war with success against the 
 barbarians in Thrace, and triumphed on his return 
 to Rome. He perpetuated the memory of his 
 triumph by building the Porticus Minucia, near 
 the Circus Flaminlus. 
 
 Minucius Felix. [Felix.] 
 
 Minyae (Mcuat), an ancient Greek race, who 
 originally dwelt in Thessaly. lolcos, in Thessaly, 
 was one of their most ancient seats. Their an- 
 cestral hero, MInyas, is said to have migrated from 
 Thessaly into the N. of Boeotia, and there to have 
 established the empire of the Minyae, with the ca- 
 pital of Orchomenos. [Orchomenos.] As the 
 greater part of the Argonauts were descended from 
 the Minyae, they are themselves called Minyae. The 
 descendants of the Argonauts founded a colony in 
 Lemnos, called Minyae. Thence they proceeded 
 to Elis Triphylia, and to the island of Thera. 
 
 Minyas (Mivi/as), son of Chryses, and the 
 ancestral hero of the race of the Minyae. The 
 accounts of his genealogy vary very much in the 
 diiferent traditions, for some call him a son of 
 Orchomenus or Eteocles, others of Poseidon, Aleus, 
 Ares, Sisyphus, or Halmus. He is further called 
 the husband of Tritogenia, Clytodoro, or Phano- 
 syra. Orchomenus, Presbon, Athamas, Diochthon- 
 das, Eteoclymene, Periclymene, Leucippe, Arsinoe, 
 and Alcathoe or Alcithoe, are mentioned as his 
 children. His tomb was shown at Orchomenos 
 
MIROBRIGA. 
 
 in Boeotia. A daughter of Mmyas was called 
 Mi-nyeias {-iXdis) or Mintis {-Xdis). (See Ov. Met. 
 iv. 1. 32.) 
 
 MiTobriga. 1. A town of the Celtici in Lusi- 
 tania, on the coast of the ocean. — 2. A Roman 
 municipium in the territory of the Turduli, in 
 Hispania Baetica, on the road from Emerita to 
 Caesaraugusta. 
 
 Miseamn. {Punta di Miscno\ a promontory in 
 Campania, S. of Cumae, said to have derived its 
 name from Misenus, the companion and trumpeter 
 of Aeneas, who was drowned and buried here. 
 The bay formed by this promontory was converted 
 by Augustus into an excellent harbour, and was 
 made the principal station of the Roman fleet on 
 the Tyrrhene sea, A town sprung up around the 
 harbour, and here the admiral of the fleet usually 
 resided. The inhabitants were called Misenates 
 and Misenenses. The Roman nobles had pre- 
 viously built vilhia on the coast. Here was the 
 villa of C. Marios, which was piu'chased by Lu- 
 culius, and which afterwards passed into the hands 
 of the emperor Tiberius, who died at this place. 
 
 Misitheus, the father-in-law of the emperor 
 Gordian III., who married his daughter Sabinia 
 Tranquillina in a. d. 241. Misitheus was a man 
 of learning, virtue, and ability. He was appointed 
 by his son-in-law praefect of the praetorians, and 
 effected many important reforms in the ro3'al 
 household. He accompanied Gordian in his expe- 
 dition against the Persians, whom he defeated ; 
 but in the course of this war he was cut off" either 
 by disease, or by the treachery of his successor 
 Philippus, 243. 
 
 Mithras (MWpas), tlie god of the sun among 
 the Persians. About the time of the Roman em- 
 perors his worship was introduced at Rome, and 
 thence spread over all parts of the empire. The 
 god is commonly represented as a handsome youth, 
 wearing the Phrygian cap and attire, and kneeling 
 on a bull which is thrown on the ground, and 
 whose throat he is cutting. The binl is at the 
 same time attacked by a dog, a, serpent, and a 
 scorpion. This group appears frequently among 
 ancient works of art, and a fine specimen is pre- 
 served in the British Museum, 
 
 Hitbridates or Mithradates (Mi0/}£SaT7i; or 
 Mt0pa5aT7)s),a common name among the Medes and 
 Persians, derived from Milra or Mlthra, the Per- 
 sian name for the sun, and the root da, signifying 
 "to give." Mithridates would therefore mean, 
 *' given by the sun." 1. 1. King, or, more properly, 
 satrap of Pontus, was son of Ariobarzanes I., and 
 was succeeded by Ariobarzanes II,, about B.C. 
 363. The kings of Pontus claimed to be lineally 
 descended from one of the 7 Persians who had 
 conspired against the Magi, and who was subse- 
 quently established by Darius Hystaspis in the 
 government of the countries bordering on the 
 Euxine sea. Very little is known of their history 
 until after the fall of the Persian empire. — 2. II. 
 King of Pontus (337 — 302), succeeded his father 
 Ariobarzanes II., and was the founder of the in- 
 dependent kingdom of Pontus. After the death 
 of Alexander the Great, he was for a time subject 
 to Antigonus ; but during the war between the 
 successors of Alexander, he succeeded in establish- 
 ing his independence. He died at the age of 84. 
 — 3. III. King of Pontus (302—266), son and 
 successor of the preceding. He enlarged his pa- 
 ternal dominions by the acquisition of great part 
 
 MITHRIDATES. 
 
 451 
 
 of Cappadocia and Paphlagonia. He was suc- 
 ceeded by his son Ariobarzanes 111.^4. TV. 
 King of Pontus (about 240 — 190), son and suc- 
 cessor of Ariobarzanes III. He gave his daughter 
 Laodice in marriage to Antiochus III. He was 
 succeeded by his son Pharnaces I. — 5. V. King 
 of Pontus (about 156—120), sumamed Euer- 
 getes, son and successor of Pharnaces I. He was 
 the first of the kings of Pontus who made an 
 alliance with the Romans, whom he assisted in 
 the 3rd Punic war and in the war against Aristo- 
 nicus (131 — 129). He was assassinated at Sinope 
 by a conspiracy among his own immediate at- 
 tendants.— 6. VI. King of Pontus (120—63), 
 sumamed Eupator, also Dionysus, but more 
 commonly tbe Great, was the son and successor 
 of the preceding, and was only 11 years old at 
 the period of his accession. We have very imper- 
 fect information concerning the earlier years of his 
 reign, and much of what has been transmitted to 
 VM wears a very suspicious aspect. We are told 
 that immediately on ascending the throne he found 
 himself assailed by the designs of his guardians, 
 but that he succeeded hi eluding all their machina- 
 tions, partly by displaying a courage and address 
 in warlike exercises beyond his years, partly by 
 the use of antidotes against poison, to which he 
 began thus early to accustom himself. In order 
 to evade the designs formed against his life, he 
 also devoted much of his time to hunting, and 
 took refuge in the remotest and most unfrequented 
 regions, under pretence of pursuing the pleasures 
 of the chase. Whatever truth there may be in 
 these accounts, it is certain that when he attained 
 to manhood, he was not only endowed with con- 
 summate skill in all martial exercises, and pos- 
 sessed of a bodily frame inured to all hardships, 
 as well as a spirit to brave every danger, but his 
 naturally vigorous intellect had been improved by 
 careful culture. As a boy he had been brought 
 up at Sinope, where he bad probably received the 
 elements of a Greek education ; and so powerful 
 was his memory, that he is said to have learnt not 
 less than 25 languages, and to have been able in 
 the days of his greatest power to tmnsact business 
 with the deputies of every tribe subject to his rule 
 in their own peculiar dialect. The first steps of 
 his career were marked by blood. He is said to 
 have murdered his mother, to whom a share in 
 the royal authority had been left by Mithridates 
 Euergetes ; and this was followed by the assas- 
 sination of his brother. In the early part of his 
 reign he subdued the barbarian tribes between the 
 Euxine and the confines of Armenia, including 
 the whole of Colchis and the province called Lesser 
 Armenia, and even extended his conquests beyond 
 the Caucasus. He assisted Parisades, king of the 
 Bosporus, against the Sarmatians and Roxolani, 
 and rendered the whole of the Tauric Chersonese 
 tributary to his kingdom. After the death of 
 Parisades, the kingdom of Bosporus itself was in- 
 corporated with his dominions. He was now in 
 possession of such great power, that he began to 
 deem himself equal to a contest with Rome itself. 
 Many causes of dissension had already arisen 
 between them, but Mithridates had hitherto sub- 
 mitted to the mandates of Rome. Even after 
 expelling Ariobarzanes from Cappadocia, and Nico- 
 medes from Bithynia in 90, he oflPered no resist- 
 ance to the Romans when they restored these 
 monarcha to their kingdom. But when Nico- 
 
 G 2 
 
452 
 
 MITHRTDATES. 
 
 medea, urged by the Roman legates, invaded the 
 territories of Mithridates, the latter made prepara- 
 tions for immediate hostilities. His success was 
 rapid and striking. In 88, he drove Ariobarzanes 
 out of Cappadocia, and Niconiedes out of Bithynia, 
 defeated the Roman generals who had supported the 
 latter, made himself master of Phrygia and Galatia, 
 and at last of the Roman province of Asia. During 
 the winter he issued the sanguinary order to all the 
 cities of Asia to put to death, on the same day, all 
 the Roman and Italian citizens who were to be 
 found within their walls. So hateful had the 
 Romans rendered themselves, that these commands 
 were obeyed with alacrity by almost all the cities 
 of Asia, and 80,000 Romans and Italians are said 
 to have perished in this fearful massacre. Mean- 
 time Sulla had received the command of the war 
 against Mithridates, and crossed over into Greece 
 in 87. Mithridates, however, had resolved not to 
 await the Romans in Asia, but had already sent 
 his general Archelaus into Greece, at the head of 
 a powerful army. The war proved unfavourable 
 to the king. Archelaus was twice defeated by Sulla 
 ■with immense loss, near Chaeronea and Orchomenos 
 in Boeotia (86). About the same time Mithridates 
 was himself defeated in Asia by Fimbria. [Fim- 
 bria.] These disasters led him to sue for peace, 
 which Sulla was willing to grant, because he was 
 anxious to return to Italy, which was entirely in the 
 hands of his enemies. Mithridates consented to 
 abandon all his conquests in Asia, to pay a sum of 
 2000 talents, and to surrender to the Romans a fleet 
 of 70 ships. Thus terminated the 1st Mithridatic 
 war (84). — Shortly afterwards Murena, who had 
 been left in command of Asia by Sulla, invaded 
 the dominions of Mithridates (83), under the flimsy 
 pretext that the king had not yet evacuated the 
 ■whole of Cappadocia. In the following year (82) 
 Murena renewed his hostile incursions, but was de- 
 feated by Mithridates on the banks of the river 
 Halys. But shortly afterwards Murena received 
 peremptory orders from Sulla to desist from hostili- ' 
 ties ; in consequence of which peace was again re- 
 stored. This is usually called the 2nd Mithridatic 
 ■war. — Mithridates, however, was well aware that 
 the peace between him and Rome was in fact a 
 mere suspension of hostilities ; and that the repub- 
 lic would never suffer the massacre of her citizens 
 in Asia to remain ultimately unpimished. No 
 formal treaty was ever concluded between Mithri- 
 dates and the Roman senate ; and the king had in 
 ■vain endeavoured to obtain the ratification of the 
 terms agreed on between him and Sulla. The 
 death of Nicomedes III., king of Bithynia, at the 
 beginning of 74, brought matters to a crisis. That 
 monarch left his dominions by will to the Roman 
 people ; and Bithynia was accordingly declared a 
 Roman province : but Mithridates asserted that 
 the late king had left a legitimate son by his wife 
 Nysa, whose pretensions he immediately prepared 
 to support by his arms. He had employed the 
 last few years in forming a powerful army, armed 
 and disciplined in the Roman manner ; and he 
 now took the field with 120,000 foot soldiers, 
 16,000 horse, and a vast number of barbarian 
 auxiliaries. This was the commencement of the 3rd 
 Mithridatic war. The two Roman consuls, Lucullus 
 and Cotta, were unable to oppose his first irruption. 
 He traversed Bithynia without encountering any 
 resistance ; and when at length Cotta ventured to 
 give him battle under the walls of Chalcedon, the 
 
 MITHRmATESr - 
 consul was totally defeated both by sea and land. 
 Mithridates then proceeded to lay siege to Cyzicus 
 both by sea and land. Lucullus marched to the relief 
 of the city, cut oif the king's supplies, and even- 
 tually compelled him to raise the siege, early in 
 73. On his retreat Mithridates suffered great loss, 
 and eventually took refuge in Pontus. Hither 
 Lucullus followed him in the nextj'ear. The now 
 army, which the king had collected, was entirely 
 defeated by the Roman general ; and Mithridates, 
 despairing of opposing the farther progress of Lucul- 
 lus, took refuge in the dominions of his son-in-law 
 Tigranes, the king of Armenia. Tigranes at first 
 showed no disposition to attempt the restoration of 
 his father-in-law ; but being offended at the haughty 
 conduct of Appius Claudius, whom Lucullus had 
 sent to demand the surrender of Mithridates, thfr 
 Armenian king not only refused this request, but de- 
 termined to prepare for war with the Romans. Ac- 
 cordingly in 69 Lucullus marched into Armenia, de- 
 feated Tigranes and Mithridates near Tigranocerta,. 
 and in the next year (68) again defeated the allied 
 monarchs near Artaxata. The Roman general' 
 then turned aside into Mesopotamia, and laid siege- 
 to Nisibis. Here the Roman soldiers broke out into- 
 open mutiny, and demanded to be led home ; and' 
 Lucullus was obliged to raise the siege, and return- 
 to Asia Minor. Meanwhile Mithridates had 
 taken advantage of the absence of Lucullus to in- 
 vade Pontus at the head of a large army. He de- 
 feated Fabius and Triarius, to whom the defence of 
 Pontus had been committed ; and when Lucullus 
 returned to Pontus, he was unable to resume th& 
 offensive in consequence of the mutinous spirit or 
 his own soldiers. Mithridates was thus able be- 
 fore the close of 67 to regain possession of the- 
 greater part of his hereditary dominions. In the 
 following year {6G) the conduct of the war was 
 entrusted to Pompey, Hostilities were resumed 
 with greater vigour than ever. Mithridates wa&- 
 obliged to retire before the Romans, but was sur- 
 prised and defeated by Pompey ; and as Tigranes- 
 now refused to admit him into his dominions, he- 
 resolved to plunge with his small army into the 
 heart of Colchis, and thence make his way to the- 
 Palus Maeotis and the Cimmerian Bosporus. Ar- 
 duous as this enterprise appeared it was success- 
 fully accomplished ; and he at length established' 
 himself without opposition at Panticapaeum, the 
 capital of Bosporus. He had now nothing to feai- 
 from the pursuit of Pompey, who turned his arms 
 first against Tigranes, and afterwards against Syria. 
 Unable to obtain peace from Pompey, except he- 
 would come in person to make his submission, 
 Mithridates conceived the daring project of march- 
 ing round the N. and W. coasts of the Euxine, 
 through the wild tribes of the Sarmatians and' 
 Getae, and having gathered round his standard all 
 these barbarian nations, to penetrate into Italy 
 itself. But meanwhile disaffection had made rapid 
 progress among his followers. His son Pharnaces 
 at length openly rebelled against him. He was 
 joined both by the whole army and the citizens of 
 Panticapaeum, who unanimously proclaimed him 
 king ; and Mithridates, who had taken refuge in 
 a strong tower, saw that no choice remained to him 
 but death or captivity. Hereupon he took poison, 
 which he constantly carried with him ; but bis 
 constitution had been so long inured to antidotes, 
 that it did not produce the desired effect, and he 
 was compelled to call in the assistance of one of 
 
MITHRIDATIS. 
 
 Ills Gaulish mercenaries to despatch him with his 
 su'ord. He died in 63. His body was sent by 
 Pliainaces to Ponipey at Amisus, as a token of his 
 submission ; but the conqueroi- caused it to be in- 
 terred with regal hononrs in the sepulchre of his 
 forefathei's at Sinope. He was GQ or G9 years old 
 at the time of his death, and had reigned 57 years, 
 of which 25 had been occupied, with only a few 
 brief inteiTals, in one continued struggle against 
 the Roman power. The estimation in which he 
 was held by his adversaries is the strongest testi- 
 mony to his great abilities : Cicero calls him the 
 greatest of all kings after Alexander, and in an- 
 other passage says that he was a more formidable 
 opponent than any other monarch whom the Ro- 
 man arms had yet encountered.^7. Kings of Par- 
 t!ii;L [Arsaces, 6, 9, 13.] ^8. Of Pergamus, son 
 of Menodotus ; but his mother having had an 
 amour with Mithridates the Great, he was gene- 
 rally looked upon as in reality the son of that 
 monarch. The king himself bestowed great care 
 •on his education ; and he appears as early as 64 to 
 liave exercised the chief control over the affairs 
 of his native city. At a subsequent period he 
 served under Julius Caesar in the Alexandrian war 
 (4y) ; and after the defeat of Phamaces in the 
 following year (47), Caesar bestowed upon Mithri- 
 -dates the kingdom of the Bosporus, and also the 
 ■tetrarchy of the Galatians. But the kingdom of 
 the Bosporus still remained to be won, for Asan- 
 der, who had revolted against Phamaces, was in 
 iact master of the whole country, and Mithridates 
 having attempted to expel Asander, was defeated 
 and slain. 
 
 Mitliridatis Eegio (MiepiddTov x^P°), a dis- 
 trict of Sarmatia Asiatica, on the W. side of the 
 river Rha ( Wolga), so called because it was the 
 ■place of refuge of the last Mithridates, in the reign 
 of Claudius. 
 
 lllitylene. [Mytil ene. ] 
 mnaseaB (Mj/atreas), of Patara in Lycia, not of 
 Patrae in Achaia, was a pupil of Eratosthenes, 
 and a grammarian of considerable celebrity. He 
 wrote 2 works, one of a chorographical description, 
 entitled Periplus (neptVAous), and the other a 
 collection of oracles given at Delphi. 
 
 Mneme {Mvf}/j.7]\ i. e. memory, one of the 3 
 Muses who were in early times worshipped at 
 Ascra in Boeotia. There seems to have been also 
 -a tradition that Mneme was the mother of the 
 Muses, for Ovid (Met. v. 268) calls them Mnemo- 
 nides ; unless this be only an abridged form for 
 .the daughters of Mnemosyne. [Musae.] 
 
 Mnemosyne (MvTj/iotruj'r;), i. e. memory, daugh- 
 ter of Uranus, and one of the Titanides, became 
 by Zeus the mother of the Muses. 
 
 Mnesarciius (Mv-^a-apxos). 1. Son of Euphron 
 or Euthyphron, and father of Pythagoras. He was 
 generally believed not to have been of purely 
 Greek origin. According to some accounts, he be- 
 longed to the Tyrrhenians of Lemnos and Imbros, 
 .and is said to have been an engraver of rings. 
 According to other accounts, the name of the father 
 -of Pythagoras was Maraiacus, whose father PHp- 
 pasus came from Phlius. ^2. Grandson of the 
 preceding, and son of Pythagoras and Theano. 
 According to some accounts he succeeded Aristieus . 
 as president of the Pythagorean school. — 3. A 
 Stoic philosopher, a disciple of Panaetius, flourished 
 about B.C. liO, and taught at Athens. Among 
 iis pupils was Antiochus of A^calon. 
 
 MOABITIS. 
 
 453 
 
 Mnesicles (MfTjaiKXTJs), one of the great Athe- 
 nian artists of the age of Pericles, was the architect 
 of the Propylaea of the Acropolis, the building of 
 which occupied 5 years, b. c. 437 — 433. It is 
 said that, during the progress of the work, he fell 
 from the summit of the building, and was supposed 
 to be mortally injured, but was cured by a herb 
 which Athena showed to Pericles in a dream. 
 
 Mnesitheus (McTjci'Seos), a physician, was a 
 native of Athens, and lived probably in the 4tli 
 century b. c, as he is quoted by the comic poet 
 Alexis. He enjoyed a great reputation, and is 
 frequently mentioned by Galen, and others. 
 
 Mnester (MviJo-ttj^), a celebrated pantomime 
 actor in the reigns of Caligula and Claudius, was 
 also one of the lovers of the empress Messalina, 
 and was put to death upon the ruin of the latter. 
 
 Mnestiiens, a Trojan, who accompanied Aeneas 
 to Italy, and is said to have been the ancestral 
 hero of the Memmii. 
 
 Moabitis (Mwa^rris, Mo'ffa: MwagiTai, Moa- 
 bitae : 0- T. Moab, for both country and people), 
 a district of Arabia Petraea, E. of the Dead Sea, 
 from the river Arnon {Wady-eUMojih, the bound- 
 ary between Palestine and Arabia) on the N., to 
 Zoar, near the S. end of the Dead Sea, on the S., 
 between the Amorites on the N., the Midianites 
 on the E., and the Edomites on the S., that is, be- 
 fore the Israelitish conquest of Canaan. At an 
 earlier period, the country of Moab liad extended 
 N.-wards, beyond the N. end of the Dead Sea, 
 and along the E. bank of the Jordan, as far as the 
 river Jabbok, but it had been wrested from them 
 by the Amorites. The plains E. of the Jordan 
 were, however, still called the plains of Moab. The 
 Moabites were left undisturbed by the Israelites on 
 their march to Canaan ; but Baluk, king of Moab, 
 through fear of the Israelites, did what he could 
 to harm them, first by his vain attempt to induce 
 the prophet Balaam to curse the people whom a 
 divine impulse forced him to bless, and then by 
 seducing them to worship Baal-peor. Hence the 
 hereditary enmity between the Israelites and 
 Moabites, and the threatenings denounced against 
 Moab by the Hebrew prophets. In the time of 
 the Judges they subdued the S. part of the Jewish 
 territory, with the assistance of the Ammonites 
 and Amalekites, and held it for 1 8 years (Judges 
 iii. 12 foil.). They were conquered b}' David, after 
 the partition of whose kingdom they belonged to 
 the kingdom of Israel. They revolted after the 
 death of Ahab (b.c. 896) and appear to have be- 
 come virtually independent ; and after the 1 
 tribes had been carried into captivity, the Moabites 
 seem to have recovered the N, part of their ori- 
 ginal territory. They were subdued by Nebu- 
 chadnezzar, with other nations bordering on Pales- 
 tine, very soon after the Babylonian conquest of 
 Judaea, after which they scarcely appear as a dis- 
 tinct nation, but, after a few references to them, 
 they disappear in the general name of the Arabians. 
 The name Moabitis, however, was still applied to 
 the district of Arabia, between the Arnon (the S. 
 frontier of Peraea, or Palestine E. of the Jordan), 
 and the Nabathaci, in the mountains of Seir. The 
 Moabites were a kindred race with the Hebrews, 
 being descended from Moab, *the son of Lot. 
 They worshipped Baal-Peor and Cfaeraosh with 
 most licentious ritos, and they sometimes offered 
 human sacrifices. Their government was monarchi- 
 cal. They were originally a pastoral people ; but 
 
454 
 
 MODESTINUS. 
 
 the excessive fertility of their country, which is a 
 mountainous tract intersected with rich valleys and 
 numerous streams, led them to diligence and success 
 in agriculture. The frequent ruins of towns and 
 traces of paved roads, which still cover the face of 
 the country, show how populous and prosperous it 
 was. The chief city, Ar or Rabbath-Moah, aft. 
 Areopolis {Ralba, Ru.)» "^^^ about 25 miles S. of 
 the Anion. 
 
 Modestinus, Herennius, a Roman jurist, and a 
 pupil of Ulpian, flourished in the reigns of Alex- 
 ander Severus, Maxirainus and the Gordians, a. d. 
 222 — 244. He taught law to the younger Maxi- 
 minus. Though Modestinus is the latest of the 
 great Roman jurists, he ranks among the most 
 distinguished. There are 345 excerpts in the Digest 
 from his writings, the titles of which show the 
 extent and variety of his labours. 
 
 Modestus, a military writer, the author of a 
 Libellus de Vocabulis Rei Militarise addressed to 
 the emperor Tacitus, a. d. 275, Tt is very brief, 
 and presents no features of interest. Printed in all 
 the chief collections of Scripiores de Re Militari. 
 
 Modicia (Monza)^ a town in Gallia Transpa- 
 dana, on the river Lambrus, N, of Mediolanum 
 (Milan)^ where Theodoric built a palace, and 
 Theodolinda, queen of the Langobards, a splendid 
 church, which still contains many of the precious 
 gifts of this queen. 
 
 Modin (MoSefv, -e€iX or lei/j.)^ a little village 
 on a mountain N. of Lydda or Diospolis, on the 
 extreme N,W. of Judaea, celebrated as the native 
 place of the Maccabaean family. Its exact site is 
 uncertain. 
 
 Moenus, Moems, Maenus, or Menus (il/am), 
 a river in Germany, which rises in the Sudeti 
 Montes, flows through the territory of the Her- 
 munduri and the Agri decnmates of the Romans, 
 and falls into the Rhine opposite Mogontiacuni. 
 
 Moeris or Myris (MoTpis, Mupiy), a king of 
 Egypt, who, Herodotus tells us, reigned some 900 
 years before his own visit to that country, which 
 seems to have been about B. c. 450. We hear of 
 Moeris that he formed the lake known by his name, 
 and joined it by a canal to the Nile, in order to 
 receive the waters of the river wlien they were 
 superabundant, and to supply the defect when they 
 did not rise sufficiently. In the lake he built 2 
 pyramids on each of which was a stone statue, 
 seated on a throne, and intended to represent him- 
 self and his wife. 
 
 Moeris (MoTpis), commonly called Moeris Atti- 
 cista, a distinguished grammarian, the author of a 
 work still extant, entitled A4^ei^ 'Arrifcai, though 
 the title varies somewhat in different manuscripts. 
 Of the personal history of the author nothing is 
 known. He is conjectured to have lived about 
 the end of the 2nd century after Christ. His 
 treatise is a sort of comparison of the Attic with 
 other Greek dialects ; consisting of a list of Attic 
 words and expressions, which are illustrated by 
 those of other dialects, especially the common Greek. 
 Edited by Pierson, Lugd. Bat. 1759. 
 
 Moeris Lacus (M.olpios or Moipi^os Klfxvfi \ 
 Birket'd-Keroun\ a great lake on the W. side of 
 the Nile, in Middle Egypt, used for the reception 
 and subsequent ^fistribution of a part of the over- 
 flow of the Nile. It was believed by the ancients 
 to have been dug by king Moeris ; but it is really 
 a natural, and not an artificial lake. 
 
 Moero (Moi/jci), or Myro {Mupu), a poetess of 
 
 MOIRAE. 
 
 Byzantium, v/ife of Andromachus surnamed Philo- 
 logus, and mother of the grammarian and tragic 
 poet Homenis, lived about B.C. 300. She wrote 
 epic, elegiac, and lyric poems. 
 
 Moerocles (MotpofcAiyy), an Athenian orator, a 
 native of Salamis, was a contemporary of Demo- 
 sthenes, and like him an opponent of Philip and 
 Alexander. 
 
 Moesia, called by the Greeks Mysia (Mytr/'a, 
 also M, 7) eV 'Eupdjirrj^ to distinguish it from Mysia 
 in Asia), a country of Europe, was bounded on 
 the S, by M. Haemus, which separated it from 
 Thrace, and by M. Orbelus and Scordus, which 
 separated it from Macedonia, on the W. by M. 
 Scordus and the rivers Driniis and Savus, which 
 separated it from Illyricum and Pannonia, on the 
 N. by the Danube, which separated it from Dacia, 
 and on the E. by the Pontus Euxinus, thus corre- 
 sponding to the present Sei-vici and Bulgaria. 
 This country was subdued in the reign of Augus- 
 tus, but does not appear to have been formally 
 constituted a Roman province till the commence- 
 ment of the reign of Tiberius. It was originally 
 only -one province, but was afterwards formed into 
 2 provinces (probably after the conquest of Dacia 
 by Trajan), called Moesia Superior and Moesia 
 Inferior^ the former being the western, and the 
 latter the eastern half of the country, and sepa- 
 rated from each other by the river Cebrus or 
 Ciabras, a tributary of the Danube. When Au- 
 relian surrendered Dacia to the barbarians, and 
 removed the inhabitants of that province to th& 
 S. of the Danube, the middle part of Moesia 
 was called Dacia Aureliani ; and this new pro- 
 vince was divided into Dacia Ripensis^ the dis- 
 trict along the Danube, and Dacia Interior^ the 
 district S. of the latter as far as the frontiers of 
 Macedonia. In the reign of Valens, some of 
 the Goths crossed the Danube and settled in 
 Moesia. These Goths are sometimes called Moeso- 
 Goths, and it was for their use that Ulphilas 
 translated the Scriptures into Gothic about the 
 middle of the 4th century. The original inhabit- 
 ants of the country, called Moesi by the Romans, 
 and Mysi (Mi/o-oi) by the Greeks, were a Thraciaii 
 race, and were divided into several tribes, such as 
 the Triballi, Peucini, &c. 
 
 Mogontiacum, MogTintiacum or Magontia- 
 cum {Mainz or Mayence)^ a town on the left bank 
 of the Rhine, opposite the mouth of the river 
 Moenus {Main), was situated in the territory of 
 the Vangiones, and was subsequently the capital 
 of the province of Germania Prima. It was a 
 Roman municipium, and was founded, or at least 
 enlarged and fortified, by Drusus. It was always 
 occupied by a strong Roman garrison, and con- 
 tinued to the downfall of the empire to be one of 
 the chief Roman fortresses on the Rhine. 
 
 Moirae (Molpai) called Parcae by the Romans, 
 the Fates, Moira properly signifies " a share," 
 and as a personification " the deity who assigns to 
 every man his fate or his share." Homer usually 
 speaks of one Moira, and only once mentions the 
 Moirae in the plural. (//. xxiv. 29.) In his 
 poems Moira is fate personified, which, at the 
 birth of man, spins out the thread of his future life, 
 follows his steps, and directs the consequences of 
 his actions according to the counsel of the gods. 
 But the personification of his Moira is not complete; 
 for he mentions no particular appearance of the 
 goddess, no attributes, and ho parentage. His 
 
MOLIONE. 
 
 Moira is tlierefore quite synonymous with Aisa 
 (Afaa), — In Hesiod the personification of the 
 Moirae is complete. He calls them daughters of 
 Zeus and Themis, and makes them 3 in number, 
 tIz. Clotho, or the spinning fate; Lachesis, or the 
 one who assigns to man his fate ; and Atropos, or 
 the fate that cannot be avoided. Later writers 
 differ in their genealogy of the Moirae from that 
 of Hesiod; thus they are called children of Erebus 
 and Night, of Cronos and Night, of Ge and 
 Oceanus, or lastly of Ananke or Necessity. — The 
 character and nature of the Moirae are differently 
 described at different times and by different 
 authors. Sometimes they appear as divinities of 
 -fate in the strict sense of the term, and sometimes 
 onl}' as allegorical divinities of the duration of hu- 
 man life. — In the former character they take care 
 that the fate assigned to every being by eternal 
 laws may take its coiurse without obstruction ; and 
 Zeus, as well as the other gods and men, must 
 submit to them. They assign to the Erinnyes, 
 who inflict the punishment for evil deeds, their 
 proper functions ; and with them they direct fate 
 according to the lawsof necessity, whence they are 
 sometimes called the sisters of the Erinnyes. These 
 grave and mighty goddesses were represented by 
 the earliest artists with staffs or sceptres, the 
 symbol of dominion. — The Moirae, as the divinities 
 of the duration of human life, which is determined 
 by the two points of birth and of death, are con- 
 ceived either as goddesses of birth or as goddesses 
 of death, and hence their number was 2, as at 
 Delphi, and was subsequently increased to 3. The 
 distribution of the functions among the 3 was not 
 strictly observed, for we sometimes find all 3 de- 
 scribed as spinning, although this should be the 
 function of Clotho alone, who is moreover often 
 mentioned alone as the representative of all. As 
 goddesses of birth, who spin the thread of the be- 
 ginning of life, and even prophesy the fate of the 
 newly born, they are mentioned along with Ilithyia, 
 who is called their companion. The sj-'mbol with 
 which they, or rather Clotho alone, are represented 
 to indicate this function, is a spindle, and the idea 
 implied in it was carried out so far, that sometimes 
 we read of their breaking or cutting off the thread 
 when life is to end. Being goddesses of fate, they 
 must necessarily know the future, which at times 
 they reveal, and thus become prophetic divinities. 
 As goddesses of death, thej'' appear together with 
 the Keres and the infernal Erinnyes, witii whom 
 they are even confounded. For the same reason 
 thev, along with the Charites, lead Persephone out 
 of the lower world into the regions of light. The 
 various epithets which poets apply to the Moirae 
 generally refer to the severity, inflexibility, and 
 sternness of fate. They had sanctuaries in many 
 parts of Greece. The poets sometimes describe 
 them as aged and hideous women, and even as 
 lame, to indicate the slow march of fate ; but in 
 works of art they are represented as grave maidens, 
 with different attributes, viz., Clotho with a spindle 
 or a roll (the book of fate) ; Lachesis pointing with 
 a staff to the globe ; and Atropos with a pair of 
 scales, or a sun-dial, or a cutting instrument. 
 
 Molione. [Moliones.] 
 
 Moliones or Molionidae (MoXioj/cj, MoXioi'e, 
 MoA(o»'(5ai), that is, Eurytus and Cteatus, so 
 called after their mother Molione. They are also 
 called Adoridae or Actorione ('AKTop(W(/e) after 
 their reputed father Actor, the husband of Molione, 
 
 MOMUS. 
 
 Ah5 
 
 though they were generally regarded as the sons 
 of Poseidon. According to a late tradition, they 
 were born out of an egg; and it is further stated, 
 that their bodies grew together, so that they had 
 onl^-- one body, but 2 heads, 4 arms, and 4 legs. 
 Homer mentions none of these extraordinary cir- 
 cumstances ; and, according to him, the JMoliones, 
 when yet boys, took part in an expedition of the 
 Epeans against Neleus and the Pylians. They 
 are represented as nephews of Augeas, king of the 
 Epeans. When Hercules marched against Augeas, 
 the latter entrusted the conduct of the war to the 
 Moliones ; but as Herciiles was taken ill, he con- 
 cluded peace with Augeas, whereupon his army 
 was attacked and defeated by the Molionidae. In 
 order to take vengeance, he afterwards slew them 
 nenr Cleonae, on the frontiers of Argolis, when they 
 had been sent from Elis to sacrifice at the Isthmian 
 games, on behalf of the town. — The Moliones are 
 mentioned as conquerors of Nestor in the chariot 
 race, and as having taken part in the Calydonian 
 hunt, Cteatus was the father of Amphimachusby 
 Theronice; and Eurytus, of Thalpius by Theraphone. 
 Their sons Araphimachus and Thalpius led the 
 Epeans to Troy. 
 
 Iilolo, surname of Apollonius, the rhetorician of 
 Rhodes. [Apollonius, No. 2.] 
 
 Molochatli. [MuLucHA.] 
 
 Molossi (MoA-ocrcroI), a people in Epirus, who 
 inhabited a narrow slip of country, called after 
 them Molossia (MoAotro-ia) or Molossis, which 
 extended from the Aous, along the W. bank of 
 the Arachthus, as far as the Anibracian gulf. The 
 Molossi were a Greek people, who claimed descent 
 from Molossus, the son of Pyrrhus (Neoptolemus) 
 and Andromache, and are said to Imve emigrated 
 from Thessaly into Epinis, under the guidance of 
 Pyrrhus himself. In their new abodes they inter- 
 mingled with the original inhabitants of the land 
 and with the neighbouring Illyrian tribes, in con- 
 sequence of which they were regarded by the 
 other Greeks as half barbarians. They were, 
 however, by far the most powerful people in 
 Epirus, and their kings gradually extended their 
 dominion over the whole of the country. The 
 first of their kings, who took the title of king of 
 Epirus, was Alexander, who perished in Italy 
 B. c. 32G. [Epirus.] The ancient capital of the 
 Molossi was Passaron, but Ambracia after- 
 wards became their chief town, and the residence 
 of their kings. The Molossian hounds were cele- 
 brated in antiquity, and were much prized for 
 hunting. 
 
 Molycrium (Mo\vKp€iou, also MoAy/rpeia, Mo- 
 \vKpia : MoAuKpios, MoAuKpieuy, Mo\vKpaios) a 
 town in the most S.-ly part of Aetolia, at the en- 
 trance of the Corinthian gulf, gave the name of 
 Hhium Molycrium {'Piov MoXvKpiov) to the neigh- 
 bouring promontory of AntiiThium. It was founded 
 by the Corinthians, but was afterwards taken pos- 
 session of by tlie Aetolians. 
 
 Momemphis (MwVe^c^ij; J^anouf-Khd, or Ma- 
 noufel-Seffi^ i. e. Lower Memphis)^ the capital of 
 the Nomos Momemphites in Lower Egypt, stood 
 on the E. side of the lake Mareotis. 
 
 Momus (Mw^os), the god of mockery and cen- 
 sure, is not mentioned by Homer, but is called in 
 Hesiod the son of night. Thus he is said to have 
 censured in the man formed by Hephaestus, that 
 a little door had not been left in his breast, so as 
 to enable one to look into his secret thoughts. 
 
 G G 4 
 
456 MONA. 
 
 Mona {AvgUsey\ an island off the coast of the 
 Ordovices in Britain, was one of the chief seats of 
 the Dniiils. It was invaded by SuetoniLis Pauli- 
 nus A. D. Gl, and was conquered by Agricola, 7ij. 
 Caesar (iJ. G. v. 13), erroneously describes this 
 island as half way between Britannia and Hi- 
 bemia. Hence it has been supposed by some 
 critics that the Mona of Caesar is the Isle of Man ; 
 but it is more probable that he received a false 
 report respecting the real position of Mona, espe- 
 cially since all other ancient writers give the name 
 of Mona to the Isle of Anglesey^ and the name of 
 the latter island is likely to have been mentioned 
 to Caesar on account of its celebrity in connection 
 with the Druids. 
 
 Monaeses- 1. A Parthian general mentioned 
 by Horace {Cann. iii. 6. 9) is probably the same 
 as Surenas, the general of Orodes, who defeated 
 Crassus. — 2. A Parthian noble, who deserted to 
 Antony and urged him to invade Parthia, but soon 
 afterwards returned to the Parthian king Phraates. 
 — 3. A general of the Parthian king, Vologeses I., 
 in the reign of Nero. 
 
 Monapia orMonarina {Isle of Man) ^^.n island 
 between Britannia and Hibemia. 
 
 Monda or Mimda (Mondetjo)^ a river on the W. 
 coast of Spain, which flows into the ocean between 
 the Tagus and Dunns. 
 
 Moneta, a surname of Juno among the Komans, 
 ty which she was characterised as the protectress 
 of money. Under this name she had a temple on 
 the Capitoline, in which there was at the same 
 time the mint, just as the public treasury was in 
 the temple of Saturn. The temple had been vowed 
 hy the dictator L. Fiirius in a battle against the 
 Aurunci, and was erected on the spot where the 
 house of M. I^anlius Capitolinus had stood, Mo- 
 neta signifies the mint ; but some writers found 
 such a meaning too plain. Thus Livius Andronicus 
 used Moneta as a translation of Mnemosyne (Mvtj- 
 IxoavvT])^ and thus made her the mother of the 
 Muses or Camenae. Cicero relates, that during 
 an earthquake, a voice was heard issuing from the 
 temple of Juno on the Capitol, and admonishing 
 {monens) that a pregnant sov/ should be sacrificed. 
 A somewhat more probable reason for the name is 
 given by Suidas, though he assigns it to too late a 
 time. In the war with Pyrrhus and the Tarentines, 
 he says, the Romans being in want of money, 
 prayed to Juno, and were told by the goddess, 
 that money would not be wanting to them, so long 
 as they would fight with the arms of justice. As 
 the Romans by experience found the truth of the 
 words of Juno, they called her Juno Moneta. Her 
 festival was celebrated on the Ist of June. 
 
 Slonima (Mopifx-n), a Greek woman, either of 
 Stratniiicea, in Ionia, or of Miletus, was the ^vife 
 of Mitbridates, but was put to death by order of 
 this monarch, when he fled into Armenia, b. c. 72. 
 
 Monoeci Portus, also Herculis Monoeci Portus 
 (il/o7mco), a port-town on the coast of Liguria, 
 between Nicaca and Albium latemeliura, founded 
 by the Massilians, was situated on a promontory 
 (hence the arj; Monoeci of Virg. Ac7i. vi. 801), 
 and possessed a temple of Hercules Monoecus, 
 from whom the place derived its name. The 
 harbour, though small and exposed to the S.E. 
 wind, was of importance, as it was the only one 
 on this part of the coast of Liguria. 
 
 Kontanus, Curtiua, was exiled by Nero, 
 A. D. G7 ; but was soon afterwards recalled at 
 
 MORGANTTUM. 
 
 his father's petition. On the accession of Ves- 
 pasian, he vehemently attacked in the senate the 
 notorious delator, Aquillus Regulus. If the same 
 person with tlie Curtius Montanus satirised by 
 Juvenal (iv. iU7, 131, xi. 34), Montanus in later 
 life sullied the fair reputation he enjoyed in youth ; 
 for Juvenal describes him as a corpulent epicure, 
 a parasite of Domltian, and a hackneyed declalmer. 
 
 Slontanus, Voltientis, an orator and declalmer 
 in the reign of Tiberius. From his propensity 
 to refine upon thought and diction, he was named 
 the "Ovid" of the rhetorical schools. He was 
 convicted on a charge of majestas, and died an 
 exile in the Balearic islands, A. d. 25. 
 
 Mopsia or Mopsopia, an ancient name of Pam- 
 phylia, derived from Mopsus, the mythical leader 
 of certain Greeks who were supposed to have 
 settled in Pamphylia, as also In Cilicla and Syria, 
 after the Trojan war, and whose name appears 
 more than once in the geographical names in 
 Cilicia. (See e.g. Mopshcrene, Mopsuektia.) 
 
 Mopsium (Md'piov : MS^ios)^ a town of Thessaly 
 in Pelasgiotis, situated on a hill of the same name 
 between Tempe and Larissa. 
 
 Mopsucrene (Mo'i|/ou Kp-qv-q or Kpiivai, i. e. ilte 
 Spriiuf of Mopsus)^ a city of CillcIa Campestris, on, 
 the S. slope of the Taurus, and 12 Roman miles 
 from Tarsus, was the place where the emperor 
 Constantius died, A. d. 364. 
 
 Mopsuestia, (Moi^ou earta, Moipoueffria^ i. e. 
 the Hearth of Mopsus^ also Moi|/ou -noKis and M(^i//os ; 
 Moi|/6aT7j5 : Maniistra, in the Middle Ages : Messis)^ 
 an important city of Cilicia Campestris, on both 
 banks of the river P^'i-amus, 12 Roman miles from 
 Its mouth, on the road from Tarsus to Issus, in the 
 beautiful plain called to 'A\7}l'ov irediuu^ was a 
 civitas libera under the Romans. The 2 parts of 
 the city were connected by a handsome bridge 
 built by Constantius over the Pyramus. In eccle- 
 siastical history, it is notable as the birthplace of 
 Theodore of Mopsuestla. 
 
 mopsus (Moifos). 1. Son of Ampyx or Am- 
 pycus by the nymph Chlorls. Being a seer, he 
 was also called a son of Apollo by HImantis, 
 He was one of the Lapithae of Oechalia or Ti- 
 Laeron (Thessaly), and took part in the combat 
 at the wedding of Piritlious. He was one of 
 the Calydonian hunters, and also one of the Ar- 
 gonauts, and was a famous prophet among the 
 Argonauts. He died in Libya of the bite of a 
 snake, and was buried there by the Argonauts. 
 He was afterwards worshipped as an oracular 
 hero.-— 2. Son of Apollo and Manto, the daughter 
 of Tlreslas, and also a celebrated seer. He con- 
 tended in prophecy with Calchas at Colophon, 
 and showed himself superior to the latter in pro- 
 phetic power. [Calchar.] He was believed 
 to have founded Mallos in Cilicia, In conjunction 
 with the seer Amphilochus. A dispute arose 
 between the two seers respecting the possession 
 of the town, and both fell in combat by each 
 other's hand. Mopsus had an oracle at Mallos, 
 which existed as late as the time of Strabo. 
 
 Morgantiam, Morgantina, Murgantia, Ilor- 
 gentla {Viopyavnov^ MopyavTivrj : MopyauT'ivos, 
 Murgentlnus), a town in Sicily founded by the 
 Morgetes, after they had been driven out of Italy 
 by the Oenotrians. According to LIvy (xxiv. 27) 
 this city was situated on the E. coast, probably at 
 the mouth of the Symaethus ; but according to 
 other writers it was situated in the interior of the 
 
MORGETES. 
 
 island, S. E. of Agj'rium, aiid near the Syraaethi:a. 
 The neighbouiinc; country produced good wine. 
 
 ETorgetes (Mdf^-yijres), an ancient people in the 
 S. of Italy. According to Strabo they dwelt in 
 the neighbourhood of Rhegiuni, but being driven 
 ■out of Italy by the Oenotrians crossed over to 
 Sicily and there founded the town of Morgantium. 
 According to Dionysiiis of Halicarnaasus, Morges 
 was the successor of the Oenotrian king Italus, and 
 hospitably received Siculus, who had been driven 
 out of Latium by the Aborigines, in consequence 
 of which the earlier Oenotrians were called lialletes^ 
 Morgctes and Siculi: according to this account, the 
 Morgetes ought to be regarded as a branch of the 
 Oenntrians. 
 
 Moria or Morija {lAwpiov Spos), a mountain of 
 Judaea, witliin the city of Jerusalem, on the 
 summit of which the temple was built. [Jeru- 
 salem.] 
 
 Morimene (Mopi^uej/-^), the N.W. district of 
 Cappadocia, on the banks of the Halys, assigned 
 under the Romans to Galatia. Its meadows were 
 entirely devoted to the feeding of cattle. 
 
 Moriui, a people in Gallia Relgica, W. of the 
 Nervii and Menapii, and the most N.-ly people in 
 all Gaul, whence Virgil calls them extremi hominum 
 (Aeti. viii. 727). They dwelt on the coast, opposite 
 Britain, and at the narrowest part of the channel 
 between Gaul and Britain, which is hence some- 
 times called Frctum Morinorum or Morinum. 
 They were a brave and warlike people. Their 
 country was covered with woods and marshes. 
 Tlieir principal town was Gesohiacum. 
 
 Morius (Mwpios), a small river in Boeotia, a S. 
 tributary of the Cephissus, at the foot of Mt. 
 Thurion near Chaeronea. 
 
 Hormo (Mnp/iw, also Mop/io\uK7], Mop^o\uKe?op), 
 a female spectre, with which the Greeks used to 
 frighten children. 
 
 Morpheus ('Mop(p^vs,), the son of Sleep, and 
 the god of dreams. The name signifies the fa- 
 shioner or moulder, because he shaped or formed 
 the dreams which appeared to the sleeper. 
 
 Mors, called Thanatos (Qdvaros) hy the 
 Greeks, the god of death. In the Homeric poems 
 Death does not appear as a distinct divinity, 
 though he is described as the brother of Sleep, 
 together with whom he carries the body of Sar- 
 pedon from the field of battle to the country of 
 the Lycians. In Hesiod he is a son of Night 
 and a brother of Ker and Sleep, and Death and 
 Sleep reside in the lower world. In the Alccstis 
 of Euripides, where Death comes upon the stage, 
 he appears as an austere priest of Hades in a dark 
 robe and with the sacrificial sword, with which 
 he cuts off a lock of a dying person, and devotes 
 it to the lower world. On the whole, later poets 
 describe Death as a sad or terrific being (Horat. 
 Ca?-m. i. 4. 13 ; Sat. ii. 1. 57) ; but the best artists 
 of the Greeks, avoiding any thing that might be 
 displeasing, abandoned the idea suggested to them 
 by the poets, and represented Death under a more 
 pleasing aspect. On the chest of Cypselus, Night 
 was represented with two boys, one black and the 
 other white ; and at Sparta there were statues of 
 "both Death and Sleep. Both were usually re- 
 presented as slumbering youths, or as genii with 
 torches turned upside down. There are traces 
 of sacrifices having been offered to Death, but 
 no temples are mentioned anywhere. 
 
 JSIorychus (yiSpvxos), a tragic poet, a con- 
 
 MOTUCA. 
 
 457- 
 
 temporary of Aristophanes, noted especially for 
 his gluttony and effeminacy. 
 
 Mosa (Afaas or Meuse), a river in Gallia Bel- 
 gica, rises in Mt. Vogesus, in the territory of the 
 Lingones, flows first N.E. and then N.W., and 
 falls into the Vahalis or W. branch of the Rhine. 
 
 Moscha (Moffxa : Muscat), an important sea- 
 port on the N. E. coast of Arabia Felix, N.W. of 
 Syagrus, the E.-most promontory of the peninsula 
 {Ras el-Had) ; a chief emporium for the trade be- 
 tween India and Arabia, 
 
 Moschi (Mtfffxot)) a people of Asia, whose ter- 
 ritory (77 Motrxt'f*?, Moschorum Tractus) formed 
 originally the S. part of Colchis, but, at the time of 
 Augustus, was divided between Colchis, Iberia, 
 and Armenia. 
 
 MoschiciMontes, or -icus ]Hons(Ta Moo-xt'ca 
 op7) : Mesjicli), a range of mountains extending S. 
 and S.AV". from the main chain of the Caucasus to 
 that of the Anti-Taurus, and forming the boundary 
 between Colchis and Iberia : named after the 
 MoscHX, who dwelt among them. Though lofty, 
 they were well wooded to the summit, and their 
 lower slopes were planted with vines. 
 
 MoscMon (Motrx^C"'*'), a Greek physician, the 
 author of a short Greek treatise " On Female Dis- 
 eases," is supposed to have lived in the begin- 
 ning of the 2nd century after Christ. The work 
 is edited by Dewez, Vienn. 1793. 
 
 Iffoschus (MtJiTxos), of Syracuse, a grammarian 
 and bucolic poet, lived about b. c. 250. Suidas 
 says that he was acquainted with Aristarchus. 
 According to this statement his date ought to be 
 placed later ; but he calls himself a pupil of Bion, 
 in the idyl in which he bewails the death of the 
 latter [Bion], There are 4 of his idyls extant. 
 He writes with elegance and liveliness ; but he ia 
 inferior to Bion, and comes still further behind 
 Tlieocritus. His style labours under an excess of 
 polish and ornament. For editions see Bion. 
 
 Mosella {Moscl or Moselle), a river in Gallia 
 Belgica, rises in Mt. Vogesus, flows N.E. through 
 the territories of the Treviri, and falls into the 
 Rhine at Confluentes (Coblenz). This river forms 
 the subject of a descriptive poem by Ausonius. 
 
 Mosteni (Moo'ttji'oi, Moarii/a, Mouo'T'^vtj, Muc- 
 T7JV7}), a city of Lydin, in the Hyrcanian plain, S.E. 
 of Thyatira, was one of the cities of Asia Minor 
 destroyed by the great earthquake of a, d. 17. Its 
 coins are numerous. 
 
 Mosychlus. [Lemnos.] 
 Mosynoeci (Mocvvoikoi, Moaa-vuoiKoi), or Mo- 
 syni or lEossyni {Moo-woi, Moacrwoi), a people on 
 the N. coast of Asia Minor, in Pontus, E. of the 
 Chalybes and the city of Cerasus, celebrated for 
 their warlike spirit and savage customs, which are 
 described by Xenophon {Anal. iv. 4, v. 4), Their 
 name was derived from the conical wooden houses 
 in which they dwelt. Their govemment was very 
 curious : a king chosen by them was strictly- 
 guarded in a house higher than the rest, and 
 maintained at the public cost ; but as soon as he 
 displeased the commons, they literally stopped the 
 supplies, and starved him to death. 
 Mothone. [Methone.] 
 Motuca (MoTou/ca: Mutycensis: Modica), a 
 town in the S. of Sicily, W. of the promontory 
 Pachynus and near the sources of the river Moty- 
 chanus {Fiume di Ragtcsa). Since both Cicero and 
 Pliny call tlie inhabitants Mutycenses, it is pro- 
 bable that Mutyca is the more correct form of tha 
 
458 
 
 MOTYA. 
 
 name. This town must not be confounded with 
 the more celebrated Motya- 
 
 Motya (MoTUTj : MoTua?os), an ancient town in 
 the N.W. of Sicily, situated on a small island 
 {Isola di Mezzo) only 6 stadia from the coast, 
 v/ith which it was connected by a mole. It was 
 founded by the Phoenicians in the territory of the 
 Elymi. It possessed a good harbour, and was in 
 early times one of the most flourishing cities of 
 Sicilj-. It afterwards passed into the hands of the 
 Carthaginians, was taken from them by Dionysius 
 of Syracuse, and was finally captured by the Car- 
 thaginian general Himilco, who transplanted all 
 its inhabitants to the town of Lilybaeum, which 
 he had founded in its neighbourhood, b. c. 397. 
 From this time it disappears from history, 
 
 Motychanus. [Motuca.] 
 
 Mucia, daughter of Q, Mucius Scaevola, the 
 augur, consul b. c. 95, married Cn. Pompey, by 
 whom she had 2 sons, Cneius and Sextus, and a 
 daughter, Pompeia. She was divorced by Pompey 
 in 62. She next married M. Aemilius Scaurus, 
 a step-son of the dictator Sulla. In 39, Mucia 
 went to Sicily to mediate between her son Sex, 
 Pompey and Augustus. She was living at the 
 time of the battle of Actium, 31. Augustus 
 treated her \vith great respect, 
 
 Mucianus. 1. P. Licinius Crassus Dives 
 Mucianus, was the son of P. Mucius Scaevola, 
 and was adopted by P. Licinius Crassus Dives. 
 He was consul b. c. 131, and carried on the 
 war against Aristonicus in Asia, but was defeated 
 by the latter. He succeeded Scipio Nasica as 
 pontifex maximus. He was distinguished both 
 as an orator and a lawyer. — 2. Licinius Mu- 
 cianus, three times consul in a. d. 52, 70, and 
 75. On Nero's death in 68, Mucianus had the 
 command of the province of Syria ; and he ren- 
 dered efficient aid to Vespasian, when the latter 
 resolved to seize the imperial throne. As soon 
 as Vespasian was proclaimed emperor, Mucianus 
 set out for Europe to oppose Vitellius ; but the 
 Vitellians were entirely defeated by Antonius 
 Primus [Primus], before Mucianus entered Italy, 
 Antonius however had to surrender all power 
 into the hands of Mucianus, upon the arrival 
 of the latter at Rome, Mucianus was an orator 
 and an historian. His powers of oratory are 
 greatly praised by Tacitus. He made a collection 
 of the speeches of the republican period, which he 
 published in 11 books ol Acta and 3 of Episiolae. 
 The subject of his history is not mentioned ; but it 
 appears to have treated chiefly of the East, 
 
 Mucius Scaevola. [Scaevola.] 
 
 Mugilla (Mugillanus), a town in Latium near 
 Corioli, from which a family of the Papirii pro- 
 bably derived their name Mugillanus. 
 
 Mulciber, a surname of Vulcan, which seems 
 to have been given to him as an euphemism, that 
 he might not consume the habitations and property 
 of men, but might kindly aid them in their pur- 
 suits. It occurs frequently in the Latin poets. 
 
 Muliiclia, Malva, or Molocliatli (M(J\oxa0: 
 Wad el Mulwia or Moltalou^ or Sourb-ou-Herh), the 
 largest river of Mauretania, rising in the Atlas, 
 and flowing N. by E. into the Chilf of Melillah, 
 has been successively the boundary between the 
 Mauri and the Massaesylii, Mauretania and Nu- 
 midia, Mauretania Tingitana and Mauretania 
 Caesariensis, Marocco and Algier. [Comp. Mau- 
 retania,] 
 
 MUNYCHIA. 
 
 Mummius. 1. L., tribune of the plebs, b. c 
 187, and praetor 177.^2. L., sumamed Achai- 
 cus, sou of the last, was praetor 154, when he 
 carried on the war successfully in further Spain, 
 a^^ainst the Lusitanians. He was consul in 146, 
 when he won for himself the surname of Achaicus, 
 by the conquest of Greece, and the establishment 
 of the Roman province of Achaia. After defeating 
 the army of tlie Achaean league at the Isthmus 
 of Corinth, he entered Corinth without opposition. 
 The city was burnt, rased, and abandoned to pil- 
 lage: the native Corinthians were sold for slaves, 
 and the rarest specimens of Grecian art were 
 given up to the rapacity of an ignorant conqueror. 
 Polybius the historian saw Roman soldiers playing 
 at draughts upon the far-famed picture of Diony- 
 sus by Aristides ; and Mummius himself was so 
 unconscious of the real value of his prize, that 
 he sold the rarer works of painting, sculpture, 
 and carving, to the king of Pergamus, and exacted 
 securities from the masters of vessels who con- 
 veyed the remainder to Italy, to replace by 
 equivalents any picture or statue lost or injured 
 in the passage. He remained in Greece during 
 the greater part of 145 with the title of proconsul. 
 He arranged the fiscal and municipal constitution 
 of the newly acquired province, and won the 
 confidence and esteem of the provincials by his 
 integrity, justice, and equanimity. He triumphed 
 in 145. He was censor in 142 with Scipio 
 Africanus the younger. The political opinions 
 of Mummius inclined to the popular side. —3. 
 Sp., brother of the preceding, and his legatusat Co- 
 rinth in 146 — 145, was an intimate friend of the 
 younger Scipio Africanus. In political opinions 
 Spurius was opposed to his brother Lucius, and 
 was a high aristocrat. He composed ethical and 
 satirical epistles, which were extant in Cicero''3 
 age, and were probably in the style which Horace 
 afterwards cultivated so successfully. 
 
 Munatius Plancus. [Plancus.] 
 
 Munda. 1. A Roman colony and an important 
 town in Hispania Baetica, situated on a small 
 river, and celebrated on account of 2 battles fought 
 in its neighbourhood, the victory of Cn. Scipio 
 over the Carthaginians in B. c. 216, and the im- 
 portant victory of Julius Caesar over the sons of 
 Pompey in 45. The town had fallen into decay 
 as early as the time of Pliny. The site of the 
 ancient town is usually supposed to be the modern 
 village of Monda, S.W. of Malaga ; but Munda 
 was more probably in the neighbourhood of Cor- 
 dova, and there are ruins of ancient walls and 
 towers between Martos, Alcandete, Espejo and 
 Baena, which are conjectured to be the remains of 
 Munda. — 2. A river. See Monda. 
 
 Miinycliia (Movpuxia.)^ a hill in the peninsula 
 of Piraeus, which formed the citadel of the ports 
 of Athens, It was strongly fortified, and is fre- 
 .quently mentioned in Athenian history. At its 
 foot lay the harbour of Mimychia, one of the 3 
 harbours in the peninsula of Piraeus, fortified by 
 Themistocles. The names of these 3 harbours 
 were Piraeus, Zca, and Munychia. The last was 
 the smallest and the most E.-ly of the 3, and is 
 called at the present day Phanari : Zea was 
 situated between Piraeus and Munychia. Most 
 topographers have erroneously supposed Phanari 
 to be Phaleron, and Zea to be Munychia. The 
 entrance to the harbour of Munychia was very 
 narrow, and could be closed by a chain. The hill 
 
MURCIA. 
 
 of Munychia contained several public buildings. 
 Of these the most important were : — (1) a temple 
 of Artemis Munychin, in which persons accused of 
 crimes against the state took refuge : (2) The 
 Bcndideum, the sanctuary of the Thracian Artemis 
 Bendis, in whose honour the festival of the Ben- 
 didea was celebrated : (3) The theatre on the N.W. 
 slope of the hill, in which the assemblies of the 
 people were sometimes held. 
 
 Murcia, Murtea, or Murtia, a surname of 
 Venus at Rome, where she had a chapel in the 
 circus, with a statue. This surname, which is 
 said to be the same as Myrtea (from wyiius, a 
 myrtle), was believed to indicate the fondness of 
 the goddess for the myrtle tree. In ancient times 
 there is said to have been a myrtle grove in the 
 front of her chapel at the foot of the Aventine. 
 
 Murcus, L. Statins, was Caesar's legatus, B.C. 48, 
 and praetor 45. He went into Syria after his year 
 of ofhce expired ; and after Caesar's death became 
 an active supporter of the republican party. Cas- 
 sias appointed him prefect of the fleet. After the 
 ruin of the republican party at Philippi, in 42, 
 Murcus went over to Sex. Pompey in Sicily, Here 
 he was assassinated by Pompey's order at the 
 instigation of his freedman Menas, to whom Mur- 
 cus had borne himself loftily. 
 
 Murena, Licinius. The name Murena, which 
 is the proper way of writing the word, not Mu- 
 raena, is said to have been given in consequence of 
 one of the family having a great liking for the 
 lamprey (murena), and building tanks (vivaria) 
 for them. — 1. P., a man of some literary know- 
 ledge, lost his life in the wars of Marius and Sulla, 
 B. c. 82. ^ 2. L., brother of the preceding, served 
 under Sulla in Greece, in the Mithridatic war. 
 After Sulla had made peace with Mithridates (84), 
 Murena was left as propraetor in Asia, Anxious 
 for distinction, Murena sought a quarrel with 
 Mithridates ; and after carrying on the war for 
 2 years, was at length compelled- by the strict 
 orders of Sulla to stop hostilities. [See p. 452, a.] 
 Murena returned to Rome, and had a triumph in 
 81. He probably died soon after. — 3. L., son of 
 the last, served under his father in the 2nd Mi- 
 thridatic war, and also under LucuUus in the 3rd 
 Mithridatic war. In 65 he was praetor, in 64 
 propnietor of Gallia Cisalpina, and in 63 was 
 elected consul with D. Junius Silanus. Serv. Sul- 
 piciug, an unsuccessful candidate, instituted a pro- 
 secution against Murena for bribery {ambitus), and 
 he was supported in the matter by M. Porcius 
 Cato, Cn. Postumius, and Serv. Sulpicius the 
 younger. Murena was defended by Q. Horten- 
 sius, M. Tullius Cicero, who was then consul, and 
 M. Licinius Crassus. The speech of Cicero, which 
 is extant, was delivered in the latter part of No- 
 vember. The orator handled hia subject skilfully, 
 by making merry with the formulae and the prac- 
 tice of the lawyers, to which class Sulpicius be- 
 longed, and with the paradoxes of the Stoics, to 
 which sect Cato had attached himself. Murena 
 was acquitted, and was consul in the following 
 year, 62.-4. A. Terentius Varro Murena, pro- 
 bably the son of the preceding, was adopted by 
 A. Terentius Varro, whose name he took, accord- 
 ing to the custom in such cases. In the civil wars 
 he is said to have lost his property, and C. Procu- 
 leius, a Roman eques, is said to have given him a 
 share of his own property. This Proculeius is called 
 the brother of Varro, but, if we take the words of 
 
 MUSAE. 450 
 
 Horace literally {CarmAi. 2), Proculeius had more 
 than one brother. It is conjectured that this Pro- 
 culeius was a son of the brother of No, 3, who 
 had been adopted by one Proculeius. This would 
 make Proculeius the cousin of Varro. It was com- 
 mon enough among the Romans to call cousins by 
 the name of brothers { f rater patruelis and fraier). 
 In 25 Murena subdued the Salassi in the Alps, 
 and founded the town of Augusta [Aosta) in their 
 territory. He was consul suffectus in 23. In 
 22 he was involved in the conspiracy of Fan- 
 nius Caepio, and was condemned to death and 
 executed, notwithstanding the intercession of Pro- 
 culeius and Terentia, the sister of Murena. Ho- 
 race {Cai-m. ii. 1 0) addresses Murena by the name 
 of Licinius, and probably intended to give him 
 some advice as to being more cautious in his speech 
 and conduct. 
 
 Murgantia, 1. See Morgantium. — 3. A 
 town in Samnium of uncertain site. 
 
 Murgis, a town in Hispania Baetica, on the 
 frontiers of Tarraconensis, and on the road from 
 Acci to Malaga. 
 
 Muridunum orMoridunum {Dore7iesiei-\ called 
 Dunium by Ptolemj'-, the capital of theDurotriges 
 in the S. of Britain. At Dorchester there are 
 remains of the walls and the amphitheatre of the 
 ancient town. 
 
 Mursa or Mursia (EssecJc, capital of Slavonia), 
 an important town in Pannonia Inferior, situated 
 on the Dravus, not far from its junction with the 
 Danube, was a Roman colony founded by the 
 emperor Hadrian, and was the residence of the 
 governor of Lower Pannonia. Here Magnentius 
 was defeated by Constantius II., a.d. 351. 
 
 Mursella, or Mursa Minor, a town in Pannonia 
 Inferior, only 10 miles W. of the great iWursa. 
 
 Mus, Decius. [Decius.] 
 
 Miisa, Antonius, a celebrated physician at 
 Rome about the beginning of the Christian era. 
 He was brotjier to Euphorbus, the physician to 
 king Juba, and was himself the physician to the 
 emperor Augustus. He had been originally a slave. 
 When the emperor was seriously ill, and had 
 been made worse by a hot regimen and treatment, 
 B. c. 23, Antonius Musa succeeded in restoring 
 him to health by means of cold bathing and cooling 
 drinks, for which service he received from Augus- 
 tus and the senate a large sum of money and the 
 permission to wear a gold ring, and also had a 
 statue erected in his honour near that of Aescula- 
 pius by public subscription. He seems to have 
 been attached to this mode of treatment, to which 
 Horace alludes (Epist. i. 15. 3), but failed when 
 he applied it to the case of M. Marcellus, who died 
 under his care a few months after the recovery of 
 Augustus, 23. He wrote several pharmaceutical 
 works, which are frequently quoted by Galen, but 
 of which nothing except a few fragments remain. 
 There are, however, 2 short Latin medical works 
 ascribed to Antonius Musa, but these are univer- 
 sally considered to be spurious, 
 
 Miisa or Miiza (MoCcrct, MoOJ-o : prob. MousJiid, 
 N. of Mohha), a celebrated port of Arabia Felix, 
 on the W. coast, near its S. extremity, or in other 
 words on the E. shore of the Red Sea, near the 
 Straits of Bab-cl~Mandeh. 
 
 Miisae (MoiJo-ai), the Muses, were, according to 
 the earliest writers, the inspiring goddesses of song, 
 and, according to later notions, divinities presiding 
 over the diiferent kinds of poetry, and over the 
 
460 
 
 MUSAE. 
 
 «irt3 and sciences. They were originnlly regarded 
 as the nymphs of inspiring wells, near which they 
 were worshipped, and they bore different names in 
 different places, until the Thnico-Boeotian wor- 
 ship of the nine Muses spread from Boeotia over 
 other parts of Greece, and ultimately became gene- 
 rally established. — 1. Genealogy of the Muses. The 
 most common notion was that they were the 
 daughters of Zeus and MnemosjTie, and born in 
 Pieria, at the foot of Mt. Olympus. Some call 
 -them the daughters of Uranus and Gaea, and 
 others daughters of Pierus and Antiope, or of 
 Apollo, or of Zeus and Plusia, or of Zeus and 
 Moneta, probably a mere translation of Mnemosyne 
 ■or Mneme, whence they are cviWed. Mnemmiides, or 
 of Zeus and Minerva, or, laatlj*", of Aether and 
 <jaea. — 2. Number of iJic Muses. Originally there 
 were 3 Muses worshipped on Mt. Helicon in 
 Boeotia, namely, Mekie (meditation), M?ieme 
 (memory), and Aoide (song). Three Muses also 
 were recognised at Sicyon and at Delphi. As 
 daughters of Zeus and Plusia we find mention of 
 4 Muses, viz. Thclxinoe (the heart delighting), 
 Aoide (song), Arclie (beginning), and Melete. 
 Some accounts, in which they are called daughters 
 of Pierus, mention 7 Muses, viz. NUo^ Tnione, 
 Asopo, Heptapora, Ackelois^ Tipoplo^ imdMhodia; 
 and others, lastly, mention 8, which is also said to 
 have been the number recognised at Athens. At 
 length, however, the number 9 became established 
 throughout all Greece. Homer sometimes men- 
 tions Musa only in the singular, and sometimes 
 Musae in the plural, and once only he speaks of 
 ^ Muses, though without mentioning any of 
 their names. Hesiod is the first who states the 
 names of all the 9, and these 9 names became the 
 usual ones. They are Clio, Euterpe, Tludia, Mel- 
 pomene, Terpsichore, Erato, Polyvinia or PoJyhym- 
 siia, Urania^ and Calliope. — 3. Nature and cha- 
 racter of tlie Muses. In Homer's poems, they are 
 the goddesses of song and poetry, and live in 
 Olympus. There they sing the festive songs at 
 the repasts of the immortals. They bring before 
 the mind of the mortal poet the events which he 
 has to relate, and confer upon him the gift of song. 
 The earliest poets in their invocation of the Muse 
 or Muses were perfectly sincere, and actually be- 
 lieved in their being inspired by the goddesses; 
 but in later times the invocation of the Muses was 
 a mere formal imitation of the early poets. Tha- 
 myria, who presumed to excel the Muses, was de- 
 prived by them of the gift they had bestowed on 
 him, and punished with blindness. The Sirens, 
 who likewise ventured upon a contest with them, 
 were deprived of the feathers of their wings,andthe 
 Muses put them on their own persons as ornaments. 
 The 9 daughters of Pierus, who presumed to rival 
 the Muses, were metamorphosed into birds. Since 
 poets and bards derived their power from the 
 Muses, they are frequently called either their dis- 
 ciples or sons. Thus Linus is called a son of Am- 
 phimams and Urania, or of Apollo and Calliope, or 
 Terpsichore; Hyacinthus a son of Pierus and 
 Clio ; Orpheus a son of Calliope or Clio, and 
 Thamyris a son of Erato. These and a few 
 others are the cases in which the Muses are de- 
 scribed as mothers ; but the more general idea 
 was, that, like other nymphs, they were virgin 
 divinities. Being goddesses of song, they were 
 naturally connected with Apollo, the god of the 
 Jy-re, who like them instructs the baida, and is 
 
 MUSAEUa 
 
 mentioned along with them even by Homer. In, 
 later times Apollo is placed in very close con- 
 nection with the Muses, for he is described as the 
 leader of the choir of the Muses by the surname 
 Musa(jctes {Mova-ayiTTjs). A further feature in 
 the character of the Muses is their prophetic power, 
 which belongs to them, partly because they were 
 regarded as inspiring nymphs, .ind partly because 
 of their connection with the prophetic god of Delphi. 
 Hence, they instructed, for example, Aristaeus in 
 the art of prophec}''. As the Muses loved to dwell 
 on Mt. Helicon, they were naturally associated 
 with Dionysus and dramatic poetry, and hence 
 they are described as the companions, playmates, 
 or nurses of Dionysus. The worship of the Muses 
 points originally to Thrace and Pieria about Mt. 
 Olympus, whence it was introduced into Boeotia ; 
 and the names of mountains, grottoes, and wells, 
 connected with their worship in the N., were like- 
 wise transferred to the S. Near Mt. Helicon, 
 Ephialtes and Otus are said to have offered the 
 first sacrifices to them. In the same place there 
 was a sanctuary with their statues, the sacred 
 wells Aganippe and Hippocrene, and on Mt. 
 Libethrion, which is connected with Helicon, 
 there was a sacred grotto of the Muses. Pierus, 
 a Macedonian, is said to have been the first who 
 introduced the worship of the nine Muses, from 
 Thrace to Thespiae, at the foot of Mt. Helicon. 
 There they had a temple and statues, and the 
 Thespians celebrated a solemn festival of the 
 Muses on Mt. Helicon, called Musea. Mt. Par- 
 nassus was likewise sacred to them, with the 
 Castalian spring, near which they had a temple. 
 The sacrifices offered to the Muses consisted of 
 libations of water or milk, and of honey. The 
 various surnames by which they are designated by 
 the poets are for the most part derived from the 
 places which were sacred to them or in which they 
 were worshipped, while some are descriptive of the 
 sweetness of tlieir songs. — 4. Representations of 
 the Muses in works of art. In the most ancient 
 works of art we find only 3 Muses, and their attri- 
 butes are musical instruments, such as the flute, 
 the lyre, or the barbiton. Later artists gave to 
 each of the 9 sisters different attributes as well as 
 different attitudes. 1. Calliope, the Muse of epic 
 poetry, appears with a tablet and stylus, and some- 
 times with a roll of paper; 2. Clio, the Muse of 
 history, appears in a sitting attitude, with an open 
 roll of paper, or an open chest of books ; 3. Euteipej 
 the Muse of lyric poetry, with a flute; 4. Melpo- 
 mene^ the Muse of tragedy, with a tragic mask, 
 tlie club of Hercules, or a sword, her head is sur- 
 rounded with vine leaves, and she wears the 
 cothurnus; 5. Terpsichore, the Muse of choral 
 dance and song, appears with the lyre and the 
 plectrum ; 6. Erato, the Muse of erotic poetry and 
 mimic imitation, sometimes also has the lyre ; 
 7. Polymma, or Polyhymnia, the Muse of the sub- 
 lime hymn, usually appears without any attribute, 
 in a pensive or meditating attitude ; 8. Urania, the 
 Muse of astronomy, with a staff pointing to a 
 globe ; 9. Thalia, the Muse of comedy and of 
 merry or idyllic poetiy, appears with a comic mask, 
 a shepherd's staff, or a wreath of ivy. Sometimes 
 the Muses are seen with feathers on their heads, 
 alluding to their contest with the Sirens. 
 
 Miisaeus (MoutraTos). 1, A semi- mythological 
 personage, to be classed with Olen, Orpheus, 
 and Pamphus. He was regarded as the author 
 
MUSAGETES. 
 
 of various poetical compositions, especially as con- 
 nected with the mystic rites of Deraeter at Eleusis, 
 over which the legend represented him as pre- 
 siding in the time of Hercules. He was reputed 
 to belong to the family of the Eumolpidae, being 
 the son of Eumolpus and Selene. In other vari- 
 ations of the myth he was less definitely called a 
 Thracian. According to other legends he was the 
 son of Orpheus, of whom he was generally consi- 
 dered as the imitator and disciple. Some accounts 
 gave him a wife Deioce and a son Eumolpus. 
 There was a tradition that the Museum in Piraeus 
 "bore that name from having been the place where 
 Musaeus was buried. Among the numerous com- 
 positions attributed to him by the ancients the 
 most celebrated were his Oracles. Onomacritus, 
 in the time of the Pisistratidae, made it his busi- 
 ness to collect and arrange the oracles that passed 
 imder the name of Musaeus, and was banished by 
 Hipparchus for interpolating in the collection oracles 
 of his own making. -^ 2. A grammarian, the author 
 of the celebrated poem on the loves of Hero and 
 Leander. Nothing is known of the personal his- 
 tory of the writer ; but it is certain that the poem 
 is a late production. Some critics suppose that the 
 author did not live earlier than the 5th century of 
 our era. Edited by Passow, Lips. 1810 j and by 
 Schaefer, Lips. 1825. 
 Miisagetes. [Musae.] 
 
 C- Musonius Eufus, a celebrated Stoic philo- 
 sopher, was the son of a Roman equea, and was 
 banished by Nero to the island of Gyaros, in 
 A. D. QQ^ under the pretext of his having been 
 privy to the conspiracy of Piso. He returned 
 from exile on the accession of Galba, and seems 
 to have been held in high estimation by Vespasian, 
 as he was allowed to remain at Rome when the 
 other philosophers were banished from the city. 
 Musonius wrote various philosophical works, ^1 
 of which have perished. 
 
 Hasti (Mouo-tt;), a town in the Carthaginian 
 territory (Zeugitana), near the river Bagradas, on 
 the road from Carthage to Sicca Veneria, Here 
 Regulus killed an enormous serpent. 
 
 Muth.ul, a river of Numidia, the boundary be- 
 tween the kingdoms of Jugurtha and Adherbal. 
 It is probably the same as the Rubricatus. 
 
 MutSElus, C. Papius, one of the principal Samnite 
 generals in the Marsic war, b. c. 90 — 89. 
 
 Mutina (Mutinensis : Modena), an important 
 town in Gallia Cispadana, on the high road from 
 Mediolanuni to the S. of Italy, was originally a 
 Celtic town, and was the first place which the 
 Romans took away from the Boii. It is mentioned 
 at the beginning of the 2nd Punic war (b. c. 218) 
 under the name of Motina, as a fortified place 
 inhabited by the Romans ; but it was not till 183 
 that it was made a Roman colony. Mutina is 
 celebrated in the history of the civil war after 
 Caesar's death. Decimus Brutus was besieged here 
 by M. Antonius from December, 44, to April, 43; 
 and under its walls the battles were fought, in 
 which the consuls Hirtius and Pansa perished. 
 Hence this war was called the Bellum Mutimnse, 
 The best wool in all Italy came from the neigh- 
 bourhood of Mutina. 
 
 Mutunus or Mutinus, was among the Romans 
 the same as the phallus, or Priapus, among the 
 Greeks, and was believed to be the most powerful 
 averter of demons, and of all evil that resulted 
 from pride, boastfulnefls, and the like. 
 
 MYCERINUS. 
 
 461 
 
 Mycale (MvKdKTj: Samsun), a momrtain in the 
 S. of Ionia in Asia Minor, N. of the mouth of the 
 Maeander. It forms the W. extremity of M. Mes- 
 Eogis, and nms far out into the sea, opposite to 
 Samos, forming a sharp promontory, which was 
 called Mycale or Trogilium (TpuylAiop, Tpaiyv- 
 Xiov : C. S. Maria). This cape and the S. E. pro- 
 montory of Samos (Posidonium) oveiiap one an- 
 other, and the 2 tongues of land are separated by 
 a strait only 7 stadia (little more than 3-4th3 of a. 
 mile) in width, which is renowned in Greek liistory 
 as the scene of the victory gained over the Persian 
 fleet by Leotychides and Xanthippus, b. c. 479- 
 There seems to have been a city of the same name 
 on or near the promontory. On the N. side of the 
 promontory, near Priene, was the great temple of 
 Poseidon, which was the place of meeting for the 
 Panionic festival and Amphictyony, 
 
 Mycalessus {MuKaArjaa-Ss : MvKa\-f)iT(nos\ an 
 ancient and important city in Boeotia, mentioned 
 by Homer, was situated on the road from Aulis to 
 Thebes. Ins. c. 413 some Thracian mercenaries 
 in the pay of Athens surprised and sacked the 
 to\vn, and butchered the inhabitants. From this 
 blow it never recovered, and was in ruins in the 
 time of Pausanias. It possessed a celebrated temple 
 of Demeter, who was hence sumamed Mycalessia. 
 
 Mycenae sometimes Mycene (Mu/c^fai, Mu- 
 ic-fjVT} : MvKT}va7os : Karvaia), an ancient town in 
 Argolis, about 6 miles N. E. of Argos, is situated 
 on a hill at the head of a narrow valley, and ia 
 hence described by Homer as " in a recess (f^vx^y 
 of the Arrive land": hence the etymology of the 
 name. Mycenae is said to have been founded by 
 Perseus, and was subsequently the favourite resi- 
 dence of the Pelopidae. During the reign of 
 Agamemnon it was regarded as the first city in all 
 Greece ; but after the conquest of Peloponnesus by 
 the Dorians, it ceased to be a place of importance. 
 It still, however, continued an independent town 
 till B. c. 468, when it was attacked by the Argives, 
 whose hatred the Mycenaeans are said to have 
 incurred by the part they took in the Persian war 
 in favour of the Greek cause. The massive walls 
 of M3'cenae resisted all the attacks of the Argives; 
 but the inhabitants were at length compelled by 
 famine to abandon their town. They effected their 
 escape without a surrender, and took refuge, some 
 at Cleonae, some in Achaia, and others in Mace- 
 donia. Mycenae was now destroyed by the Argives 
 and was never rebuilt; but there are still numerous 
 remains of the ancient city, which on account of 
 their antiquity and grandeur are some of the most 
 interesting in all Greece. Of these the most re- 
 markable are the subterranean vault, commonly 
 called the " Treasury of Athens," but which was 
 more probably a sepulchre, and the Gate of Lions, 
 so called from 2 lions sculptured over the gate. 
 
 Mycene (Muk^Vt?), daughter of Inachus and 
 wife of Arestor, from whom the town of Mycenae 
 was believed to have derived its name : the tnie 
 etymology of the name is given above. 
 ^ Mycerinns, or Mecherinus (Mvicepiuos^ Mexe- 
 pTfos), son of Cheops, king of Egypt, succeeded 
 his uncle Chephren on the throne. His conduct 
 formed a strong contrast to that of his father and 
 uncle, being as mild and just as theirs had been ty- 
 rannical. On the death of his daughter, he placed 
 her corpse within the hollow body of a wooden 
 cow, which was covered with gold. Herodotus 
 tells us that it was still to be seen at SaTs in his 
 
10- j.\iiK^Kji\ ua. 
 
 time. AVe further hear of Mycerinu3 thai, being 
 warued by an oracle that he should die at the 
 end of 6 years, because he had been a gentle 
 ruler and had not wreaked the vengeajice of the 
 gods on Egypt, he gave himself up to revelry, 
 and strove to double hia allotted time by turning 
 night into day. He began to build a pyramid, but 
 died before it was finished. It was smaller than 
 those of Cheops and Chephren, and, according to 
 Herodotus, was wrongly ascribed by some to the 
 Greek hetaera Rhodopis. 
 
 Myc5iius(MuKoi'os: Ii1vk6uios: iV/ycono), a small 
 island in the Aegaeim sea, one of the Cyclades, 
 S.E. of Tenos and E. of Delos, never attained any 
 importance in history, but is celebrated in mytho- 
 logy as one of the places where the giants were 
 defeated by Hercules. The island was poor and 
 unproductive, and its inhabitants were rapacious. 
 It contained 2 towns, a promontory, called Phorbia, 
 and a mountain named Dimastus. Tiie large 
 number of bald persons in this island was consi- 
 dered worthy of record by several ancient writers. 
 
 Mygdon (Mvydcav), son of Acmon, a Phry- 
 gian king, who fought with Otreus and Priam 
 against the Amazons, and from whom some of 
 the Phrygians are said to have been called Myg- 
 donians. He had a son Coroebus, who is hence 
 called Mygdo7iides, 
 
 Mygdonia (MirySoi'ia: MuySoves). 1. A dis- 
 trict in the E. of Macedonia, bordering on the 
 Thermaic Gulf and the Chalcidic peninsula. Its 
 people were of Thracian origin. — 2. A district in 
 the N. of Asia Minor, between M. Olympus and 
 the coast, in the E. of Mysia and the W. of Bl- 
 thynia, named after the Thracian people, Mygdones, 
 who formed a settlement here, but were afterwards 
 subdued by the Bithyni. — 3. The N.E. district 
 of Mesopotamia, between M. Masius and the Cha- 
 boras, which divided it from Osroene. From its 
 great fertility, it was also called Anthemusia (Ay- 
 Befxova-'icL). The name of Mygdonia was first in- 
 troduced after the Macedonian conquests : in the 
 passage of Xenophon {Anab. iv. 3), sometimes 
 cited to prove the contrary, the true reading is 
 Mapooviof, not MvyZovioi, 
 
 Myia (Mura), daughter of Pythagoras and 
 Theano, and wife of Milon of Crotona. A letter, 
 addressed to a certain Phyllis, is extant under 
 her name. 
 
 Mylae (MuAai : MuXaToy, MuAaiTTjy). 1. {Me- 
 lazzo)^ a town on the E. part of the N. coast of 
 Sicily, situated on a promontory running out far 
 into the sea, with a harbour and a citadel. It was 
 founded by Zancle (Messana), and continued sub- 
 ject to the latter city. It was oif Mylae that 
 Agrippa defeated the fleet of Sex. Pompeius, b. c. 
 36.-2. A town of Thessaly in Magnesia, of un- 
 certain site. 
 
 Hylasa or Mylassa (ra MuAao-o, My'Aao-tra : 
 r/IuActo-euy : Melmso, Ru.), a very ancient and 
 flourishing inland city of Caria, lay 80 stadia (8 
 geog. miles) from the coast at the Gulf of lassus, 
 in a fertile plain, on and at the foot of an isolated 
 rock of beautiful white marble, which furnished the 
 material for the splendid temples and other public 
 buildings of the city. The most important of these 
 buildings was the great national temple of Zeus 
 Carius or Osagon. [Caria.] Mylasa was the 
 birthplace and capital of Hecatomnus. Under 
 the Romans it was made a free city. In the civil 
 wars, it was taken and partly destroyed by La- 
 
 IVi 1 tVlIN A. 
 
 bienus. Its remains are very extensive, and the 
 ruins of the temple of Zeus are supposed to have 
 been fiwind on the rock which formed the Acro- 
 polis of the ancient city. 
 
 Myndus (Miii/Soj: yivvZios: prob. Port Gu- 
 mishtu^ Ru. ), a Dorian colony on the coast of Caria, 
 in Asia Minor, founded by settlers from Troezene, 
 probably on the site of an old town of the Leleges, 
 which continued to exist under the name of Palae- 
 myndus. Myndus stood at the W. extremity of 
 tlie same peninsula on which Halicamassus stood. 
 It was not one of the cities of the Dorian Hexapolis, 
 but never became a place of much importance. 
 
 Myon or Myonia (Mvwv^ MuoWa: Myo^eyy), a 
 town of the Locri Ozolae, situated on a considerable 
 height 30 stadia from Amphissa, and in one of the 
 passes which led from Aetolhi into Phocis. 
 
 Myonnesus (^lu6vvr](rQs : C. Hypsili) a pro- 
 montory of Ionia, with a town and a little island 
 of the same name, S. of Teos and W. of Lebedus, 
 and forming the N. headland of the Gulf of Ephe- 
 sus. Here the Romans, under the praetor L. Aemi- 
 lius, gained a great naval victory over Antiochus 
 the Great, B.C. 190. 
 
 Myos Horzaos (5 Muis o/j/nos, i. e. Muscle-poi% 
 rather than Mouse-port^ for fivs is the Greek for 
 miiscle, and this shell-fish is very common on the 
 W. coast of the Red Sea), aft. Veneris Portus 
 {*A(ppoBiT7}s Zp/ios), an important sea-port town of 
 Upper Egypt, built by Ptolemy II. Philadelphus 
 on a promontory of the same name, 6 or 7 days' 
 journey from Coptos. Some of the best modern 
 geographers identify the port with Kosseir (lat. 
 2G° 10'), which is still an important port of the 
 Red Sea, and the place of embarkation for the cara- 
 van to Mecca. Kosseir lies due E. of Coptos, and 
 is connected with it by a valley, which contains 
 traces of an ancient road, and which still forms the 
 route of the Mecca caravan. At the village of 
 Abu-SJiaar^ near Cosseir, are extensive ruins, which 
 are supposed to be the remains of the town of 
 Myos Hormos. Others, however, place it a degree 
 further N., in lat. 26^10', opposite the Jaffatine 
 islands. 
 
 Myra or Myron (ra and if Mupo, rj Mvpav. Mu- 
 peus : Myra^ Grk., Dembre^ Turk., Ru.), one of the 
 chief cities of Lycia, and, under the later Roman em- 
 pire, the capital of the province, was built on a rock 
 20 stadia (2 geog. miles) from the sea, and had a 
 port called Andriaca ('Ai'Spta/of). St. Paul touched 
 here on his voj'age as a prisoner to Rome, and the 
 passage where this is mentioned {Acts^ xxvii. 5, 6), 
 affords incidental proof that the place was then an 
 important sea-port. There are still magnificent 
 ruins of the city, in great part hewn out of the rock. 
 
 Myriandrus (Muptai'Spos), a Phoenician colony 
 in Syria, on the E. side of the Gulf of Issus, a 
 day's journey from the Cilician Gates. It probably 
 stood a little S. of Alexandria, at a spot where 
 there are ruins. Herodotus calls the Gulf of Issus b 
 MapiavBiK6s kSKttos^ a name evidently derived from 
 this place, with a slight variation of form. 
 
 Myriciis (MvpiKovs), a city on the coast of Troas, 
 opposite to Tenedos. 
 
 Myrina (tj Mvpiva, or Mvpiva^ Mupiifva, TldvpiuT}: 
 Mvpti/aios). 1. {SandarUh^\ a very ancient and 
 strongly fortified city on the W. coast of Mysia, 
 founded, according to mythical tradition, by Myri- 
 nus or by the Amazon Myrina, and colonized by the 
 Aeolians, of whose confederacy it formed a member. 
 It was also called Smyrna, and, under the Roman 
 
JVLYKLKA. 
 
 empire, Sebastopolis : it was made by the Romans 
 a civiias libera. It was destroyed by earthquakes 
 under Tiberius and Trajan, but each time rebuilt 
 It was the birthplace of the epigrammatic poet 
 Agathias.^2. [See Lkmnos.] 
 
 Myrlea {yivp\eta : MupKeavos : Ainapoli^ Ru., 
 a little distance inland from Mvdanieh)^ a city 
 of Bithynia, not far from Prusa, founded by the 
 Colophonians, and almost rebuilt by Prusias I., who 
 called it Apamea after his wife. The Romans 
 colonized it under Julius Caesar and Augustus. 
 
 Myrmecides QflvpfxriKiZ'qs)^ a sculptor and en- 
 graver, of Miletus or Athens, is generally men- 
 tioned in connection with Callicrates, like whom 
 he was celebrated for the minuteness of his works. 
 [Callicrates.] His works in ivory were so 
 small that they could scarcely be seen without 
 placing them on black hair. 
 
 Mynneciuin {yivptii\Ktov\ a Scythian or Cim- 
 merian town of the Chersonesus Taurica, situated 
 on a promontory of the same name at the narrowest 
 part of the Bosporus, opposite the Achilleum in 
 Asia. 
 
 Myrmidon (MupjuiSwi'), son of Zeus and Eury- 
 medusa, daughter of Clitos, whom Zeus deceived 
 ill the disguise of an ant. Her son was for this 
 reason called Myrmidon (from fivpfij]^^ an ant), 
 and was regarded as the ancestor of the Myr- 
 midons in Thessaly. He was married to Pisi- 
 dice, by whom he became the father of Antiphus 
 and Actor. 
 
 MyrmIdon.es {Mvp}j.iB6y€s), an Achaean race in 
 Phthiotis in Thessaly, whom Achilles ruled over 
 and who accompanied this hero to Troy. They 
 are said to have inhabited originally the island of 
 Aegina, and to have emigrated with Peleus into 
 Thessaly; but modern critics on the contrary sup- 
 pose that a colony of them emigrated from Thessaly 
 into Aegina. The Myrmidones disappear from 
 history at a later period. The ancients derived 
 their name either from a mythical ancestor Myr- 
 midon, or from the ants (/iiJpjUTjKes) in Aegina, 
 which were supposed to have been metamorphosed 
 into men in the time of Aeacus. [Aeacus.] 
 
 Myron (Mupwy). 1. Tyrant of Sicyon, the 
 father of Aristonymus, and grandfather of Clis- 
 thenes. He gained the victory at Olympia in 
 the chariot-race in b. c. 648.^2. One of the 
 most celebrated of the Greek statuaries, and also 
 a sculptor and engraver, was born at Eleiitiierae, 
 in Boeotia, about 480. He is also called an 
 Athenian, because Eleutherae had been admitted 
 to the Athenian franchise. He was the disciple 
 of Ageladas, the fellow-disciple of Polycletus, 
 and a younger contemporary of Phidias. He 
 flourished about 431, the time of the beginning of 
 the Peloponnesian war. The chief characteristic 
 of Myron seems to have been his power of ex- 
 pressing a great variety of forms. Not content 
 with the human figure in its most difficult and 
 momentary attitudes, he directed his art towards 
 various other animals, and he seems^ to have been 
 the first great artist who did so. His great works 
 were nearly all in bronze. The most celebrated 
 of his statues were his Discobolm and his Cow. 
 Of his Discobolus there are several marble copies 
 in existence. It is true that we cannot prove by 
 testimony that any of these alleged copieswere 
 really taken from Myron's work, or from imita- 
 tions of it ; but the resemblance between them, 
 the fame of the original, and the well-known 
 
 frequency of the practice of making such marble 
 copies of celebrated bronzes, all concur to put the 
 question beyond reasonable doubt. Of these copies 
 we possess one in the Townley Gallery of the 
 British Museum, which was found in the grounds 
 of Hadrian's Tiburtine Villa, in 1791. The Cow 
 of Myi'on appears to have been a perfect work 
 of its kind. It was celebrated in many popular 
 verses, and the Greek Anthology still contains 
 no less than 36 epigrams upon it. The Cow 
 was represented as lowing, and the statue was 
 placed on a marble base, in the centre of the 
 largest open place in Athens, where it still stood 
 in the time of Cicero. In the time of Paiisanias 
 it was no longer there ; it must have been re- 
 moved to Rome, where it was still to be seen in 
 the temple of Peace, in the time of Procopius. ^ 3. 
 Of Priene, the author of an historical account of 
 the first Messenian war, probably lived not earlier 
 than the 3rd century b. c. 
 
 Myronides (Mu/jwj'iSTjy), a skilful and successful 
 Athenian general. In b. c. 457, he defeated the 
 Corinthians, who had invaded Megara ; and in 
 456 he defeated the Boeotians at Oenophyta. 
 
 Myrrha (Mu^^a) or Smyrna, daughter of Ciny- 
 ras and mother of Adonis. For details see Adonis. 
 
 Myrrhiniis {Vlvp^ivovs: Mv^fiivovffios), a demus 
 on the E. coast of Attica, belonging to the tribe 
 Pandionis, a little S. of the promontory Cynosura. 
 It is said to have been built by a hero Colaenus, 
 and it contained a temple of Artemis Colaenis. 
 
 MyrsUus (Mupo-iAos). 1. [Candaules.] — 2. A 
 Greek historical writer of uncertain date, a native 
 of Lesbos, from whom Dionysius of Halicamassus 
 borrowed a part of his account of the Pelasgians. 
 
 Myrsinus. [Myrtuntium.] 
 
 MyrtiUs, a town of the Turdetani on the Anas 
 in Lusitania, possessing the Jus Latii. 
 
 Myrtflua [MuprlKos), son of Hermes by Cleo- 
 bule, Clytia, Phaetusa or Myrto. He wsis the 
 charioteer of Oenomaus king of Elis, whom he 
 betrayed, when Pelops contended with his master 
 in the chariot-race. He was afterwards thrown 
 into the sea by Pelops near Geraestus in Euboea ; 
 and that part of the Aegean is said to have 
 thenceforth been called after him the Myrtoan sea. 
 [Oenomaus ; Pelops.] At the moment he ex- 
 pired, he pronomiced a curse upon the house of 
 Pelops, which was hencefor^vard tormented hy the 
 Erinnyes.. His father placed him among the stars 
 as auriya. 
 
 Myrtis (Myprts), a lyric poetess, a native of 
 Anthedon, in Boeotia. She was reported to have 
 been the instructress of Pindar, and to have con- 
 tended with hira for the palm of superiority. This 
 is alluded to in an extant fragment of Corinna. 
 There were statues in honour of her in various 
 parts of Greece. 
 
 Myrtoum Mare {rh Mupr&ov treXayos)^ the 
 part of the Aegaean sea, S- of Euboea, Attica and 
 Argolis, which derived its name from the small 
 island Myrtus, though others suppose it to come 
 from Myrtilus, whom Pelops threw into this sea, 
 or from the maiden Myrto. 
 
 Myrtuntium (Mu/jtou^'tio^; MuprouVtos), called 
 Myrsinus (Mvptrivos) in Homer, a town of the 
 Epeans in Elis, on the road from Elis to Dyme. 
 
 Myrtus. [Myrtoum Mark.] 
 
 Mys (Mus), an artist in the toreutic depart- 
 ment, engraved the battle of the Lapithae and 
 the Centaurs and other figures on the shield of 
 
464 MYSCELUS. 
 
 Phidias's colossiil bronze statue of Athena Proma- 
 chos, in tlie Acropolis of Athens. He is men- 
 tioned as one of the most distinguished engravers 
 by several ancient writers. 
 
 Myscelus (MucreeXoy, or Mua-iceWos), a native 
 of Achaia, and, according to Ovid {Metam. xv. 1), 
 an Heraclid, and the son of an Argive named Ale- 
 mon. He founded Croton in Italy, B.C. 710, in 
 accordance with the Delphic oracle. The oracle 
 had commanded him to build a city, where he 
 should find rain with fine weather. For a Icnp 
 time he thought it impossible to fulfil the command 
 of the oracle, till at length he found in Italy a 
 beautiful woman in tears ; whereupon he perceived 
 that the oracle was accomplished, and straightway 
 founded Croton on the spot. 
 
 Mysi (Mucoi), one of the Thracian peoples, 
 Tvho seem to have crossed over from Europe into 
 Asia Minor before recorded history begins. They 
 appear to be the same people as the Moesi (in 
 Greek also MutroQ, on the banks of the Danube. 
 [MoESi^\.] They stand in close connection with 
 the Teucri, These 2 peoples appear to have moved 
 from the banks of the Strjnnon to the S.E. of 
 Thrace, forcing the Bithyni over the Thracian 
 Bosporus into Asia, and then to have crossed 
 over into Asia themselves, by way of the Thracian 
 Bosporus, and to have settled on the S.E. shore 
 of the Propontis, as far "VV. as the river Rbyndacus 
 (the rest of the Asiatic coast of the Propontis and 
 the Hellespont being occupied by Phrygians), and 
 also in the E. and S. parts of the district afterwards 
 called Mysia, in the mountains called Olympus 
 and Temnus, and on the S. side of Ida. The Teu- 
 crians obtained a permanent footing also on the N. 
 side of Ida, in the Troad. Being afterwards driven 
 W.-ward over the Rbyndacus by the Bithynians, and 
 hemmed in on the W. and N. by the Aeolian colo- 
 nies, the Mysians may be regarded as about shut up 
 -within the ranges of Ida and Olympus on the N. 
 and N.E. and Temnus on the S. They were a simple 
 pastoral people, low in the scale of civilization. 
 Their language and religion bore a strong resem- 
 blance to those of their neighbours, the Phr3-gians 
 and Lydians, who were of the same Thracian 
 origin as themselves ; and hence arose the error, 
 ■which is found in Herodotus, of deriving them 
 directly from the Lydians. 
 
 Mysia (?J My(7ia, poet. Mvah ala: Muffo's, My- 
 8U3 and Mysius: Clian Karasi^ the N.W. district 
 of Ajiadoli), a district of Asia Minor, called also 
 the Asiatic Mysia {Mu<ria -q 'Affiavn), in conti-adis- 
 tinction to Moesia on the banks of the Danube. 
 Originally it me^nt of course the territory of the 
 Mysi, but in the usual division of Asia Minor, as 
 settled under Augustus, it occupied the whole of 
 the N.W. comer of the peninsula, between the 
 Hellespont on the N-W. ; the Propontis on the 
 N. ; the river Rh3'ndacus and M. Olympus on the 
 E., which divided it from Bithynia and Phrj-gia; 
 M. Temnus, and an imaginary line drawn from 
 Temnus to the S. side of the Ela'itic Gulf, on the S., 
 where it bordered upon Lydia; and the Aegean 
 Sea on the W. It was subdivided into B parts : 
 (1.) Mysia Dlinor (M. 77 t^i^pd), along the N. coast. 
 (2.) Mysia Major (M. tJ ^€70^17), the S.E. in- 
 land region, with a small portion of the coast 
 '^"tween the Troad and the Aeolic settlements 
 about the Elaitic Gulf. (3.) Troas (t) T^wa'y), the 
 N.W. angle, between the Aegean and Hellespont 
 and the S. coast along the foot of Ida. (4.) Aeolis , 
 
 MYSTA. 
 
 or Aeolia {ij AioAi? or A/o\ia), the S. part of the 
 W. coast, around the Elaitic Gulf, whtire the chief 
 cities of the Aeolian confederacy were planted ; 
 but applied in a wider sense to the W. coast in 
 general ; and (5.) Teuthrania (7} Tevdpai/ia), the 
 S.W. angle, between Temnus and the borders of 
 Lydia, where, in very early times, Teuthras was 
 said to have established a Mysian kingdom, which 
 was early subdued by the kings of Lydia; this 
 part was also called Pergamene, from the celebrated 
 city of pERGARius, which stood in it. This a(>- 
 count applies to the time of the early Roman em- 
 pire ; the extent of Mysia, and its subdivisions, 
 varied greatly at other times. In the heruic ages 
 we find the great Teucrian monarchy of Troy in 
 the N.W. of the country, and the Phrj'glans along 
 the Hellespont: as to the Mysians, who appear as 
 allies of the Trojans, it is not clear whether they 
 are Europeans or Asiatics. The Mysia of the 
 legends respecting Telephus is the Teuthranian 
 kingdom in the S., only with a wider extent than 
 the later Teuthrania. Under the Persian empire, 
 the N.W. portion, which was still occupic;d in part 
 by Phr3-gians, but chiefly by Aeolian settlements, 
 was called Phrygia Minor, and by the Greeks 
 Hellespontus. Mysia was the region S. of the 
 chain of Ida ; and both formed, with Lydia, the 
 second satrapy. In the division of the empire of 
 Alexander the Great, Mysia fell, with Thrace, to 
 the share of Lysimachus, B.C. 311, after whose 
 defeat and death, in 281, it became a part of the 
 Greco-Syrian kingdom, with the exception of the 
 S.W. portion, where Philetaerus founded the king- 
 dom of Pergamus (280), to which kingdom the 
 whole of Mysia was assigned, together with, 
 Lydia, Phrygia, Caria, Lycia, Pisidia, and Pam- 
 phylia, after the defeat of Antiochus the Great by 
 the Romans in 190. With the rest of the king- 
 dom of Pergamus, Mysia fell to the Romans in 
 133, by the bequest of Attains III., and formed 
 part of the province of Asia. Under tlie later 
 empire, Mysia formed a separate proconsular pro- 
 vince, under the name of Hellespontus. The coun- 
 try was for the most part mountainous; its chief 
 chains being those of Ida, Olympus, and Tem- 
 nus, which are terminal branches of the N.W. 
 part of the Taurus chain, and the union of which 
 forms the elevated land of S.E. Mysia. Their pro- 
 longations into the sea form several important bays 
 and capes ; namely, among the former, the great 
 gulf of Adramyttium {Adramyiti)^ which cuts off 
 Lesbos from the continent, and the Sinus Elaiticus 
 {G. of Chandeli) ; and, among the latter, Sigeum 
 (C. VenicJieri) and Lectum (G.Baba), attheN.W. 
 and S.W. extremities of the Troad, and Cane 
 (C. Coloni) and Hydria (FoJcia), the N. and S. 
 headlands of the Elaitic Gulf. Its rivers are nu- 
 merous ; some of them considerable, in proportion; 
 to the size of the country ; and some of first-rate 
 importance in history and poetry : the chief of 
 them, beginning on the E., were Rhyndacus and 
 Macestus, Tarsius,Aesepus, Granicus, Rho- 
 Dius, SiMois and Scamander, Satnois, Eve- 
 Nus, and CaVcus. The peoples of the country-, be- 
 sides the general appellations mentioned above, 
 were kno^vn by the following distinctive names : 
 the OlympiOni or Olympeni {'O\vixirn}voi, ^0\vfi~ 
 Tr7jvol\ in the district of Olympene at the foot of 
 M. Olympus; next to them, on the S. and W., 
 and occupying the greater part of Mysia Proper, 
 the Abretteni, who had a native divinity called by 
 
MYSIUS. 
 tlie Greeks Zeus *A€p€TTT}v6s ; theTrimenthuritae, 
 the Pentademitae, and the Mysonuvcedonea, all in 
 the region of M. Temnus. 
 
 Mysius {Bergamo), a tributary of the river 
 Ca'icua in Mysia, or rather the upper part of tlie 
 Caiciis itself, had its source in M. Temnus. 
 
 Mysou (Mutrwi/), of Chenae, a village either in 
 Laconia or on Mt. Oeta, is enumerated by Plato as 
 one of the 7 sages, in place of Periander. 
 
 Mystia, a town in the S.E. of Bruttium, a little 
 above the Prom. Cocintum. 
 
 Mytilene or Mityleiie (MutiXiJvt;, yiirvK4\v7\ : 
 tlie former is the ancient form, and the one usually 
 found on coins and inscriptions ; the latter is some- 
 times found on inscriptions, and is the commoner 
 form in MSS. : '^vTiKjivatos, Mitylenaeus : Myti- 
 lene or Aletelm), the chief city of Asia, stood on 
 the E. side of the island opposite the coast of 
 Lesbos, upon a promontory which was once an 
 island, and both sides of which formed excellent 
 harbours. Its first foundation is ascribed to Ca^ 
 rians and Pelasgians. It was early colonized by 
 the Aeolians. [Lesbos.] Important hints re- 
 specting its political history are furnislied by the 
 fragments of the poetry of Alcaeus, whence (and 
 from other sources) it seems that, after the rule 
 and overthrow of a series of tyrants, the city was 
 nearly ruined by the bitter hatred and conflicts of 
 the factions of the nobles and the people, till Pitta- 
 cus was appointed to a sort of dictatorship, and the 
 nobles were expelled. [Aj.caeus ; Pittacus.] 
 Meanwhile, the city had grown to great importance 
 as a navid power, and had founded colonies on the 
 coasts of Mysia and Thrace. At the beginning of 
 the 7th centurj'- b, c, the possession of one of these 
 colonies, Sigeum at the mouth of the Hellespont, 
 was disputed in war between the Mytilenaeans 
 and Atlienians, and assigned to the latter by the 
 award of Periander, tyrant of Corinth. Among 
 the other colonies of Mytilene were Achilleum, 
 Assos, Antandrus, &c. Mytilene submitted to the 
 Persiiins after the conquest of Ionia and Aeolis, 
 and furnished contingents to the expeditions of 
 Cainbj'ses against Egypt and of Darius against 
 Scythia. It was active in the Ionian revolt, after 
 the failure of which it again became subject to 
 Persia, and took part in the expedition of Xerxes 
 against Greece. After the Persian war, it formed 
 an alliance with Athens, and remained one of the 
 most important members of the Athenian confede- 
 racy, retaining its independence till the 4th year 
 of the Peloponnesian War, a c. 428, when it 
 iieaded a revolt of the greater part of Lesbos, the 
 progress and suppression of which forms one of the 
 most interesting episodes in the history of the 
 Peloponnesian War. (See the Histories of Greece.) 
 This event destroyed the power of Mytilene. Its 
 subsequent fortunes cannot be related in detail 
 here. It fell under the power of the Romans after 
 the Mithridatic War. Respecting its important 
 position in Greek literary history, see Lesbos. 
 
 Myttistratum. [Am estr at us. ] 
 
 MyU3 (MuoiJs: MvovffLQs: Falalia, Ru.), the 
 least city of the Ionian confederacy, stood in Caria, 
 on the S. side of the Maeander, 'dO stadia from its 
 mouth, and very near Miletus. Its original site 
 ■was probably at the mouth of the river; but its 
 site gradually became an unhealthy marsh ; and 
 by the time of Augustus it was so deserted by its 
 inhabitants that the few who remained were reck- 
 oned as citizens of Miletus. 
 
 NABATAEI. 
 
 N. 
 
 465 
 
 Waarda (NacfpSa), a town of Babylonia, chiefly 
 inhabited by Jews, and with a Jewish academy. 
 
 Naarmalclia or Naiirmalcha (Naap/ioAxay, 
 Nap^akx^^j i- e. tlie Ki72(/''s Canal: 6 jQaffiAeior 
 TTOTo^fJs, tJ patrtKiKT] 5jwpi/|, flumen regium: Nahr- 
 al-Malk ov Ne Gruel Melek)^ the greatest of the 
 canals connecting the Euphrates and the Tigris, was 
 situated near the N. limit of Babylonia, a little S. 
 of the Median Wall, in lat. 33° 5' about. Its 
 formation was ascribed to a governor named Go- 
 bares. It was repaired upon the building of 
 Seleucia at its junction with the Tigris by Seleucus 
 Nicator, and again under the Roman emperors, 
 Trajan, Sevenis, and Julian. 
 
 IJabalia. [Navalia.] 
 
 Nabarzanes (Na^a^^ai^s), a Persian, conspired 
 along with Bessus, against Darius, the last king of 
 Persia. He was pardoned by Alexander. 
 
 Wabatael, Nabatkae (Na&aTaioi, NaSdrai : 
 0. T. Nebaioth), an Arabian people, descended 
 from the eldest son of Ishmael, had their original 
 abodes in the N.W. part of the Arabian peninsula, 
 E. and S.E. of the Moabites and Edomites, who 
 dwelt on the E. of the Dead Sea and in the moun- 
 tains reaching from it to the Persian Gulf. In 
 the changes effected among the peoples of these re- 
 gions by the Babylonian conquest of Judaea, the Na- 
 bathaeans extended W. into the Sina'itic peninsula 
 and the territory of the Edomites, while the latter 
 took possession of the S. of Judaea [Idumaei]; 
 and hence the Nabathaeans of Greek and Roman 
 history occupied nearly the whole of Arabia Pe- 
 traea, along the N.E. coast of the Red Sea, on both 
 sides of the Aelanitic Gulf, and in the Idumaean 
 mountains (M. of Seir), where they had their cele- 
 brated rock-hewn capital, Petra, At first they 
 were a roving pastoral people ; but, as their position 
 gave them the command of the trade between 
 Arabia and the W., they prosecuted that trade 
 with great energy, establishing regular caravans 
 between Leuce Come, a port of the Red Sea, in the 
 N.W. part of Arabia, and the port of Rhinocolura 
 {El-Arish) on the Mediterranean, upon the fron- 
 tiers of Palestine and Egypt. Sustained by tiiis 
 traffic a powerful monarchy grew up, which re- 
 sisted all the attacks of the Greek kings of Syria, 
 and which, sometimes at least, extended its power 
 as far N. as Syria. Thus, in the reign of Caligula, 
 even after the Nabathaeans had nominally sub- 
 mitted to Rome, we find even Damascus in pos- 
 session of an ethnarch of " Aretas the king,*" i. e. of 
 the Nabathaean Arabs : the usual names of these 
 kings were Aretas and Obodas. Under Augustus 
 the Nabathaeans are found, as nominal subjects of 
 the Roman empire, assisting Aelius Gallus in his 
 expedition into Arabia Felix, through which, and 
 through the journey of Athenodorua to Petia, 
 Strabo derived unportant information. Under Tra- 
 jan the Nabathaeans were conquered by A. Cornelius 
 Palraa, and Arabia Petraea became a Roman pro- 
 vince, A. D. 105 — 107. In the 4th century it was 
 considered a part of Palestine, and formed the 
 diocese of a metropolitin, whose see was at Petra. 
 The Mohamedan conquest finally overthrew the 
 power of the Nabathaeans, which had been long 
 declining : their country soon became a haunt of 
 the wandering Arabs of the Desert; and their very 
 name disappeared. 
 
4b-G 
 
 NABIS 
 
 Wa'bis (Na§ts), succeeded in making himself 
 tyrant of Lacedaemon on the death of Machanidas, 
 B. c. "207. He carried the licence of tyranny to the 
 furthest possihle extent. All persons possessed of 
 property were subjected to incessant exactions, and 
 the most cruel tortures if they did not succeed in 
 satisfying his rapacity. One of his engines of tor- 
 ture resembled the maiden of more recent times ; 
 it was a figure resembling his wife Apega, so con- 
 structed as to clasp the victim and pierce him to 
 death with the nails with which the arms and 
 bosom of the figure were studded. The money 
 which he got by these means and by the plunder 
 of the temples enabled him to raise a large body of 
 mercenaries, whom he selected from among the 
 most abandoned and reckless villains. With these 
 forces he was able to extend his sway over a con- 
 siderable part of Peloponnesus ; but his further 
 progress was checked by Flaminius, who after a 
 short campaign compelled him to sue for peace 
 (195). The tyrant, however, was allowed to re- 
 tain the sovereignty of Sparta, and soon after the 
 departure of Flamininus from Greece, he resmned 
 hostilities- He was opposed by Philopoemen, the 
 general of the Achaean league ; and though Nabis 
 met ftt first with some success, he was eventually 
 defeated by Philopoemen, and was soon afterwards 
 assassinated by some Aetolians who had been sent 
 to his assistance (19'2). 
 
 Nabonaasar (f^aSovda-apos), king of Babylon, 
 whose accession to the throne was fixed upon by 
 the Babylonian astronomers as the era from which 
 they began their calculations. This era is called 
 the JEra of Nahoiiassar, It commenced on the 
 26th of February, b. c. 747. 
 
 ITaTDiissa or Kebrissa, sumamed Veneria, a 
 town of the Turdetani in Hispania Baetica, near 
 the mouth of the Baetis. 
 
 Nacolia (Na/coA-eicr, or -£a, orNa/cwAeia: Sidi- 
 ghasi)y a town of Phrygia Epictetus, on the ^V. 
 bank of the river Thymbrius, between Dorylaeum 
 and Cotyaeum, was the place where the emperor 
 Valens defeated his rival Procopius, A. D. 36(f. 
 
 Naenia, i. e. a dirgo or lamentation, chauntedat 
 funerals, was personified at Rome and worshipped 
 as a goddess. She had a chapel outside the walls 
 of the city, near the porta Viminalis. 
 
 Naevlus, Ce., an ancient Roman poet, of whose 
 Life few particulars have been recorded. He was 
 probably a native of Campania, and was bom some- 
 where bet ween B.C. 2 74 and 264. He appears to have 
 ccme to Rome early, and he produced his first play 
 in '2''»o. He was attached to the plebeian party; 
 an^, with the licence of the old Attic comedy, he 
 made the stage a vehicle for his attacks upon the 
 aristncracy. He attacked Scipio and the Metelli ; 
 but he was indicted by Q. Metellua and thrown 
 into prison, to which circumstance Plautus alludes 
 in his Mi/es Gloriosus (ii. 2. 56). Whilst in prison 
 lie composed two plays, the Hariolus and Leon, in 
 which he recanted his previous imputations, and 
 thereby obtained his release through the tribunes 
 of the people. His repentance, however, did not last 
 long, and he was soon compelled to expiate a new 
 offence by exile. He retired to Utica ; and it was 
 here, probably, that he wrote his poem on the first 
 Punic war ; and here it is certain that he died, either 
 in 2ti4 or 202. Naevius was both an epic and a dra- 
 matic poet. Of his epic poem on the first Punic war a 
 few fragments are still extant. It was written in the 
 old Saturnian metre ; for Ennius, who introduced 
 
 NAU. 
 
 the hexameter among the Romans, was not brought 
 to Rome till after the banishment of Naevius, 
 The poem appears to have opened with the story of 
 Aeneas''s flight from Troy, his visit to Carthage 
 and amour with Dido, together with other legends 
 connected with the early history both of Carthage 
 and of Rome. It was extensively copied both by 
 Ennius and Virgil. The latter author took many 
 passages from it ; particularly the description of 
 the storm in the first Aene'id, the speech with 
 which Aeneas consoles his companions, and the 
 address of Venus to Jupiter. His dramatic wri- 
 tings comprised both tragedies and comedies, most 
 of which were taken from the Greek. Even in the 
 Augustan age Naevius was still a favourite with 
 the admirers of the genuine old school of Roman 
 poetry ; and the lines of Horace {Bp. ii. 1. S'S) 
 show that his works, if not so much read as for- 
 merly, were still fresh in the memorif^s of men. 
 The best edition of the fragments of Naevius is by 
 Klussman, 8vo. Jena, 1041^. 
 
 Naevius Sertorius Macro. [Macro.] 
 
 Naharvali, a tribe of the Lygii in Germany, 
 probably dwelt on the banks of the Vistula. In 
 their country was a grove sacred to the worsliip of 
 2 divinities called Alces, whom Tacitus compares 
 with Castor and Pollux. 
 
 Nahrmalcha [Naarmalcha]. 
 
 Naiades. [Nymphae.] 
 
 Nain ( NaiV : Nain)^ a city of Galilee, S. of M. 
 Tabor. {LuJce^yW. II.) 
 
 Naisus, Naissus, or Naesus (NoitrtJs, NaVo-n-tJr, 
 Naro-ffos ; Nissa), an important town of Upper 
 Moesia, situated on an E. tributary of the Margus, 
 and celebrated as the birthplace of Cnnstantine the 
 Great. It was enlarged and beautified by Con- 
 stantine, was destroyed by Attila, but was rebuilt 
 and fortified by Justinian. 
 
 Namnetae or Namnetes, a people on the W. 
 coast of Gallia Lugdunensis, on the N. bank of 
 the Liger, which separated them from Aquitania. 
 Their chief town was Condivincimi, afterwards 
 Namnetes {Nantes). 
 
 Namusa, Aufidius, a Roman jurist, one of the 
 numerous pupils of Serv. Sulpicius. 
 
 Nantuatae or Nantuates, a people in the S. E. 
 of Gallia Belgica between the Rhodanus and the 
 Rhenus, and at the E. extremity of the Lacus 
 Lenianus, 
 
 Napaeao. [Nymphae.] 
 
 Naparis, a northern tributary of the Danube : 
 its modern name is uncertain. 
 
 Napata (Nan-aTa: prob. £'/-^aZ>, Ru., at the 
 great bend of the Nile to tiie S.W., between the 
 4th and 5th cataracts), the capital of an Aethiopian 
 kingdom N. of that of Meroe, was the S.-most 
 point reached by Petronius, under Augustus. Its 
 sovereigns were females, bearing the title of Cnn- 
 dace ; and through a minister of one of them 
 Christianity was introduced into Aethiopia in tlie 
 apostolic age (Acts viii. 27). This custom of female 
 government has been continued to our own times 
 in tlie neighbouring kingdom of Shmdi/. In the 
 reign of Nero, Napata was only a small town. 
 
 Napoca or Napuca (Napocensis or Napucen- 
 sis), a Roman colony in Dacia, on the high road 
 leading through the country, between Patavissa 
 and Optatiana. 
 
 Nar (Nera), a river in central Italy, rises in 
 M. Fiscellus, on the frontiers of Umbria and Pice- 
 mira, flows in a S.W.-ly direction, forming the 
 
NARAGGARA. 
 
 boundary between Umbria and tbe land of the 
 Sabini, and after receiving the VcUnus ( Velino) 
 and Tolenus (Turano), and passing by Interamna 
 and Narnia, falls into the Tiber, not far from 
 Ocriculuin. It was celebrated for its sulphureous 
 ■waters and white colour {sulphurea Nar alius aqua^ 
 Yirfr.Aen. vii. 517). 
 
 Naraggara (Napdyapa : Kassir Jehir, Ru.) one 
 of the most important inland cities of Numidia, 
 between Thagura and Sicca Venena, was ti}e scene 
 of Scipio's celebrated interview with Hannibal 
 before the battle of Zama. 
 
 Narbo Martius, at a later time Narbona (Nar- 
 bonensis: Narbonne\ a town in the S. of Gaul 
 and the capital of the Roman province of Gallia 
 Narbonensis, was situated on the river Atax 
 {Amle\ also called Narbo, and at the head of the 
 lake Rubresus or Rubrensis (also called Narbo- 
 nitis), which was connected with the sea by a 
 canal. By this means the town, which was 12 
 miles from the coast, was made a sea-port. It was 
 a very ancient place, and is supposed to have been 
 orif^inally called Atax. It was made a Roman 
 colony by the consul Q. Marcius or Martius, B. c. 
 11(1, and hence received the surname Martius; 
 and it was the first colony founded by the Romans 
 in Gaul. Julius Caesar also settled here the 
 veterans of his 10th lejjion, whence it received 
 the name of Colonia Decumanorum. It was a 
 handsome and populous town ; the residence of 
 the Roman governor of the province ; and a place 
 of great commercial importance. The coast was 
 celebrated for its excellent oysters. There are 
 scarcely any vestiges of the ancient town ; bat 
 there are still remains of the canal. 
 Narboaensis Gallia. [Gallia.] 
 Narcissus (Na/JK-io-tros). 1, A beautiful youth, 
 son of the river god Cephissus and the nymph 
 Liriope of Thespiae. He was wholly inaccessible 
 to the feeling of love ; and the nymph Echo, who 
 was enamoured of him, died of grief. [Echo.] 
 One of his rejected lovers, however, prayed to 
 Nemesis to punish him for his unfeeling heart. 
 Nemesis .accordingly caused Narcissus to see his 
 own image reflected in a fountain, and to become 
 enamoured of it. But as he cnuld not approach 
 this object, he gradually pined away, and his 
 corpse was metamorphosed into the flower which 
 bears his name. ^2. A freedman and secretary of 
 the emperor Claudius, over whom he possessed un- 
 bounded influence. He long connived at the irre- 
 gularities of Messalina ; but fearing that the em- 
 press meditated his death, he betrayed to Claudius 
 her marriage with C. Silius, and obtained the order 
 for her execution, a. d. 48. After the murder 
 of Claudius, Narcissus was put to death by com- 
 mand of Agrippina, 54. . He liad amassed an enor- 
 mous fortune, amounting, it is said, to 400,000,000 
 sesterces, equivalent to 3,125,000/. of our money. 
 — 3. A celebrated athlete, who strangled the em- 
 peror Commodus, 192. He was afterwards ex- 
 posed to the lions by the emperor Severus. 
 
 Narisci, a small but brave people in the S. of 
 Germany, of the Suevic race, dwelt W. of the 
 Marcomanni and E. of the Hermunduri, and ex- 
 tended from the Sudeti Montes on the N. to the 
 Danube on the S., thus inhabiting part of the 
 Umier Palatinate and the country of the FkMelge- 
 birqe, 
 Narmalcha. [Naarmalcha,] 
 Narnia (Narniensis: Narni\ a town in Ura- 
 
 NATISO. 4fi7 
 
 bria, situated on a lofty hill, on the S. bank of the 
 river Nar, originally called Nequiniun, was made 
 a Roman colony b. c. 2D9, when its name was 
 changed into Narnia, after the river. This town 
 was strongly fortified by nature, being accessible 
 only on the E. and W. sides. On the W. side it 
 could only be approached by a very lofty bridge 
 which Augustus built over the river, 
 
 Naro, sometimes Nar {Narenta\ a river in 
 Diilmatia, which rises in M. Albius, and falls into 
 the Adriatic sea. 
 
 Narona, a Roman colony in Dalmatia, situated 
 on the river Naro, some miles from the sea, and on 
 the road to Dyrrhachium. 
 
 Narses, king of Persia. [Sassanidae,] 
 
 Narses (Napo-Tj?), a celebrated general and 
 statesman in the reign of Justinian, was an eunuch. 
 He put an end to the Gothic dominion in Italy by 
 two brilliant campaigns, a. d. 552, 5b?}, and an- 
 nexed Italy again to the Byzantine empire. He 
 was rewarded by Justinian with the government 
 of the country, which he held for many years. He 
 was deprived of this office by Justin, the suc- 
 cessor of Justinian, whereupon he invited the 
 Langobards to invade Italy. His invitation was 
 eagerly accepted by their king Alboln ; but it is 
 said that Narses soon after repented of his conduct, 
 and died of grief at Rome shortly after the Lango- 
 bards had crossed the Alps (568). Narses was do 
 years of age at the time of his death. 
 
 Narthacium (Na^afcioi^), a town in Thcesaly, 
 on M. Narthacius, S.W. of Pharsalus. 
 
 Naryx, also Narycus or Narycium (Napu|, 
 N«/ji//cos, NapuKiOf : Nopuwios", Napi;Ka7o9 : Takmda 
 or Talanti), a town of the Locri Opuntii on the 
 Euboean sea, the reputed birthplace of Ajax, son 
 of Oileus, who is hence called Narycius Items. 
 Since Locri Epizephyrii in the S. of Italy claimed 
 to be a colony from Naryx in Greece, we find the 
 town of Locri called N'taycia by the poets, and the 
 pitch of Brnttium also named Narycia, 
 
 Nasamones (Nao-a/uwj'es), a powerful but savage 
 Libyan people, who dwelt originally on the shores 
 of the Great Syrtis, but were driven inland by the 
 Greek settlers of Cyrenaica, and afterwards by the 
 Romans. An interesting account of their manners 
 and customs is given by Herodotus (iv. 172), who 
 also tells (ii. 32) a curious story respecting an ex- 
 pedition beyond the Libyan Desert, undertaken by 
 5 Nasamonian youths, the result of which was 
 certain important infonnation concerning the interior 
 of Africa. [Nigeir.] 
 
 Nasica, Scipio. [SciPio.] 
 
 Nasidienus, a wealthy {heatiis) Roman, who 
 gave a supper to Maecenas, which Horace ridi- 
 cules in the 8th satire of his 2nd book. It appears 
 from V. 58, that Rufus was the cognomen of Nasi- 
 dienufl. 
 
 Nasidius, Q. or L., was sent by Pompey, in 
 B. c. 4D, with a fleet of 16 ships to relieve Mas- 
 silia, when it was besieged by D. Brutus. He 
 was defeated by Brutus, and fled to Africa, where 
 he had the command of the Pompeian fleet. He 
 served in Sicily under Sex. Pompey, whom he de- 
 serted in 35. He joined Antony, and commanded 
 part of his fleet in the war with Octavian, 31. 
 
 Naso, Ovidius. [Ovidius.] 
 
 NasuB orNesus. [Oeniadae.] 
 
 Natiso {Natisone)^ a small river in Venetia in 
 the N. of Italy, which flows by Aquileia, and falls 
 into the Sinus Tergestinus. 
 
46B 
 
 NATTA. 
 
 Natta or Kacca, ".i fuller," the name of an 
 ancient family of the Piiiaria pens. The Natta 
 satirised by Horace (Sat i. 6. 124) for his dirty 
 meanness, was probably a member of the noble 
 Pinarian fiimily, and therefore attacked by the 
 poet for such conduct. 
 
 Kaucrates (NauKparT/r), of Erythrae, a Greek 
 rhetorician, and a discipleoflsocmtes, is mentioned 
 among the orators who competed (b.c. 352) for the 
 prize offered by Artemisia for the best funeral 
 oration delivered over Mausohi3. 
 
 Naucratis (NauKpoxis ; Navtcparir-qs : Sa-el- 
 Hadjar, Ru.), a city in the Delta of Egypt, in the 
 Komus of Sais, on the E. bank of the Canopie 
 branch of the Nile, which was hence called also 
 Naucraticum Ostium. It was a colony of the 
 Milesians, founded probably in the reign of Araasis, 
 about B. c. 550, and remained a pure Greek city. 
 It was the only place in Egj'pt, where Greeks were 
 permitted to settle and trade. After the Greek 
 and Roman conquests it continued a place of great 
 prosperity and luxur}"", and was celebrated for its 
 worship of Aphrodite. It was the birthplace of 
 Athenaeus, Lyceas, Phylarchus, Polycharmus, and 
 Jnlius Pollux. 
 
 Kaucydes (^avicvdrjs), an Argive statuary, son 
 of Mothon, and brother and teacher of Polycle- 
 tus II, of Argos, flourished b.c. 420. 
 
 Nanloclius (NauAoxos), that is, a place where 
 ships can anchor. L A naval station on the E. 
 part of the N. coast of Sicily between Mylae and 
 the promontory Pelorus.^2. A small island off 
 Crete, near the promontory Sammonium.— 3. A 
 naval station belonging to Mesembria in Thrace. 
 
 Natimaclliiis [Nav/xdxi'Os), a Gnomic poet, of 
 uncertain age, some of whose verses are preserved 
 by Stobaeus. 
 
 " NaupactUS {NaviraKTOS : "NauiraKTios: Le- 
 panto\ an ancient and strongly fortified town of 
 the Locri Ozolae near the promontory Anturrhium, 
 possessing the largest and best harbour on the 
 whole of the N. coast of the Corinthian gulf. It 
 is said to have derived its name from the Hera- 
 clidae having here built the fleet, with which they 
 crossed over to the Peloponnesus. After the Per- 
 sian wars it fell into the power of the Athenians, 
 who settled here the Messenians who had been 
 compelled to leave their country at the end of the 
 3rd Messenian war, b- c. 455 ; and during the 
 Peloponnesian war it was the head-quarters of the 
 Athenians in all their operations against the W. of 
 Greece. At the end of the Peloponnesian war the 
 Missenians were obliged to leave Naupactus, which 
 passed into the hands first of the Locrians and 
 afterwards of the Achaeans. It was given by 
 Philip with the greater part of the Locrian terri- 
 tory to Aetolia, but it was again assigned to Locris 
 by the Romans. 
 
 Wauplia (Nau7r\ia : Nau7r\(eus: A^owp/za), the 
 port of Argos, situated on the Saronic gulf, was 
 never a place of importance in antiquity, and was 
 in ruins in the time of Pausanias. The inhabitants 
 Imd been expelled by the Argives as early as the 
 2nd Messenian war on suspicion of favouring the 
 Spartans, who in consequence settled them at Me- 
 thone in Messenia. At the present day Nauplia 
 is one of the most important cities in Greece. 
 
 Nauplius (NauTTAios). 1. Of Argos, son of 
 Poseidon and Amymone, a famous navigator, and 
 the founder of the town of Nauplia. — 2. Son of 
 Clytoneus, was one of the Argonauts and a dc' 
 
 NAVIUS. 
 
 sccndant of the preceding. — 3. King of Euboea, 
 and father of Palamcdes, Oeax, and Nausime- 
 don, by Clj'mene. Catreus had given his daughter 
 Clymene and her sister Aerope to NaupHus, to 
 be carried to a foreign land ; but Nauplius mar- 
 ried Clymene, and gave Aerope to Plisthenes, who 
 became by her the father of Agamemnon and 
 Menelaus. His son Palamedes had been con- 
 demned to death by the Greeks during the siege 
 of Troy ; and as Nauplius considered his condem- 
 nation to be an act of injustice, he watched for the 
 return of the Greeks, and as they approached the 
 coast of Euboea he lighted torches on the danger- 
 ous promontory of Caphareus. The sailors thus 
 misguided suffered shipwreck, and perished in the 
 waves or by the sword of Nauplius. 
 
 Nauportns (OOer or Upper Lailfach), an ancient 
 and important commercial town of the Taurisci, 
 situated on the river Nauportns {Laibach\ a tribu- 
 tary of the Savus, in Pannonia Superior. The 
 town fell into decay after the foundation of Aemona 
 (Laibach)^ which was only 15 niilrs from it. The 
 name of Nauportus is said to have been derived 
 from the Argonauts having sailed up the Danube 
 and the Savus to this place and here built the 
 town ; and it is added that they afterwards car- 
 ried their ships across the Alps to the Adriatic 
 sea, where they again embarked. This legend, 
 like many others, probably owes its origin to a 
 piece of had etymology. 
 
 Kausicaa (NautrtKcia), daughter of Alcinous, 
 king of the Phaeacians, and Arete, who conducted 
 Ulysses to the court of her father, when he was 
 shipwrecked on the coast. 
 
 Nausithous (Nauaifloos), son of Poseidon and 
 Periboea, the daughter of Euiymedon, was the 
 father of Alcinous and Rhexenor, and king of 
 the Phaeacians, whom he led from Hypcria in 
 Thrinacia to the island of Scheria, in order to 
 escape from the Cyclopes. 
 
 Nautaca (NailroKa : NaksJteb or Kesh\ a city of 
 Sogdiana, near the Oxus, towards the E. part of its 
 course. 
 
 Nautes. [Nautia Gens.] 
 
 Nautia Gens, an ancient patrician gens, claimed 
 to be descended from Nautes, one of the companions 
 of Aeneas, who was said to have brought with 
 him the Palladium from Troy, which was placed 
 under the care of the Nautii at Rome. The Nautii, 
 all of wiiom were sumamed Rutili^ frequently held 
 the highest offices of state in the early times of the 
 republic, but like many of the other ancient gentes 
 they disappei^r from history about the time of the 
 Samnite wars. 
 
 Nava(A'a7fe),aW. tributary of the Rhine in Gaul, 
 which falls into the Rhine at the modern Bingen. 
 
 Navalia or Nabalia, ajiver on the N. coast of 
 Germany, mtmtioned by Tacitus, probably the E. 
 arm of the Rhine. 
 
 Wavius, Attua, a renowned augur in the time 
 of Tarquinius Prisons. This king proposed to 
 double tlie number of the equestrian centuries, and 
 to name the three new ones after himself and two 
 of his friends, but was opposed by Navius, because 
 Romulus had originally arranged the equites under 
 the sanction of the auspices, and consequently no 
 alteration could be made in them without the same 
 sanction. The tale then goes on to say that Tar- 
 quinius thereupon commanded him to divine whe- 
 ther what he was thinking of in his mind could be 
 done, and that when Navius, after consulting the 
 
NAXOS. 
 
 heavens, declared that it could, the king held out a 
 ■whetstone and a razor to cut it with, Navius im- 
 mediately cut it. His statue was placed in the 
 coinitium, on the steps of the senate-house, the place 
 where the miracle had been wrought, and beside 
 the statue the whetstone was preserved. Attus 
 Navius seems to be the best orthography, making 
 Attus an old praenomen, though we frec^uently find 
 the name WTitten Attius. 
 
 Naxos (Na|os : Na|tos). 1. (Naxia)^ an island 
 in the Aegaean sea, and the largest of the Cyclades, 
 is situated nearly half way between the coasts of 
 Greece and Asia Minor. It is about 18 miles m 
 length and 12 in breadth. It was very fertile iu 
 antiquity, as it is in the present day, producing an 
 abundance of com, wine, oil, and fruit. It was 
 especially celebrated for its wine, and hence plays 
 a prominent part in the legends about Dionysus. 
 Here the god is said to have found Ariadne after 
 she had been deserted by Theseus. The marble 
 of the island was also much prized, and was con- 
 sidered equal to the Parian.- — Naxos is frequently 
 called Dia (Ai'a) by the poets, which was one of 
 its ancie-iit names. It was likewise called Strongyh 
 {'S.TpoyyvK'f]) on account of its round shape, and 
 Dionysias (Atoi/i/ffitts) from its connection with the 
 worship of Dionysus. It is said to have been 
 originally inhabited by Thracians and then by 
 Carians, and to have derived its name from a 
 Carian chief, Naxos. In the historical age it was 
 inhabited by loniana, who had emigrated from 
 Athens. Naxos was conquered by Pisistratus, who 
 established Lygdamis as tyrant of the island about 
 B.C. 540. The Persians in 501 attempted, at the 
 suggestion of Aristagoras, to subdue Naxos ; and 
 upon the failure of their attempt, Aristagoras, 
 fearing punishment, induced the Ionian cities to 
 revolt from Persia. In 490 the Persians, under 
 Datis and Artaphemes, conquered Naxos, and 
 reduced the inhabitants to slavery. The Naxians 
 recovered their independence after the ^battle of 
 Salamis (400). They were the first of the allied 
 states whom the Athenians reduced to subjection 
 (471), after which time they are rarely mentioned 
 in history. The chief town of the island was also 
 called Naxos ; and we also have mention of the 
 small towns of Tragaea and Lestadae. ^ 2. A 
 Greek city on the E. coast of Sicily, S. of Mt. 
 Taums, was founded B. c. 735 by the Chalcidians 
 of Euboea, and was the first Greek colony esta- 
 blished in the island. It grew so rapidly in power 
 that in only 5 or 6 years after its foundation it 
 sent colonies to Catana and Leontini. It was for 
 a time subject to Hieronymus, tyrant of Gela ; but 
 it soon recovered its independence, carried on a 
 successful war against Messana, and was subse- 
 quently an ally of the Athenians against Syracuse. 
 In 403 the town was taken by Dionysius of Syra- 
 cuse and destroyed. Nearly 50 years afterwards 
 (358) the remains of the Naxians scattered over 
 Sicily were collected by Andromachus, and a new 
 city was founded on Mt. Taurus, to which the name 
 of Tauronienium was given. [Taukomenium.] 
 
 Naxuana (^o-lovaua: Nakshivan), a city of 
 Armenia Major, on the Araxes, near the confines 
 of Media. ^ ^ , 
 
 Nazareth, Nazara (Nafape0, or -ex, or -d: 
 IJa^apaTos, Na^tupalor, Nazarenus, Nazareus : en- 
 Nasirah)^ a city of Palestine, in Galilee, S. of Cana, 
 on a hill in the midst of the range of mountains N. 
 of the plain of Esdraelon. 
 
 NEAPOLIS. 
 
 4C!) 
 
 ITazianzuS (Nafio^f <Js : Na^iax'C^PtJs), a city of 
 Cappadocia, on the road from Archelais to T3'ana, 
 celebrated as the diocese of the Father ol' the 
 Church, Gregory Nazianzen. Its site is doubtful. 
 
 Neaera (Neaipa), the name of several nymphs, 
 and also of several maidens mentioned by the poets. 
 
 Neaetlius (Nea(0os: Nieto), a river in Bruttium 
 in the S. of Italy, falling into the Tarentine gulf a 
 little N, of Croton. Here the captive Trojan women 
 are said to have burnt the ships of the Greeks. 
 
 Nealces (NeaA/cT^s), a painter who flourished 
 in the time of Aratus, b. c. 245. 
 
 ITeandna (NeaySpeia : Neavdpe'is^ pi.), a town 
 of the Troad, upon the Hellespont, probably an 
 Aeolian colony. By the time of Augustus it had 
 disappeared. 
 
 Neantlies {Nedvd7}s\ of Cyzicum, lived about 
 B. c. 241, and was a disciple of the Milesian Phi- 
 liscus, who himself had been a disciple of Isocrates. 
 He was a voluminous writer, principally of history. 
 
 Neapolia (KediroXis: NeairoXiTijs, Neapolita- 
 nus). 1. In Europe. 1, {Nupoli or Naples)^ a. city in 
 Campania in Italy, on the W. slope of Mt. Vesuvius 
 and on the river Sebethus, was founded by the 
 Chalcidians of Cumae, on the site of an ancient 
 place called Parthenope (UapdevSin]), after the 
 Siren of that name. Hence we find the town 
 called Parthenope by Virgil and Ovid. The year 
 of the foundation of Neapolis is not recorded. It 
 was called the " New City," because it was re- 
 garded simply as a new quarter of the neighbouring 
 city of Cumae. When the town is first mentioned 
 in Roman history, it consisted of 2 parts, divided 
 from each other by a wall, and called respectively 
 Palaeopolis and Neapolis, This division probably 
 arose after the capture of Cumae by the Samnites, 
 when a large number of the Cumaeans took refuge 
 in the city they had founded ; whereupon the old 
 quarter was called Palaeopolis, and the new quarter, 
 built to accommodate the new inhabitants, was 
 named Neapolis. There has been a dispute re- 
 specting the site of these 2 quarters ; but it is pro- 
 bable that Palaeopolis was situated on the W. side 
 near the harbour, and Neapolis on the E. side near 
 the river Sebethus.. In b. c. 327 the town was 
 taken by the Samnites, and in 290 it passed into 
 the hands of the Romans, who allowed it however 
 to retain its Greek constitution. At a later period 
 it became a municipiura, and finally a Roman 
 colony. Under the Romans the 2 quarters of the 
 city were united, and the name of Palaeopolis dis- 
 appeared. It continued to be a prosperous and 
 flourishing place till the time of the empire ; and 
 its beautiful scenery, and the luxurious life of 
 its Greek population, made it a favourite resi- 
 dence with many of the Romans. In the reign of 
 Titus the city was destroyed by an earthquake, 
 but waa rebuilt by this emperor in the Roman 
 style. The modem city of Naples does not stand 
 on exactly the same site as Neapolis. The ancient 
 city extended farther E. than the modem city, 
 since the former was situated on the Sebethus, 
 whereas the latter does not reach so far as the 
 Fiume delta MadaJena ; but the modem city on 
 the other hand extends further N. and W. than 
 the ancient one, since the island of Megai'is, on 
 which the Castel del Ovo now stands, was situated 
 in ancient times between Pausilypum and Neapolis. 
 In the neighbourhood of Neapolis there were warm 
 baths, the celebrated villa of LucuUus, and the 
 villa Pausilypi or Pausilypum, bequeathed by Vo- 
 
470 
 
 NEARCHUS. 
 
 dius Pollio to Augustus, and which has given its 
 name to the celebrated grotto of Posilippo between 
 Naples and Puzzuoli, at the entrance of which the 
 tomb of Virgil is still shown. — 2. A part of Syra- 
 cuse. [Syracosak] — 3. {Napuli)^ a town on the 
 W. coast of the island of Sardinia, celebrated for its 
 warm baths. —4. {Kavallo\ a sea-port town in 
 Tlirace, subsequently Macedonia adjecta, on the 
 StrjTnonic gulf, between the Strymon and Nessus. 
 
 — II. In Asia and Africa. 1. {Scala Nuova, or 
 near it), a small Ionian city, on the coast of 
 Lydia, N. of Mycale and S.W. of Ephesus. The 
 Ephesians, to whom it at first belonged, exchanged 
 it with the Samians for MARATHESiUiU. — 2, 3. 
 Two towns of Caria, the one near Harpasa, the 
 other on the coast, perhaps the new town of Myn- 
 dus. —4. {Tutmehf Ru.), in Pisidia S. of Antioch; 
 afterwards reckoned to Galatia.^5. In Palestine, 
 the Sychem or Sychar of Scripture (2ux^V) 2u- 
 Xctp, "ZiKifxa^ Josepli.: Nahlous)^ one of the most 
 ancient cities of Samaria, stood in the narrow valley 
 between Mts. Ebal and Gerizim, and was the re- 
 lijjious capital of the Samaritans, whose temple was 
 built upon Mt. Gerizim. This temple was destro3'ed 
 by John Hyrcanus, b. c 129. Its full name, under 
 tlie Romans, was Flavia Neapolia. It was the 
 birthplace of Justin Martyr. — 6. A small town of 
 Babylonia, on the W. bank of the Euphrates, op- 
 posite to the opening of the King's Camd. — 7. In 
 Eg5'pt. [Caene]. — 8. In N. Africa on the W. 
 coast of the Great Syrtis, by some identified with 
 Leptis Magna, by others with the modern Tripoli. 
 
 — 9. (Nalal), a very ancient Phoenician colony, 
 on the E. coast of Zeugitann, near the N. extremity 
 of the great gulf which was called after it Sinus 
 Neapolitanua {Guff of Ifammamet). Under the 
 Romans it was a libera civitas, and, according to 
 Ptolemy, a colony. 
 
 Nearckus (Neapx^O) ^ distinguished friend 
 and officer of Alexander, was a native of Crete, 
 but settled at Amphipolis. He appears to have 
 occupied a prominent position at the court of Phi- 
 lip, by whom he was banished for participating in 
 the intrigues of Alexander. After the death of 
 Philip he was recalled, and treated with the ut- 
 most distinction by Alexander. He accompanied 
 the king to Asia ; and in b, c. 325, he was entrusted 
 by Alexander with the command of the fleet which 
 he had caused to be constructed on the Hydaspes. 
 Upon reaching the mouth of the Indus, Alexander 
 resolved to send round his ships by sea from thence 
 to the Persian gulf, and he gladly accepted the 
 offer of Nearchus to undertake the command of 
 the fleet during this long and perilous navigation. 
 Nearchus set out on the 2]Et of September, 326, 
 and arrived at Susa in safety in February, 325. 
 He was rewarded with a crown of gold for 
 his distinguished services, and at the same time 
 obtained in marriage a daughter of the Rhodian 
 Mentor and of Barsine, to whom Alexander him- 
 self had been previously married. In the division 
 of the provinces after the death of Alexander, he 
 received the government of Lycia and Pamphylia, 
 which he held as subordinate to Antigonus. In 
 317 he accompanied Antigonus in his march against 
 Eumenes, and in 314 he is mentioned again as one 
 of the generals of Antigonus. — Nearchus left a 
 history of the voyage, the substance of which has 
 been preserved to us by Arrian, who has derived 
 from it the whole of the latter part of his " Indica." 
 
 Ifebo, a mountiiin of Palestine, on the E. side 
 
 NELEUS. 
 
 of the Jordan, opposite to Jericho, was in the S. 
 part of the range called Abarim. It was on a 
 summit of this mountain, called Pisgah, that Moses 
 died. 
 
 Nebrodes Montes, the principal chain of moun- 
 tains in Sicily, running through the whole of the 
 island, and a continuation of the Apennines. 
 
 Weco or Necho (Ne/cwy, Nex^s-, Ne/caOs, Nf- 
 Xawy, Nexaw), son of Psammetichus, whom he 
 succeeded on the throne of Egj'pt in B.C. 617. 
 His reign w;is marked by considerable energy and 
 enterprise. He began to dig tlie canal intended to 
 connect the Nile with the Arabian Gulf ; but he 
 desisted from the work, according to Herodotus, 
 on being warned by an oracle that he was con- 
 structing it only for the use of the barbarian in- 
 vader. But the greatest and most interesting 
 enterprise with which his name is connected, is 
 the circumnavigation of Africa by the Phoenicians, 
 in his service, who set sail from the Arabian Gulf, 
 and accomplishing the voyage in somewhat more 
 than 2 years, entered the Mediterranean, and re- 
 turned to Egypt through the Straits of Gibraltar. 
 His military expeditions were distinguished at first 
 by brilliant success, which was followed, however, 
 by the most rapid and signal reverses. On his 
 march against the Babylonians and Medes, whose 
 joint forces had recently destroyed Nineveh, he 
 was met at Magdolus (Megiddo) by Josiah, king 
 of Judah, who was a vassal of Babylon. In the 
 battle which ensued, Josiah was defeated and 
 mortally wounded, and Necho advanced to the 
 Euphrates, where he conquered the Bab^'-lonians 
 and took Carchemish or Circesium, where he ap- 
 pears to have established a garrison. After the 
 battle at Megiddo, he took the town of Cadytis, 
 probably Jerusalem. In 606, Nebuchadnezzar 
 attacked Carchemish, defeated Necho, and would 
 appear also to have invaded Egj'pt itself. In 601 
 Necho died after a reign of 16 years, and was 
 succeeded by his son Psammis or Psanmiutliis. 
 
 Nectanabis, Nectanebus, or Nectanebes (New- 
 Tora^is, NeKTCti'effos, NeKTav4€T}s). 1. King of 
 Egypt, the 1st of the 3 sovereigns of the Seben- 
 nite dynasty, succeeded Nepherites on the throne 
 about B.C. 374, and in the following year success- 
 fully resisted the invasion of the Persian force 
 under Phamabazus and Iphicrates. He died after 
 a reign of 10 years, and was succeeded by Tachos. 
 ^2. The nephew of Tachos, deprived the latter 
 of the sovereignty in 361, with the assistance of 
 Agesilaus. For some time he defeated all the 
 attempts of Artaxerxes III. (Ochus) to recover 
 Egypt, but he was at length defeated himself, and 
 despairing of making any further resistance, he 
 fled into Aethiopia, 350. Nectanabis was the 3rd 
 king of the Sebennite dynasty, and the last native 
 sovereign who ever ruled in Egypt. 
 
 Neda (NeSa.- Buzi), a river in Peloponnesus, 
 rises in Arcadia in Mt. Cerausion, a branch of 
 Mt. Lycaeus, and falls into the Ionian sea after 
 forming the boundary between Arcadia and Mes- 
 senia, and between Messenia and Elis. 
 
 Negra or Negrana (t^ 'Neypava : Et-Nokra^ N. 
 of Mareb\ a city of Arabia Felix, destroyed by 
 Aelius Gallus. 
 
 Neleus (NtjXciJs). 1. Son of Tjto, the daughter 
 of Salmoneus. Poseidon once visited Tyro in 
 the foi-m of the river-god Enipeus, and she be- 
 came by him the mother of Pelias and Neleus. 
 To conceal her shame she exposed the two boys, 
 
NELIDES. 
 l)ut they were found and reared by some country- 
 men. They subsequently learnt their parentage ; 
 and after the death of Cretheus, king of lolcos, 
 who had married their mother, they seized the 
 throne of lolcos, excluding Aeson, the son of 
 Cretlieus and Tyro. But Pelias soon afterwards 
 expelled his brother, and thus beaime sole king. 
 Thereupon Neleus went with Melampus and Bias 
 to Pylos, which his uncle Aphareus gave to him, 
 and of which he thus became king. Several towns 
 of this name claimed the honour of being the city 
 of Neleus or of his son Nestor, such as Pylos in 
 Messenia, Pylos in Elis, and Pylos in Triphylia ; 
 the last of which is probably the one mentioned by 
 Homer in connection with Neleus and Nestor. 
 Neleus was married to Chloris, a daughter of Am- 
 phion of Orchomenos, according to Homer, and 
 a Theban woman according to otliers. By her he 
 became the father of Nestor, Chromius, Pericly- 
 menus, and Pero, though he had in all 12 sons. 
 When Hercules had killed Iphitus, he went to 
 Neleus to be purified; but Neleus, who was a 
 friend of Eurytus, the father of Iphitus, refused to 
 grant the request of Hercules. In order to take 
 vengeance, Hercules afterwards marched against 
 Pylos, and slew all the sons of Neleus, with, the 
 exception of Nestor: some later writers add that 
 Neleus himself was also killed. Neleus was now 
 attacked, and his dominions plundered by Augeas, 
 king of the JEpeans ; but the attacks of the latter 
 were repelled by Nestor. The descendants of 
 Neleus, the Nelidae, were eventually expelled from 
 their kingdom by the Heraclidae, and migrated for 
 the most part to Athens. — 2. The younger son of 
 Codrus, disputed the right of his elder brother 
 Medon to the crown on account of his lameness, 
 and when the Delphic oracle declared in favour of 
 Medon, he placed himself at the head of the colo- 
 nists who migrated to Ionia, and himself founded 
 Miletus, His son Aepytus headed the colonists 
 who settled in Priene. Another son. headed a 
 body of settlers who reinforced tbe inhabitants of 
 lasus, after they had lost a great number of their 
 citizens in a war with the Carians. — 3. Of Scep- 
 sis, the son of Coriscus, was a disciple of Aristotle 
 and Theophrastus, the latter of whom bequeathed 
 to him his librarj', and appointed hira one of his 
 executors. The history of the writings of Aristotle 
 as connected with Neleus and his heirs, is related 
 elsewhere [p. 86, a]. 
 
 Nelides, Weleiades, and Neleius (NTjXelBris, 
 NTjXT^iaSTjs, N77A:rji"os), patronymics of Neleus, by 
 which either Nestor, the son. of Neleus, or Antilo- 
 chus, Bis grandson, is designated. 
 
 Wemausus (Nemausensis : Nismes), one of the 
 most important towns of GJallia Narbonensis, was 
 the capital of the Arecomici and a Roman colony. 
 It was situated inland E. of the Rhone on the 
 highroad from Italy to Spain, and on the S. slope 
 of°M. Cevenna. It was celebrated as the place 
 from which the family of the Antonines came. 
 Though rarely mentioned by ancient writers, tjie 
 Roman remains at Nismes, which are some of the 
 most perfect N. of the Alps, prove that the ancient 
 Nemausus was a large and flourishing city. Of 
 these remains the most important are the am- 
 phitheatre, the Maison Cai-ree, a name given to 
 a beautiful Corinthian temple, and the magnificent 
 aqueduct, now called Pmt du Gard^ consisting of 
 3 rows of arches, raised one above the other, and 
 1«0 feet in heidit, 
 
 NEMORENSIS. 
 
 471 
 
 Nemea (Ne/xect, Ion. Ne/ie77), a valley in Ar- 
 golis between Cleonae and Phlius, celebrated in 
 mythical story as the place where Hercules slew 
 the Nemean lion. [See p. 308, b.] In thia 
 valley there was a splendid temple of Zeus Ne- 
 meus surrounded by a sacred grove, in which the 
 Nemean games were celebrated every other year. 
 (See Diet, of Antiq. art. Nemea.) 
 
 Nemeaiaims, M. Aurelius Olympliua, a Roman 
 poet, probably a native of Africa, flourished at the 
 court of the emperor Carus (A. D. 283), carried off 
 the prize in all the poetical contests of the dy._y, and 
 Avas esteemed second to the youthful prince Nume- 
 rianus alone, who honoured him so far as to permit 
 him to dispute, and to yield to the palm of verse. 
 We are told that Nemesianus was tbe author of 
 poems upon fishing, hunting, and aquatics; all cf 
 which have perished, with the exception of a frag- 
 ment of the Cynegeiica, extending to 325 hexameter 
 lines, which, in so far as neatness and purity of 
 expression are concerned, in some degree justifies 
 the admiration of his contemporaries. The best 
 edition of this fragment is by Stem, published along 
 with Gratius Faliscus, Hal. Sax. 1832. 
 
 Nemesis (Ne/^eo-is), a Greek goddess, is most 
 commonly described as a daughter of Night, though 
 some call her a daughter of Erebus or of Oceanus. 
 She is a personification of the moral reverence for 
 law, of the natural fear of committing a culpable 
 action, and hence of conscience. In later writers, 
 as Herodotus and Pindar, Nemesis measures out 
 happiness and unhappiness to mortals ; and he who 
 is blessed with too many or too frequent gifts of 
 fortune, is visited by her with losses and sufferings, 
 in order that he may become humble. This notion 
 arose from a belief that the gods were envious of 
 excessive human happiness. Nemesis was thus a 
 check upon extravagant favours conferred upon 
 man by Tyehe or Fortune ; and from this idea lastly 
 arose that of her being an avenging and punishing 
 fate, who, like Justice (Dike) and the Erinnyes, 
 sooner or later overtakes the reckless sinner. She 
 is frequently mentioned under the surnames Adras- 
 tia [Adhastia, No. 2], and Rhamnusia or Rham- 
 nusis, the latter of which she derived from the 
 town of Rhamnus in Attica, where she had a cele- 
 brated sanctuary. She was usually represented in 
 works of art as a virgin divinity : in the more 
 ancient works she seems to have resembled Aphro- 
 dite, whereas in the later ones she was more grave 
 and serious. But there is an allegorical tradition 
 that Zeus begot by Nemesis at Rhamnus an e.g^^ 
 which Leda found, and from which Helena and 
 the Dioscuri sprang, whence Helena herself is 
 called Rhamnusis. 
 
 Nemesius (Ne^teVioy), the author of a Greek 
 treatise On tlie Nature of Man^ is called bishop of 
 Emesa, in Syria, and probably lived at the end of 
 the 4th or beginning of the 5th century after 
 Christ. His treatise is an interesting philosophical 
 work, which has generally been highly praised by 
 all who have read it. Edited by Matthaei, Halae, 
 8vo. 1802. 
 
 Nemetacum. [Nemetocenna.] 
 _ Hemetes or Hemetae, a people in Gallia Bel- 
 gica on the Rhine, whose chief town was Novio- 
 magus, subsequently Nemetae {Speyer or Spires). 
 
 Nemetocenna or Wemetacum (Arras)^ the 
 chief town of the Atrebates in Gallia Belgica, 
 subsequently Atrebati, whence its modern name. 
 
 Nemorensis Lacus. [Auicia.] 
 
472 NEMOSSUS. 
 
 lfemo33US, [AnvERNi.] 
 
 IJeobule. [Archilochus.] 
 
 Keocaesarea (NeoKato-apeta : Neowaiffapeus^Neo- 
 cacsariensis). L (JViksar)^ the capitil, under the 
 Roman empire, of Pontus Polemoniacus, in Asia 
 Tilinor, stood on the river Lycua, 63 Roman miles 
 E. of Amasia. It was a splendid city, and is famous 
 in ecclesiastical history for the council held there 
 in A.D. 314.^2. (J^H/a^ew-A'i'J^£r? Ru.), afortress 
 established by Justinian, on the Euphrates, in the 
 district of S\Tia called Chalyhonitis. 
 
 Ueou (Necof : Neti^/toy, Nea)i/a?os), an ancient 
 town in Phocis at the E. foot of Mt. Tlthorea, 
 a branch of Mt, Parnassus, was 80 stadia from 
 Delphi across the mountains. Neon was destroyed 
 by the Persians mider Xerxes, but was subse- 
 quently rebuilt and named Tithorea {Ti6op4a: 
 Tidopeus) after the mountain on which it was 
 situated. The new town however was not on 
 exactly the same site as the ancient one. Tithorea 
 was situated at tlie modern Velitza^ and Neon at 
 Palea-Fiva, between 4 and 5 miles N. of Velitza. 
 Tithorea was destroyed in the Sacred war, and 
 was again rebuilt, but remained an unimportant, 
 though fortified place. 
 
 Heonticlios (Ne'of relxos, i. e. New Wall). 1. 
 {Ainadsjik\ one of the 12 cities of Aeolis on the 
 coast of Myaia, in Asia Minor, stood on the N. 
 side of the Hermus, on the slope of M. Sardene, 
 30 stadia inland from Larissa. One tradition 
 makes it older than Cyme; but the more probable 
 account is that it was built by the Aeolians of 
 Cyme as a fortress against the Pelasgians of Larissa. 
 •^2. A fort on the coast of Thrace, near the 
 Chersonesus. 
 
 Neoptolemus (NeoTTTtJA-e^os). 1. Also called 
 Pyrrhus, son of Achilles and Deidamia, the 
 daughter of Lycoraedes ; according to some he was 
 a son of Achilles and Iphigenia, and after the 
 sacrifice of his mother was carried by his father to 
 the island of Scyros. The name of Pyrrhus is said 
 to have been given to him by Lj'comedes, because 
 he had fair {Trvpp6s) hair, or because Achilles, 
 while disguised as a girl, had borne the name of 
 Pyrrha. He was called Neoptolemus, that is, 
 young or late warrior, either because he had fought 
 in early youth or because he had come late to 
 Troy. From his father he is sometimes called 
 Acldltldes, and from his grandfather or great- 
 grandfather, Pelldes and Aeacides. Neoptolemus 
 was brought up in Scyros in the palace of Lyco- 
 medes, and was fetched from thence by Ulysses to 
 join the Greeks in the war against Troy, because 
 it had been prophesied by Helenus that Neopto- 
 lemus and Philoctetes were necessary for the 
 capt'ire of Troy. At Troy Neoptolemus showed 
 himself worthy of his great father. He was one 
 of the heroes concealed in the wooden horse. At 
 the capture of the city he killed Priam at the 
 sacred hearth of Zeus, and sacrificed Polyxenn to 
 the spirit of his father. When the Trojan captives 
 were distributed among the conquerors, Andro- 
 mache, the widow of Hector, was given to Neopto- 
 lemus, and by her he became the father of Molossus, 
 Pielus, Pergamus, and Araphialus, Respecting his 
 return from Troy and thy subsequent events of his 
 life the traditions differ. It is related that Neo- 
 ptolemus returned home by land, because he had 
 been forewarned by Helenus of the dangers which 
 the Greeks would have to encounter at sea. Ac- 
 cording to Homer Neoptolemus lived in Phthia, 
 
 NEPOS. 
 
 the kingdom of his father, and here he married 
 Hermione, whom lier father Menelaus sent to him 
 from Sparta. According to others Neoptolemus 
 himself went to Sparta to receive Hermione, be- 
 cause he had heard a report that she was betrothed 
 to Orestes. Most writers relate that he aban- 
 doned his native kingdom of Phthia, and settled 
 in Epirus, where he became tlie ancestor of tlie 
 Molossian kings. Shortly after his marriage with 
 Hermione, Neoptolemus went to Delphi, where he 
 was murdered ; but the reason of his visiting 
 Delphi, as well as the person by whom he was 
 slain, are differently related. Some say he went 
 to plunder the temple of Apollo, others to present 
 part of the Trojim booty as an offering to the god, 
 and others again to consult the god about the means 
 of obtaining children by Hermione. Some relate 
 that he was slain at the instigation of Orestes, who 
 was angry at being deprived of Hermione, and 
 others, by the priest of the temple, or by Machae- 
 reus, the son of Daetas. His body was buried at 
 Delphi; and he was worshipped there as a hero.-— 
 2. I. King of Epirus, was son of Alcetas I., and 
 father of Alexander I., and of Olyrapias, the mother 
 of Alexander the Great. Neoptolemus reigned in 
 conjunction with his brother Arymbas or Arrybas 
 till his death, about B.C. 360. — 3, II. King of 
 Epirus, son of Alexander I. and grandson of the 
 preceding. At his father's death in 3'26, he was 
 probably a mere infant, and his pretensions to the 
 tlirone were passed over in favour of Aeacides. It 
 was not till 302 that the Epirots, taking advantage 
 of the absence of Pyrrhus, the son of Aeacides, rose 
 in insurrection against him, and set up Neoptolemus 
 in his stead. The latter reigned for the space of G 
 years, but was obliged to share the throne wrth 
 PjTrhus in 296. He was shortly afterwards as- 
 sassinated by Pyrrhus. — 4. A Macedonian officer 
 of Alexander the Great, after whose death he ob- 
 tained the government of Armenia. In 321 he 
 revolted from Perdiccas, and joined Craterus, but 
 he was defeated by Eumenes, and was slain in 
 battle by the hands of the latter.^5. A general of 
 Mithridates, and brother of Archelaus. — 6. An 
 Athenian tragedian, who performed at the games 
 in which Philip of Macedon was slain, 336.^7. 
 Of Pares, a Greek grammarian of uncertain date, 
 wrote several works quoted by Athenaeus and the 
 Scholiasts. 
 
 Ilepete, Nepe or Nepet (Nepeslnus: Nepi), 
 an ancient town of Etruria, but not one of the 
 12 cities, was situated near the saltus Cirainius 
 and was regarded as one of the keys and gates 
 of Etruria {dausira portaeque Etruriae, Liv. vi. 9) 
 It appears as an ally of the Romans at an early 
 period, soon after the capture of Rome by the 
 Gauls, and was subsequently made a Roman 
 colony. There are still remains at Ncpi of tlie 
 walls of the ancient city, 
 
 Kepliele (NetpeA?)), wife of Athamas and mother 
 of Phrixus and Helle. Hence Helle is called A'^'- 
 plieleis by Ovid. For details see Athamas. 
 
 Kephelis (Ne06\is),a small town andpromontory 
 on the coast of Cilicia Aspera, between Anemuriuin 
 and Antiochia. 
 
 Kepheris {N4tp€pis\ a fortified town in the im- 
 mediate neighbourhood of Carthage, on a rock near 
 the coast. 
 
 Nepoa, Cornelius, the contemporary and friend 
 of Cicero, Atticus, and Catullus, was probably a 
 native of Verona, or of some neighbouring village, 
 
NEPOS. 
 
 .and died during the reijjn of Augustus. No otlier 
 particulars, with regard to his personal bistor}'*, 
 have been transmitted to us. He is known to have 
 written the following pieces, all of which are noiy 
 lost. 1. Chronica^ an Epitome of Universal Historj% 
 probably in 3 books, to which Catullus appears to 
 allude in dedicating his poems to Cornelius Nepos. 
 2. Exevtplorum Lihri^ probably a collection of re- 
 marliable sayings and doings. 3. De Viris Illus- 
 iribjis, perhaps the same work as the preceding, 
 quotpd under a different title. 4. Vita Clceronis. 
 5. Epistolae ad Ciceronem, 6. De HistoHcis. — There 
 is still extant a work entitled Vitae EaxeUentium 
 Imperatorum, containing biographies of several 
 distinguished commanders, which is supposed by 
 many critics to have been the production of Corne- 
 lius Nepos. In all MSS., however, this work is 
 ascribed to an unknown Aemilius Probus, living 
 under Theodosius at the end of the 4th century of 
 the Christian aera, with the exception however of the 
 life of Atticus, and the fragment of a life of Cato the 
 Censor, which are expressly attributed to Corne- 
 lius Nepos. These 2 lives may safely be assigned 
 to Cornelius Nepos; but the Latinity of the other 
 biographies is such that we cannot suppose them 
 to have been written by a learned contemporary of 
 Cicero. At the same time their style presents a 
 striking contrast to the meretricious finery of the 
 later empire ; and hence it may be conjectured 
 that Probus abridged the work of Nepos, aiid that 
 the biographies, as they now exist, are in reality 
 epitomes of lives actually written by Nepos, TJie 
 most useful editions of these lives are by Van Sta- 
 veren, 8vo. Lug. Bat. 1773; by Tzschucke, 8vo. 
 Gotting. 1804 ; by Bremi, 8vo. Zurich, 1820 ; and 
 by Roth, Basil. 8vo. 1841. 
 
 Nepos, Julius, last emperor but one of the West, 
 A. D. 474 — 475, was raised to the throne by Leo, 
 the emperor of the East. Nepos easily deposed 
 Glycerins, who was regarded at Constantinople as 
 an usurper [Glycerius] ; but he was in his turn 
 deposed in the next year by Orestes, who pro- 
 claimed his son Romulus. Nepos fled into Dal- 
 iiiatia, where he was killed in 4^0. 
 
 Nepotianus, Flavius Popilius, son of Eutropia, 
 the half-sister of Constantino the Great, was pro- 
 claimed emperor at Rome in A. n. 350, but was 
 slain by Marcellinus, the general of the usurper 
 Magnentius, after a reign of 23 days. 
 
 Neptunus, called Poseidon by the Greeks. The 
 Greek god is spoken of in a separate article. [Po- 
 seidon.] Neptunus was the chief marine divinity 
 of the Romans. As the early Romans were not a 
 maritime people, the marine divinities are rarely 
 mentioned, and we scarcely know with certainty 
 ■what day in the year was set apart as the festival 
 of Neptunus, though it seems to have been the 
 23rd of July {X. Kal. Sesct.). His temple stood 
 in the Campus Martius, not far from the septa. At 
 his festival the people formed tents {umbrae) of the 
 branches of trees, in which they enjoyed themselves 
 in feasting and drinking. [Did. of, Ant. art. Nep- 
 tunalia). When a Roman commander set sail with 
 a fleet, he first offered up a sacrifice to Neptunus, 
 which was thrown into the sea. In the Roman 
 poets Neptunus is completely identified with the 
 Greek Poseidon, and accordingly all the attributes 
 of the latter are transferred by them to the former. 
 
 Neratius Priscus, a Roman jurist, who lived 
 under Trajan and Hadrian. It is said that Trajan 
 sometimes Jind the design of making Neratius his 
 
 NERO. 
 
 473 
 
 successor in place of Hadrian. He enjoyed a high 
 reputation under Hadrian, and was one of his con- 
 siliarii. His works are cited in the Digest. 
 
 Ifereis or Kereis (NT^pei'j, in Horn. NTjprjis)^ a 
 daughter of Nereus and Doris, and used especially 
 in tlie plural, Nereides (NTjpetSes, N^piji'Ses) to 
 indicate the 50 daughters of Nereus and Doris. 
 The Nereides were the marire nymphs of the Medi- 
 terranean, in contradistinction! from the Naiades^ 
 or the nymphs of fresh water, and the Ocea- 
 nides^ or the nymphs of the great ocean. Their 
 names are not the same in all writers ; one of the 
 most celebrated was Thetis, the mother of Achilles. 
 They are described as lovely divinities, dwelling 
 with their father at the bottom of the sea, and 
 were believed to be propitious to all sailors, and 
 especially to the Argonauts. They were worshipped 
 in several parts of Greece, but more especially in 
 seaport towns. The epithets given them by the poets 
 refer partly to their beauty and partly to their 
 place of abode. They are frequently represented 
 in works of art, and commonly as youthful, beau- 
 tiful, and naked maidens ; and they are often 
 grouped with Tritons and other marine beings. 
 Sometimes they appear on gems as half maidens 
 and half fishes. 
 
 Nereius, a name given by the poets to a de- 
 scendant of Nereus, such as Phocus and Achilles. 
 
 Neretum or TTeritum (Neretinus : Isfarbo), a 
 town of the Salentini in Calabria in the S. of Italy. 
 
 Nereus (NTjpevs), son of Pontus and Gaea, and 
 husband of Doris, by whom he became the father 
 of the 50 Nereides. He is described as the wise 
 and unerring old man of the sea, at the bottom of 
 which, he dwelt. His empire is the Mediterranean 
 or more particularly the Aegean sea, whence he is 
 sometimes called the Aegean. He was believed, 
 like other marine divinities, to have the power of 
 prophesying the future and of appearing to mortals 
 in different shapes ; and in the story of Hercules 
 he acts a prominent part, just as Proteus in the 
 story of Ulysses, and Glaucus in that of the Argo- 
 nauts. Virgil (Aen. ii. 418) mentions the trident 
 as his attribute, and the epithets given him by the 
 poets refer to his old age, his kindliness, and liis 
 trustworthy knowledge of the future. In works 
 of art, Nereus, like other sea-gods, is represented 
 with pointed sea- weeds taking the place of hair in 
 the eyebrows, the chin, and the breast. 
 
 Nericus. [Leucas.] 
 
 Werine, equivalent to Nereis, a daughter of 
 Nereus. [Nereis.] 
 
 Nerio, Neriene, or Nerienis. [Mars.] 
 
 Neritum, a mountain in Ithaca. [Ithaca.] 
 
 Keritus, a smally rocky island near Ithaca, 
 erroneously supposed by some to be Ithaca itself. 
 
 Werium, also called Celticum (C. Finislerre), 
 a promontory in the N. W. corner of Spain, and 
 in the territory of the Nerii, a tribe of tlie Celtic 
 Artabri, whence the promontory is also called 
 Artabrum. 
 
 Nero, Claudius. Nero is said to have signified 
 " brave " in the Sabine tongue. 1. Tib,, one of 
 the 4 sons of App. Claudius Caecus, censor b. c. 
 312, from whom all the Claudii Neronea were de- 
 scended. ^2. C, a celebrated general in the 2nd 
 Punic war. He was praetor 212, and was sent 
 into Spain to oppose Hasdrubal, who eluded his 
 attack, and he was succeeded by Scipio Africanus. 
 Nero was consul in 207 with M. Livius Salinator. 
 Nero marched into the S. of Italy against Hanni- 
 
474 
 
 NERO. 
 
 bal, wliom he defeated. He tlien marclied into 
 the N. of Italy, effected a junction with his col- 
 league M. Livius in Picenum, and proceeded to 
 crush Hasdrubal before hia brother Hannibal could 
 come to his assistance. Hasdiubal was defeated 
 and slain on the river Metaurus. This great 
 battle, which probably saved Rome, gave a lustre 
 to the name of Nero, and consecrated it among the 
 recollections of the Romans. 
 
 Quid debeas, o Roma, Neronibus, 
 Testis Metaurum flumen et Hasdrubal 
 Devictus. Horat. Cami. iv. 4. 
 
 Nero was censor, 204, with M. Livius. ^ 3. 
 Tib., praetor, 204, with Sardinia for his pro- 
 vince ; and consul 202, when he obtained Africa 
 as his province, but his fleet suffered so much at 
 sea, that he was unable to join Scipio in Africa.^ 
 4. Tib., served under Pompey in the war against 
 the pirates, B.C. 67. He is probably the Tib. 
 Nero who recommended that the members of the 
 conspiracy of Catiline, who had been seized, should 
 be kept confined till Catiline was put down. ^6. 
 Tib., father of the emperor Tiberius, was probably 
 the son of the last. He served as quaestor imder 
 Caesar (48) in the Alexandrine war. He sided 
 witii L. Antonius in the war of Pernsia (41) ; and 
 when this town surrendered, he passed over to 
 Sex. Pompey in Sicily, and subsequently to M. 
 Antony in Achaea. On a reconciliation being 
 effected between Antony and Octavian at the 
 close of the year (40), he returned with his wife 
 to Rome. Livia, who possessed great beauty, 
 excited the passion of Octavian, to whom she 
 was surrendered by her husband, being then 6 
 months gone with child of her second son Drusus. 
 Nero died shortly after, and left Octavian the tutor 
 of his two sons. 
 
 Nero. 1. Roman emperor, A. D. 54 — 68, was 
 the son of Cn. Bomitius Ahenobarbus, and of 
 Agrippina, daughter of Germanicus Caesar, and 
 sister of Caligula. Nero's original name was L. 
 Domilius A/tenobarbus, but after the marriage of 
 his mother with her uncle, the emperor Claudius, 
 he was adopted by Claudius (a. d. 50), and was 
 called Nero Claudius Caesar Drusus Germanicus. 
 Nero was bom at Autium, on the 15th of Decem- 
 ber, A. D. 37. Shortly after his adoption by Clau- 
 dius, Nero, being then 16 years of age, married 
 Octavia, the daughter of Claudius and Messalina 
 (53). Among his early instructors was Seneca. 
 Nero had some talent and taste. He was fond of 
 the arts, and made verses ; but he was indolent 
 and given to pleasure, and had no inclination for 
 laborious studies. On the death of Claudius (54), 
 Agrippina secured the succession for her son, to the 
 exclusion of Brltannicus, the son of Claudius. His 
 mother wished to govern in the name of her son, 
 and her ambition was the cause of Nero's first 
 crime. Jealousy thus arose between Nero and his 
 mother, which soon broke out into a quarrel, and 
 Agrippina threatened to join Britannicus and raise 
 him to his father's place ; whereupon Nero caused 
 Britannicus to be poisoned, at an entertainment 
 where Agrippina and Octavia were present {Bb). 
 During the early part of Nero's reign, the govern- 
 ment of Rome was in the hands of Seneca, and 
 of Burrhus, the praefect of the praetorians, who 
 opposed the ambitious designs of Agrippina. Mean- 
 time the young emperor indulged his licentious 
 inclinations without restraint. He neglected his 
 wife for the beautiful, but dissolute Poppaea Sa- 
 
 NEKO. 
 
 bina, the wife of Otho. This abandoned woman 
 aspired to become the emperor's wife ; but since 
 she had no hopes of succeeding in her design while 
 Agrippina lived, she used all her arts to urge Nero 
 to put his mother to death. Accordingly in 59^ 
 Agrippina was assassinated by Nero's order, with 
 the approbation at least of Seneca and Burrhus, 
 who saw that the time was come for the destruc- 
 tion either of the mother or the son. Though Nero 
 had no longer any one to oppose him, he felt the 
 punishment of his guilty conscience, and said that 
 he was haunted by his mother's spectre. He 
 attempted to drown his reflections in fresh riot, 
 in which he was encouraged by a band of flat- 
 terers. He did not, however, immediately marry 
 Poppaea, being probably restrained by fear of 
 Burrhus and Seneca. But the death of Burrhus 
 in 62, and the retirement of Seneca from public 
 affairs, which immediately followed, left Nero 
 more at liberty. Accordingly he divorced his 
 wife Octavia, and in 18 davs married Poppaea. 
 Not satisfied with putting aw^ay his wife, he falsely 
 charged her with adultery, and banished her to 
 the island of Pandataria, where she was shortly 
 after put to death. — In 64 the great fire at Rome 
 happened. Its origin is uncertain, for it is hardly 
 credible that the city was fired by Nero's order, 
 as some ancient writers assert. Out of the 14 
 regiones of Rome into which Rome was divided, 
 3 were totally destroyed, and in 7 others only a 
 few half-burnt houses remained. The emperor 
 set about rebuilding the city on an improved plan, 
 with wider streets. He found money for his pur- 
 poses by acts of oppression and violence, and even 
 temples were robbed of their wealth. With these 
 means he began to erect his sumptuous golden 
 palace, on a scale of magnitude and splendour 
 wliich almost surpasses belief. The vestibule con- 
 tained a colossal statue of himself 120 feet high. 
 The odium of the conflagration which the emperor 
 could not remove from himself, he tried to throw 
 on the Christians, who were then numerous in 
 Rome, and many of them were put to a cruel 
 death. — The tyranny of Nero at last {^6) led lo 
 the organisation of a formidable conspiracy against 
 him, usually called Piso's conspiracy, from the 
 name of one of the principal accomplices. The 
 plot was discovered, and many distinguished per- 
 sons were put to death, among whom was Piso 
 himself, the poet Lucan, and the philosopher 
 Seneca, though the latter appears to have taken 
 no part in tiie plot. In the same year, Pop- 
 paea died of a kick, which her brutal husband 
 gave her in a fit of passion when she was with 
 child. Nero now married Statilia Messallina. The 
 history of the remainder of Nero's reign is a cata- 
 logue of his crimes. Virtue in any form was the 
 object of his fear ; and almost eveiy month was 
 marked by the execution or banishment of some 
 distinguished man. Among his other victims 
 were Thrasea Paetus and Barea Soranus, both 
 men of high rank, but of spotless integrity. In 
 67 Nero paid a visit to Greece, and took part in 
 the contests of both the Olympic and Pythian 
 games. He commenced a canal across the Isthmus 
 of Corinth, but the works were afterwards sus- 
 pended by his own orders. While in Greece lie 
 sent orders to put to death his faithful general 
 Domitius Corbulo, which the old soldier anti- 
 cipated by stabbing himself. The Roman world 
 had long been tired of its oppressor ; and the 
 
NERTOBRIGA. 
 
 storm at lengtK broke out in Gaul, where Julias 
 Vindex, the governor, openly raised the standard 
 of revolt. His example was followed hy Galba, 
 who was governor of Hispania Tarraconenais. 
 Galba was proclaimed emperor by his troops, but 
 he only assumed the title of legatus of the senate 
 and the Roman people. Soon after these news 
 reached Rome, Nymphidiua Sabinus, who was 
 praefectus praetorio along with Tigellinus, per- 
 suaded the troops to proclaim Galba. Nero was 
 immediately deserted. He escaped from the palace 
 at night with a few freedmen, and made his way to 
 a house about 4 miles from Rome, which belonged 
 to his freedman Phaon. Here he gave himself 
 a mortal wound, when he heard the trampling 
 of the horses on which his pursuers were mounted. 
 The centurion on entering attempted to stop the 
 flow of blood, but Nero saying, "It is too late. 
 Is this your fidelity ? " expired with a horrid 
 stare, Nero's progress in crime is easily traced, 
 and the lesson is worth reading. Without a good 
 education, and with no talent for his high station, 
 he was placed in a position of danger from the 
 first. He was sensual, and fond of idle displa}', 
 and then he became greedy of money to satisfy 
 his expenses ; he was timid, and by consequence 
 he became cruel when he anticipated danger ; and, 
 like other murderers, his first crime, the poisoning 
 of Britannicus, made hira capable of another. But, 
 contemptible and cruel as he was, there are many 
 persons who, in the same situation, might run the 
 same guilty career. He was only in his 3ist 
 year when he died, and he had held the supreme 
 power for 18 years and 8 months. He was tlie 
 last of the descendants of Julia, the sister of the 
 dictator Caesar. — The most important external 
 events in the reign of Nero were the conquest 
 of Armenia by Domitius Corbulo [Corbulo], and 
 the insurrection of the Britons under Boadicea, 
 which was quelled by Suetonius Paulinas. [Pa itli- 
 Nus]. — 2. Eldest son of Germanicus and Agrip- 
 pina, fell a victim to the ambition of Sejanus, who 
 resolved to get rid of the sons of Germanicus in 
 order to obtain the imperial throne for himself. 
 Drusus, the brother of Nero, was persuaded to 
 second the designs of Sejanus, in hopes that the 
 death of his elder brother would secure him the 
 succession to the throne. There was no difficulty 
 in exciting the jealousy of Tiberius ; and accord- 
 ingly in A. D. 29, Nero was declared an enemy 
 of the state, was removed to the island of Pontia, 
 and was there either starved to death or perished 
 by his own hands. 
 
 Nertobriga. 1. (Vakra la vieja), a town in 
 Hispania Baetica, with the surname Concordia 
 Julia, probably the same place which Polybius 
 calls (xxxv. 2) Ercobrica ('EpfC(J(?p(/ca).— 2. {Al- 
 muna\ a town of the Celtiberl in Hispania Tar- 
 raconensis on the road from Eraerita.to Caesar- 
 augusta. 
 
 Nerulum, a fortified place in Lucania on the 
 Via Popilia. 
 
 Nerva, Cocceius. 1. M., consul b. c. 36, brought 
 about the reconciliation between M. Antonius and 
 Octavianiis, 40, and is the same as the Cocceius 
 mentioned by Horace {Sat i. 5. 28).— 3. M., 
 probably the son of the preceding, and grand- 
 father of the emperor Nerva. He was consul 
 A, D. 22. In 33, he resolutely starved himself 
 to death, notwithstanding the intreaties of Ti- 
 berius, whose constant companion he was. He 
 
 NESTOR. 
 
 475 
 
 was a celebrated jurist and is often mentioned in 
 the Digest.^3. M., the son of the last, and pro- 
 bably father of the emperor, was also a celebrated 
 jurist, and is often cited in the Digest under the 
 name of Nerva Filius. ^4. M., Roman emperor, 
 A. D. 96-98, was bom at Narnia, in Umbria, a. d. 
 32. He was consul with Vespasian, 71, and with 
 Domitian, 90. On the assassination of Domitian, 
 in September, ^Q, Nerva, who had probably been 
 privy to the conspiracy, was declared emperor at 
 Rome by the people and the soldiers, and his 
 administration at once restored tranquillity to the 
 state. He stopped proceedings against those who 
 had been accused of treason (majestas), and al- 
 lowed many exiled persons to return to Rome. 
 The class of informers were suppressed by penal- 
 ties, and some were put to death. At the com- 
 mencement of his reign, Nerva swore that he 
 would put no senator to death ; and he kept his 
 word, even when a conspiracy had been formed 
 against his life by Cnlpurnius Ciasaus. Though 
 Nerva was virtuous and humane, he did not pos- 
 sess much energy and vigour ; and his feebleness 
 was shown by a mutiny of the Praetorian soldiers. 
 The soldiers demanded the punishment of the 
 assassins of Domitian, which the emperor refused. 
 Though his body was feeble, his will was strong, 
 and he offered them his own neck, and declared 
 his readiness to die. However, it appears that 
 the soldiers effected their purpose, and Nerva 
 was obliged to put Petronius Secundus and Par- 
 thenius to death, or to permit them to be mas- 
 sacred by the soldiers. Nerva felt his weakness, 
 but he showed his noble chai-acter and his good 
 sense by appointing as his successor a man who 
 possessed both vigour and ability to direct public 
 affairs. He adopted as his son and successor, 
 without any regard to his own kin, M. Ulpius 
 Trajanus, who was then at the head of an army 
 in Germany. Nerva died suddenly on the 27th 
 of January, a. d. at the age of 65 years. 
 
 Nervii, a powerful and warlike people in Gallia 
 Belgica, whose territoj-y extended from the river 
 Sabis {Samlrre) to the Ocean, and part of which 
 was covered by the wood Arduenna. They were 
 divided into several smaller tribes, the Centrones, 
 Grudii, Levaci, Pleumoxii and Geiduni. In b. c. 
 58 they were defeated by Caesar with such 
 slaughter that out of 60,000 men capable of bear- 
 ing arms only 500 were left. 
 
 Nesactium, a town in Istria on the river Arsia, 
 taken by the Romans, b, c. 177. 
 
 Nesis {Nisita), a small island off the coast of 
 Campania between Puteoli and Neapolis, and 
 opposite Mt. Pausilypus. This island was a fa- 
 vourite residence of some of the Roman nobles. 
 
 Nessonis (Neo-o-wf/s), a lake in Thessaly, a 
 little S. of the river Peneus, and N. E. of Larissa, 
 is in summer merely a swamp, but in winter is 
 not only full of water, but even overflows its 
 banks. Nessonis and the neighbouring lake Boe- 
 beis were regarded by the ancients as remains 
 of the vast lake, which was supposed to have 
 covered the whole of Thessaly, till an outlet was 
 made for its waters through the rocks of Tempe. 
 
 Neasus (J^^<Taos\ a centaur, who carried Deia- 
 nira across the river Evenus, but, attempting to 
 nin away with her, was shot by Hercules with a 
 poisoned arrow, which afterwards became the cause 
 of the death of Hercules. See pp. 310, 311. 
 
 Nestor (N^ctto)^), king of Pylos, son of Neleus 
 
476 NESTORIDES. 
 
 and Chlorig, husband of Eiirydice find father of Pi- 
 sidice, Polycaste, Perseus, Stratius, Aretiis, Eche- 
 phron, Pisistratus, Anulochus, and Thrasymedes. 
 Some relate that, after the death of Eurydice, Nes- 
 tor married Anaxibia, the daughter of Atreus, and 
 sister of Agamemnon ; but this Anaxibia is else- 
 where described as the wife of Strophius, and the 
 mother of Pylades. When Hercules invaded the 
 country of Neleus, and slew his sons, Nestor alone 
 was spared, either because he was absent from 
 Pylos, or because he had taken no part in carrying 
 off from Hercules the oxen of Geryones. In his 
 3'outh and early manhood, Nestor was a distin- 
 guished warrior. He defeated both the Arcadians 
 and Eleans. He took part in the fight of the La- 
 pithae against the Centaurs, and he is mentioned 
 among the Caiydonian hunters and the Argonauts. 
 Although far advanced in age, he sailed with the 
 other Greek heroes against Troy. Having ruled 
 over three generations of men, his advice and 
 authority were deemed equal to that of the im- 
 mortal gods, and he was renowned for his wisdom, 
 his justice, and his knowledge of war. After the 
 fail of Troy he returned home, and arrived safely 
 in Pylos, where Zeus granted to him the full en- 
 joyment of old age, surrounded by intelligent and 
 brave sons. Various towns in Peloponnesus, of 
 the name of Pylos, laid claim to being the city 
 of Nestor. On this point see p. 471, a. 
 
 Nestoildes (NecrTopi'S?]?), i. e. a son of Nestor, 
 as Antilochus and Pisistratus. 
 
 Nestorius, a celebrated Haeresiarch, was ap- 
 pointed patriarch of Constantinople A. D. 420, but 
 in consequence of his heresy was deposed at the 
 council of Ephesus, 431. His great opponent was 
 Cyril. Nestorius was subsequently banished to 
 one of the Oases in Egypt, and he died in exile 
 probably before 450. Nestorius carefully distin- 
 guished between the divine and human, nature 
 attributed to Christ, and refused to give to the 
 Virgin Mary the title of Theotocus (OeorSnos) or 
 "Mother of God." The opinions of Nestorius 
 are still maintained by the Nestorian Christians. 
 
 ITestus, sometimes ITessus (Neo-Toy: Mesio 
 by the Greeks, Karasu by the Turks), a river in 
 Thrace, which rises in Mt. Rhodope, flows S. E., 
 and falls into the Aegnean sea W. of Abdera and 
 opposite the island of Thasos. The Neatus formed 
 the E. boundary of Macedonia from the time of 
 Philip and Alexander the Great. 
 
 Nc3U3. [Oeniadae.] 
 
 Netuni (Netlnus: Noto Antiquo Jiea.T Noto), a 
 town in Sicily S. W. of Syracuse, and a de- 
 pendency of the latter. 
 
 Ueuri (Nevpoi^ Net/pot), a people of Sarmatia 
 Europaea, whom Herodotus describes as not of 
 Scythian race, though they followed Scythian 
 customs. Having been driven out from their earlier 
 abodes by a plague of serpents, they settled to 
 the N.W. of the sources of the Tyras (Dniester). 
 They were esteemed skilful in enchantment. 
 
 Nevimtim. [Noviodunum, No. 2.] 
 
 Nicaea (Nt/cata: Nnmieys, Nt/caeys, Nicaeensis, 
 Nicensis). 1. (Iznik, Ru,), one of the most cele- 
 brated cities of Asia, stood on the E. side of the 
 lake Ascania (IzniJc) in Bithynia. Its site appears 
 to have been occupied in very ancient times by a 
 town called Attaea, and afterwards by a settlement 
 of the Bottiaeans, called Ancore orllelicoro, which 
 was destroyed by the Mysiana. Not long after the 
 death of Alexander the Great, Antigonua built on 
 
 NICAEA. ' 
 
 the same spot a city which he named after himself, 
 Antigonca; but Lysimachus soon after changed the 
 name into Nicaea, in honour of liIs wife. Under 
 the kings of Bithynia it was often the royal resi- 
 dence, and it long disputed with Nicomedia the 
 rank of capital of Bithynia, The Roman emperors 
 bestowed upon it numerous honours and benefits, 
 which are recorded on its coins. Its position, at 
 the junction of several of the chief roads lending 
 through Asia Minor to Constantinople, made it the 
 centre of a large traffic. It is very famous in ec- 
 clesiastical history as the seat of the great Oecu- 
 menical Council, which Constantine convoked in 
 
 A. D. 325, chiefly for the decision of the Arian 
 controversy, and which drew up the Nicene Creed; 
 that is to say, the first part of the well known 
 creed so called, the latter part of whicb was added 
 by the Council of Constantinople, in the year 301. 
 The Councd of Nice (as we commonly call it) .ilso 
 settled the time of keeping Easter. A second 
 council held here in 787 decided in favour of the 
 worship of images. In the very year of the great 
 Council, Nicaea was overthrown by an earthquake, 
 but it was restored by the emperor Valens in 368. 
 Under the later emperors of the East, Nicaea long 
 served as the bulwark of Constantinople against 
 the Arabs and Turks : it was taken by the Seljuka 
 in 1078, and became the capital of the Sultan 
 Soliman; It was retaken by the First Crusaders in 
 1097. After the taking of Constantinople by the 
 Venetians and the Franks, and the foundation of 
 the Latin empire there in 1204, the Greek emperor 
 Theodorus Lascaris made Nicaea the capital of 
 a separate kingdom ; in which his followers main- 
 tained themselves with various success against the 
 Latins of Constantinople on the one side, and the 
 Seljuks of Iconium on the other, and in 1261 re- 
 gained Constantinople. At lengtli, in 1330, Nicaea 
 was finally taken by Orchan the son of the founder 
 of the Ottoman empire, Othman. Iznik^ the modern 
 Nicaea, is a poor village of about 100 houses ; but 
 the double walls of the ancient city still remain 
 almost complete, exhibiting 4 large and 2 small gates. 
 There are also the remains of the 2 moles which 
 formed the harbour on the lake, of an aqueduct, of 
 the theatre, and of the gymnasium ; in this last 
 edifice, we are told, there was a point from which 
 all the 4 gates were visible, so great was the regu- 
 larity with which the city was built. ^2. [Nikib) 
 a city of India, on the borders of the Paropamisadae, 
 on the W. of the river Cophen. — 3. (Prob. Dara- 
 poo7\ Ru.), a city of India, on the river Hydaspes 
 (Jelum) built by Alexander to commemorate his 
 victory over Porus. — 4. A fortress of the Epicne- 
 midian Locrlans on the sea, near the pass of Ther- 
 mopylae, which it commanded. From its important 
 position, it is often mentioned in the wars of Greece 
 with Macedonia and with the Romans. In the for- 
 mer, its betrayal to Philip by the Thracian dynast 
 Phalaecus led to the decision of the Sacred War, 
 
 B. c. 346 ; and after various changes, it is found, at 
 the time of the wars with Rome, in the hands of 
 the Aetolians. — 5. In Illyria. [Nicia]. — 6. 
 An ancient name of Mariana in Corsica. — 7. 
 {Nizza^ Nice)^ a city on the coast of Ligujia, a 
 little E. of the river Var; a colony of Massilia, and 
 subject to that city ; hence it was considered as 
 belonging to Gaul, though it was just beyond the 
 frontier. It first became important as a stronghold 
 of the Christian religion, which was preached there 
 by Nazarius at an early period. 
 
NICANDER. 
 
 Nicander {"Nlicavdpos). 1. King of Sparta, son 
 of Charilaus, and fatlier of Tlienporapus, reigned 
 about B. c. 809 — 770. — 2, A Greek poet, gram- 
 marian and physician, was a native of Claros near 
 Colophon in Ionia, whence he is frequently called 
 a Coloplionian. He succeeded liis father as one of 
 the hereditary priests of Apollo Clarius. He appears 
 to have flourished about B.C. 185 — 135. Of the 
 iiuinerous works of Nicander only two poems are ex- 
 tant, one entitled Theriaca(&'riptaKd),vr\\ich. consists 
 of nearly 1000 hexameter lines, and treats of veno- 
 mous animals and the wounds inflicted by them, and 
 another entitled Alexipliaiinaca {^ A\e^i(pdp/xaKa), 
 which consists of more than 600 hexameter lines, 
 and treats of poisons and their antidotes. Among 
 the ancients his authority in all matters relating 
 to toxicology seems to have been considered high. 
 His works are frequently quoted by Pliny, Galen, 
 and other ancient writers. His style is harsh and 
 obscure ; and his works are now scarcely ever 
 read as poems, and are only consulted by those 
 who are interested in points of zoological and 
 medical antiquities. The best edition is by Schnei- 
 der, who published the Alexipharmaca in 1792 
 Ilaiae ; and the TlieHuca in 1816, Lips. 
 
 Nicanor (NiKaj/wp). 1, Son of Parmenion, a 
 distinguished ofiicer in the service of Alexander, 
 died during the king's advance into Bnctria, b. c. 
 ii30. — 2. A Macedonian officer, who, in the di- 
 visinu of the provinces after the death of Perdiccas, 
 (u21), obtained the government of Cappadocia. 
 IJe attacliod himself to the party of Antigonus, 
 who made him governor of Media and tiie ad- 
 joining provinces, which he continued to hold until 
 312, when he was deprived of them by Seleucus. 
 — 3. A Macedonian officer under Cassander, by 
 whom he was secretly despatched, immediately on 
 the death of Antipater, 319, to take the commimd 
 of the Macedonian garrison at Munychia. Nicanor 
 arrived at Athens before the news of Antipater's 
 death, and thus readily obtained possession of the 
 fortress. Soon afterwards he sui-priscd the Piraeus 
 also, and placed both fortresses in the hands of 
 Cassander on the arrival of the latter in Attica iu 
 318. Nicanor was afterwards despatched by Cas- 
 sander with a fleet to the Hellespont, where he 
 pained a victory over the admirid of Polysperchon. 
 On his return to Athens he incurred the suspicion 
 of Cassander, and was put to death. 
 
 Nicarchus (NOrapxo^), the author of 38 epi- 
 grams in the Greek Anthology, appears to have 
 lived at Rome near the beginning of the 2nd cen- 
 tury of the Christian era. 
 
 ificator, Seleucus. [Seleucus.] 
 
 Nice (N£>c7j), called Victoria by the Romans, 
 the goddess of victoiy, is described as a daughter 
 of Pallas and Styx, and as a sister of Zelus (zeal). 
 Crates (strength), and Bia (force). When Zeus 
 commenced fighting against the Titans, and called 
 upon the gods for assistance, Nice and her 2 sisters 
 were the first who came forward, and Zeus was so 
 pleased with their readiness, that he caused them 
 ever after to live with him in Olympus. Nice had 
 a celebrated temple on the acropolis of Athens, 
 whicli is still extant and in excellent preservation. 
 She is often seen represented in ancient works of 
 art, especially with other divinities, such as Zeus 
 and Athena, and with conquering heroes whose 
 horses she guides. In her appearance she resembles 
 Athena, but has wings, and carries a palm or a 
 wreath, and is engaged in raising a trophy, or 
 
 NICIA. 
 
 477 
 
 in inscribing the victory of the conqueror on a 
 shield. 
 
 Kicepliorium ('Niii7i({}6piov). 1. {Rahhah), a 
 fortified town of Mesopotamia, on the Eupluates, 
 near the mouth of the river Bilecha {el Bell/cli), 
 and due S. of Edessa, built by order of Alexander, 
 and probably completed under Seleucus. It is 
 doubtless the same place as the Callliiicus or Cal- 
 liuicum (KaWivLKos or oj/), the fortifications of 
 which were repaired by Justinian. Its name was 
 again changed to Leontopolis, when it was adorned 
 with fresh buildings by the emperor Leo. — 2. A 
 fortress on the Propontia, belonging to the territory 
 of Pergamus. 
 
 Nicephorius (NiKij^fJpios), a river of Armenia 
 Major, on which Tigranes built his residence Ti- 
 GRANOCERTA. It was a tributary of the Ujiper 
 Tigris ; probably identical with the Centrites, 
 or a small tributary of it. 
 
 Wicephorus (NiK7)cp6pos). 1. Callistus Xau- 
 thopulus, the author of the Ecclesiastical Illslory, 
 was bom in the latter part of the 13th centur}-, and 
 died about 1450. His Ecclesiastical history was 
 originally in 23 books, of which there are 1 8 extant, 
 extending from the birth of Christ down to the 
 death of the tyrant Phocas, in 610. Although Ni- 
 cephorus compiled from the works of hispredecessors, 
 he entirely remodelled his materials, and his style 
 is vastly superior to that of his contemporaries. 
 Edited by Ducaeus, Paris, 1630, 2 vols. foL — 2. 
 Gregoras. [Gregoiias.] — 3. Patriarcha, ori- 
 ginally the notary or chief secretary of state to the 
 emperor Constantine V. Copronymus, subsequently 
 retired into a convent, and was raised to the patri- 
 archate of Constantinople in 806. He was deposed 
 in 815, and died in 828. Several of his works 
 have come down to us, of which the most important 
 is entitled Breviarium HistoHcum, a Byzantine 
 history, extending from 602 to 770. This is one of 
 the best works of the Byzantine period. Edited 
 by Petavius, Paris, 1616. 
 
 Nicer {Neckar), a river in Germany falling 
 into the Rhine at the modern JMannheim. 
 
 Nlceratus (Ni/cTfpaTos). 1. Father of Nicias, the 
 celebrated Athenian general. — 2. Son of Nicias, 
 put to death by the 30 t3'rants, to whom his great 
 wealth was no doubt a temptation. — 3. A Greek 
 writer on plants, one of the followers of Asclepiades 
 of Bithynia. 
 
 Wicetas (Ni/cT^ras). 1. Acominatus, also called 
 Choniates, because he was a native of Chouae, 
 fonnerly Colossae, in Phrygia, one of the most im- 
 portant Byzantine historians, lived in the latter 
 half of the 12th, and the former half of the 13th 
 centuries. He held important public offices at 
 Constantinople, and was present at the capture of 
 the city by the Latins in 1204, of which he hns 
 given us a faithful description. He escaped to 
 Nicaea, where he died about 1216. The history 
 of Nicetas consists of 10 distinct works, each of 
 which contains one or more books, of which there 
 are 21, giving the history of the emperors from 
 1118 to 1206. The best edition is by Bekker, 
 Bonn, 1835. — 2. Eugenianus, lived probably 
 towards the end of the 12th century, and wrote 
 " The History of the Lives of Drusilla and Cha- 
 ricles," whicli is the worst of all the Greek romances 
 that have come down to us. It was published for 
 the first time by Eoissonade, Paris, 1819, 2 vols. 
 
 Nicia {Enza ?), a tributary of the Po in Gallia 
 Cisaipina. 
 
47a 
 
 NICIAS. 
 
 Nicias (Nutas). L A celebrated Atlienian 
 general during the Peloponnesian war, was the son 
 of Niceratus, from whom he inherited a large for- 
 tune. His property was valued at 100 talents. 
 From this cause, combined with his unambitious 
 character, and his aversion to all dangerous inno- 
 vations, he was naturally brought into connection 
 with the aristocrat! cal portion of his fellow-citizens. 
 lie was several times associated with Pericles, as 
 strategua ; and his great prudence and high cha- 
 racter gained for him considerable influence. On 
 the death of Periclea he came forward more openly 
 as the opponent of Cleon, and the other demagogues 
 of Athens ; but from his military reputation, the 
 mildness of his character, and the liberal use 
 which he made of his great wealth, he was looked 
 upon with respect by all classes of the citizens. 
 His timidity led him to buy oif the attacks of the 
 sycophants. He was a man of strong religious 
 feeling, and Aristophanes ridicules him in the 
 Eqidtes for his timidity and superstition. His cha- 
 racteristic caution was the distinguishing feature 
 of his military career ; and his military opemtions 
 were almost alwaj's successful. He fi*equently 
 commanded the Athenian annies during the earlier 
 years of the Peloponnesian war. After the death 
 of Cleon (b. c. 422) he exerted all his influence to 
 hring about a pence, which was concluded in the 
 following year (421). For the next few years 
 Nicias used all his eflforts to induce the Athenians 
 to preserve the peace, and was constantly opposed 
 by Alcibiades, who had now become the leader of 
 the popular party. In 41/), the Athenians resolved 
 on sending their great expedition to Sicily, and ap- 
 pointed Nicias, Alcibiades and Lamachus to the com- 
 mand. Nicias disapproved of the expedition alto- 
 gether, and did all that he could to divert the 
 Athenians from this course. But his representa- 
 tions produced no effect ; and he set sail for Sicily 
 with his colleagues. Alcibiades was soon after- 
 wards recalled [Alcibiades] ; and the sole com- 
 mand was thus virtually left in the hands of Nicias. 
 His early operations were attended with success. 
 He defeated the Syracusans in the autumn, and 
 employed the winter in securing the co-operation of 
 several of the Greek cities, and of the Sicel tribes 
 in the island. In the spring of next year he re- 
 newed his attacks upon Syracuse ; he seized Epi- 
 polae, in which he was successful, and commenced 
 the circumvallation of Syracuse. About this time 
 Lamachus was slain, in a skirmish under the 
 walls. All the attempts of the Syracusans to 
 stop the circumvallation failed. The works were 
 nearly completed, and the doom of Syracuse seemed 
 sealed, when Gylippus, the Spartan, arrived in 
 Sicily. [Gylippus,] The tide of success now 
 turned ; and Nicias found himself obliged to send 
 to Athens for reinforcements, and requested at the 
 same time that another commander might be sent 
 to supply his place, aa his feeble health rendered 
 him unequal to the discharge of his duties. The 
 Athenians voted reinforcements, which were placed 
 under the command of Demosthenes and Euryrae- 
 don ; but they would not allow Nicias to resign 
 his command. Demosthenes, upon his arrival in 
 Sicily (413), made a vigorous effort to recover 
 Epipolae, which the Athenians had lost. He was 
 nearly successful, but was finally driven back with 
 severe loss. Demosthenes now deemed any farther 
 attempts against the city hopeless, and therefore 
 proposed to abandon the siege and return to Athens. 
 
 NICOCUEON. 
 
 To this Nicias would not consent. He professed 
 to stand in dread of the Athenians at home ; but he 
 appears to have had reasons for believing that a 
 party amongst the Syracusans themselves were 
 likely in no long time to facilitate the reduction of 
 the city. But meantime fresh succours arrived for 
 the Syracusans ; sickness was making ravages 
 among the Athenian troops, and at length Nicias 
 himself saw the necessity of retreating. Secret 
 orders were given that every thing should be in 
 readiness for departure, when an eclipse of the 
 moon happened. The credulous superstition of 
 Nicias led to the total destruction of the Athenian 
 armament. The soothsayers interpreted the event 
 as an injunction from the gods that they should 
 not retreat before the next full moon, and Nicias 
 resolutely determined to abide by their decision. 
 The Syracusans resolved to bring the enemy to 
 an engagement, and, in a decisive naval battle, 
 defeated the Athenians. They were now masters 
 of the harbour, and the Athenians were reduced to 
 the necessity of making a desperate effort to escape. 
 The Athenians were again decisively defeated ; 
 and liaving thus lost their fleet, they were obliged 
 to retreat by land. They were pursued by the 
 enemy, and were finally compelled to surrender. 
 Both Nicias and Demosthenes were put to death 
 by the Syracusans. — 2. The physician of Pyrrhus, 
 king of Epirus. who offered to the Roman consul 
 to poison the king, for a certain reward. Fabricius 
 not only rejected his base offer with indignation, 
 but immediately, sent him back to Pyrrhus with 
 notice of his treachery. He is sometimes, but 
 erroneously, called (,'ineas. ^3. A Coan gramma- 
 rian, who lived at Rome in the time of Cicero, with 
 whom he was intimate, — 4. A celebrated Athe- 
 nian painter, flourished about b. c, 320. He was 
 the most distinguished disciple of Euphranor. His 
 works seem to have been all painted in encaustic. 
 One of his greatest paintings was a representation 
 of the infernal regions as described by Homer. He 
 refused to sell this picture to Ptolemy, although 
 the price offered for it was 60 talents. 
 
 Nicochares (Ni/coxa/wjs), an Athenian poet of 
 the Old Comedy, the son of Philonides, was con- 
 temporary with Aristophanes, 
 
 Nicocles (Ni«o«A7js). 1. King of Salamis in 
 Cyprus, son of Evatjoras, whom he succeeded b. c. 
 374. Isocrates addressed him a long panegyric 
 upon his father's virtues, for which Nicocles re- 
 warded the orator with the magnificent present of 
 20 talents. Scarcely any paiticulars are known of 
 the reign of Nicocles. — He is said to have pe- 
 rished by a violent death, but neither the period 
 nor circumstances of this event are recorded. — 2. 
 Prince or nder of Paphos, in Cyprus, during the 
 period which followed the death of Alexander. He 
 was at first one of those who took part with Pto- 
 lemy against Antigonus ; but having subsequently 
 entered into secret negotiations with Antigonus, he 
 was compelled by Ptolemy to put an end to his 
 own life, 310, —3. Tyrant of Sicyon, was deposed 
 by Aratus, after a reign of only 4 months, 251. 
 
 Nicocreon (NiKOKpiwv), king of Salamis in 
 Cyprus, at the time of Alexander's expedition into 
 Asia. After the death of Alexander he took part 
 with Ptolemy against Antigonus, and was entrusted 
 by Ptolemy with the chief command over the 
 whole island. Nicocreon is said to have ordered 
 the philosopher Anaxarchus to be pounded to 
 death in a stone mortar, in revenge for an insult 
 
NICOLA ns. 
 
 which the latter had offered the king, when he 
 visited Alexander at T3're. 
 
 NicolausClialcocoiidyles.[CHALcocoNDYLEs.] 
 
 Nicolaua Damascenus, a Greek historian, and 
 an intimate friend both of Herod the Great and of 
 AugTistua. He was, as his name indicates, a native 
 of Damascus, and a son of Antipaterand Stratonice. 
 He received an excellent education, and he car- 
 ried on his philosophical studies in common with 
 Herod, at whose court he resided. In B.C. 13 he 
 accompanied Herod on a visit to Augustus at 
 Rome ; on which occasion Au;^ustu3 made Nicolaiis 
 a present of the finest fmit of the palm-tree, which 
 the emperor called Nicolai^ — a name by which it 
 continued to he known down to the Middle Ages. 
 Nicolaus rose so high in the favour of Augustus, 
 that he was on more than one occasion of great 
 service to Herod, when the emperor was incensed 
 against the latter. Nicolaus wrote a large number 
 of works, of which the most important were : — 1. 
 A life of himself, of which a considerable portion 
 is still extant. 2. An universal history, which 
 consisted of 144 books, of which we have only a 
 few fragments. 3. A life of Augustus, from which 
 we have some extracts made by command of Con- 
 stantine Porphyrogenitus. He also wrote commen- 
 taries on Aristotle, and other philosophical works, 
 and was the author of several tragedies and co- 
 medies : Stobaeus has presented a fragment of one 
 of his comedies, extending to 44 lines. The best 
 edition of his fragments is by Orelli, Lips. 1804. 
 
 Nicomaclius (NiKo/iaxos). 1. Father of Aria- 
 totle. See p. 84, a. ^2. Son. of Aristotle by the 
 slave Herpyllis. He was himself a philosopher, 
 and wrote some philosophical works, A portion of 
 Aristotle's writings bears the name of Nicomachean 
 Eikics^ but why we cannot tell ; whether the 
 father so named them, as a memorial of his affection 
 for his young son, or whether they derived their 
 title from being afterwards edited and commented 
 on by Nicomachus. ^ 3, Called Gei'as&nus^ from 
 his native place, Gerasa in Arabia, was a Py- 
 thagorean, and the writer of a life of Pythagoras, 
 now lost. His date is inferred from his mention 
 of Thrasylkis, who lived under Tiberius. He wrote 
 on arithmetic and music ; and 2 of his works on 
 these subjects are still extant. The work on arith- 
 metic was printed by Wechel, Paris, 1538 ; also, 
 after the Tkeologumena AHthmeiicae^ attributed to 
 lamblichus, Lips. 1G17. The work on music was 
 printed by Meursius, in his collection, Lugd, But. 
 1616, and in the collection of Meibomius, Amst. 
 1652. —4. Of Thebes, a celebrated painter, was 
 tiie elder brother and teacher of the great painter 
 Aristides. He flourished b. c. 360, and onwards. 
 He was an elder contemporary of Apelles and Pro- 
 togenes. He is frequently mentioned by the an- 
 cient writers in terms of the highest praise. Cicero 
 says that in his works, as well as in those of Echion, 
 Protogenes, and Apelles, every thing was already 
 perfect. {Brutus^ 18.) 
 
 Nicomedes (NtKOjU-^STis). 1. I. King of Bi- 
 thynia, was the eldest son of Zipoetes, whom he 
 succeeded, B. c. 278. With the assistance of the 
 Gauls, whom he invited into Asia, he defeated and 
 put to death his brother Zipoetes, who had for 
 some time held the independent sovereignty of a 
 considerable part of Bithynia. The rest of his 
 rei^n appears to have been undisturbed, and under 
 his sway Bithynia rose to a high degree of power 
 and prosperity. He founded the city of Nicomedia, 
 
 NICOPOLIS. 
 
 479 
 
 which he made the capital of his kingdom. The 
 length of his reign is uncertain, but he probably 
 died about 250. He was succeeded by his son 
 ZiELAS. ^2. II. Sumamed Epiphanes, king of 
 Bithynia, reigned B. c. 149 — 91. He was the 
 son and successor of Prusias II., and 4th in descent 
 from the preceding. He was brought up at Rome, 
 where he succeeded in gaining the favour of the 
 senate. Prusias, in consequence, became jealous of 
 his son, and sent secret instructions for his asBas- 
 sination. The plot was revealed to Nicomedes, who 
 thereupon returned to Asia, and declared open war 
 against his father. Prusias was deserted by his 
 subjects, and was put to death by order of his son, 
 149. Of the long and tranquil reign of Nicomedes 
 few events have been transmitted to us. He 
 courted the friendship of the Romans, whom he 
 assisted in the war ngainst Aristonicus, 131. He 
 subsequently obtained possession of Paphlagonia, 
 and attempted to gain Cappadocia, by marrying 
 Laodice, the widow of Ariarathes VI. He was, 
 however, expelled from Cappadocia by Mithridates ; 
 and he was also compelled by the Romans to 
 abandon Paphlagonia, when they deprived Mithri- 
 dates of Cappadocia. — 3. HI. Sumamed Philo- 
 PATOB, king of Bithynia (91 — 74), son and suc- 
 cessor of Nicomedes II. Immediately after his 
 accession, he was expelled by Mithridates, who set 
 up against him his brother Socrates ; but he was 
 restored by the Romans in the following year (90). 
 At the instigation of the Romans, Nicomedes now 
 proceeded to attack the dominions of Mithridates, 
 who expelled hirh a second time from his kingdom 
 (88). This was the immediate occasion of the 1st 
 Mithridatic war ; at the conclusion of which (84) 
 Nicomedes was again reinstated in his kingdom. 
 He reigned nearly 10 years after this second re- 
 storation. He died at the beginning of 74, and 
 having no children, b^ his will bequeathed his 
 kingdom to the Roman people. 
 
 Nicomedia (NiKOjUTjSeio : NiKo/iTjSet/y, fern. Ni- 
 KOfiTiBia-a-a : Tzmid or Iziiihnid^ Ru.), a celebrated 
 city of Bithynia, in Asia Minor, built by king 
 Nicomedes I. (b. c. 264), at the N.E. corner of 
 the Sinus Astacenus {Gulf of Izmid : comp. As- 
 TACUs). It was the chief residence of the kings 
 of Bithyiiia, and it soon became one of the most 
 splendid cities of the then known world. Under 
 tlie Romans, it was a colony, and a favourite resi- 
 dence of several of the later emperors, especially of 
 Diocletian and Constantine the Great. Though 
 repeatedly injured by earthquakes, it was always 
 restored by the munificence of the emperors. Like 
 its neighbour and rival, Nicaea, it occupies an 
 important place in the wars against the Turks ; 
 but it is still more memorable in history as the 
 scene of Hannibal's death. It was the birthplace 
 of the historian Arrlan. 
 
 Kiconia or Niconium, a town in Scythia on 
 the right bank of the Tyras {Dniester). 
 
 Hicophon and Nicophroa {HiKotpthv^ t^wStppaiv)^ 
 an Athenian comic poet, son of Theron, and a con- 
 temporary of Aristophanes at the close of hia 
 career. 
 
 WicopoUs {IJlk6ito\is : NiKOTroXiTtjs, Nicopo- 
 litanus). 1. {Faleopr&oyza, Ru.), a city at the 
 S.W. extremity of Epirus, on the point of land which 
 forms the N. side of the entrance to the Gulf of 
 Ambracia, opposite to Actium. It was built by 
 Augustus in memory of the battle of Actium, and 
 waa peopled from Ambracia, Anactoriura, and 
 
480 
 
 NICOSTRATUS. 
 
 other neighbouring cities, and al30 with settlers 
 from Aetolia. Augustus also built a temple of 
 Apollo on a neighbouring hill, and founded games 
 in honour of the god, which were held every 5th 
 year. The city was received into the Amphic- 
 tyonic league in place of the Dolopes. It is spoken 
 of both as a libera civitas, and as a colony. It had 
 a considerable commerce and extensive fisheries. 
 It was made the capital of Epirus by Constantine, 
 and its buildings were restored both by Julian and 
 by Justinian. ^2. (Nicoptjli), a city of Moesia 
 Inferior, on tbe Danube, built by Trajan in me- 
 mory of a victory over the Dacians, and celebrated 
 as the scene of the great defeat of the Hungarians 
 and Fnmks by the sultan Bajazet, on Sept. 28, 
 1396. -^3. (EndereZf or Deurigni9), a city of 
 Armenia Minor, on or near the Lycus, and not far 
 from the sources of the Halj's, founded by Pompey 
 on the spot where he gained his first victory over 
 Jlithridates : a flourishing place in the time of 
 Augustus : restored by Justinian. ^ 4. A city in 
 the N. E. corner of Cilicia, near the junction of the 
 Taurus and Amanus. ^5. {Kars^ Kixxssera^ or 
 Cuesar''s Castle^ Ru.), a city of Lower Egypt, 
 abont *2 or 3 miles E. of Alexandria, on the canal 
 between Alexandria and Canopus, was built by 
 Augustus in memory of his last victory over An- 
 tonius. Here also, as at Nicopolis opposite to 
 Aetium, Augustus founded a temple of Apollo, 
 with games every 5th year. Not being mentioned 
 after the time of the first Caesars, it would seem 
 to have become a mere suburb of Alexandria. 
 
 Kicostratus (Ni(c<Jo-TpaTos), the youngest of the 
 3 sons of Aristophanes, was himself a comic poet. 
 His plays belonged both to the middle and the 
 new comedy. 
 
 Nigeir, Nigir, or Nigris (Ni^eip, N171P, a com- 
 pounded form of the word Geir or Gir, which 
 seems to be a native African term for a river in gene- 
 ral), changed, by a confusion which was the more 
 eiisily made on account of the colour of the people 
 of the region, into the Latin word Niger, a great 
 river of Aethiopia Interior, which modern usage 
 has identified with the river called Joli-ha (i.e. 
 Great River) and Quorra (or rather Kowara)^ in \V. 
 Africa. As early as the time of Herodotus, we find 
 an authentic statement concerning a river of the in- 
 terior of Libya, which is evidently identical both 
 with the Nigir of most of the ancient geographers, 
 and with the Quorra. He tells us (ii. 32) that 5 
 3-oung men of the Nasamnnes, a Libyan people on 
 the Great Syrtis, on the N. coast of Africa, started 
 to explore the desert parts of Libya ; that, after 
 crossing the inhabited part, and the region of the 
 wild beasts, they journeyed many days through 
 the Desert towards the W., till they came to a 
 plain where fruit trees grew ; and as they eat the 
 fruit, they were seized by some little black men, 
 whose language they could not understand, who 
 led them through great marshes to a city, inha- 
 ^.bited by the same sort of little black men, who 
 were all enchanters ; and a great river flowed by 
 the city from W. to E., and in it there were cro- 
 codiles. Herodotus, like his infonnants, inferred 
 from tiie course of the river, and from the cro- 
 codiles in it, that it was the Nile ; but it can 
 hardly be any river but the Quorra ; and that the 
 city was Timbnctoo is far more probable than not. 
 The opinion, that the Niger was a W. branch of 
 the Nile, prevailed very generally in ancient 
 times ; but by no meaua universally. Pliny gives 
 
 NILTTS. 
 
 the same account in a very confused manner, and 
 makes the Nigria (as he calls it) the boundary 
 between N. Africa and Aethiopia. Ptolemy, how- 
 ever, who evidently had new sources of information 
 respecting the interior of Africa, makes the Nigeir 
 rise not far from its real source (allowing for the 
 imperfect observations on which his nimierical lati- 
 tudes, and longitudes are founded) and follow a 
 direction not very different from what that of the 
 Joli-ha and Quorra would be if we suppose that 
 the Zlrini, Koji, and leo, form an unbroke]) com- 
 munication between the Quorraand the lake IcJiad. 
 But Ptolemy adds, what the most recent disco- 
 veries render a very remarkable statement, that a 
 branch of the Nigeir communicates with the lake 
 Libya (Ai^u-ij), which he places in 16"^ 30' N. lat. 
 and 35° E. long. (i. e. from the Fortunate I. = 17" 
 from Greenwich). This is almost exactly the po- 
 sition of lake Tcluid; and. if the Tcliudda really 
 flows out of this lake, it will represent the brancii 
 of the Nigeir spoken of by Ptolemy, whose in- 
 formants, however, seem to have inverted the 
 direction of its stream. It is further remarkable 
 that Ptolemy places on the Nigeir a city named 
 Thamondocana in the eceact position of Timbuctoo, 
 and that the length of the river, computed from 
 his position, agrees very nearly with its real length. 
 The error of connecting the Niger and the Nile 
 revived after the time of Ptolem}', and has only 
 been exploded by very recent discoveries. 
 
 Niger, C. Pescenmus, was governor of Syria 
 during the latter end of the reign of Commodus, on 
 whose death he was saluted emperor by the legions 
 in the East, a. d. 193. But in the following year 
 he was defeated and put to death by Septimius 
 Severus. Many anecdotes have been preserved of 
 the firmness with which Niger enforced the most 
 rigid discipline among his troops ; but he preserved 
 his popularity by the impartiality which he dis- 
 plaj'ed, and by tlie example of frugality, temperance, 
 and hardy endurance of toil which he exhibited in 
 his own person. 
 
 Nigira (Niyeipa, Ptol. : JenTieh?), a city on the 
 N. side of the river Nigir, and tiie capital of the 
 
 NiGRlTAE, 
 
 Nigritae or -etes (Ni-ypn-ai, Ni7prTat AlQloires^ 
 'Niypyres), the N.-most of the Ethiopian (i. e. 
 Negro) peoples of Central Africa, dwelt about the 
 Nigir, in the great plain oi Soudan. 
 
 Nigritia Lacus {Ni^piriy Xif^vn), a lake in the 
 interior of Africa, out of which Ptolemy represents 
 the river Nigir as flowing. He places it about at 
 the true source of the Nigir (i. e. the Joli-ba) ; but 
 it is not yet discovered whether the river has its 
 source in a lake. Some modern geographers iden- 
 tify it with the lake Z>c6o, S. W. of Tiinfmctoo. 
 
 Nillipolis or Nilus (Net'Aoi; iroKis, Ne^^os), a 
 city of the Heptanomis, or Middle Egypt, in the 
 Nomos Heracleopoiites, was built on an island in 
 the Nile, 20 geographical miles N. E. of Hera- 
 cleopolis. There was a temple here in which, as 
 throughout Egj^t, the river Nile was worshipped 
 as a god. 
 
 NUus ( * NeTAos, derived probably from a word 
 which still exists in the old dialects of India, 
 Nilas, i. e. blacky and sometimes called MeAay by 
 the Greeks: NetA-os occurs first in Hesiod ; Homer 
 calls the river Aiyv7rT6s : Niie, Arab. Bahr-Nil^ 
 or simply Bahr^ i. e. the River: tbe modern names 
 of its upper cmirsn, in Nubia and Abyssinia, are 
 various). This rivtr, one of the most important in 
 
NILUS. 
 
 the world, flows tlirongh a channel which forms a ' 
 sort of cleft extending N. and S. through the high 
 rocky and sandy land of N.E.Africa. Its W. or main 
 branch has not yet been traced to its source, but 
 it has been followed up to a point in 4° 4*2' N. lat. 
 and 30'' 58' E. long., where it is a rapid mountain 
 stream, running at the rate of 6 knots an hour over 
 a rocky bed, free from alluvial soil. After a course 
 in the general direction of N. N. E. as far as a 
 place called Khartum, in 15° 34' N. lat and 320 
 30' E. long., this river, which is called the Bohr- 
 el'Abiad, i. e. White River, receives another large 
 river, the Bahr-el-Azrek, i. e. Blue River, the 
 sources of which are in the highlands of Abyssinixx, 
 about lio N. lat. and 37 E. long: this is the 
 middle branch of the Nile system, the Astapus 
 of the ancients. The third, or E. branch, called 
 Tacazze, the Astaboras of the ancients, rises 
 also in the highlands of Abyssinia, in about 1 1° 
 40' N. lat, and 39° 40' E. long., and joins the 
 Nile (i. e. the main stream formed by the union of 
 \.\iQAhiad and the Azreh), in 17" 45' N. hit,and 
 about 34° 5'E. long. : the point of junction was the 
 apex of the island of Merge. Here the united 
 river is about 2 miles broad. Hence it flows 
 through Nubia, in a magnificent rocky valley, fall- 
 ing over 6 cataracts, the N.-most of which, called 
 the First cataract (i. e. to a person p;oing up the 
 river), is and has always been the S. boundary 
 of Egypt. Of its course from this point, to its 
 junction with the Mediterranean, a sufficient ge- 
 neral description has been given under Aegyptus 
 (p. 14). The branches into which it parted at the 
 S. point of the Delta were, in ancient times, 3 in 
 number, and these again parted into 7, of which, 
 Herodotus tells us, 5 were natural and 2 artificial. 
 These 7 mouths were nearly all named from cities 
 which stood upon them : they were called, pro- 
 ceeding from E. to W., the Pelusiac, the Tanitic 
 OP Sa'itic, the Mendesian, the Phatnitic or Path- 
 metic or Bucolic, the Sebennytic, the Bolbitic or 
 Bolbitine, and the Canohic or Canopic. Through 
 the alterations caused by the alluvial deposits of 
 the river, they have now all shifted their positions, 
 or dwindled into little channels, except 2, and 
 these are much diminished ; namely, the Damiat 
 mouth on the E. and the Rosetta mouth on the W. 
 Of the canals connected with the Nile in the Delta, 
 the most celebrated were the Canohic, which con- 
 nected the Canohic mouth with the lake Mareotis 
 and with Alexandria, and that of Ptolemy (after- 
 wards called that of Trajan) which connected the 
 Nile at the beginning of the Delta with the bay 
 of Plerobpolis at the Iiead of the Red Sea : the 
 formation of the latter is ascribed to king Necho, 
 and its repair and improvement successively to 
 Darius the son of Hystaspes, Ptolemy Phila- 
 delphus and Trajan. That the Delta, and indeed 
 the whole alluvial soil of Egypt has been created 
 by the Nile, cannot be doubted ; but the present 
 small rate of deposit proves that the formation 
 must have been made long before the historical 
 period. The periodical rise of the river has been 
 spoken of under Aegyptus. It is caused by 
 the tropical rains on the highlands in which it rises. 
 The best ancient accounts, preserved by Ptolemy, 
 place its source in a range of mountains in Central 
 Africa, called the Moimtiins of the Moon ; and 
 the most recent information points to a range of 
 mountains, a little N. of the Equator, called Jebel- 
 d-Kumri, or the Blue Mountain, as containing the 
 
 NINUS. 481 
 
 probable sources of the Bahr Abiad. The ancient 
 Egyptians deified the Nile, and took the utmost 
 care to preserve its water from pollution. 
 
 Niniis, the reputed founder of the city of Ninus 
 or Nineveh. An account of his exploits is given 
 under Semiramis, his wife, whose name was more 
 celebrated. [Semiramis.] 
 
 Ninus, Ninive (Nf;'os,or less correctly Nrvo?: 0. 
 T. Nineveh, LXX. "Nivevi), Nivevi : NiVioj, Nini- 
 vltae, pi.), the capital ofthegreat Assyrian monarchy, 
 and one of the most ancient cities in the world, stood 
 on the E. side of the Tigris, at the upper part of its 
 course, in the district of Aturia. The accounts of 
 its foundation and history are as various as those 
 respecting the Assyrian monarchy in general [As- 
 syria]. The Greek and Roman writers ascribe 
 its foundation to Ninus ; but in the book of Gene- 
 sis (x. 11) we are told, immediately after the 
 mention of the kingdom of Nimrod and his 
 foundation of Babel and other cities in Shinar 
 {i.e. Babylonia), that " out of that land went forth 
 Asshur" (or otherwise, "he — i.e. Nimrod — 
 went forth into Assyria "), *' and builded Nine- 
 veh.*" There is no further mention of Nineveh in 
 Scripture till the reign of Jeroboam II., about B.C. 
 825, when the prophet Jonah was commissioned to 
 preach repentance to its inhabitants. It is then 
 described as " an exceeding great city, of 3 days' 
 journey," and as containing "more than 120,000 
 persons that cannot discern between their right hand 
 and their left hand," which, if this phrase refers to 
 children, would represent a population of 600,000 
 souls. The other passages, in which the Hebrew 
 prophets denounce ruin against it, bear witness to 
 its size, wealth, and luxury, and the latest of them 
 (ZepJi. ii. 13) is dated only a few years before the 
 final destruction of the city, which was eiFected by 
 the Medes and Babylonians about b. c. 606. It is 
 said by Strabo to have been larger than Babylon, 
 and Diodonis describes it as an oblong quadrangle 
 of 150 stadia by 90, making the circuit of the 
 walls 480 stadia (more than 55 statute miles) : if 
 so, the city was twice as large as London together 
 with its subiu-bs. In judging of these statements, 
 not only must allowance be made for the immense 
 space occupied by palaces and temples, but also for 
 the Oriental mode of building a city, so as to in- 
 clude large gardens and other open spaces within 
 the walls. The walls of Nineveh are described as 
 100 feet high, and thick enough to allow 3 chariots 
 to pass each other on them ; with 1500 towers, 200 
 feet in height. The city is said to have been en- 
 tirely destroyed by fire when it was taken by the 
 Medes and Babylonians, about B. c. 606 ; and fre- 
 quent allusions occur to its desolate state. Under 
 the Roman empire, however, we again meet with 
 a city Nineve, in the district of Adiabene, men- 
 tioned by Tacitus, and again by Ammiaiius Mar- 
 cellinus, and a medieval historian of the 13th cen- 
 tury mentions a fort of the same name : but state- 
 ments like these must refer to some later place 
 built among or near the ruins of the ancient Nine- 
 veh. Thus, of all the great cities of the world, 
 none was thought to have been more utterly lost 
 than the capital of the most ancient of the great 
 monarchies. Tradition pointed out a few shapeless 
 mounds opposite Mosul on the Upper Tigris, as all 
 that remained of Nineveh ; and a few fragments of 
 masonry were occasionally dug up there, and else- 
 where in Assyria, bearing inscriptions in an almost 
 unknown character, called^ from its shape, cunei' 
 
482 
 
 NINYAS. 
 
 form or arrow-headed. Within the last 10 years, 
 however, those shapeless mounds have been shown 
 to contain the remains of g^eat palaces, on the 
 walls of which the scenes of Assyrian life and the 
 records of Assyrian conquests are sculptured ; while 
 the etforts which had long been made to decipher 
 the cuneiform inscriptions found in Persia and 
 Babylonia, as well as Assyria, have been so far 
 successful as to make it probable that we may soon 
 read the records of Assyrian history from her own 
 monuments. It is as yet premature to form defi- 
 nite conclusions to any great extent. The results 
 of Major Rawlinson's study of the cuneiform in- 
 scriptions of Assyria are only in process of publica- 
 tion. The excavations conducted by Dr. Layard 
 and M. Botta have brought to light the sculptured 
 remains of immense palaces, not only at the tradi- 
 tional site of Nineveh, namely Kouyunjik and 
 Nebbi-Yunus, opposite to Mosul, and at KJtorsahad, 
 about 10 miles to the N.N.E., but also in a mound, 
 18 miles lower down the river, in the tongue of 
 land between the Tigris and the Great Zab, which 
 still bears the name of Nimroud ; and it is clear 
 that their remains belong to different periods, em- 
 bracing the records of two distinct dynasties, ex- 
 tending over several generations ; none of which 
 can be later than b. c. 606, while some of them 
 probably belong to a period at least as ancient as 
 the 13th, and perhaps even the 15th century a c. 
 There are other mounds of ruins as yet unexplored. 
 Which of these ruins correspond to the true site of 
 Nineveh, or whether (as Dr. Layard suggests) 
 that vast city may have extended all the way 
 along the Tigris from Kouyunjik to Nimroud, and 
 to a corresponding breadth N. E. of the river, as 
 far as Khorsaliod, are questions still under discus- 
 sion. Meanwhile, the study of the monuments 
 and inscriptions thus discovered must soon throw 
 fresh light on the whole subject. Some splendid 
 fragments of sculpture, obtained by Dr. Layard 
 from Nimroud, are now to be seen in the British 
 Museum. 
 
 Ninyas (Nivvas), son of Ninus and Semiramis. 
 See Semiramis. 
 
 Niobe (NicJ^T]). L Daughter of Phoroneus, and 
 by Zeus the mother of Argus and Pelasgus. ^ 2. 
 Daughter of Tantalus by the Pleiad Taygete or 
 the Hyad Dione. She was the sister of Pelops, 
 and the wife of Amphion, king of Thebes, by whom 
 she became the mother of 6 sons and 6 daughters. 
 Being proud of the number of her children, she 
 deemed herself superior to Leto, who had given 
 birth to only 2 children. Apollo and Artemis, in- 
 dignant at such presumption, slew all her children 
 with their arrows. For 9 days their bodies lay in 
 their blood without any one burying them, for 
 Zeus had changed the people into stones ; but on 
 the 10th day the gods themselves buried them. 
 Niobe herself, who had gone to Mt. Sipylus, was 
 metamorphosed into stone, and even thus continued 
 to feel the misfortune with which the gods had 
 visited her. This is the Homeric story, which 
 later writers have greatly modified and enlarged. 
 The number and names of the children of Niobe 
 vary very much in the different accounts ; for while 
 Homer states that their number was 12, Hesiod 
 and others mentioned 20, Alcman only 6, Sappho 
 18, and Herodotus 4 ; but the most commonly re- 
 ceived number in later times appears to have been 
 14, namely 7 sons and 7 daughters. According to 
 Homer all the children of Niobe fell by the arrows 
 
 NISIBIS. 
 of Apollo and Artemis ; but later writers state that 
 one of her sons. Amphion or Arayclas, and one of 
 her daughters, Meliboea, were saved, but that Me- 
 liboea, having turned pale with terror at the sight 
 of her dying brothers and sisters, was afterwards 
 called Chloris. The time and place at which the 
 children of Niobe were destroyed are likewise 
 stated differently. According to Homer, they pe- 
 rished in their mother's house. According to Ovid, 
 the sons were slain while they were engaged in 
 gymnastic exercises in a plain near Thebes, and 
 the daughters during the funeral of their brothers. 
 Others, again, transfer the scene to Lydia, or make 
 Niobe, after the death of her children, go from 
 Thebes to Lydia, to her father Tantalus on Mt. 
 Sipylus, where Zeus, at her own request, meta- 
 morphosed her into a stone, which during the 
 summer always shed tears. In the time of Pau- 
 sanias people still fancied they could see the petri- 
 fied figure of Niobe on Mt. Sipylus. The tomb of 
 the children of Niobe, however, was shown at 
 Thebes. The story of Niobe and her children was 
 frequently taken as a subject by ancient artists. 
 One of the most celebrated of the ancient works of 
 art still extant is the group of Niobe and her 
 children, which filled the pediment of the temple 
 of Apollo Sosianus at Rome, and which was dis- 
 covered at Rome in the year 1583. This group is 
 now at Florence, and consists of the mother, who 
 holds her youngest daughter on her knees, and 13 
 statues of her sons and daughters, besides a figure 
 usually called the paedagogus of the children. The 
 Romans themselves were uncertain whether the 
 group was the work of Scopas or Praxiteles, 
 
 Niph,ates (6 Ni^drT/y, i. e. Snow-mountain : 
 Balan), a mountain chain of Armenia, forming an 
 E. prolongation of the Taurus from where it is 
 crossed by the Euphrates towards the Lake of Van, 
 before reaching which it turns to the S., and ap- 
 proaches the Tigris below Tigranocerta ; thus sur- 
 rounding on the N. and E. the basin of the highest 
 course of the Tigris (which is enclosed on the S. 
 and S.W. by Mt. Masius), and dividing it from 
 the valley of the Arsanias (Murad) or S. branch 
 of the Euphrates. The continuation of Mt. Ni- 
 phates to the S.E. along the E. margin of the Tigris 
 valley is formed by the mountains of the Carduchi 
 {Mis. of Kurdistan), 
 
 Nureus (Niptus), son of Charopus and Aglaia, 
 was, next to Achilles, the handsomest among the 
 Greeks at Troy. He came from the island of 
 Syme (between Rhodes and Cnidus). Later writers 
 relate that he was slain by Eurypylus or Aeneas. 
 
 Nisaea. [Megara.] 
 
 Nisaea, Nisaei, Nisaeus Campus (NtVata, 
 Niffatot, tI) NtVaioi/ ireSioc), these names are found 
 in the Greek and Roman writers used for various 
 places on the S- and S.E. of the Caspian : thus one 
 writer mentions a city Nisaea in Mnrgiana, and 
 another a people Nisaei in the N. of Aria ; but 
 most apply the term Nisaean Plain to a plain in 
 the N. of Great Media, near Rhagae, the pasture 
 ground of a great number of horses of the finest 
 breed, which supplied the studs of the king and 
 nobles of Persia. It seems not unlikely tliat this 
 breed of horses was called Nisaean from their ori- 
 ginal home in Margiana (a district famous for its 
 horses), and that the Nisaean plain received its 
 name from the horses kept in it. 
 
 Nisibis ^NiVigis: liiatSrjvSs). 1. Also Antio- 
 chia Mygdoaiae (0, T. Aram Zoba ? Ru. nr. Nisi- 
 
. NISUS. 
 bin\ a celebrated city of Meaopotauiia, and the 
 capital of the district of Mygdonia, stood on the 
 river Mygdonius {Nalir-al-HucUi) 37 Roman miles 
 S.W. of Tigranocerta, in a very fertile district. It 
 Tvaa the centre of a considerable trade, and was of 
 great importance as a military post. In the suc- 
 cesBive wars between the Romans and Tigranes, 
 the Parthians, and the Persians, it was several 
 times taken and retaken, until at last it fell into the 
 hands of the Persians in the reign of Jovian, — 3. 
 A city of Aria at the foot of M. Paropamisus. 
 
 KlSUS (NTo-os). 1. King of Megara, was son 
 of Pandion and Pylia, brother of Aegeus, Pallas, 
 and Lycus, and husband of Abrote, by whom he 
 became the father of Scylla. Wlien Megara was 
 besieged by Minos, Scylla, who had fallen in love 
 with Minos, pulled out the purple or golden hair 
 which grew on the top of her father's head, and on 
 which his life depended. Nisus thereupon died, 
 and Minos obtained possession of the city. Minos, 
 however, was so horrified at the conduct of the un- 
 natural daughter, that he ordered Scylla to be 
 fastened to the poop of his ship, and afterwards 
 drowned her in the Saronic gulf. According to 
 others, Minos left Megara in disgust ; Scylla leapt 
 into the sea, and swam after his ship ; but her 
 father, who had been changed into a sea-eagle (Act- 
 Uaeetus), pounced down upon her, whereupon she 
 was metamorphosed into either a fish or a bird 
 called Ciris. — Scylla, the daughter of Nisus, is 
 sometimes confounded by the poets with Scylla, 
 the daughter of Phorcus. Hence the latter is 
 sometimes erroneously called Niseia Virgo^ and 
 Niseis. [Scylla.] — Nisaea, the port town of 
 Megara, is supposed to have derived its name from 
 Nisus, and the promontory of Scyllaeum from his 
 daughter. -^ 2. Son of Hyrtacus, and a friend of 
 Euryalus. The two friends accompanied Aeneas 
 to Italy, and perished in a night attack against the 
 Rutulian camp. 
 
 JTisyms (NiVoupoj : Nikero), a small island in 
 the Carpathian Sea, a little distance off the pro- 
 montory of Caria called Triopium, of a round form, 
 80 stadia (8 geog, miles) in circuit, and composed 
 of lofty rocks, the highest being 2271 feet high. Its 
 volcanic nature gave rise to the fable respecting its 
 origin, that Poseidon tore it off the neighbouring 
 island of Cos to hurl it upon the giant Polybotes. 
 It was celebrated for its warm springs, wine, and 
 mill-stones. Its capital, of the same name, stood 
 on the N.W- of the island, where considerable 
 ruins of its Acropolis remain. Its first inhabitants 
 are said to have been Carians ; but already in the 
 heroic age it had received a Dorian population, 
 like other islands near it, with which it is men- 
 tioned by Homer as sending troops to the Greeks. 
 It received other Dorian settlements in the histori- 
 cal age. At the time of the Persian War, it be- 
 longed to the Carian queen Artemisia: it next 
 became a tributary ally of Athens : though trans- 
 ferred to the Spartan alliance by the issue of the 
 Peloponnesian War, it was recovered for Athens 
 by the victory at Cnidua, B. c. 394. After the 
 victory of the Romans over Antiochus the Great, 
 it was assigned to Rhodes ; and, with the rest of 
 the Rhodian republic, was united to the Roman 
 empire about B. c. 70. 
 
 Nitiobriges, a Celtic people in Gallia Aqui- 
 tanica between the Garumna and the Liger, whose 
 fighting force consisted of 5000 men. Their chief 
 town was Aginnum {Agen). 
 
 NOBILIOR. 
 
 483 
 
 Nitocris (N/Vw/cpty). 1. A queen of Babylon, 
 mentioned by Herodotus, who ascribes to her 
 many important works at Babylon and its vicinity. 
 It is supposed by most modem writers that she 
 was the wife of Nebuchadnezzar, and the mother 
 or grandmother of Labynetus or Belshazzar, the 
 last king of Babylon. ^2. A queen of Egypt, was 
 elected to the sovereignty in place of her brother, 
 whom the Egyptians had killed. In order to take 
 revenge upon the murderers of her brother, she 
 built a very long chamber under ground, and when 
 it was finished invited to a banquet in it those of 
 the Egyptians who had had a principal share in the 
 murder. While they were engaged in the banquet 
 she let in upon them the waters of the Nile by 
 means of a large concealed pipe, and drowned them 
 all, and then, in order to escape punishment, threw 
 herself into a chamber full of ashes. This is the 
 account of Herodotus. We learn from other au- 
 thorities that she was a celebrated personage in 
 Egyptian legends. She is said to have built the 
 third pyramid, by which we are to understand, that 
 she finished the third pyramid, which had been 
 commenced by Mycerinus. Modern writers make 
 her the last sovereign of the 6th dynasty, and 
 state that she reigned 6 years in place of her mur- 
 dered husband (not her brother, as Herodotus 
 states), whose name was Menthuophis. The latter 
 is supposed to be the son or grandson of the Moe- 
 ris of the Greeks and Romans. 
 
 Kitriae, Witrariae (Nirptai, NtVpio, NfTpomi : 
 Birket-el-Diiara}i\ the celebrated natron lakes in 
 Lower Egypt, which lay in a valley on the S.W, 
 margin of the Delta, and gave to the surrounding 
 district the name of the f^ofxhs Nirpiwris or N*- 
 Tpi(i)rtjs, and to the inhabitants, whose chief occu- 
 pation was the extraction of the natron from the 
 lakes, the name of Nirpjcorat. This district was 
 the chief seat of the worship of Serapis, and the 
 only place in Egypt where sheep were sacrificed. 
 
 Nixi Dii, a general term, applied by the Romans 
 to those divinities who were believed to assist 
 women in child-birth. 
 
 Nobilior, Ftilvius, plebeians. This family was 
 originally called Paetiiiua, and the name of No- 
 bilior was first assumed by No. 1, to indicate that 
 he was more noble than any others of this name. 
 1. Ser,, consul b. c. 255, with M. Aemilius Paulus, 
 about the middle of the 1st Punic war. The 2 
 consuls were sent to Africa, to bring off the sur- 
 vivors of the army of Regulus. On their way to 
 Africa they gained a naval victory over the Car- 
 thaginians ; but on their return to Italy, they were 
 wrecked off the coast of Sicily, and most of their 
 ships were destroyed. — 2. M., grandson of the 
 preceding, curule aedile 195 ; praetor 193, when 
 he defeated the Celtiberi in Spain, and took the 
 town of Toletum ; and consul 189, when he re- 
 ceived the conduct of the war against the Aetolians. 
 He took the town of Ambracia, and compelled the 
 Aetolians to sue for peace. On his return to Rome 
 in 187, he celebrated a most splendid triumph. 
 In 179 he was censor with M. Aemilius Lepidus, 
 the pontifex maximus. Fulvius Nobilior had a 
 taste for literature and art ; he was a patron of the 
 poet Ennius, who accompanied him in his Aetolian 
 campaign ; and he belonged to that party among 
 the Roman nobles who were introducing into the 
 city a taste for Greek literature and refinement. 
 He was, therefore, attacked by Cato the censor, 
 who made merr}' with his name, calling him mo- 
 
4G4 
 
 NOLA. 
 
 bilior instead of nobilior. Fulvius, in his censor- 
 ship, erected a temple to Hercules and the Muses 
 in the Circus Flaminius, as a proof that the state 
 ought to cultivate the liberal arts ; and he adorned 
 it with the paintings and statues which he had 
 brought from Greece upon his conquest of Aetolia. 
 — 3. M., Bon of No. 2, tribune of the plebs 171 ; 
 curule aedile 166, the year in which the Andria of 
 Terence was performed ; and consul 159.— 4., Q., 
 also son of No. 2, consul 153, when he had the 
 conduct of the war against the Celtiberi in Spain, 
 hy whom he was defeated with great loss. He 
 was censor in 136. He inherited his father's love 
 for literature : he presented the poet Ennius with 
 the Roman franchise when he was a triumvir for 
 founding a colony. 
 
 Nola (Nolanus ; Nolo), one of the most ancient 
 towns in Campania, 21 Roman miles S. E. of 
 Capua, on the road from that place to Nucerla, 
 was founded by the Ausonians, but afterwards fell 
 into the hands of the Tyrrheni (Etruscans), whence 
 some writers call it an Etruscan city. In b. c. 327 
 Nola was sufficiently powerful to send 2000 soldiers 
 to the assistance of Neapolis. In 313 the town 
 was taken by the Romans. It remained faithful 
 to the Romans even after the battle of Cannae, 
 when the other Campanian towns revolted to Han- 
 nibal ; and it was allowed in consequnnce to retain 
 its own constitution as an ally of the Romans. In 
 the Social war it fell into the hands of the con- 
 federates, and when taken by Sulla it was burnt 
 to the ground by the Samnite garrison. It was 
 afterwards rebuilt, and was made a Roman colony 
 by Vespasian. The emperor Augustus died at 
 Nola. In the neighbourhood of the town some 
 of the most beautiful Campanian vases have been 
 found in modem times. According to an eccle- 
 siastical tradition, church bells were invented at 
 Nola, and were hence called Campanae. 
 
 Nomentanus, mentioned by Horace aa pro- 
 verbially noted for extravagance and a riotous 
 mode of living. The Scholiasts tell us that his 
 full name was L. Casslua Nomentanus. 
 
 Nomentum (Nomentanus: La Mentana\ ori- 
 ginally a Latin town founded by Alba, but subse- 
 quently a Sabine town, 14 (Roman) miles from 
 Rome, from which the Via Nomentana (more an- 
 ciently Via Ficulensis) and the Porta Nomentana 
 at Rome derived their name. The neighbourhood 
 of the town was celebrated for its wine. 
 
 Nomia (ra N(i/iia), a mountain in Arcadia on 
 the frontiers of Laconia, is said to have derived its 
 name from a nymph Nomia. 
 
 Nomius (Nrf^ioy), a surname of divinities pro- 
 tecting the pastures and shepherds, such as Apollo, 
 Pan, Hermes, and Aristaeus. 
 
 Nonacris (Nwf a«p(s: Nwr'aK-pi^T???, 'i^cavaKpi- 
 ci/s), a town in the N. of Arcadia, N.\V. of Phe- 
 neus, was surrounded by lofty mountains, in which 
 the river Styx took its origin- The town is said 
 to have derived its name from Nonacris, the wife 
 of Lycaon. From this town Hermes is called 
 Nonacriates, Evander Nonacrius^ Atalanta Nona- 
 cria^ and Calllsto Nonacrina Virgo^ in the general 
 sense of Arcadian. 
 
 Nonius Marcellus. [Marcellus.] 
 
 Nonius Sufenas. [Sufenas.] 
 
 Nonnus (Kiwos). 1. A Greek poet, was a 
 
 ^l^ve of Panopolis in Egypt, and lived in the 6th 
 
 ?tWentury of the Christian era. Respecting Ins life 
 
 nothing is known, except that he was a Christian. 
 
 NORICUM. 
 
 He is the author of an enormou3 epic poem, which 
 has come down to us under the name of Diony- 
 siaca or Bassarica (AiovvaiaKa or Baa-aapiKo)^ and 
 which consists of 48 books. The work lias no 
 literary merit ; the style is bombastic and inflated ; 
 and the incidents are patched together with little 
 or no coherence. Edited by Graefe, Lips. 1819 — 
 1826, 2 vols. 8vo. Nonnua also made a paraphrase 
 of the gospel of St. John in Hexameter verse, which 
 is likewise extant. Edited by Heinsius, Lugd. 
 Bat. 1627. — 2. Theoplianes Nonnus, a Greek 
 medical writer who lived in the 10th century after 
 Christ. His work is entitled a " Compendium of 
 the whole Medical art," and is compiled from pre- 
 vious writers. Edited by Bernard, Gothae et 
 Amstel. 1794, 1795, 2 vols. 
 
 Nora (ra Niipa ; Nwpavtiy, Norensis). 1. ( Torre 
 Forcadizo)^ one of the oldest cities of Sardinia, 
 founded by Iberian settlers under Norax, stood on 
 the coast of the Sinus Caralitanns, 32 Roman miles 
 S.W. of Caralis. ^ 2. A mountain fortress of Cap- 
 padocia, on the borders of Lycaonia, on the N. 
 side of the Taurus, noted for the siege sustained in 
 it by Eumenes against Antlgonus for a whole 
 winter. In the time of Strabo, who calls it Ntjpo- 
 a(Ta6s^ it was the treasury of Sisinas, a pretender 
 to the throne of Cappadocla. 
 
 Norba (Norbanensis, Norbanus). 1. (Norma\ 
 a strongly fortified town in Latium on the slope of 
 the Volscian mountains and near the sources of the 
 Nymphaeus, originally belonged to the Latin and 
 subsequently to the Volscian league. As early as 
 B.C. 492 the Romans founded a colony at Norba. 
 It espoused the cause of Marius In the civil war, 
 and was destroyed by fire by its own inhabitants, 
 when it was taken by one of Sulla's generals. 
 There are still remains of polygonal walls, and a 
 subterraneous passage at Norma. ^2. Surnamed 
 Caesarea {Alcantara)^ a Roman colony in Lusi- 
 tania on the left bank of the Tagus, N.W. of 
 Augusta Emerita. The bridge built by order of 
 Trajan over the Tagus at this place is still extant. 
 It is 600 feet long by 28 wide, and contains 6 
 arches. 
 
 Norbauus, C, tribune of the plebs, b. c. ^6^ 
 when he accused Q. Servilius Caepio of majestas, 
 but was himself accused of the same crime in the 
 following year, on account of disturbances which 
 took place at the trial of Caepio. In 90 or 89, 
 Norbanus was praetor in Sicily during the Marsic 
 war ; and in the civil wars he espoused tlie Marian 
 party. He was consul in 83, when he was de- 
 feated by Sulla near Capua. In the following 
 year, 82, he joined the consul Carbo in Cisalpine 
 Gaul, but their united forces were entirely defeated 
 by Metellus Pius. Norbanus escaped from Italy, 
 and fled to Rhodes, where he put an end to his 
 life, when his person was demanded by Sulla. 
 
 Norbanus Flaccus. [Flaccus.] 
 
 Noreia (NcopT^em : Neumarkt in Sfyria)^ the 
 ancient capital of the Taurisci or Norici in Noricum, 
 from which the whole country probably derived its 
 name. It was situated in the centre of Noricura, 
 a little S. of the river Murius, and on the road 
 from Virunum to Ovilaba. It is celebrated as the 
 place where Carbo was defeated by the Cimbri, 
 B.C. 113. It was besieged by the Boii in the 
 time of Julius Caesar. (Caes. B. G. i. 5.) 
 
 Noricum, a Roman province S. of the Danube, 
 which probably derived its name from the town of 
 NoREiA,was bounded on the N. by the Danube, on 
 
NORTIA, 
 
 the W. "by Rhaetia and Vindelicia, on the E. by 
 Pannonia, and on the S. by Pannonia and Italy. 
 It was separated from Rhaetia and Vindelicia by 
 the river Aenus (Imt), from Pannonia on the E. 
 by M. Cetiiis, and from Pannonia and Italy on tbe 
 S. by the river Savus, the Alpes Carnicae, and 
 M. Ocra. It thus corresponds to the greater part 
 of Styria and Carinthia, and a part of Austria, 
 Bavaria, and Salzburg. Norlcum was a moun- 
 tainous country, for it was not only surrounded on 
 the S. and E. by mountains, but one of the 
 main branches of the Alps, the Alpes Noricak 
 (in the neighbourhood of Salzburg), ran right 
 through the province. In those mountains a large 
 quantity of excellent iron was found ; and the 
 Noric swords were celebrated in antiquity. Gold 
 also is said to have been found in the mountains in 
 ancient times. The inhabitants of the country 
 were Celts, divided into several tribes, of which 
 the Taurisci, also called Norici, after their capital 
 Noreia, were the most important. They were 
 conquered by the Romans towards the end of the 
 reign of Augustus, after the subjugation of Raetia 
 by Tiberius and Dnisus, and their country was 
 formed into a Roman province. In the later divi- 
 sion of the Roman empire into smaller provinces, 
 Noricum was formed into 2 provinces, A^. Ripetise, 
 along the bank of the Danube, and N. Mediterra- 
 neum^ separated from the former by the mountains, 
 which divide Austria and Styria : they both be- 
 longed to the diocese of Illyricura and the prefec- 
 ture of Ittily. 
 
 Nortia or Wtirtia, an Etruscan divinity, wor- 
 shipped at Volsinii, where a nail was driven every 
 year into the wall of her temple, for the purpose of 
 marking the number of years. 
 
 Nossis, a Greek poetess, of Locri in Italy, lived 
 about B. c. 310, and is the author of 12 epigrams 
 of considerable beauty in the Greek Anthology. 
 
 NotUS. [AUSTER.] 
 
 Novaria (Novarensis: Novara), a town in 
 Gallia Transpadana, situated on a river of the same 
 name (Gogna), and on the road from Mediolanum 
 to Vercellae, subsequently a Roman municipium. 
 
 Wovatianus, a heretic, who insisted upon the per- 
 petual exclusion from the Church of all Christians, 
 who had fallen away from the faith under the 
 terrors of persecution. On the election of Corne- 
 lius to the see of Rome, a. d. 251, Novatianus 
 was consecrated bishop by a rival party, but was 
 condemned by the council held in the autumn of 
 the same year. After a vain struggle to main- 
 tain his position, he was obliged to give way, and 
 became the founder of a new sect, who from him 
 derived the name of Novatians. It should be ob- 
 served that the individual who first proclaimed 
 these doctrines was not Novatianus, but an African 
 presbyter under Cyprian, named Novatus. Hence 
 much confusion has arisen between Novaius and 
 Novatianus^ who ought, however, to be carefully 
 distinguished. A few of the works of Novatianus 
 are extant. The best edition of them is by Jack- 
 eon, Lond. 1728. 
 
 Novatus. [Novatianus.] 
 
 ITovensiles or Novensides Dii, Roman gods 
 whose name is probably composed of nove and 
 insides^ and therefore signifies the new gods in 
 opposition to the Jndigeies, or old native divinities. 
 It was customary among the Romans, after the 
 conquest of a neighbouring town, to cany its gods 
 to Rome, and there establisli their woraliip. 
 
 NUMA. 
 
 4H5 
 
 Novesium {Neuss\ a fortified town of the Ubii 
 on the Rhine, and on the road leading from Colonia 
 Agrippina {Cologne)^ to Castra Vetera {Xanten). 
 The fortifications of this place were restored by 
 Julian in A. d. 359. 
 
 Noviodunum, a name given to many Celtic 
 places from their being situated on a hill (dun). 
 1. {Nouan), a town of the Bituriges Cubi in Gallia 
 Aquitanica, E. of their capital Avaricum. — 2. 
 (Nevers)^ a town of the Aedui in Gallia Lugdunen- 
 sis, on the road from Augustodunum to Lutetia, 
 and at the confluence of the Niveris and the Liger, 
 whence it was subsequently called Nevirnum, and 
 thus acquired its modem name. ^ 3. A town of 
 the Suessones in Gallia Belgica, probably the same 
 as Augusta Suessonum. [Augusta, No. 6.] -^4. 
 {Nion), a town of the Helvetii in Gallia Belgica, 
 on the N. bank of the Lacus Lemanus, was made 
 a Roman colony by Julius Caesar, B.C. 45, under 
 the name of Colonia Equesti'is. ^ 6. {Isaczi\ a for- 
 tress in Moesia Inferior on the Danube, near 
 which Valens built his bridge of boats across the 
 Danube in his campaign against the Goths. 
 
 NoviomagTis or Noeomagus. 1. {Castelnan de 
 Medoc)^ a town of the Bituriges Vivisci in Gallia 
 Aquitanica, N. W. of Burdigala. ^2, A town of 
 the Tricastini in Gallia Narbonensis, probably the 
 modern Nions^ though some suppose it to be the 
 same place as Augusta Tricastinorum [Aouste).'^^ 
 3. {Spires), the capital of the Nemetes. [Neme- 
 TES.] — 4. {Neumageii)^ a town of the Treviri in 
 Gallia Belgica on the Mosella,^5. {Ninnoegen).2L 
 town of the Batavi. 
 
 Novius, Q., a celebrated writer of Atellan« 
 plays, a contemporary of the dictator Sulla. 
 
 Novtim Comum. [Comum.] 
 
 Nuba Palus (Noy^a \i/iVT]: prob. L. Fittreh, 
 in Dai- Zaleh), a lake in Central Africa, receiving 
 the great river Gir, according to Ptolemy, who 
 places it in 15° N. lat. and 40° E. long. (=22^ 
 from Greenwich.) 
 
 Niibae, Nubaei (l^ovSai^ NonSaToi), an African 
 people, who are found in 2 places, namely about 
 the lake Nuba, and also on the banks of the Nile 
 N. of Meroe, that is, in the N. central part of 
 Nuhia: the latter were governed by princes of 
 their own, independent of Meroe. By the reign 
 of Diocletian they had advanced N.-wards as far as 
 the frontier of Egypt. 
 
 Nuceria (Nucerinus.) 1. Sumamed Alfatema 
 {Nocera)^ a town in Campania on the Sarnua 
 {Sarno)y and on the Via Appia, S, E. of Nola, and 
 9 (Roman) miles from the coast, was taken by the 
 Romans in the Samnite wars, and was again taken 
 by Hannibal after the battle of Cannae, when it 
 was burnt to the ground. It was subsequently re- 
 built, and both Augustus and Nero planted here 
 colonies of veterans. Pompeii was used as the 
 harbour of Nuceria. — 2. Sumamed Camellaria 
 {Nocera\ a town in the interior of Umbria on the 
 Via Flaminia. — 3. (Luzzara), a small town in Gal- 
 lia Cispadana on the Po, N. E. of Brixellum. — 4. A 
 town in Apulia, more correctly called Luceria. 
 
 Nuithones, a people of Germany, dwelling on 
 the right bank of the Albis {Elbe), S.W. of the 
 Saxones, and N. of the Langobardi, in the S. E. 
 part of the modern Mecklenburg. 
 
 Numa, Marcius. 1. An intimate friend of 
 Numa Pompilius, whom he is said to have accom- 
 panied to Rome, where Numa made him the 1st 
 Pontifex Maximus. Marcius aspired to the kingly 
 
486 
 
 NUMA. 
 
 dignity on the death of Pompilius, and he starved 
 himself to death on the election of Tuilus HostiliiiB. 
 :— 2. Son of the preceding, is said to have married 
 Pompilia, the daughter of Nunia Punipilius, and 
 to have become by her tlie fatlier of Ancns Marcius. 
 Numa Marcius was appointed by TuUus Hostilius 
 praefectus urbi. 
 
 Nnma Pompilius, the 2nd king of Rome, who 
 belongs to legend and not to history. He was a 
 native of Cures in the Sabine country, and was 
 elected king one year afttr the death of Romulus, 
 when the people became tired of the interregnum of 
 the senate. He was renowned for his wisdom and 
 his piety ; and it was generally believed that he 
 had derived his knowledge from Pythagoras. His 
 reign was long and peaceful, and he devoted his 
 chief care to the establishment of religion among 
 his rude subjects. He was instructed by the Ca- 
 mena Egeria, who visited him in a grove near 
 Rome, and who honoured him with her love. He 
 was revered by the Romans as the author of their 
 whole religious worship. It was he who first ap- 
 pointed the pontiffs, the augurs, the flamens, the vir- 
 gins of Vesta, and the Salii. He founded the temple 
 of Janus, which remained always shut during his 
 reign. The length of his reign is stated differently. 
 Livy makes it 43 years ; Polybius and Cicero, '69 
 years. The sacred books of Numa, in which he pre- 
 scribed all the religious rites and ceremonies, were 
 said to have been buried near him in a separate tomb, 
 and to have been discovered by accident, 500 years 
 afterwards, in b. c. 1 81. They were carried to the 
 city-praetor Petilius, and were found to consist of 
 12 or 7 books in Latin on ecclesiastical law, and 
 the same number of books in Greek on philosophy : 
 the latter were burnt on the command of the senate, 
 but the former were carefully preserved. The 
 story of the discovery of these books is evidently a 
 forgery ; and the books, which were ascribed to 
 Numa, and which were extant at a later time, 
 were evidently nothing more than works containing 
 an account of the ceremonial of the Roman religion. 
 
 Numana ( Umana Distriitta), a town in Pice- 
 num, on the road leading from Ancona to Atemum 
 along the coast, was founded by the Siculi, and 
 was subsequently a municipium. 
 
 Nnmantia (Numantlnus : nr. Puenie de Don 
 Guarray Ril), the capital of the Arevacae or Are- 
 vaci in Hispania Tarraconensis, and the most im- 
 portant town in all Celtiberia, was situated near 
 the sources of the Durius, on a small tributary of 
 this river, and on the road leading from Asturica 
 to Caesaraugusta. It was strongly fortified by 
 nature, being built on a steep and precipitous, 
 though not lofty, hill, and accessible by only one 
 path, which was defended by ditches and pali- 
 sades. It was 24 stadia in circumference, but was 
 not surrounded by regular walls, which the natural 
 strength of its position rendered unnecessary. It 
 was long the head-quarters of the Celtiberians in 
 their wars with the Romans ; and its protracted 
 siege and final destruction by Scipio Africaiiua the 
 younger (b. c. 133) is one of the most memorable 
 events in the early history of Spain. 
 
 ITumenlus (Nou^7fi/ioy)i of Apamea in Syria, a 
 Pythagoreo-Platonic philosopher, who was highly 
 esteemed by Plotinus and his school, as well as by 
 Origen. He probably belongs to the age of the 
 Antonines. Jlis object was to trace the doctrines 
 of Plato up to Pythagoras, and at the same time to 
 show that they were not at variance with the 
 
 NUMIDIA. 
 
 dogmas and mysteries of the Brahmins, Jiws, Magi, 
 and Egyptians. Considerable fragments of hia 
 works have been preserved by Eusebius, in his 
 Praeparatio Evangeiica. 
 
 Numerianus, M. Aurelius, the younger of the 
 2 sons of the emperor Cams, who accompanied his 
 father in the expedition against the Persians, a, d. 
 283. After the death of his father, whicli hap- 
 pened in the same year, Numerianus was acknow- 
 ledged as joint emperor with his brother Carinus. 
 The army, alarmed by the fate of Carus, who wag 
 struck dead by lightning, compelled Numerianus 
 to retreat towards Europe. During the greater 
 part of the march, which lasted for 8 months, he 
 was confined to his litter by an affection of the 
 eyes ; but the suspicions of the soldiers having 
 become excited, they at length forced their way 
 into the imperial tent, and discovered the dead 
 body of their prince. Arrius Aper, praefect of the 
 praetorians, and father-in-law of the deceased, was 
 arraigned of the murder in a military council, held 
 at Chalcedon, and, without being permitted to 
 speak in his own defence, was stabbed to the 
 heart by Diocletian, whom the troops had already 
 proclaimed emperor. [Diocletianus.] 
 
 Numicius or Niimicus {Numico), a small river 
 in Latiuni flowing into the Tyrrhene sea near 
 Ardea, on the banks of which was the tomb of 
 Aeneas, whom the inhabitants called Jupiter 
 Indiges. 
 
 Numidia (Nou/ii5(a, rj NofxaSia and No/xoSlkti : 
 NojLias, Niimida, pi. NofidSes or No,ua5ey Ai'fiyey, 
 Niimidae : Algier)^ a country of N. Africa, which, 
 in its original extent, was divided from Mauretania 
 on the W. by the river Malva or Mulucha, and on 
 the E. from the territory of Carthage (aft. the 
 Roman Province of Africa) by the river Tuaca: its 
 N. boundary was the Mediterranean, and on the 
 S. it extended indefinitely towards the chain of 
 the Great Atlas and the country of the GaetuU, 
 Intersected by the chain of the Lesser Atlas, and 
 watered by the streams running down from it, it 
 abounded in fine pastures, which were early taken 
 possession of by wandering tribes of Asiatic origin, 
 who from theii- occupation as herdmen were called 
 by the Greeks, here as elsewhere, NoutiSey, and 
 this name was perpetuated in that of the country. 
 A sufficient account of these tribes, and of their 
 connection with their neighbours on the W., is 
 given under Mauretania. The fertility of the 
 country, inviting to agriculture, gradually gave a 
 somewhat more settled character to the people ; 
 and, at their first appearance in Roman history, 
 we find their 2 great tribes, the Massylians and 
 the Massaesylians, forming 2 monarchies, which 
 were united into one under Masinissa, b. c. 201. 
 (For the historical details, see Masinissa). On 
 Masinissa's death in 148, his kingdom was divided, 
 by his dying directions, between his 3 sons, Mi- 
 cipsa, Mastanabal, and Gulussa ; but it was soon 
 reunited under Micipsa, in consequence of the 
 death of both his brothers. His death, in 118, 
 was speedily followed by the usurpation of Ju- 
 gurtha, an account of wliich and of the ensuing 
 war with the Romans is given under Jugubtha. 
 On the defeat of Jngiirtha in 106, the country be- 
 came virtually subject to the Romans, but they 
 permitted the family of Masinissa to govern it, 
 with the royal title (see HiE.aiFSAL, No. 2 ; Juba, 
 No. 1), tmtil B.C. 46, when Juba, who had es- 
 puused the cause of Pompey in the Civil Wars, 
 
NUMIDICUS. 
 
 ■was defeated and detbroBed by Julius Caeaar, and 
 Numidia was made a Roman province. It seems 
 to have been about the same time or a little 
 later, under Augustus, that the W. part of the 
 country was taken from Numidia, and added to 
 Mauretania, as far E. as Saldae. In B.C. 30 
 Augustus restored Juba II. to his father's king- 
 dom of Numidia ; but in b. c. 25 he exchanged it 
 
 NYMPHAE. 487 
 
 states, such as Cyrene, and many others. ^ I, 
 The nymphs of the 1st class must again be sub- 
 divided into various species, according to the diffe- 
 rent parts of nature of which they are the repre- 
 sentatives. 1. Nymphs of tile watery element. To 
 these belong first the nymphs of the ocean, Ocea- 
 nides ('n/ceovtcaf, 'fl/ceoi'ISes, vvfjL^ai aKiat)^ who 
 were regarded as the daughters of Oceanus ; and 
 next the nvmnha of thp Mpditpr""'*^" ^^ innat. 
 
488 
 
 NYMPHAEUM. 
 
 Kymphaeom (Nuju^aToj/, i. e. NympJCs atode). 
 1. A mountain, with perhaps a village, by the river 
 Aous, near Apollonia, in lUyricum. — 2. A port 
 and promontory on the coast of Illyricum, 3 Roman 
 miles from Lissus.^S. (C.Ghiorgi)^ the S.W. pro- 
 montory of Acte or Athos, in Chalcidice. — 4. A 
 aea-port town of the Chersonesus Taurica (Crimea) 
 on the Cimmerian Bosporus, 25 stadia (2J geog. 
 miles) from Panticapaeura. — 5. A place on the 
 coast of Bithynia, 30 stadia (3 geog. miles) W. of 
 the mouth of the river Oxines. — 6. A place in 
 Cilicia, between Celenderis and Soloe. 
 
 Kymphaeus (Nv/j.<paios). "L (Niitfa or Nimpa\ 
 a small river of Latium, falling into the sea above 
 Astura; of some note as contributing to the forma- 
 tion of the Pomptine marshes. It now no longer 
 reaches the sea, but falls into a little lake, called 
 Logo di MoncLci. ^ 2. A harbour on the W. side 
 of the island of Sardinia, between the Prom. Mer- 
 curii and the town of Tilliura. — 3. Also called 
 Nymphius {Basilhnfa)y a small river of Sophene 
 in Armenia, a tributary of the upper Tigris, flow- 
 ing from N, to S. past Martyropolis, in the valley 
 between M. Niphates and M, Masius. 
 
 Nymphidius Sabimis, commander of the prae- 
 torian troops, together with Tigellinus, towards 
 the latter end of Nero's reign. On the death of 
 Nero, A. D. 68, he attempted to seize the throne, 
 but was murdered by the friends of Galba. 
 
 Nymphis (Nu/i^ts), son of Xenagoras, a native 
 of the Pontic Heraclea, lived about b. c. 260. He 
 was a person of distinction in his native land, as 
 well as an historical writer of some note. He 
 wrote a work on Alexander and his successors, in 
 24 books, and also a history of Heraclea in 1 3 books. 
 
 Nymphodoms (Ny/A(^(i5wpoy). 1. A Greek his- 
 torian of Amphipolis, of uncertain date, the author 
 of a work on the Laws or Customs of Asia (No^uifia 
 'Affias), ^2. Of Syracuse, likewise an historian, 
 seems to have lived about the time of Philip and 
 Alexander the Great. He wrote a Periplus of 
 Asia, and a work on Sicily. 
 
 K"ysa or Nyssa (Nuco, Nutrtra), was the le- 
 gendary scene of the nurture of Dionysus, whence 
 the name was applied to several places which were 
 sacred to that god. 1. In India, in the district of 
 Goryaea, at the N.W. comer of the Punjab^ near 
 the confluence of the rivers Cophen and Choaspes, 
 probably the same place as Nagara or Dionysopolis 
 {Nagar or Naggar). Near it was a mountain of 
 like name. ^2. A city or mountain in Aethiopia. 
 
 — 3. {Sultari-Hisar^ Ru., a little "W. of Nazeli), a 
 city of Caria, on the S. slope of M. Messogis, built 
 on both sides of the ravine of the brook Eudon, 
 which falls into the Maeander. It was said to 
 have been named after the queen of one of the 
 Antiochi, having been previously called Athymbra 
 and Py thopolis. — 4. A city of Cappadocia, near 
 the Halys, on the road from Caesarea to Ancyra : 
 the bishopric of St. Gregory ofNyssa. — 5. A town 
 in Thrace between the rivers Nestus and Strymon. 
 
 — 6, A town in Boeotia near Mt. Helicon, 
 Nysaeus, Nysius, Kyseus, or Nysigena, a 
 
 surname of Dionysus, derived from Nysa, a moun- 
 tain or city (see above), where the god was said 
 to have been brought up by nymphs. 
 
 Kyseides or Nysiades, the nymphs of Nysa, 
 who are said to have reared Dionysus, and whose 
 names are Cisseis, Nysa, Erato, Eriphia, Buomia, 
 and Pdlyhymno. 
 
 Nyx (Nii^j, called Nox by the Romans, was a 
 
 OASIS. 
 
 personification of Night. Homer calls her the 
 subduer of gods and men, and relates that Zeus 
 himself stood in awe of her. In the ancient cos- 
 mogonies Night is one of the very first created 
 beings, for she is described as the daughter of 
 Chaos, and the sister of Erebus, by whom she be- 
 came the mother of Aether and Hemera. She is 
 further said to have given birth, without a hus- 
 band, to Moros, the Keres, Thanatos, Hypnos, 
 Dreams, Momus, Oizys, the Hesperides, Moerae, 
 Nemesis, and similar beings. In later poets, with 
 whom she is merely the personification of the dark- 
 ness of night, she is sometimes described as a 
 winged goddess, and sometimes as riding in a 
 chariot, covered with a dark garment and accom- 
 panied by the stars in her course. Her residence 
 was in tlie darkness of Hades. 
 
 0. 
 
 Oaniis ("Cavos: Frascolari), a small river oa 
 the S. coast of Sicily near Camarina, 
 
 Oarus ("Oopoy), a considerable river mentioned 
 by Herodotus as rising in the country of the 
 Thyssagetae, and falling into the Palus Maeotis 
 {Sea of Azov) E. of the Tanais {Don). As there 
 is no river which very well answers this description, 
 Herodotus is supposed to refer to one of the E. 
 tributaries of the £>on, such as the Sal or the 
 Manytch. 
 
 Oasis ("OatTis, Ai/atrts, and in later writers 
 "Claais) is the Greek form of an Egj'ptian word 
 (in Coptic ouaJit^ an inhabited place), which was 
 used to denote an island in tJie sea of sand of the 
 great Libyan Desert : the word has been adopted 
 into our language. The Oases are depressions in 
 the great table-land of Libya, preserved from the 
 inroad of the shifting sands by steep hills of lime- 
 stone round them, and watered by springs, which 
 make them fertile and habitable. With the sub- 
 stitution of tliese springs for the Nile, they closely 
 resemble that greater depression in the Libyan 
 table-land, the valley of Egypt. The chief specific 
 applications of the word by the ancient writers are 
 to the 2 Oases on the W. of Egypt, which were 
 taken possession of by the Egyptians at an early 
 period. — 1. Oasis IKnor, the Lesser or Second 
 Oasis ("Oacris Mi/cpa, or ^ Seurepa: Wali^el-hali- 
 ryeh or Wah-cl-Behnesa)y lay W. of Oxyrynchus, 
 and a good day's journey from the S.W. end of 
 the lake Moeris. It was reckoned as belonging to 
 the Heptanomis, or Middle Egypt ; and formed a 
 separate Noraos. — 2. Oasis Major, the Greater, 
 Upper, or First Oasis ("O. fxey6.\% tJ -KpdiTt]^ i^ 
 fij/oi "O., and, in Herodotus, ttoAis "Oatrts and vrfaos 
 Maicdp'jjv, Wah-el-Khargek), is described by Strabo 
 as 7 days' journey W. of Abydos, which applies 
 to its N. end, as it extends over more than 1^° of 
 latitude. It belonged to Upper Egypt, and, like 
 the other, formed a distinct norae ; these 2 nomea 
 are mentioned together as *' duo Oasitae" (at Suo 
 'Oao-iToi). When the ancient writers use the word 
 Oasis alone, the Greater Oasis must generally be 
 understood. The Greater Oasis contains consider- 
 able mins of the ancient Egyptian and Roman 
 periods. Between and near these were other Oases, 
 about which we learn little or nothing from the 
 ancient writers, though in one of them, the Wah~ 
 et-Gkarbee or Wuh-el-DaWeh, 3 days W. of the 
 Greater Oasis, there are the ruins of a Roman 
 
OAXES. 
 
 temple, inscribed with the names of Nero and of 
 Titus. The Greater Oasis is about level with tlie 
 valley of the Nile, the Lesser is about 200 feet 
 higher than the Nile, in nearly the same latitude. 
 ^ 3. A still more celebrated Oasis than either of 
 these was that called Ammon; Hammon, Ammo- 
 nium, Hammonis Oraculum, from its being a 
 chief seat of the worship and oracle of the god 
 Ammon. It was called by the Arabs in the middle 
 ages Saniariah, and now Siwak. It is about 15 
 geog. miles long, and 12 wide: its chief town, 
 Siwah^ is in 29° 12' N. lat, and 26o 17' E. long.: 
 its distance from Cairo is 12 days, and from the 
 N. coast about 160 statute miles: the ancients 
 reckoned it 12 days from Memphis, and 5 days 
 from Paraetonium on the N. coast. It was inha- 
 bited by vai'ious Libyan tribes, but the ruling 
 people were a race kindred to the Aethiopians 
 above Egypt, who, at a period of unknown anti- 
 quity, had introduced, probably from Meroe, the 
 worship of Ammon : the government was mo- 
 narchical. The Ammonians do not appear to have 
 been subject to the old Egyptian monarchy. Cam- 
 byses, after conquering Eg}'pt in b. c. 525, sent an 
 army against them, which was overwhelmed by 
 the sands of the Desert. In b. c. 331, Alexander 
 the Great visited the oracle, which hailed him as 
 the son of Zeus Ammon, The oracle was also 
 visited by Cato of Utica. Under the Ptolemies 
 and the Romans, it was subject to Egypt, and 
 formed part of the Nomos Libya. Tlie most re- 
 markable objects in the Oasis, besides the temple 
 of Ammon, were the palace of the ancient kings, 
 abundant springs of salt water (as well as fresh) 
 from which salt was made, and a well, called Fons 
 Solis, the water of which was cold at noon, and 
 warm in the morning and evening. Considerable 
 ruins of the temple of Ammon are still standing at 
 the town of Siwah. In ancient times, the Oasis 
 had no town, but the inhabitants dwelt in scattered 
 villages. ^4. In other parts of the Libyan Desert, 
 there were oases of which the ancients had some 
 knowledge, but which they do not mention by the 
 name of Oases, but by their specific names, such 
 as AuGiLA, Phazania, and others. 
 
 Oaxes. [Oaxus.] 
 
 Oasus {"Oa^os: 'Oa|tos), called Axus ("Alo?) 
 by Herodotus, a town in the interior of Crete on 
 the river Oaxes, and near Eleuthema, is said to 
 have derived its name from Oaxes or Oaxus, who 
 was, according to some accounts, a son of Acacallis, 
 the daughter of Minos, and, according to others, a 
 son of Apollo by Anchiale. 
 
 Obila {Avila), a town of the Vettones in His- 
 pania Tarraconensis. 
 
 Oblivionis Flumen. [Limaea.] 
 
 Obrxmas {Koja-Chai or Sandukli-Cliai)^ an E. 
 tributary of the Maeander, in Phrygia. 
 
 Obringa {Aar\ a W. tributary of the Rhine, 
 forming the boundary between Gemiania Superior 
 and Inferior. 
 
 Obsequens, Julius, the name prefixed to a frag- 
 ment entitled De Prodiijiis or Frodigiorum Lihelliis^ 
 containing a record of the phenomena classed by 
 the Romans under the general designation of 
 Prodigia or Ostenta, The series extends in chrono- 
 lo^ical order from the consulship of Scipio and 
 Laelius, B. c. 190, to the consulship of Fabius and 
 Aelias, B.C. 11. The materials are derived in a 
 great measure from Livy, whose very words are 
 frequently employed. With regard to the com- 
 
 OCHA. 
 
 48^ 
 
 piler we know nothing. The style is tolerably 
 pure, but does not belong to the Augustan nge. 
 The best editions are by SchefFer, Amst. 1G79, and 
 by Oudendorp, Lug. Bat. 1/20. 
 
 Obucola, Oouciila or Obulciila {Moncfova)^ a 
 town in Hispania BaetJca on the road from liispalis 
 to Emerita and Corduba. 
 
 Obulco (Porcuna)^ surnamed Fontificense, a 
 Roman municipium in Hispania Baetica, 300 stadia 
 from Corduba. 
 
 Ocalea ('n«ctA.6a, 'nwaXeTj, also ^^KaAeia, 'Xl/ca- 
 \4ai : 'n«;aA€u5), an ancient town in Boeotia, be- 
 tween Haliartus and Alalcomenae, situated on a 
 river of the same name falling into the lake Copais,, 
 and at the foot of the mountain TilphusJon. 
 
 Oceanides. [Nviviphae.] 
 
 Oceanus {'D.Kiav6s), in the oldest Greek poets, 
 is the god of the water which was believed to 
 surround the whole earth, and which was supposed 
 to be the source of all the rivers and other waters 
 of the world. This water-god, in the llieogony of 
 Hesiod, is the son of Heaven and Earth {Ovpava^ 
 and TaTa), the husband of Tethys, and the father 
 of all the river-gods and water-nymphs of the 
 whole earth. He is introduced in person in the 
 Prometheus of Aeschylus. As to the physical idea 
 attached by the early Greeks to the woi-d, it seems 
 that they regarded the earth as a flat circle, whicli 
 was encompassed by a river perpetually flowing' 
 round it, and this Hvcr was Oceanus. (This notion 
 is ridiculed by Herodotus.) Out of and into this 
 river the sun and the stars were supposed to rise 
 and set ; and on its banks were the abodes of the 
 dead. From this notion it naturally resulted that, 
 as geographical knowledge advanced, the name was 
 applied to the great outer waters of the earth, in 
 contradistinction to the inner seas, and especially 
 to the Adantic, or the sea without the Pillars of 
 Hercules (^ e|w ^aKarra, Mare Exterius) as dis- 
 tinguished from the MedUerraneav, or the Sea with- 
 in that limit (iJeWrfF StaKarra^ Mare Internum); 
 and thus the Atlantic is often called simply Ocea- 
 nus. The epithet Atlantic (?) 'ArXafTj/cT; 3'aAacra'a, 
 Herod., 6 'A. t:6vtos^ Eurip.; Atlantxcum Mare) 
 was applied to it from the mythical position of 
 Atlas being on its shores. The other great waters 
 which were denoted by the same term are de- 
 scribed under their specific names. 
 
 Ocelis {^'OicT]\ts : Ghda)^ a celebrated harbour 
 and emporium, at the S.W. point of Arabia Felix, 
 just at the entrance to the Red Sea. 
 
 Ocellus Lucanua, a Pythagorean philosopher, 
 was a native of some Greek city in Lucania, but 
 we have no particulars of his work. We have 
 still extant under his name a considerable fragment 
 of a work, entitled, " On the Nature of the Whole," 
 (Trepi T7)s rov iravrhs <f>U(riov)^ written in the Ionic 
 dialect ; but it is much disputed whether it is a 
 genuine work. In this work the author maintains 
 that the whole (rh vau^ or 6 KSafxos) had no be- 
 ginning, and will have no end. Edited by Ru- 
 dolphi, Lips. 1801—8. 
 
 Ocelum. 1. A town in the N. E. of Lusitania 
 between the Tagus and the Durius, whose inha- 
 bitants, the Ocelenses, also bore the name of Lan- 
 cienses. «— 2. {Ucello or Uxeau), a town in the 
 Cottian Alps, was the last place in Cisalpine Gaul, 
 before entering the territories of king Cottius. 
 
 Ocha ("Ox^), the highest mountain in Euboea, 
 was in the S. of the island near Caiystus, running 
 out into the promontory Caphareus. 
 
490 
 
 OCHUS. 
 
 Ochug. [Artaxerxes III.] 
 
 Ochua ("Oxor, "nxos)^ a great river of Central 
 Asia, flowing frnm the N. side of the Paropamisus 
 {Hindoo Koosh\ according to Straho, through 
 HjTcania, into the Caspian; according to Pliny and 
 Ptolemy, through Bactria, into the Oxus. Some 
 suppose it to be only another name for the Oius. 
 In the Pehlvi dialect the word denotes a river in 
 general. 
 
 Ocricultim (Ocriculanus : nr. OtricoU Ru.)» an 
 important municipium in Umbria, situated on the 
 Tiber near its confluence with the Nar, and on the 
 Via Flaminia, leading from Rome to Namia, &c. 
 There are ruins of an aqueduct, an amphitheatre 
 and temples near the modem OtricoU. 
 
 Ocrisia or Oclisia, mother of Servius TulKus. 
 For details, see Tullius. 
 
 Octavia. 1. Sister of the emperor Augustus, 
 was married first to C. Marcellus, consul, B. c. 50, 
 and subsequently, upon the death of the latter, to 
 Antony, the triumvir, in 40. This marriage was 
 regarded as the harbinger of a lasting peace. Au- 
 gustus was warmly attached to his sister, and she 
 possessed all the charms and virtues likely to 
 sectirre s fastirig- inftffeirce orer the mrnd of a ^ijs- 
 band. Her beauty was universally allowed to be 
 superior to that of Cleopatra, and her virtue was 
 such as to excite admiration in an age of growing 
 licentiousness and corruption. For a time Antony 
 seemed to forget Cleopatra ; but he soon became 
 tired of his virtuous wife, and upon his return to 
 the East, he forbade her to follow him. When at 
 lengtli the war broke out between Antony and 
 Augustus, Octavia was divorced by her husband ; 
 but instead of resenting the insults she had re- 
 ceived from him, she brought up with care his 
 children by Fulvia and Cleopatra. She died b. c. 
 11. Octavia had 5 children, 3 by Marcellus, a 
 son and 2 daughters, and 2 by Antony, both 
 daughters. Her son, M. Marcellus, was adopted 
 by Augustus, and was destined to be his successor, 
 but died in 23. [Marcellus, No. 9.] The 
 descendants of her 2 daughters by Antonius suc- 
 cessively ruled the Roman world. The elder of 
 them married L. Domitius Ahenobarbus, and be- 
 came the grandmother of the emperor Nero ; the 
 younger of them married Drusus, the brother of 
 the emperor Tiberius, and became the mother of 
 the emperor Claudius, and the grandmother of the 
 emperor Caligula. [Antonia.] — 3. The daughter 
 of the emperor Claudius, by his 3rd wife, Valeria 
 Messalina, was bom about A. d. 42. She was at 
 first betrothed by Claudius to L. Silanus, who put 
 an end to his life, as Agrippina had destined Oc- 
 tavia to be the wife of her son, afterwards the 
 emperor Nero. She was married to Nero in a. d. 
 53, but was soon deserted by her young and pro- 
 fligate husband for Poppaea Sabina. After living 
 with the latter as his mistress for some time, he 
 resolved to recognise her as his legal wife ; and 
 accordingly he divorced Octavia on the alleged 
 ground of sterility, and then married Poppaea, 
 A. D. 62. Shortly afterwards, Octavia was falsely 
 accused of adultery, and was banished to the little 
 island of Pandataria, where she was put to death. 
 Her untimely end excited general commiseration. 
 Octavia is the heroine of a tragedy, found among 
 the works of Seneca, but the author of which was 
 more probably Curiatius Maternua. 
 
 Octavianua. [Augustus.] 
 
 Octavius. 1. Cn., sumamed Eufas, quaestor 
 
 OCTAVIUS. 
 
 about B. c. 230, may be regarded as the founder 
 of the family. The Octavii originally came from the 
 Volscian town of Velitrae, where a street and an 
 altar bore the name of Octavius. — 2. Cn., son of 
 No. 7, plebeian aedile 206, and praetor 205, when 
 he obtained Sardinia as his province. He was ac- 
 tively employed during the remainder of the 2nd 
 Punic war, and he was present at the battle of 
 Zama. — 3. Cn., son of No. 2, was praetor 168, 
 and had the command of the fleet in the war 
 against Perseus. He was consul 165. In 162 he 
 was one of 3 ambassadors sent into Syria, but 
 was assassinated at Laodicea, by a Greek of the 
 name of Leptines, at the instigation, as was sup- 
 posed, of Lysias, the guardian of the young king 
 Antiochus V. A statue of Octavius was placed on 
 the rostra at Rome, where it was in the time of 
 Cicero. — 4. Cn., son of No. 3, consul 128.^5. 
 M., perhaps younger son of No. 3, was the col- 
 league of Tib. Gracchus in the tribunate of the 
 plebs, 133, when he opposed his tribunitian veto 
 to the passing of the agrarian law. He was in 
 consequence deposed from his office by Tib. Grac- 
 chus. —6. Cn., a supporter of the aristocratical 
 party, was consoi 37 with: L. Gonseiias- Crfrrra: 
 After Sulla's depM-ture from Italy, in order to 
 carry on the war against Mithridates, a vehement 
 contest arose between the 2 consuls, which ended 
 in the expulsion of Cinna from the city, and his 
 being deprived of the consulship. Cinna soon 
 afterwards returned at the head of a powerful 
 army, and accompanied by Marius. Rome was 
 compelled to surrender, and Octavius was one of 
 the first victims in the massacres that followed. 
 His head was cut off and suspended on the rostra. 
 — 7. L., son of No. 6, consul 75, died in 74, as 
 proconsul of Cilicia, and was succeeded in the 
 command of the province by L. Lucidlus. ^ 8. Cn., 
 son of No. 7, consul 76.^9. M., son of No. 8, 
 was curule aedile 50, along with M. Caelius. On 
 the breaking out of the civil war in 49, Octavius 
 espoused the aristocratical party, and served as 
 legate to M. Bibulus, who had the supreme com- 
 mand of the Pompeian fleet. After the battle 
 of Pharsalia, Octavius sailed to lUyricum ; but 
 having been driven out of this country (47) by 
 Caesar's legates, he fled to Africa. He was pre- 
 sent at the battle of Actium (31), when he com- 
 manded part of Antony's fleet. — 10. C, younger 
 son of No. 1, and the ancestor of Augustus, 
 remained a simple Roman eques, without attempt- 
 ing to rise any higher in the state. ^11. C, son 
 of No. 10, and great-grandfather of Augustus, 
 lived in the time of the 2nd Punic war, in which 
 he served as tribune of the soldiers. He was pre- 
 sent at the battle of Cannae (216), and was one of 
 the few who survived the engagement. — 12. C, 
 son of No. 11, and grandfather of Augustus, 
 lived quietly at his villa at Velitrae, without 
 aspiring to the dignities of the Roman state. 
 ^13. C, son of No. 12, and father of Augustus, 
 was praetor 61, and in the following year succeeded 
 C. Antonius in the government of Macedonia, 
 which he administered with equal integrity and 
 energy. He returned to Italy in SO, died the fol- 
 lowing year, 58, at Nola, in Campania, in the very 
 same room in which Augustus afterwards breathed 
 his last. By his 2nd wife Atia, Octavius had a 
 daughter and a son, the latter of whom was subse- 
 quently the emperor Augustus. [Augustus.] ^ 
 14. L., a legate of Pompey in the war against the 
 
OCTAVIUS. 
 
 pirates, 67, was sent by Pompey into Crete to 
 supersede Q. Metellus in the command of the 
 island ; but Metellus refused to surrender the 
 command to him. [Metellus, No. 16.] 
 
 Octavius Balbus. [Balbos.] 
 
 Octodiirus (OctodurensiB : Martigny)^ a town 
 of the Veragri in the country of the Helvetii, is 
 situated in a valley surrounded by lofty moumtains, 
 and on the river Drance near the spot where it 
 flows into the Rhone. The ancient town, like the 
 modern one, was divided by the Drance into 2 
 parts. The inhabitants had the Jus Laiii. 
 
 Octog-esa, a town of the Tlergetes in Hispania 
 Tarraconensis near the Iberus, probably S. of the 
 Sicoris. 
 
 Octolopliiis, a place of uncertain site, in the N. 
 of Thessaly or the S. of Macedonia. 
 
 Ocypete. [Hakpylae.] 
 
 Ocyrhoe('XlKupo7/.) 1. One of the daughters 
 of Oceanus and Tethys.^2. Daughter of the cen- 
 taur Chiron, possessed the gift of prophecy, and is 
 said to have been changed into a mare. 
 
 Odenatlms, the ruler of Palmyra, checked the 
 victorious career of the Persians after the defeat 
 and capture of Valerian, a. d. 260, and drove Sapor 
 out of Syria. In return for these services, Gallic- 
 nus bestowed upon Odenathus the title of Au- 
 gustus. Odenathus was soon afterwards murdered 
 by some of his relations, not without the consent, 
 it is said, of Ms wife Zenobia, 266. He was suc- 
 ceeded by Zbnobla. 
 
 Odessus ('0(S7j(ro"(is : *05i7(ro-/T7;s','OST;(ro'eu5). 1. 
 {Var?ia% also called Odyssus and Odissus at a 
 later time, a Greek town in Thracia (in the later 
 Moesia Inferior) on the Pontus Euxinus nearly 
 due E. of Marcianopolis, was founded by the Mi- 
 lesians in the territory of the Crobyzi in the reign 
 of Astyages, king of Media (b. c. 594 — 559). 
 The town possessed a good harbour, and carried on 
 an extensive commerce. •— ■ 2. A seaport in Sannatia 
 Europaea, on the N. of the Pontus Euxinus and 
 on the river Sangarius, W. of Olbia and the mouth 
 of the Borysthenes. It was some distance N.E. of 
 the modem Odessa. 
 
 Odoacer, usually called king of the Heruli, was 
 the leader of the barbarians, who overthrew the 
 Western empire, a. d. 476. He took the title of 
 king of Italy, and reigned till his power was over- 
 thrown by Theodoric, king of the Goths. Odoacer 
 was defeated in 3 decisive battles by Theodoric 
 (489 — 490), and then took refuge in Ravenna, 
 where he was besieged for 3 years. He at last 
 capitulated on condition that he and Theodoric 
 should be joint kings of Italy ; but Odoacer was 
 soon afterwards murdered by his rival. _ 
 
 Odomantice ('OSo^apTiKT)), a district in the 
 N.E. of Macedonia between the Strymon and the 
 Nestus, inhabited by the Thracian tribe of the 
 Odoraanti or Odomantes. 
 
 Odrysae {'OSpvixai), the most powerful people 
 in Thrace, dwelt, according to Herodotus, on both 
 sides of the river Artiscus, a tributary of the He- 
 brus, but also spread further W. over the whole 
 plain of the Hebrus. Soon after the Persian wars 
 Teres, king of the Odrysae, obtained the sove- 
 reignty over several of the other Thracian tribes, 
 and extended his dominions as far as the Black 
 sea. He was succeeded by his son Sitalces, who 
 became the master of almost the whole of Thrace. 
 His empire comprised all the territory from 
 Abdera to the mouths of the Danube, and from 
 
 OECHALIA. 
 
 491 
 
 Byzantium to the sources of the Strymon ; and it 
 is described by Thucydides as the greatest of all 
 the kingdoms between the Ionian gulf and the 
 Euxine, both in revenue and opulence. Sitalces 
 assisted the Athenians in the Peloponnesian war 
 against Perdiccas, king of Macedonia. [Sitalces.] 
 He died b. c. 424, and was succeeded by his ne- 
 phew Seuthes I. On the death of the latter about 
 the end of the Peloponnesian war, the power of 
 the Odrysae declined. For the subsequent history 
 of the Odrysae, see Thracia. 
 
 Odyssea ('OSiicra-eia), a town of Hispania Bae- 
 tica, situated N. of Abdera amidst the mountains 
 of Turdetania, with a temple of Athena, said to 
 have been built by Odysseus (Ulysses). Its position 
 is quite uncertain. Some of the ancients supposed 
 it to be the same as Olisipo. 
 
 Odysseus. [Ulysses.] 
 
 Oea ('E(io, Ptol. : Oeensis: Tripoli ? Ru.), a city 
 on the N. coast of Africa, in the Regio Syrtica 
 (i. e. between the Syrtes), was one of the 'ii cities 
 of the African Tripolis, and, under the Romans, a 
 colony by the name of Aelia Augusta Felix. It 
 had a mixed population of Libyans and Sicilians. 
 
 Oea (Ofo), a town in the island of Aegina, 20 
 stadia from the capital. 
 
 Oeagras, or Oeager {Oiaypos), king of Thrace, 
 was the father, by the muse Calliope, of Orpheus 
 and Linus. Hence the sisters of Orpheus are 
 called Oeagrides, in the sense of the Muses. The 
 adjective Oeagrius is also used by the poets as 
 equivalent to Thracian. Hence Oeagnus Haemus, 
 Oeagrius Hebrus^ &c. 
 
 Oeanthe or Oeanthla {OldvQr}, Oidvdeia : Olav- 
 devs : Galaxidhi)^ a town of the Locri Ozolae on 
 the coast, near the entrance of the Crissaean gulf. 
 
 Oeaso or Oeasso (Oyarzun), a town of the Va- 
 scones on the N. coast of Hispania Tarraconensis 
 situated on a promontory of the same name, and 
 on the river Magrada. 
 
 Oeaz (Ofa^), son of Nauplius and Clymene, and 
 brother of Palamedes and Nausimedon. 
 
 Oebalus (OlfeaAoy). 1. Son of Cynortas, hus- 
 band of Gorgophone, and father of Tyndareus, 
 Pirene, and Arena, was king of Sparta, where he 
 was afterwards honoured with an heroum. Ac- 
 cordmg to others he was sou of Perieres and 
 grandson of Cynortas, and was married to the 
 nymph Batea, by whom he had several children. 
 The patronymic Oehalides is not only applied to his 
 descendants, but to the Spartans generally, as 
 Hyacinthus, Castor, Pollux, &c. The feminine 
 patronymic Oelalis and the adjective Oebalius are 
 applied in the same way. Hence Helen is called 
 by the poets Oebalis, and Oebalia peU&x; the city 
 of Tarentum is termed Oebalia arx, because it was 
 founded by the Lacedaemonians ; and since the 
 Sabines were, according to one tradition, a Lace- 
 daemonian colony, we find the Sabine king Titus 
 Tatius named Oebalius Titus, and the Sabine 
 women Oebalides matres. (Ov. Fast. i. 260, iii. 
 230.)^2. Son of Telon by a nymph of the stream 
 SebethuB, near Naples, ruled in Campania. 
 
 Oechalia (Oi'xoAfa : OixaXteiJj, OtxaA-ic^T^jy). 
 1. A town in Thessaly on the Peneus near Tricca. 
 ^2. A town in Thessaly, belonging to the terri- 
 tory of Trachis. — 3. A town in Messenia on the 
 frontier of Arcadia, identified by Pausanias with, 
 Camasium, by Strabo with Andania.^4. A town 
 of Euboea in the district Eretria. — The ancients 
 were divided in opinion which of these places was 
 
492 
 
 OECUMENIUS. 
 
 the residence of Eurytus, whom Hercules defeated 
 and slew. The original legend probably belonged 
 to the Thessalian Oechalia, and was thence trans- 
 ferred to the other towns. 
 
 Oecumenius (OlKovfievios)^ bishop of Tricca in 
 Thessaly, a Greek commentator on various parts of 
 the New Testament, probably flourished about a.d. 
 950, He has the reputation of a judicious com- 
 mentator, careful in compilation, modest in offering 
 his own judgment, and neat in expression. Most 
 of hia commentaries were published at Paris, 1 631. 
 Oedipus {OiSiirovs), son of Laius and Jocaste 
 of Thebes. The tragic fate of this hero is more 
 celebrated than that of any other legendary per- 
 sonage, on account of the frequent use which the 
 tragic poets have made of it. In their hands it 
 underwent various changes and embellishments ; 
 but the common story ran as follows. Laius, son 
 of Labdacus, was king of Thebes, and husband of 
 Jocaste, a daughter of Menoeceus and sister of 
 Creon, An oracle had informed Laius that he was 
 destined to perish by the hands of his own son. 
 Accordingly, when Jocaste gave birth to a son, 
 they pierced his feet, bound them together, and 
 exposed the child onMt. Cithaeron. There he was 
 found by a shepherd of king Pnlybus of Corinth, 
 and was called from his swollen feet Oedipus. 
 Having been carried to the palace, the king and 
 his wife Merope (or Periboea) brought him up as 
 their own child. Once, however, Oedipus was 
 taunted by a Corinthian with not being the king's 
 son, whereupon he proceeded to Delphi to consult 
 the oracle. The oracle replied that he was destined 
 to slay his father and commit incest with his 
 mother. Thinking that Polybus was his father, 
 he resolved not to return to Corinth ; but on his 
 road between Delphi and Daulis he met his real 
 iather Laius, Pol3T)hontes, the charioteer of Laius 
 bade Oedipus make way for them ; whereupon a 
 scuffle ensued in which Oedipus slew both Laius 
 and his charioteer. In the mean time the celebrated 
 Sphinx had appeared in the neighbourhood of 
 Thebes. Seated on a rock, she put a riddle to 
 every Theban that passed by, and whoever was 
 unable to solve it was killed by the monster. This 
 calamity induced the Thebans to proclaim that 
 whoever should deliver the country of the Sphinx, 
 should be made king, and should receive Jocaste 
 as his wife. Oedipus came forward, and when he 
 approached the Sphinx she gave the riddle as 
 follows: " A being with 4 feet has 2 feet and 3 
 feet, and only one voice ; but its feet vary, and 
 when it has most it is weakest." Oedipus solved 
 the riddle by saying that it was man, who in 
 infancy crawls upon all fours, in manhood stands 
 erect upon 2 feet, and in old nge supports his tot- 
 tering legs with a staff. The Sphinx, enraged at 
 the solution of the riddle, thereupon threw her- 
 self down from the rock. Oedipus now obtained 
 the kingdom of Thebes, and married his mother, 
 by whom he became the father of Eteocles, Poly- 
 nices, Antigone, and Ismene. In consequence of 
 this incestuous alliance of which no one was aware, 
 the country of Thebes was visited by a plague. 
 The oracle, on being consulted, ordered that the 
 murderer of Laius should be expelled. Oedipus 
 accordingly pronounced a solemn curse upon the 
 unknown murderer, and declared him an exile ; 
 but when he endeavoured to discover him, he was 
 Jnfonned by the seer Tiresias that he himself was 
 both the parricide and the husband of his mother. 
 
 OENIADAE. 
 
 Jocaste now hung herself, and Oedipus put out his 
 own eyes. From this point traditions differ, for 
 according to some, Oedipus in hia blindness was 
 expelled from Thebes by his sons and brother-in- 
 law, Creon, who undertook the government, and 
 he was accompanied by Antigone in his exile to 
 Attica; while according to others he was imprisoned 
 by his sons at Thebes, in order that his disgrace 
 might remain concealed from the eyes of the world. 
 The father now cursed his sons, who agreed to rule 
 over Thebes alternately, but became involved in a 
 dispute, in consequence of which they fought in 
 single combat, and slew each other. Hereupon 
 Creon succeeded to the throne, and expelled 
 Oedipus. After long wanderings Oedipus arrived 
 in the grove of the Eumenides, near Colonus, in 
 Attica; he was there honoured by Theseus in his 
 misfortune, and, according to an oracle, the Eume- 
 nides removed him from the earth, and no one 
 was allowed to approach his tomb. According to 
 Homer, Oedipus, tormented by the Erinnyes of his 
 mother, continued to reign at Thebes, after her 
 death; he fell in battle, and was honoured at 
 Thebes with funeral solemnities. 
 
 Oen,e6n,(0i^ectf;': OtVewj/eiJs), a seaport town of 
 the Locri Ozolae, E. of Naupactus. 
 
 Oeneus (OiVeus), son of Portheus, husband of 
 Althaea, by whom he became the father of Tydeus 
 and Meleager, and was thus the grandfather of 
 Diomedes. He was king of Pleuron and Calydon 
 in Aetolia. This is Homer's account; but according 
 to later authorities he was the son of Porthaon and 
 Euryte, and the father of Toxeus, whom he himself 
 killed, Thyreus (Phereus), Clymenus, Periphas, 
 Agelaus, Meleager, Gorge, Eurymede, Melanippe, 
 Mothone, and Deianira. His second wife was 
 Melanippe, the daughter of Hipponous, by whom 
 he had Tydeus according to some accounts; though 
 according to others Tydeus was his son by his own 
 daughter Gorge. He is said to have been deprived 
 of his kingdom by the sons of his brother Agrius, 
 who imprisoned and ill used him. He was subse- 
 quently avenged by Diomedes, who slew Agi'ius 
 and his sons, and restored the kingdom either to 
 Oeneus himself, or to his son-in-law Andraemon, 
 as Oeneus was too old. Diomedes took his grand- 
 father with him to Peloponnesus, but some of the 
 sons who lay in ambush, slew the old man, near 
 the altar of Telephus in Arcadia. Diomedes buried 
 his body at Argos, and named the town of Oenoe 
 after him. According to others Oeneus lived to 
 extreme old age with Diomedes at Argos, and died 
 a natural death. Homer knows nothing of all 
 this ; he merely relates that Oeneus once neglected 
 to sacrifice to Artemis, in consequence of which 
 she sent a monstrous boar into the territory of Ca- 
 lydon, which was hunted by Meleager. The hero 
 Bellerophon was hospitably entertained by Oeneus, 
 and received from him a costly girdle as a present. 
 Oeniadae (OiViaSa* : Trigardon or TrikJiardo\ 
 an ancient to^vn of Acarnania, situated on the 
 Achelous near its mouth, and surrounded by 
 marshes caused by the overflowing of the river, 
 which thus protected it from hostile attacks. It 
 was called in ancient times Erysicfie {^pva-txn'U 
 and its inhabitants Erysichaei ("Epuo-ixarot) ; and 
 it probably derived its later name from the mythi- 
 cal Oeneus, the grandfather of Diomedes. Unlike 
 the other cities of Acarnania, Oeniadae espoused 
 the cause of the Spartans in the Peloponnesian 
 war. At the time of Alexander the Great, the 
 
OENIDES. 
 
 town was taken by the Aetolians, who expelled 
 the inhabitants; but the Aetolians were expelled 
 in their turn by Philip V., king of Macedonia, 
 who surrounded the place with strong fortifications. 
 The Romans restored the town to the Acarnanians. 
 The fortress Nesus or Nasus belonging to the terri- 
 tory of Oeniadae was situated in a small lake near 
 Oeniadae. 
 
 Oenides, a patronymic from Oeneus, and hence 
 given to Meleager, the son of Oeneus, and Dio- 
 medes, the grandson of Oeneus. 
 
 Oenoanda or Oeneanda, a town of Asia Minor, 
 in the N.W. of Pisidia, or the district of Cabalia, 
 subject to Cibyra. 
 
 Oenobaras (OlvoSdpas), a tributary of the 
 Orontes, flowing through the plain of Antioch, in 
 Syria. ^_ , ^ ^ 
 
 Oenoe (Olv67j ; Ohoalos). 1. A demus of Attica, 
 belonging to the tribe Hippothoontis, near Eleu- 
 therae on the frontiers of Boeotia, frequently men- 
 tioned in the Peloponnesian war.— 2, A demus of 
 Attica, near Marathon, belonging to the tribe 
 Aiantis, and also to the Tetrapolis.^S. A fortress 
 of the Corinthians, on the Corinthian gulf, be- 
 tween the promontory Olmiae and the frontier of 
 Megaris. ^ 4. A town in Argolis on the Arcadian 
 frontier at the foot of Mt. Artemisium. ^ 6. A 
 town in EHs, near the mouth of the Selleis. — 6. 
 A town in the island Icarus or Icaria. 
 
 Oenomans (Oip6/j.aos). 1. King of Pisa in Elis, 
 was son of Ares and Hai-pinna, the daughter of 
 Asopus, and husband of the Pleiad Sterope, by 
 whom he became the father of Hippodamia. Ac- 
 cording to others he was a son of Ares and Sterope 
 or a son of Alxion. An oracle had declared that 
 he should perish by the hands of his son-in-law; 
 and as hia horses were swifter than those of any 
 other mortal, he declared that 'all who came for- 
 ward as suitors for Hippodamia's hand should 
 contend with him in the chariot-race, that whoever 
 conquered should receive her, and that whoever 
 was conquered should suffer death. The race-course 
 extended from Pisa to the altar of Poseidon, on tfie 
 Corinthian isthmus. The suitor started with Hip- 
 podamia in a chariot, and Oenomaus then hastened 
 with his swift horses after the lovers. He had 
 overtaken and slain many a suitor, when Pelops, 
 the son of Tantalus, came to Pisa. Pelops bribed 
 Myrtilus, the charioteer of Oenomaus, to take out 
 the linch-pins from the wheels of his master's 
 chariot, and he received from Poseidon a golden 
 chariot, and most rapid horses. In the race which 
 followed, the chariot of Oenomaus broke down, and 
 he fell out and was killed. Thus Pelops obtained 
 Hippodamia and the kingdom of Pisa. There are 
 some variations in this story, such as, that Oenomaus 
 was himself in love with his daughter, and for this 
 reason slew her lovers. Myrtilus also is said to 
 have loved Hippodamia, and as she favoured the 
 suit of Pelops, she persuaded Myrtilus to take the 
 linoh-pins out of the wheels of her father's chariot. 
 As Oenomaus was breathing his last he pronounced 
 a curse upon Myrtilus. This curse had its desired 
 effect, for as Pelops refused to give to Myrtilus 
 the reward he had promised, or as Myrtilus had 
 attempted to dishonour Hippodamia, Pelops thrust 
 him down from Cape Geraestus. Myrtilus, while 
 dying, likewise pronounced a curse upon Pelops, 
 which was the cause of all the calamities that 
 afterwards befell his house. The tomb of Oeno- 
 maus was shown on the river Cladeus in Elis. His 
 
 OEONUS. 
 
 493 
 
 house was destroyed by lightning, and only one 
 pillar of it remained standing. ^ 3. Of Gadara, a 
 cynic philosopher, who flourished in the reign of 
 Hadrian, or somewhat later, but before Porphyry. 
 He wrote a work to expose the oracles, of which 
 considerable fragments are preserved by Eusebius. 
 — 3. A tragic poet. [Diogenes, No. 5.] 
 
 Oendne (OiVwPTj), daughter of the river-god 
 Cebren, and wife of Paris, before he carried off 
 Helen. [Paris.] 
 
 Oenone or Oenopia, the ancient name of 
 Aegina. 
 
 Oenophyta (ra OlvStpvra : hiia)^ a town in 
 Boeotia, on the left bank of the Asopus, and on 
 the road from Tanagra to Oropus, memorable for 
 the victory gained here by the Athenians over the 
 Boeotiana, b. c. 456. 
 
 Oeuopldes (0(Vo7ri5i7s) of Chios, a distinguished 
 astronomer and mathematician, perhaps a contem- 
 porary of Anaxagoras. Oenopides derived most of 
 his astronomical knowledge from the priests and 
 astronomers of Egypt, with whom he lived for 
 some time. He obtained from this source his know- 
 ledge of the obliquity of the ecliptic, the discovery 
 of which he is said to have claimed. The length 
 of the solar year was fixed by Oenopides at 365 
 days, and somewhat less than 9 hours. He is said 
 to have discovered the l'2th and 23rd propositions 
 of the 1st book of Euclid, and the quadrature of 
 the meniscus. 
 
 Oenopion (OiyoTrioj*'), son of Dionysus and hus- 
 band of the nymph Helice, by whom he became 
 the father of Thalus, Euanthes, Melas, Salagus, 
 Athamas, and Merope, Aerope or Haero. Some 
 writers call Oenopion a son of Rhadamanthus by 
 Ariadne, and a brother of Staphylus. From Crete 
 he migrated witli his sons to Chios, which Rha- 
 damanthus had assigned to him as his habitation. 
 When king of Chios, the giant Orion sued for the 
 hand of his daughter Merope. As Oenopion refused 
 to give her to Orion, the latter violated Merope, 
 whereupon Oenopion put out his eyes, and expelled 
 him from the island. Orion went to Lemnos ; he 
 was afterwards cured of his blindness, and returned 
 to Chios to take vengeance on Oenopion. But the 
 latter was not to be found in Chios, for his friends 
 had concealed him in the earth, so that Orion, un- 
 able to discover him, went to Crete. 
 
 Oenotri, Oenotiia. [Italia.] 
 
 Oenotrides, 2 small islands in the Tyrrhene 
 sea, off the coast of Lucania, and opposite the 
 town of Elea or Velia and the mouth of the Helos. 
 
 Oenotropae. [Anius.] 
 
 Oenotrus {Olvuir pos), youngest son of Lycaon, 
 emigrated with a colony from Arcadia to Italy, and 
 gave the name of Oenotria to the district in which 
 he settled. 
 
 Oenus (OiVous: Kelesina), a river in Laconia, 
 rising on the frontier of Arcadia, and flowing into 
 the Eurotas, N. of Sparta. There was a town of the 
 same name upon this river, celebrated for its wine. 
 
 Oenussae {Olvova-aai^ Oli/uOaai). 1. A group 
 of islands lying off the S. point of Messenia, oppo- 
 site to the port of Phoenicus: the 2 largest of them 
 are now called Sapienza and Cafn-era. — 2. {Spal- 
 madori or Egonuses), a group of 5 islands between 
 Chios and the coast of Asia Minor. 
 
 Oeonus {OmvSs), son of Licymnius of Midea 
 in Argolis, first victor at Olympia, in the fuot-rnce. 
 He is said to have hten killed at Sparta by the 
 sons of Hippocoon, but was avenged by Hercules, 
 
494 
 
 OEROE. 
 
 whose kinsman he was, and was honoured with a 
 monument near the temple of Hercules. 
 
 Oeroe {'ClepSr)), an island in Boeotia, formed by 
 the river Asopus and opposite Plataeae. 
 
 Oescus (Isker or Esker) called Oscius ("Oo-Ktos) 
 by Thucydides, and Scius (Sfci'os) by Herodotus, 
 a river in Moesia, which rises in Mt. Scomius 
 according to Thucydides, or in Mt. Rhodope ac- 
 cording to Pliny, but in reality on the W. slope of 
 Mt. Haemus, and flows into the Danube near a 
 town of the same name (Oreszovitz). 
 
 Oesyma (OtffujUTj : Ol(Tv/ia7os), called Aesyma 
 QAla-vfiT]) by Homer (It. viii. 304), an ancient town 
 in Thrace between the Strymon and the Nestus, a 
 colony of the Thasians. 
 
 Oeta (OtrT/, TO. OiTaiMU oijpea: Katavoihra)^ a 
 rugged pile of mountains in the S. of Thessaly, an 
 eastern branch of Mt. Pindus, extended S. of Mt. 
 Othrys along the S. bank of the Sperchius to the 
 Maliac gulf at Thermopylae, thus forming the N. 
 barrier of Greece. Strabo and Livy give the name 
 of Callidromus to the eastern part of Oeta, an 
 appellation which does not occur in Herodotus and 
 the earlier writers. Respecting the pass of Mt. 
 Oeta, see Thermopylae. Oeta was celebrated 
 in mythology as the mountain on which Her- 
 cules burnt himself to death. From this moun- 
 tain the S. of Thessaly bordering on Phocis was 
 called Oetaea (OiVata) and its inhabitants Oetaei 
 
 (OiTOiOi). 
 
 Oetylus {OtrvXos : OItvKios : Vitylo)^ also 
 called Tylus (Ti/Aos), an ancient town in Laconia, 
 on the Messenian gulf, S. of Thalama, called after 
 an Argive hero of this name. 
 
 OfeUa, a man of sound sense and of a straight- 
 forward character, whom Horace contrasts with the 
 Stoic quacks of his time. 
 
 Ofella, Q. Lucretius, originally belonged to the 
 Marian party, but deserted to Sulla, who appointed 
 him to the command of the army employed in the 
 blockade of Praeneste, B. c. 82. Ofella became a 
 candidate for the consulship in the following year, 
 although he had not yet been either quaestor or 
 praetor, thus acting in defiance of one of Sulla's 
 laws. He was in consequence put to death by 
 Sulla's, orders. 
 
 Ofilius, a distinguished Roman jurist, was one 
 of the pupils of Servius Sulpicius, and a friend of 
 Cicero and Caesar. His works are often cited in 
 the Digest. 
 
 Oglasa {Monte Christo), a small island off the 
 coast of Etruria. 
 
 Ognlnii, Q. and Cn., 2 brothers, tribunes of 
 the plebs, b. c. 300, carried a law by which the 
 number of the pontiffs was increased from 4 to 8, 
 and that of the augurs from 4 to 9, and which 
 enacted that 4 of the pontiffs and 5 of the augurs 
 should be taken from the plebs. Besides these 8 
 pontiffs there was the pontifex maximus, who is 
 generally not included when the number of pontiffs 
 is spoken of. 
 
 Ogygia {^Clyvyia)^ the mythical island of Ca- 
 lypso, is placed by Homer in the navel or central 
 point of the sea, far away from all lands. Later 
 writers pretended to find it in the Ionian sea, near 
 the promontory Lacinium, in Bruttium. 
 
 Ogygtis or Ogyges i^^yvyris)^ sometimes called 
 a Boeotian autochthon, and sometimes son of Boe- 
 otus, and king of the Hectenes, is said to have 
 been the first ruler of the territory of Thebes, 
 which was called after him Ogygia. In his reign 
 
 OLCADES. 
 
 the waters of lake Copais rose above its banks, and 
 inundated the whole valley of Boeotia. This flood 
 is usually called after him the Ogygian. The name 
 of Ogyges is also connected with Attic story, for 
 in Attica an Ogygian flood is likewise mentioned, 
 and he is described as the father of the Attic hera 
 Eleusis, and as the father of Daira, the daughter 
 of Oceanus. In the Boeotian tradition he was the 
 father of Alalcomenia, Thelxinoea and Aulis. — ■ 
 Bacchus is called Ofjyyius deus, because he is said 
 to have been bom at Thebes. 
 
 Ogyris {"Clyvpis), an island of the Erythraean 
 Sea {Indian Ocean), off the coast of Carmania, at 
 a distance of 2000 stadia (20 geog. miles), noted 
 as the alleged burial-place of the ancient king 
 Erythras. 
 
 Oicles or Oicleus ('Oi'K\75r, *OtKAeus), son of 
 Antiphates, grandson ofMelampus and father of 
 Amphiaraus, of Argos. He is also called a son of 
 Amphiaraus, or a son of Mantius, the brother of 
 Antiphates. Oicles accompanied Hercules on his 
 expedition against Laomedon of Troy, and was 
 there slain in battle. According to other traditions 
 he returned home from the expedition, and dwelt 
 in Arcadia, where he was visited by his grandson 
 Alcmaeon, and where his tomb was shown. 
 
 OHeus ('OiXeus), son of Hodoedocus and Lao- 
 nome, grandson of Cyuus, and great-grandson of 
 Opus, was a king of the Locrians, and married to 
 Eriupis, by whom he became the father of Ajax, 
 who is hence called O'ilides, Otliades, and Jjaa; 
 Oilei. O'fleus was also the father of Medon by 
 Rhene. He is mentioned among the Argonauts. 
 
 Olba or Olbe ("OA^ti), an ancient inland city of 
 Cilicia, in the mountains above Soloe, and between 
 the rivers Lamus and Cydnus. Its foundation was 
 ascribed by mythical tradition, to Ajax the son of 
 Teucer, whose alleged descendants, the priests of 
 the very ancient temple of Zeus, once ruled over 
 all Cilicia Aspera. In later times it belonged to 
 Isauria, and was the see of a bishop. 
 
 Olbasa ("OAgatra). 1. A city of Cilicia Aspera, 
 at the foot of the Taurus, N, of Selinus, and N.W. 
 of Ca^strus; not to be confounded with Olba.^2. 
 A city in the S.E. of Lycaonia, S.W. of Cybistra, 
 in the district called Antiochiana. ^ 3. A city in 
 the N. of Pisidia, between Pednelissus and Selge. 
 
 Olbe. [Olba.] 
 
 Olbia ('OAgta). 1. (Prob. Eoubes, near Hieres), 
 a colony of Massilia, on the coast of Gallia Narbo- 
 nensis, on a hill called Olbianus, E. of Telo Mar- 
 tius {Toulon). ^—2. (Prob. Terra Nova), a very 
 ancient city, near the N. end of the E. side of the 
 island of Sardinia, with the only good harbour on 
 this coast; and therefore the usual landing-place 
 for persons coming from Rome. A mythical tra- 
 dition ascribed its foundation to the Thespiadae.— 
 3. In Bithynia [Astacus], The gulf of Astacus 
 was also called from it. Sinus Olbianus. ^ 4. A 
 fortress on the W. frontier of Pamphylia, on the 
 coast, W. of the river Catarharractes ; not impro- 
 bably ou the same site as the later Attalia.^5. 
 
 [BORVSTHENES.] 
 
 Olcades, an ancient people in Hispania Tarraco- 
 nensis, N. of Carthago Nova, near the sources of 
 the Anas, in a part of the coimtry afterwards in- 
 habited by the Oretani. They are mentioned 
 only in the wars of the Carthaginians with the 
 inhabitants of Spain. Hannibal transplanted some 
 of the Olcades to Africa. Their chief towns were 
 Althaea and Carteia, the site of both of which is 
 
OLCINIUM. 
 
 uncertain ; the latter place must not be confounded 
 with the celebrated Carteia in Baetica. 
 
 Olcinium (Olciniatae : Dulcigno), an ancient 
 town on the coast of lUyria, S. W. of Scodra, be- 
 longing to the territory of Gentiua. 
 
 Olearus. [Oliarus.] 
 
 Oleastrum. 1. A town of the Cosetani, in 
 Hispania Tarraconensis, on the road from Dertosa 
 to Tarraco, probably the place from which the 
 plumbum Oleastrense derived its name. ^ 2. A 
 town in Hispania Baetica, near Gades. 
 
 Olen ('D,\iiv), a mythical personage, who is re- 
 presented as the earliest Greek lyric poet, and the 
 first author of sacred hymns in hexameter verse. 
 He is closely counected with the worship of Apollo, 
 of whom, in one legend, he was made the prophet. 
 His connection with Apollo is also marked by his 
 being called Hyperborean, and one of the esta- 
 bUshers of oracles ; though the more common story 
 made him a native of Lycia. He is said to have 
 settled at Delos. His name seems to signify simply 
 the Jlute-play&r. Of the ancient hymns, which 
 went under his name, Fausanias mentions those to 
 Here, to Achae'ia, and to llichyia ; the last was in 
 celebration of the birth of Apollo and Artemis. 
 
 Olenns ('OA.ei'os: 'OXhioi). 1. An ancient 
 town in Aetolia, near New Pleuron, and at the 
 foot of Mt. Aracynthus, is mentioned by Homer, 
 but was destroyed by the Aetolians at an early 
 period. — 2. A town in Achaia, between Patrae 
 and Dyme, refused to join the Achaean league on 
 its restoration, in B. c- 280. In the time of Strabo 
 the town was deserted. The goat Amalthaea, 
 which suckled the infant Zeus, is called Olenia 
 capella by the poets, either because the goat was 
 supposed to have been bom near the town of 
 Olenus, and to have been subsequently transferred 
 to Crete, or because the nymph Amalthaea, to 
 whom the goat belonged, was a daughter of 
 Olenus. 
 
 Olgassys COA7o<r<n;j : Al-Gez Dagh), a lofty, 
 steep, and rugged mountain chain of Asia Minor, 
 extending nearly W. and E. through the E. of 
 Bithynia, and the centre of Paphlagonia to the 
 river Halys, nearly parallel to the chain of Olympus, 
 of which it may be considered as a branch. Nu- 
 merous temples were built upon it by the Paphla- 
 gonians. 
 
 Oliaras ('nxfapos, 'XlAeopos : 'flXicipios: Anii- 
 paros\ a small island in the" Aegean sea, one of 
 the Cyclades, W. of Pares, originally colonized by 
 the Phoenicians, is celebrated in modem times for 
 its stalactite grotto, which is not mentioned by an- 
 cient writers. 
 
 Oligyrtus (^OKiyvpros), a fortress in the N. E. 
 of Arcadia on a mountain of the same name, be- 
 tween Stymphalus and Caphyae. 
 
 Olisipo {Lisbon), a town in Lusitania, on the 
 right bank of the Tagus near its mouth, and a 
 Koman municipium with the surname Felicitas 
 Julia. It was celebrated for its swift horses. Its 
 name is sometimes written Vlysslppo, because it 
 was supposed by some to have been the town 
 which Ulysses was said to have founded in Spain ; 
 but the town to which this legend, referred was 
 situated in the mountains of Turdetania. 
 
 Olizon ('OXifuV), a town of Thessaly on the 
 coast of Magnesia and on the Pagasaean gulf, 
 mentioned by Homer. 
 
 OlJms (Offtio), a river in Gallia Transpadana, 
 &Us into the' Po, S. W. of Mantua. 
 
 OLYMPIA. 
 
 495 
 
 Olmlae {'OX/ual), a promontory in the territory 
 of Corinth, which separated the Corinthian and 
 Alcyonian gulfs. 
 
 OIooSBon {'OKooa-ffitiv : ^0\ooaa6i'ios : Elas- 
 sona), a town of the Perrhaebi in Thessaly, in the 
 district of Hestiaeotis. Homer (II. ii. 739) calls it 
 "white," an epithet which it obtained, according 
 to Strabo, from the whiteness of its soil. 
 
 Olophyxus ('OX(i((>i;{os : 'O\o<pv^ios), a town of 
 Macedonia, on the peninsula of Mt. Athos. 
 
 Olpae or Olpe ("OAjrai, 'OAtdj : "OXTraws) 
 
 1. {Arapi), a town of the Amphilochi in Acar- 
 nania, on the Ambracian gulf, N. W. of Argos Am- 
 philochicnm.— 2. A town of the Locri Ozolae. 
 
 Oliims {"OKovpos : 'OKovpws) 1. A town in 
 Achaia, near Pellene, on the Sicyonian frontier.— 
 
 2. Also Oliiris (.'OAoupis), called Dorium {Aii- 
 piov) by Homer, a town in Messenia, S. of the 
 river Neda. 
 
 Oliis ('OAoOs : 'OA.0WTI0S), a town and harbour 
 on the E. coast of Crete, near the promontory of 
 Zephyrium. 
 
 Olybrius, Anicms, Roman emperor a. d. 472, 
 was raised to this dignity by Ricimer, who deposed 
 Anthemius. He died in the course of the same 
 year, after a reign of 3 months and 13 days. Hia 
 successor was Glycerius. 
 
 Olympene, and Olympeni, or Olympieni 
 {'OKu/j-irrtv-li, 'OKv/imti'oi, 'OKvixTiTtvoi), the names 
 of the district about the Mysian Olympus, and of 
 its inhabitants. 
 
 Olympia (^OXv^nrla), the name of a small plain 
 in Elis, in which the Olympic games were cele- 
 brated. It was surrounded on the N. and N. E. 
 by the mountains Cronion and Olympus, on the S. 
 by the river Alpheus, and on the W. by the river 
 Cladeus. In this plain was the sacred grove of 
 Zeus, called AUis CAKtls, an old Elean form of 
 &K(ros, a grove), situated at the angle formed by 
 the confluence of the rivers Alpheus and Cladeus, 
 and 300 stadia distant from the town of Pisa. 
 The Altis and its immediate neighbourhood were 
 adorned with numerous temples, statues, and public 
 buildings, to which thegeneralappellation of Olympia 
 was given ; but there was no town of this name. 
 The Altis was surrounded by a wall. It contained 
 the following temples : — 1. The Oli/mpieum, or 
 temple of Zeus Olympius, which was the most 
 celebrated of all the buildings at Olympia, and 
 which contained the master-piece of Greek art, the 
 colossal statue of Zeus by Phidias. The statue 
 was made of ivorj' and gold, and the god was 
 represented as seated on a throne of cedar wood, 
 adorned with gold, ivory, ebony, and precious 
 atones. [Phidias.] 2. The Heraeum, or temple 
 of Hera, which contained the celebrated chest of 
 Cypselus, and was situated N. of the Olympieum. 
 
 3. The Metroum, or temple of the Mother of the 
 gods. The other public buildings in the AUis 
 most worthy of notice were, the Thesauri, or trea- 
 suries of the different states, which had sent dedi- 
 catory offerings to the Olympian Zeus, situated at 
 the foot of Mt. Cronion : the Zanes, or statues of 
 Zeus, which had been erected from fines imposed 
 upon those who had been guilty of fraud or other 
 irregularities in the Olympic contests, and which 
 were placed on a stone platform near the Thesauri: 
 the Prytaneum, in which the Olympic victors dined 
 after the contests had been brought to a close : the 
 BouletUerion, in which all the regulations relating 
 to the games were made, and which contained a 
 
49G 
 
 OLYMPIAS. 
 
 statue of Zeus Horcius, before vhich tlie iisual 
 oaths were taken by the judges and the com- 
 batants : the Phiiippewn, a circular building of 
 brick, surmounted with a dome, which was erected 
 by Philip after the battle of Chaeronea, and which 
 waa situated near one of the gates of the Altis, 
 close to the Prytaneum : the Hippodamium^ a 
 sacred enclosure erected in honour of Hippodamia: 
 the Pelopium^ a sacred enclosure, erected in honour 
 of Pelops. The 2 chief buildings outside the Altis 
 were the Stadium to the E. of Mt. Cronion, in 
 which the gymnastic games were celebrated, and 
 the Hippodromus, a little S.E. of the Stadium, in 
 which the chariot races took place. At the place 
 which formed the connection between the Stadium 
 and Hippodromus, the Hellanodicae, or judges of 
 the Olympic games had their seats. (For details 
 see Diet of Aniiq, arts. Hippodromus and Sta- 
 dium.) The Olympic games were celebrated from 
 the earliest times in Greece, and their establish- 
 ment was assigned to various mythical personages. 
 There was an interval of 4 years between each 
 celebration of the festival, which interval was 
 called an Olympiad ; but the Olympiads were not 
 employed as a chronological aera till the victory of 
 Coroebus in the foot-race, b. c. 776. An account 
 of the Olympic games and of the Olympiads is given 
 in the Did. of Aniiq. arts. Olympia and Olympias. 
 Olympias (*OA.uAi^ias), wife of Philip II., king 
 of Macedonia, and mother of Alexander the Great, 
 was the daughter of Neoptolemus I,, king of Epirus. 
 She was married to Philip b. c. 359. The nu- 
 merous amours of Philip, and the passionate and 
 jealous character of Olympias occasioned frequent 
 disputes between them ; and when Philip married 
 Cleopatra, the niece of Attalus (337), Olympias 
 withdrew from Macedonia, and took refuge at the 
 court of her brother Alexander, king of Epirus. It 
 was generally believed that she lent her support to 
 the assassination of Philip, 336 ; but it ia hardly 
 credible that she evinced her approbation of that 
 deed in the open manner asserted by some writers. 
 After the death of Philip she returned to Mace- 
 donia, wiiere she enjoyed great influence through 
 the affection of Alexander. On the death of the 
 latter (323), she withdrew from Macedonia, where 
 her enemy Antipater had the undisputed control 
 of affairs, and took refuge in Epirus. Here she 
 continued to live, as it were, in exile, until the 
 death of Antipater (319) presented a new opening 
 to her ambition. She gave her support to the new 
 regent Polysperchon, in opposition to Cassander, 
 who had formed an alliance with Eurydice the 
 wife of Philip Arrhidaeus, the nominal king of 
 Macedonia. In 317 Olympias, resolving to obtain 
 the supreme power in Macedonia, invaded that 
 country, along with Polysperchon, defeated Eury- 
 dice in battle, and put both her and her husband 
 to death. Olympias followed up her vengeance by 
 the execution of Nicanor, the brother of Cassander, 
 as well as of 100 of hia leading partisans among 
 the Macedonian nobles. Cassander, who was at 
 that time in the Peloponnesus, hastened to turn 
 his anns against Macedonia, Olympias on his 
 approach threw herself (together with Roxana and 
 the young Alexander) into Pydna, where she was 
 closely blockaded by Cassander throughout the 
 winter. At length iu the spring of 316, she was 
 compelled to surrender to Cassander, who caused 
 her to be put to death. Olympias was not without 
 Bomething of the grandeur and loftiness of spirit 
 
 OLYMPUS. 
 
 which distinguished her son, but her ungovernable 
 passions led her to acts of sanguinary cruelty that 
 must for ever disgrace her name- 
 
 Olympiodorus QOKv(nn6h(opos). 1. A native 
 of Thebes in Egypt, who lived in the 5th century 
 after Christ. He wrote a work in 22 books (entitled 
 'IffTopiKoX \6yoi\ which comprised the history of 
 the Western empire under the reign of Honorius, 
 from A. D. 407 to October, A. D. 425. Olympio- 
 dorus took up the history from about the point at 
 which Eunapius had ended. [Eonapius.] The 
 original work of Olympiodorus is lost, but an 
 abridgment of it has been preserved by Photius. 
 After the death of Honorius Olympiodorus removed 
 to Byzantium, to the court of the emperor Theo- 
 dosius. Hierocles dedicated to this Olympiodorus 
 his work on providence and fate [HieroclesJ. 
 Olympiodorus was a heathen. ^2. A peripatetic 
 philosopher, who taught at Alexandria, where 
 Proclus was one of his pupils. -^ 3. The last phi- 
 losopher of celebrity in the Neo-Platonic school of 
 Alexandria. He lived in the first half of the 6th 
 century after Christ, in the reign of the emperor 
 Justinian. His life of Plato, and commentaries on 
 several of Plato's dialogues are still extant. ^4. 
 An Aristotelic philosopher, the author of a com- 
 mentary on the Meteorohgica of Aristotle, which 
 is still extant, lived at Alexandria, in the latter 
 half of the 6th century after Christ. Like Sim- 
 plicius, to whom, however, he is inferior, he 
 endeavours to reconcile Plato and Aristotle. 
 
 Olympius (*OAy^7rios), the Olympian, occurs as 
 a surname of Zeus, Hercules, the Muses {Olym- 
 piades), and in general of all the gods who were 
 believed to live in Olympus, in contradistinction 
 from the gods of the lower world. 
 
 Olympius Nemesianus. [Nemesianus.] 
 
 Olympus ("OAujuiror), the name of 2 Greek 
 musicians, of whom one is mythical, and the other 
 historical. ^ 1. The elder Olympus belongs to the 
 mythical genealogy of Mysian and Phrygian flute- 
 players — Hyagnis, Marsyas, Olympus — to each 
 of whom the invention of the flute was ascribed, 
 imder whose names we have the mythical repre- 
 sentation of the contest between the Phrygian 
 auletic and the Greek citharoedic music. Olympus 
 was said to have been a native of Mysia, and to 
 have lived before the Trojan war. Olympus not , 
 unfrequently appears on works of art, as a boy, 
 sometimes instructed by Marsyas, and sometimes 
 as witnessing and lamenting his fate. — 3. The 
 true 0l}'mpu3 was a Phrygian, and perliaps be- 
 longed to a family of native musicians, since he 
 was said to be descended from the first Olympus. 
 Ho flourished about a, c. 660 — 620. Though a 
 Phrygian by origin, Olympus must be reckoned 
 among the Greek musicians; for all the accounts 
 nKike Greece the scene of his artistic activity ; and 
 he may be considered as having naturalized in 
 Greece the music of the flute, which had previously 
 been almost peculiar to Phrygia. 
 
 Olympus ("OAujUTTos). I. In Europe. 1. (Grk. 
 Elymbo^ Turk. Semavat-Evi^ i. e. Abode of the. Ce- 
 lestials). The E. part of the great cliain of moun- 
 tains which extends W. and E. from the Acroce- 
 raunian promontory on the Adriatic, to tlie Ther- 
 maic Gulf, and which formed the N. boundary of 
 ancient Greece proper. In a wide sense, the name 
 is sometimes applied to all that part of this great 
 chain which lies ¥.. of the central range of Pindus, 
 and which is usually called the Cambunian moun- 
 
OLYNTHUS. OMBI. 497 
 tains ; but the more specific and ordinary use of thonia. It was the moat important of the Greek 
 the name Olympua is to denote the extreme E. cities on the coast of Macedonia, though we have 
 part of the chain, which striking oif from the Cam- no record of its foundation. It afterwards fell into 
 bunian mountains to the S.E., skirts ihe S. end of the hands of the Thracian Bottiaei, when they 
 the slip of coast called Pieria, and forms at its were expelled from their own country by the Ma- 
 termination the N. wall of the vale of Tempe. cedonians. [Bottiaei] It was taken by Arta- 
 Ita shape is that of a blunt cone, with its outline bazus, one of the generals of Xerxes, who peopled 
 picturesquely broken by minor summits; its height it with Clialcidians from Torone ; but it owed its 
 is about 9700 feet; and its chief summit is covered greatness to Perdiccas, who persuaded the inha- 
 with perpetual snow. From its position as the bitants of many of the smaller towns in Chalcidice 
 boundary between Thessaly and Macedonia, it is to abandon their own abodes and settle in Olynthus. 
 sometimes reckoned to the former, sometimes to This happened about the commencement of the 
 the latter. — In the Greek mythologj', Olympus Peloponneslan war ; and from this time Olynthus 
 was the chief seat of the third dynasty of gods, of appears as a prosperous and flourishing town, with 
 which Zeus was the head. It was a really local a population of 5000 inhabitants capable of bearing 
 conception with the early poets, to be understood arras. It became the head of a confederacy of all 
 
 literally, and not metaphorically, that these gods 
 " on the snowy top 
 
 Of cold Olympus ruled tlie middle air. 
 
 Their higltest Jieaven.^^ 
 Indeed, if Homer uses either of the terms "OAu^uttos 
 
 the Greek towns in this part of Macedonia, and it 
 long maintained its independence against the at- 
 tacks of the Athenians, Spartans and Macedonians ; 
 but in B. c. 379 it was compelled to submit to Sparta, 
 after carrying on war with this state for 4 years. 
 
 and ovpav6s metaphorically, it is the latter that is When the supremacy of Sparta was destroyed by 
 
 a metaphor for the former. Even the fable of the the Thebans, Olynthus recovered its independence, 
 
 giants scaling heaven must be understood in this and even received an accession of power from 
 
 sense ; not that they placed Pelion and Ossa upon Philip, who was anxious to make Olynthus a 
 
 t!ie top o/ Olympus to reach the still higher /i«atien, counterpoise to the influence of Athens in the N. 
 
 but that they piled Pelion on the top of Ossa, and of the Aegean. With this view Philip gave 
 
 both on the lower slopes of Olympus, to scale the Olynthus the territory of Potidaea, after he had 
 
 summit of Olympus itself, the abode of the gods, wrested this town from the Athenians in 356. 
 
 Homer describes the gods as having their several But when he had sufficiently consolidated his 
 
 palaces on the summit of Olympus ; as spending power to be able to set at defiance both Olynthus 
 
 the day in the palace of Zeus, round whom they and Athens, he threw oflF the mask, and laid siege 
 
 sit in solemn conclave, while the younger gods to the former city. The Olynthians earnestly 
 
 dance before them, and the Muses entertain them besought Athens for assistance, and were warmly 
 
 with the lyre and song. They are shut in from supported by Demosthenes in his Olynthiac ora- 
 
 the view of men upon the earth by a wall of clouds, tions ; but as the Athenians did not render the 
 
 the gates of which are kept by the Hours. The city any effectual assistance, it was taken and 
 
 same conceptions are found in Hesiod, and to a destroyed by Philip, and all its inhabitants sold 
 
 great extent in the later poets ; with whom, how- as slaves (347). Olynthus was never restored, 
 
 ever, even as early as the Ij-ric poets and the tra. and the remnants of its inhabitants were at a later 
 
 gedians, the idea becomes less material, and the time transferred by Cassander to Cassandrea. At 
 
 real abode of the gods is gradually transferred from the time of its prosperity Olynthus used the neigh- 
 
49S 
 
 OMPHALE. 
 
 Opposite to Ombi, on the left tank, was the town 
 of Contra-Ombos. 
 
 Omphale {'Ofi(pd\ri), daughter of the Lydian 
 king lardamis, and wife of Traolus, after whose 
 death she undertook the government herself. When 
 Hercules, in consequence of the murder of Iphitus, 
 was afflicted with a serious disease, and was in- 
 formed by the oracle that he could only be cured 
 by serving some one for wages for the space of 3 
 yeare, Hermes sold Hercules to Omphale. The 
 hero became enamoured of his mistress, and to 
 please her, he is said to have spun wool and put 
 on the garments of a woman, while Omphale wore 
 his lion's skin. She bore Hercules several children. 
 
 Omphalium {'0/j.<pdKiov : *0/i^aXiT7)s), a to^vn 
 in Crete in the neighbourhood of Cnossus. 
 
 On. [Heliopolis.] 
 
 Ouatas ('Oraros), of Aegina, the son of Micon, 
 was a distinguished statuary and painter, con- 
 temporary with Polygnotus, Ageladas, and Hegias. 
 He flourished down to about b. c. 460, that is, in 
 the age immediately preceding that of Phidias. 
 
 Oncae (''07K:ai), a village in Boeotia near 
 Thebes, from which one of the gates of Thebes 
 derived its name (^O^KaTai), and which contained 
 a sanctuary of Athena, who was hence called 
 Athena Onca. 
 
 Onchesmus or OncMsmus ("Oyxijcr/ios, "Oy- 
 Xto'f^o': : Orchido), a seaport town of Epirus in 
 Chaonia, opposite the W. extremity of Corcyra. 
 The ancients derived its name from Anchises, 
 whence it is named by Dionysius the " Harbour of 
 Anchises " (*A7xf(ro" \i/j,7]v). From this place 
 Cicero calls the wind blowing from Epirus towards 
 Italy Onchesmites. 
 
 Oiicliestiis {'Oyxn^J'To^ '■ ^OyxT^ c"''tos) 1. An 
 ancient town of Boeotia, said to have been founded 
 by Onchestus, son of Poseidon, was situated a little 
 S. of the lake Copais near Haliartus. It contained 
 a celebrated temple and grove of Poseidon, and 
 ■was the place of meeting of the Boeotian Amphic- 
 tyony. The ruins of this town are still to be seen 
 on the S. W. slope of the mountain Faga.^2. A 
 river in Thessaly, which rises in the neighbourhood 
 of Eretria, and flows by Cynoscephalae, and falls 
 into the lake Boebeis. It is perhaps the same as 
 the river Onochonus (*0v6x^i'os) mentioned by 
 Herodotus. 
 
 Onesicritus ( OrTjtrfKpiToj), a Greek historical 
 writer, who accompanied Alexander on his cam- 
 paigns in Asia, and wrote a history of them, which 
 is frequently cited by later authors. He is called 
 by some authorities a native of Astypalaea, and 
 by others of Aegina. When Alexander constructed 
 his fleet on the Hydaspes, he appointed Onesicritus 
 chief pilot of the fleet, a post which he held not 
 only during the descent of the Indus, but through- 
 out the voyage from the mouth of that river to the 
 Persian gulf, which was conducted under the com- 
 mand of Nearchus. Though an eye-witness of 
 much that he described, it appears that he inter- 
 mixed many fables and falsehoods with his nar- 
 rative, 80 that he early fell into discredit as an 
 authority. 
 
 Oningis or Grinds. [Oringis.] 
 
 Oniroa {"Oveipos), the Dream-God, was a per- 
 sonification of dreams. According to Homer 
 Dreams dwell on the dark shores of the W. Ocea- 
 nus, and the deceitful dreams come through an 
 ivory gate, while the true ones issue from a gate 
 made of horn. Hesiod caUs dreams the children 
 
 OPHELTES. 
 
 of night ; and Ovid, who calls them children of 
 Sleep, mentions 3 of them by name, viz. Morpheus, 
 Icelus or Phobetor, and Phantasus. Euripides 
 called them sons of Gaea, and conceived them as 
 genii with black wings. 
 
 Onoba, sumamed Aestuaiia (Huelva), a sea- 
 port town of the Turdetani in Hispania Baetica, 
 between the mouths of the Baetia and Anas, on an 
 aestuary formed by the river Luxia. There are 
 remains of a Roman aqueduct at Huelva. 
 
 Onomacritos (*0;/o;ua«piTos), an Athenian, who 
 occupies an interesting position in the history of 
 the early Greek religious poetry. He lived about 
 B. c. 520 — 485. He enjoyed the patronage of 
 Hipparchus, until he was detected by Lasus of 
 Hermione (the dithyrambic poet) in making an in- 
 terpolation in an oracle of Musaeus, for which Hip- 
 parchus banished him. He seems to have gone 
 into Persia, where the Pisistratids, after their ex- 
 pulsion from Athens, took him again into favour, 
 and employed him to persuade Xerxes to engage 
 in his expedition against Greece, by reciting to 
 him all the ancient oracles which seemed to favour 
 the attempt. It appears that Onomacritua had 
 made a collection and arrangement of the oracles 
 ascribed to Musaeus. It is further stated that he 
 made interpolations in Homer aa well as in Mu- 
 saeus, and that he was the real author of some of 
 the poems which went under the name of Orpheus, 
 
 Onomarclms (^Ovofxapxos)^ general of the Pho- 
 cians in the Sacred war, succeeded his brother Phi- 
 lomelus in this command, b. c. 353. In the follow- 
 ing year he was defeated in Thessaly by Philip, 
 and perished in attempting to reach by swimming 
 the Athenian ships, which were lying off the shore. 
 His body fell into the hands of Philip, who caused 
 it to be crucified, as a punishment for his sacri- 
 lege. 
 
 Onosander (^Ov6(rayZpos\ the author of a cele- 
 brated work on military tactics (entitled SxparTj- 
 yinhs K6yos\ which is still extant. All subsequent 
 Greek and Roman writers on the same subject 
 made this work their text-book, and it is still held 
 in considerable estimation. He appears to have 
 lived about a. d. 50. In his style he imitated 
 Xenophon with some success. Edited by Schwebel, 
 Nurnberg, 1761 ; and by Coraes, Paris, 1822. 
 
 Onu-gTiatliTls (^Ovov yvddos : Ehpkonisi), an 
 island and a promontory on the S. coast of Laconia, 
 W. ofC. Malea. 
 
 Oniiplxis (^Ovovtpis), the capital of the Nomos 
 Onuphites in the Delta of Egypt. Its site is un- 
 certain; but it was probably near the middle of the 
 Delta. 
 
 Ophelion ('n^eXiwi'), an Athenian comic poet, 
 probably of the Middle Comedy, B.C. 380. 
 
 Ophelias (*O0e'\A.ay), of Pella in Macedonia, 
 was one of the generals of Alexander the Great, 
 after whose death he followed the fortunes of 
 Ptolemy. In E. c. 322, he conquered Cyrene for 
 Ptolemy, of which city he held the government on 
 behalf of the Egyptian king for some years. But 
 soon after 313 he tlirew off his allegiance to Pto- 
 lemy, and continued to govern Cyrene as an inde- 
 pendent state for nearly 5 years. In 308 he formed 
 an alliance with Agathocles, and marched against 
 Carthage ; but he was treacherously attacked by 
 Agathocles near this city, and was slain. 
 
 Opheltes ('Otpe'^T?;?). 1. Also called Arche- 
 moras. [Archemorus.] ^2. One of the Tyr- 
 rhenian pirates, who attempted to carry off Diony. 
 
- OPHION. 
 
 sus, and were therefore metamorphosed into dol- 
 phins. 
 
 Ophion {'0(l>itav). 1. One of the oldest of the 
 Titans was married to Eurynome, with whom he 
 ruled over Olympus, but being conquered by Cro- 
 nos and Rhea, he and Eurynome were thrown into 
 Oceanua or Tartarus.— 2. A giant, who perished 
 in the battle with Zeus. — 3. Father of the cen- 
 taur Amycus, who is hence called Ophiontdes. 
 
 Ophionensea or Ophiensea {'O^iopeTs, '0<pi€Ts), 
 a people in the N.E. of Aetolia. 
 
 Ophir (0. T. LXX. 2ou(^fp, 5a>(^i>, ^cotpdpa), a 
 place frequently referred to in the Old Testament, 
 as proverbial for its gold, and to which Solomon, 
 in conjunction with Hiram, king of Tyre, sent a 
 fleet, which brought back gold and sandal-wood 
 and precious stones. These ships were sent from 
 Ezion-geber, at the head of the Red Sea, whence 
 also king Jehoshaphat built ships to go to Ophir 
 for gold, but this voyage was stopped by a ship- 
 wreck. It is clear, therefore, that Ophir was on 
 the shores of the Erythraeum Mare of the ancients, 
 or our Indian Ocean. Among the most plausible 
 conjectures as to its site are: (1) that it was on 
 the coast of India, or a name for India itself ; (2) 
 that it was on the coast of Arabia, in which case 
 it is not necessary to suppose that Arabia furnished 
 all the articles of commerce which were brought 
 from Ophir, for Ophir may have been a great 
 emporium of the Indian and Arabian trade ; (3) 
 that it is not the name of any specific place, but a 
 general designation for the countries (or any of 
 them) on the shores of the Indian Ocean, which 
 supplied the chief articles of Indian and Arabian 
 commerce. 
 
 Ophis ( 0(pL$)^ a river in Arcadia, which flowed 
 by Man tinea. 
 
 Ophiiisa or Ophiussa {'0<pi6e(rcra^ 'O^ioDo-o-a, 
 'O^iouffa, i.e. abounding in snaJces). 1. [PiTYU- 
 SAE.]— 2. Or Ophiussa (Perhaps Palanea), a 
 town of Europaean Scythia on the left bank of 
 the Tyras (Dniester). ^ 3, A little island near 
 Crete. — 4. {Afsia or Rabin), a small island in the 
 Propontis {Sea of Marmara), oflf the coast of 
 Mysia, N.W. of Cyzicus and S.W. of Proconnesus. 
 — 5. [Rhodus.] — 6. [Tenos.] 
 
 Opluynium. (^Ocppvi/eiov : prob. Fren-Kem), a 
 small town of the Troad, near the lake of Pteleos, 
 between Dardanus and Rhoeteum, with a grove 
 consecrated to Hector. 
 Opici, [Osci.] 
 
 Opilius Macrinus. [Macrinus.] 
 Opilius, Anrelius, the freedman of an Epi- 
 curean, taught at Rome, first philosophy, then rhe- 
 toric, and, finally, grammar. He gave up his school 
 upon the condemnation of Rutilius Rufus (b. c. 92 ), 
 whom he accompanied to Smyrna, and there the 
 two friends grew old together in the enjoyment of 
 each other's society. He composed several learned 
 works, one of which, named Mtisae, is referred to 
 by A. Gellius. 
 
 Opimius. 1. Q., consul b. c. 154, when he 
 subdued some of the Ligurian tribes N. of the 
 Alps, who had attacked Massilia. He was noto- 
 rious in his youth for his riotous living, — 2. 
 L,, son of the preceding, was praetor 125, in which 
 year he took Fregellae, which had revolted against 
 the Romans. He belonged to the high aristocra- 
 tical party, and was a violent opponent of C. 
 Gracchus. He was consul in 121, and took the 
 leading part in the proceedings which ended in the 
 
 OPPIUS. 
 
 499 
 
 murder of Gracchus. Opimius and his party abused 
 their victory most savagely, and are said to have 
 killed more than 300 persons. For details see 
 p. 288, a. In the following year (120), lie was 
 accused of having put Roman citizens to death 
 without trial ; but he was defended by the consul, 
 C. Papirius Carbo, and was acquitted. In 112 he 
 was at the head of the commission which was 
 sent into Africa in order to divide the dominions 
 of Micipsa between Jugurtha and Adherbal, and 
 was bribed by Jugurtha, to assign to him the 
 better part of the countr}-. Three years after he 
 was condemned under the law of the tribune, C. 
 Mamilius Limetanus, by which an inquiry was 
 made into the conduct of all those who had re- 
 ceived bribes from Jugurtha.. Opimius went into 
 exile to Dyrrhachium in Epirus, where he lived for 
 some years, hated and insulted by the people, and 
 where he eventually died in great poverty. He 
 richly deserved his punishment, and met with a 
 due recompense for his cruel and ferocious conduct 
 towards C. Gracchus and his party. Cicero, on 
 the contrary, who, after his consulship, had iden- 
 tified himself with the aristocratical party, fre- 
 quently laments the fate of Opimius. The year in 
 which Opimius was consul (121) was remarkable 
 for the extraordinary heat of the autumn, and thus 
 the vintage of this year was of an unprecedented 
 quality. This wine long remained celebrated as 
 the Vinum Opimianum, and was preserved for an 
 almost incredible space of time. 
 
 Opis (^CIttis), an important commercial city of 
 Assyria, in the district of Apolloniatis, at the con- 
 fluence of the Physcus [Odomeli) with the Tigris; 
 not mentioned later than the Christian era. 
 
 Opitergium (Opiterginus: Oderzo), a Roman 
 colony in Venetia in the N. of Italy, on the river 
 Liquentia near its source, and on the high road 
 from Aqulleia to Verona. In the Marcomannic 
 war it was destroyed by the Quadi, but it was re- 
 built, and afterwards belonged to the Exarchate. 
 From it the neighbouring mountains were called 
 Mantes Opiiergini. 
 
 Oppiaaus {^0Trinav6^), the author of 2 Greek 
 hexameter poems still extant, one on fishing, en- 
 titled Halieutica {*A\ievTiKa.), and the other on 
 hunting, entitled Cynegetica {Kw-qy^TiKo). Mo- 
 dern critics, however, have shown that these 2 
 poems were written by 2 different persons of this 
 name. 1. The author of the Halieutica^ was bom 
 either at Corycus or at Anazarba, in Cilicia, and 
 flourished about a. n. 180. The poem consists of 
 about 3500 hexameter lines, divided into 5 books, 
 of which the first 2 treat of the natural history of 
 fishes, and the other 3 of the art of fishing.— 2. 
 The author of the Cynegetica^ was a native of Apa- 
 mea or Pella, in Syria, and flourished a little later 
 than the other Oppianus, about a. d. 206. His 
 poem, which is addressed to the emperor Caracalla, 
 consists of about 2100 hexameter lines, divided into 
 4 books. The best edition of the 2 poems is by 
 Schneider, Argent. 1776, and 2nd ed. Lips. 1813. 
 There is also a prose paraphrase of a poem on hawking 
 (*I^€UTJK(i) attributed to Oppianus, but it is doubt- 
 ful to which of the 2 authors of this name it be- 
 longs. Some critics think that the work was pro- 
 bably written by Dionysius. 
 
 Oppius. 1. C, tribune of the plebs B. c. 213, 
 carried a law to curtail the expenses and luxuries 
 of Roman women. It enacted that no woman 
 should have more than half an ounce of gold, nor 
 
 K K *J 
 
500 
 
 OPS. 
 
 ■wear a dress of different colours, nor ride in a car- 
 riage in the city, or in any town, or within a mile 
 of it, unless on account of public sacrifices. This 
 law was repealed in 195, notwithstanding the ve- 
 hement opposition of the elder Cato.'^2. Q., a 
 Roman general in the Mithridatic war, B.C. 88, 
 fell into the hands of Mlthridates, but was subse- 
 aequently surrendered by the latter to Sulla. ^3. C, 
 an intimiite friend of C. Julius Caesar, whose 
 private affairs he managed in conjunction with 
 Cornelius Balbns. Oppius was the author of se- 
 veral works, referred to by the ancient writers, but 
 all of which have perished- The authorship of the 
 histories of the Alexandrine, African, and Spanish 
 wars, was a disputed point aa early as the time of 
 Suetonius, some assigning them to Oppius and 
 others to Hirtius. But the similarity in style and 
 diction between the work on the Alexandrine war 
 and the last book of the Commentaries on the 
 Gallic war, leads to the conclusion that the former, 
 at all events, was the work of Hirtius. The book 
 on the African war was probably written by Op- 
 pius. He also wrote the lives of several distin- 
 guished Romans, such as Scipio Africanus the 
 elder, Marius, Pnmpey, and probably Caesar. 
 
 Ops, a female Roman divinity of plenty and fer- 
 tility, as is indicated by her name, which is 
 comiected with opimus, opuUntus, mops, and copia. 
 She was regarded as the wife of Satumus, and 
 the protectress of every thing connected with 
 agriculture. Her abode was in the earth, and 
 hence those who invoked her used to touch the 
 ground. Her worship was intimately connected 
 with that of hpr husband Satumus, for she had 
 both temples and festivals in common with him ; 
 but she had likewise a separate sanctuary on the 
 Capitol, and in the vicus jugarius, not far from the 
 temple of Saturnus, she had an altar in common 
 with Ceres. The festivals of Ops are called Opalia 
 and Opiconsivia, from her surname Consiva^ con- 
 nected with the verb serere, to sow. 
 
 Optatus, bishop of Milevi in Numidia, flou- 
 rished under the emperors Valentinian and Valens. 
 He wrote a work, still extant, against the errors 
 of the Donatists, entitled, De Schismate Do7iaiis- 
 tarum adversus Parmenianunu Edited by Dupin, 
 Paris fol.1700. 
 
 Opus {'Oirouy, contr. of 'OttcJ^is; ^Ottovvtios'). 
 
 1. [Talanda or Talanii$)^ the capital of the Opun- 
 tian Locrians, was situated, according to Strabo, 
 15 stadia (2 miles) from the sea, and 60 stadia from 
 its harbour Cynos; but, according to Livy, it was 
 only 1 mile from the coast. It was the birthplace 
 of Patroclus. The bay of the Euboean sea near 
 this town was called Opuntius Sinus. [LocRi.] — 
 
 2. A small town in Elis. 
 
 Ora. 1. {"Opa) a city of Carmania, near the 
 borders of Gedrosia.— 2. ("Hpa), a city in the N. W. 
 of India, near the sources of the Indus. 
 
 Orae. [Oritae.] 
 
 Orbelua ("Op^TjAos), a mountain in the N.E. of 
 Macedonia, on the borders of Thrace, extends from 
 Mt. Rhodnpe along the Strj-mon to Mt. Pangaeus. 
 
 Orbillus Pupillus, a Roman grammarian and 
 schoolmaster, best known to us from his having 
 been the teacher of Horace, who gives him the 
 epithet of plagosus from the severe floggings which 
 hia pupils received from him. (Hor. Ep- ii. 1. 71.) 
 He was a native of Beneventum, and after serving 
 as an apparitor of the magistrates, and also as a 
 soldier in the army, he settled at Rome in the 50th 
 
 ORCHOMENUS. 
 
 year of his age, in the consulship of Cicnro, B. c. 63. 
 He lived nearly 1 00 years, but had lost hia memory 
 long before his death. 
 
 Orbona, a female Roman divinity, was invoked 
 by parents who had been deprived of their children, 
 and desired to have others, and also in dangerous 
 maladies of children. 
 
 Orcades Insulae {Orkney and SlietJand Tsles\ a 
 group of several small islands off the N. coast of 
 Britain, with which the Romans first became ac- 
 quainted when Agricola sailed round the N. of 
 Britain. 
 
 Orchomenus {*Opx^i^^^os : *Opxop.4vios). 1. 
 (Scripu\ an ancient, wealthy, and powerful city of 
 Boeotia, the capital of the Minyean empire in the 
 ante-historical ages of Greece, and hence called by 
 Homer the Minyean Orchomenos (*Opx- Mir^eioy). 
 It was situated N.W. of the lake Copaia, on the 
 river Cephissus, and was built on the slope of a hill 
 on the summit of which stood the acropolis. It is 
 said to have been originally called Andreis ('Ar- 
 ^piis), from Andreus, the son of Peneus, who 
 emigrated from the Peneus in Thessaly ; to have 
 been afterwards called Phlegya (#A67ua), from 
 Phlegyas, a son of Ares and Chryse ; and to have 
 finally obtained its later name from Orchomenug, 
 son of Zeus or Eteocles and the Danaid Hesione, 
 and father of Min3'as. This Orchomenus was re- 
 garded as the real founder of the Minyean empire, 
 which before the time of the Trojan war extended 
 over the whole of the W. of Boeotia, The cities of 
 Coronea, Haliartus, Lebedea, and Chaeronea were 
 subject to it ; and even Thebes at one time was 
 compelled to pay it tribute. It lost, however, 
 much of its power after its capture by Hercules, 
 but in the time of the Trojan war it still ap- 
 pears as a powerful city. Sixty years after the 
 Trojan war it was taken by the Boeotians ; its 
 empire was completely destroyed ; and it became a 
 member of the Boeotian league. All this belongs 
 to the mythical period. In the historical age it 
 continued to exist as an independent town til! 
 B. c. 367, when it was taken and destroyed by the 
 Thebans, and its inhabitants murdered or sold as 
 slaves. In order to weaken Thebes, it was rebuilt 
 at the instigation of the Athenians, but was soon 
 destroyed again by the Thebans ; and although it 
 was again restored by Philip in 338, it never re- 
 covered its former prosperity; and in the time of 
 Strabo was in ruins. The most celebmted building 
 in Orchomenos was the so-called treasury of Minyas, 
 but which, like the similar monument at Mycenae, 
 was more probably a family-vault of the ancient 
 heroes of the place. It was a circular vault of 
 massive masonry embedded in the hill, with an 
 arched roof, and had a side door of entrance. The 
 remains of this building are extant; and its form 
 may still be traced, though the whole of the stone- 
 work of the vault has disappeared. Orchomenos 
 possessed a very ancient temple of the Charites or 
 Graces ; and here was celebrated in the most ancient 
 times a musical festival, which was frequented by 
 poets and singers from all parts of the Hellenic 
 world. There was a temple of Hercules 7 stadia 
 N. of the town, near the sources of the river Melas. 
 Orchomenos is memorable on account of the great 
 victory which Sulla gained in its neighbourhood 
 over Archelaus, the general of Mithridates, 86.^ 
 2. {Kalpaki\ an ancient town of Arcadia,mentioned 
 by Homer with the epithet vo\vfJLT]\os, to distin- 
 guish it from the Miuyean Orchomenus, is said to 
 
ORCUS. 
 
 have been founded by Orchomenus, son of Lycaon. 
 It was situated on a hill N.W. of Mantinea, and 
 its territory included the towns of Methydrium, 
 Theiaoa, Teuthis, and the Tripolis. In the Pelo- 
 ponnesian war Orchomenus sided with Sparta, and 
 was taken by the Athenians. After the battle of 
 Leuctra the Orchomenians did not join the Arcadian 
 confederacy in consequence of its hatred against 
 Mantinea. In the contests between the Achaeans 
 and Aetolians, it' was taken successively by Cleo- 
 menes and Antigonus Doson ; but it eventually 
 became a member of the Achaean League. — 3. A 
 town on the confines of Macedonia and Thessaly, 
 and hence sometimes said to belong to the former, 
 and sometimes to the latter country. 
 
 Orcu3. [Hades.] 
 
 Ordessus {*0pdtj(T(r6s), a tributary of the Ister 
 (Danube) in Scythia, mentioned by Herodotus, 
 but which cannot be identified with any modem 
 river. 
 
 Ordovices, a people in the W. of Britain, oppo- 
 site the island Mona {Avglesey)^ occupying the N. 
 portion of the modern Wales. 
 
 Oreades. [Nymphae.] 
 
 Orestae ('OpecrToi), a people in the N. of Epirus 
 on the borders of Macedonia, inhabiting the district 
 named after them, Orestis or Orestias. They were 
 originally independent, but were afterwards subject 
 to the Macedonian monarchs. They were declared 
 free by the Romans in their war with Philip. Ac- 
 cording to the legend, they derived their name 
 from Orestes, who is said to have fled into this 
 country after murdering his mother, and to have 
 there founded the town of Argos Oresticum, 
 
 Orestes ('Opeo-TTjs). 1. Son of Agamemnon and 
 Clytaemnestra, and brother of Chrysothemis, Lao- 
 dice (Electra), and Iphianassa (Iphigenia). Ac- 
 cording to the Homeric account, Agamemnon on 
 his return from Troy was murdered by Aegisthus 
 aud Clytaemnestra before he had an opportunity of 
 seeing him. In the 8th year after his father'^s 
 murder Orestes came from Athens to Mycenae and 
 5lew the murderer of his father. This simple story 
 of Orestes has been enlarged and embellished in 
 rarious ways by the tragic poets. Thus it is said 
 that at the murder of Agamemnon it was intended 
 to despatch Orestes also, but that by means of 
 Electra he was secretly carried to Strophius, king 
 in Phocis, who was married to Anaxibia, tlie sister 
 of Agamemnon. According to some, Orestes was 
 saved by his nurse, who allowed Aegisthus to kill 
 her own child, supposing it to be Orestes. In the 
 bouse of Strophius, Orestes grew up with the king's 
 snn Pylades, with whom he had formed that close 
 and intimate friendship which has bc?come pro- 
 verbial. Being frequently reminded by messengers 
 from Electra of the necessity of avenging his father's 
 death, he consulted the oracle of Delphi, which 
 strengthened him in his plan. He therefore re- 
 paired in secret to Argos. Here he pretended to 
 be a messenger of Strophius, who had come to an- 
 nounce the death of Orest§s, and brought the ashes 
 of the deceased. After visiting his father's tomb, 
 and sacrificing upon it a lock of his hair, he made 
 himself known to his sister Electra, and soon after- 
 wards slew both Aegisthus and Clytaemnestra in 
 the palace. Immediately after the murder of his 
 mother he was seized with madness. He now fled 
 from land to land, pursued by the Eriunyes of his 
 mother. At length, by Apollo's advice, he took 
 refuge with Athena at Athena. The goddess af- 
 
 ORETANL 
 
 £01 
 
 forded him protection, and appointed the court of 
 the Areopagus to decide his fate. The Erinnyes 
 brought forward their accusation, and Orestes made 
 the command of the Delphic oracle his excuse. 
 When the court ■voted, and was equally divided, 
 Orestes was acquitted by the command of Athena. 
 According to another modification of the legend, 
 Orestes consulted Apollo how he could be delivered 
 from his madness and incessant wandering. The 
 god advised him to go to Tauris in Scythia, and 
 to fetch from that country the image of Artemis, 
 which was believed to have fallen there from hea- 
 ven, and to carry it to Athens. Orestes and Pylades 
 accordingly went to Tauris, where Thoas was king. 
 On their arrival they were seized by the natives, 
 in order to be sacrificed to Artemis, according to 
 the custom of the countr5\ But Iphigenia, the 
 priestess of Artemis, was the sister of Orestes, and, 
 after recognising each other, all three escaped with 
 the statue of the goddess. After his return to Pe- 
 loponnesus Orestes took possession of his father's 
 kingdom at Mycenae, which had been usurped by 
 Aletes or Menelaus. When Cylarabes of Argos 
 died without leaving any heir, Orestes also became 
 king of Argos. The Lacedaemonians likewise made 
 him their king of their own accord, because they 
 preferred him, the grandson of Tyndareus, to Nico- 
 stratus and Megapenthes, the sons of Menelaus by 
 a slave. The Arcadians and Phocians increased 
 his power by allying themselves with him. He 
 married Hermione, the daughter of Menelaus, and 
 became by her the father of Tisamenus. The story 
 of his marriage with Hermione, who had previously 
 been married to Neoptolemus, is related elsewhere. 
 [Hermione; Neoptolemus.] He died of the 
 bite of a snake in Arcadia, and his body, in ac- 
 cordance witli an oracle, was afterwards carried 
 from Tegea to Sparta, and there buried. His bones 
 are said to have been found at a later time in a 
 war between the Lacedaemonians and Tegeatans, 
 and to have been conveyed to Sparta. — 2. Regent 
 of Italy during the short reign of his infant son 
 Romulus Augustulus, a.d. 475 — 476. He was bom 
 in Pannonia, and served for some years under At- 
 tila ; after whose death he rose to eminence at the 
 Roman court. Having been entrusted with the 
 comm.and of an army by Julius Nepos, he deposed 
 this emperor, and placed his son Romulus Augus- 
 tulus on the throne ; but in the following year he 
 was defeated by Odoacer and put to death. [Odoa- 
 CER.] — 3. L. Aurelius Orestes, consul b.c. 126, 
 received Sardinia as his province, where he remained 
 upwards of 3 years. C. Gracchus was quaestor to 
 Orestes in Sardinia. ^4. Cn. Auiidius Orestes, 
 originally belonged to the Aurelia gens, whence his 
 surname of Orestes, and was adopted by Cn. Au- 
 fidius, the historian, when the latter was an old 
 man. Orestes was consul, 71. 
 
 Oresteum, Orestheum, or Oresthasium ('Ope- 
 (TT^iov^ 'Op^adeiou^ 'OpeaBdffiot/)^ a town in the S. 
 of Arcadia in the district Maenalia, not far from 
 Megalopolis. 
 
 Orestias. 1. The country of the Orestae. 
 [Orestae.] ^2. A name frequently given by the 
 Byzantine writers to Hadrianopolis in Thrace. 
 
 Orestilla, Aurelxa. [Aurelia.] 
 
 Oretani, a powerful people in the ^.W. of His- 
 pania Tarraconensis, bounded on the S. by Baetica, 
 on the N. by the Carpetani, on the W. by Lusita- 
 nia, and on theE. by the Bastetani ; their territory 
 corresponded to the eastern part of Granada, the 
 
502 OREUy 
 
 whole of La MancJta, and the western part of 
 
 Murcia. Their chief town was Castulo. 
 
 Oreus {'ClpeSs : *npe(T7js), a town in the N. of 
 Euboea, on the river Callas, at the foot of the 
 mountain Telethrium, and in the district Hes- 
 tiaeotis, was itself originally called Hestiaea or His- 
 tiaea. After the Persian wars Oreus, with the 
 rest of Euboea, became subject to the Athenians ; 
 but on the revolt of the island, in b. c. 445, Oreus 
 was taken by Pericles, its inhabitants expelled, 
 and their place supplied by 2000 Athenians. The 
 site of Oreus made it an important place, and its 
 name frequently occurs in the Grecian wars down 
 to the dissolution of the Achaean league. 
 
 Orgetorix, the noblest and richest among the 
 Helvetii, formed a conspiracy to obtain the royal 
 power B.C. 61, and persuaded his countrymen to 
 emigrate from their own coimtr^'. Two years were 
 devoted to making the necessary preparations ; but 
 the real designs of Orgetorix having meantime 
 transpired, and the Helvetii having attempted to 
 bring him to trial, he suddenly died, probably, as 
 was suspected, by his own hands. 
 
 Oribasius ['OpeiSdaios or 'Opi§atnos), an emi- 
 nent Greek medical iivriter, born about A. d. 325, 
 either at Sardis in Lydia, or at Pergamus in Mysia. 
 He early acquired a great professional reputation. 
 He was an intimate friend of the emperor Julian, 
 with whom he became acquainted several years 
 before Julian's accession to the throne. He was 
 almost the only person to whom Julian imparted 
 the secret of his apostasy from Christianity. He 
 accompanied Julian in his expedition against Persia, 
 and was with him at the time of his death, 363. 
 The succeeding emperors, Valentinian and Valens, 
 confiscated the property of Oribasius and banished 
 him. He was afterwards recalled from exile, and 
 was alive at least as late as 395. Of the personal 
 character of Oribasius we know little or nothing, 
 but it is clear that he was much attached to pa- 
 ganism and to the heathen philosophy. He was 
 an intimate friend of Eunapius, who praises him 
 very highly, and wrote an account of his life. We 
 possess at present 3 works of Oribasius: 1* Col- 
 lecta Mtdicinalia {'%vva')'(i>yoX 'larpiKal), or some- 
 times Hehdomecontahihlos {'ESdofLT^KOvrdSiSKos), 
 which was compiled at the command of Julian, 
 when Oribasius was still a young man. It contains 
 but little original matter, but is very valuable on 
 account of the numerous extmcts from writers whose 
 works are no longer extant More than half of 
 this work is now lost, and what remains is in some 
 confusion. There is no complete edition of the 
 work. 2. An abridgment {Zuvoipis) of the former 
 work, in 9 books. It was written 30 years after 
 the former. 3. Euporista or De facile Parabilibus 
 (EuTrdpitrra), in 4 books. Both this and the pre- 
 ceding work were intended as manuals of the prac- 
 tice of mi!dicine. 
 
 Oricum or Oricns i^O-piKov^ "D-ptKos : 'ripiKios ; 
 Ericho)^ an important Greek town on the coast of 
 Illyria, near the Ceraunian mountains and the fron- 
 tiers of Epirus, According to tradition it was 
 founded by the Euboeans, who were cast here by a 
 storm on their return from Troy ; but, according to 
 another legend, it was a Colchian colony. The 
 town was strongly fortified, but its harbour was 
 not very secure. It was destroyed in the civil wars, 
 but was rebuilt by Herodes Atticus. The turpen- 
 tine tree {terebinthus) grew in the neighbourhood 
 of Oreus. 
 
 ORIGENES. 
 
 Origeues ('n^iyeVTjy), usually called Origen, 
 one of the most eminent of the early Christian 
 writers, was bom at Alexandria, a. d. 186. He 
 received a careful education from his father, Leo- 
 nides, who was a devout Christian; and he subse- 
 quentiy became a pupil of Clement of Alexandria. 
 His father having been put to death in the perse- 
 cution of the Christians in the 10th year of Severus 
 (202), Origen was reduced to destitution ; where- 
 upon he became a teacher of grammar, and soon 
 acquired a great reputation. At the same time he 
 gave instraction in Christianity to several of the 
 heathen ; and though only in his 18th year, he was 
 appointed to the office of Catechist, which was 
 vacant through the dispersion of the clergy conse- 
 quent on the persecution. The young teacher 
 showed a zeal and self-denial beyond his years. 
 Deeming his profession as teacher of grammar in- 
 consistent with his sacred work, he gave it up ; 
 and he lived on the merest pittance. His food and 
 his periods of sleep were restricted within the nar- 
 rowest limits ; and he performed a strange act of self- 
 mutilation, in obedience to what he regarded as the 
 recommendation of Christ. (Matth. xix. 12.) At a 
 later time however he repudiated this literal under- 
 standing of our Lord's words. About 211 or 212 
 Origen visited Home, where he made however a very 
 short stay. On his return to Alexandria he con- 
 tinued to discharge his duties as Catechist, and to 
 pursue his biblical studies. About 216 he paid a 
 visit to Caesarea in Palestine, and about 230 he tra- 
 velled into Greece. Shortly after his return to Alex- 
 andria, he had to encounter the open enmity of 
 Demetrius, the bishop of the city. He was first 
 deprived of his office of Catechist, and was compelled 
 to leave Alexandria ; and Demetrius afterwards 
 procured his degradation from the priesthood and his 
 excommunication. The charges brought against him 
 are not specified ; but his unpopularity appears to 
 have arisen from the obnoxious character of some of 
 his opinions, and was increased by the circumstance 
 that even in his lifetime his writings were seriously 
 corrupted. Origen withdrew to Caesarea in Pales- 
 tine, where he was received with the greatest kind- 
 ness. Among his pupils at this place was Gregory 
 Thaumaturgus, who afterwards became his pane- 
 gyrist In 235 Origen fled from Caesarea in 
 Palestine, and rook refuge at Caesarea in Cappa- 
 docia, where he remained concealed 2 years. It 
 was subsequent to this that he undertook a 2nd 
 journey into Greece, the date of which is doubtful. 
 In the Decian persecution (249 — 251), Origen was 
 put to the torture ; but though his life was spared, 
 the sufferings which he underwent hastened his 
 end. He died in 253 or 254, in his 69th year at 
 Tyre, in which city he was buried. — The following 
 are the most important of Origen's works: 1. The 
 Hexapla^ which consisted of 6 copies of the Old 
 Testament, ranged in parallel columns. The 1st 
 column contained the Hebrew text in Hebrew 
 characters, the 2nd the same text in Greek cha- 
 racters, the 3rd the version of Aquila, the 4th 
 that of Symmachus, the 5th the Septuagint, the 
 6th the version of Theodotion. Beside the com- 
 pilation and arrangement of these versions, Origen 
 added marginal notes, containing, among other 
 things, an explanation of the Hebrew names. Only 
 fragments of this valuable work are extant; the 
 best edition of which is by Montfaucon, Paris, 1714, 
 2. Excyetical works^ which comprehend 3 classes : 
 (1.) Zbmi, which Jerome renders VolumiTia, con- 
 
ORINGia 
 
 taining ample commentaries, in which he gave full 
 scope to his intellect. (2.) ScJiolia, brief notes on 
 detached passages. (3.) Homiliae, popular expo- 
 sitions, chiefly delivered at Caesarea. In his various 
 expositions Origen sought to extract from the 
 Sacred Writings their historical, mystical or pro- 
 phetical, and moral significance. His desire of 
 finding continually a mystical sense led him fre- 
 quently into the neglect of the historical sense, and 
 even into the denial of its truth. This capital fault 
 has at all times furnished ground for depreciating 
 his labours, and has no doubt materially diminished 
 their value : it must not, however, be supposed 
 that his denial of the historical truth of the Sacred 
 Writings is more than occasional, or that it lias 
 been carried out to the full extent which some of 
 his accusers have charged upon him. 3. De Prin- 
 cipiis (Tlept apx^p). This work was the great ob- 
 ject of attack with Origen's enemies, and the source 
 from which they derived their chief evidence of his 
 various alleged heresies. It was divided into 4 
 books. Of this work some important fragments are 
 extant ; and the Latin version of Rufinus has 
 come down to us entire ; but Rufinus took great 
 liberties witli the original, and the unfaithful- 
 ness of his version is denounced in the strongest 
 terms by Jerome. 4. Exlwriatio ad MaQ-tyHum 
 (EiJ fiaprupiov -TrporpeirTtKhs \J70s), or DeMar- 
 tyria (Ilcpl fxapTvplov)^ written during the perse- 
 cution imder the emperor Maximin (235 — 238), 
 and still extant. 5. Contra Celsam Lihri VIII. 
 (KaTo. . Ki\(Tou Top-oi V), still extant. In this 
 important work Origen defends the truth of Christi- 
 anity against the attacks of Celsus. [Celsus.] — 
 There is a valuable work entitled Philocalia (*(- 
 KQKaXia\ which is a compilation by Basil of Cae- 
 sarea and his friend Gregory of Nazianzus, made 
 almost exclusively from the writings of Origen, of 
 which many important fragments have been thus 
 preserved. Few writers have exercised greater 
 influence by the force of their intellect and the 
 variety of their attainments than Origen, oi: have 
 been the occasion of longer and more acrimonious 
 disputes. Of his more distinctive tenets, several 
 had refexence to the doctrine of the Trinity, to the 
 subject of the incarnation, and to the pre-existence 
 of Christ's human soul, whicli, as well as the pre- 
 existence of other human souls, he affirmed. He 
 was charged also with, holding the corporeity of 
 angels, and with other errors as to angels and 
 daemons. He held the freedom of the human 
 will, and ascribed to man a nature less corrupt and 
 depraved than was consistent with orthodox views 
 of the operation of divine grace. He held the doc- 
 trine of the universal restoration of the guilty, 
 conceiving that the devil alone would suffer eternal 
 punishment. The best edition of his works is by 
 Delarue, Paris, 1733—1750, 4 vols. fo. 
 
 Oringis or Oningis, probably the sanie place as 
 Aurinx, a wealthy town in Hispania Baetica, with 
 silver mines, near Munda. 
 
 OriOE ('Opt'wj'), son of Hyrieus, of Hyrin, in 
 Boeotia, a handsome giant and hunter, said to have 
 been called by the Boeotians Candaon. Once he 
 came to Chios (Ophiusa), and fell in love with 
 Aero, orMerope, the daughter of Oenopion, by the 
 nymph Helice. He cleared the island from wild 
 beasts, and brought the spoils of the chase as pre- 
 sents to his beloved ; but as Oenopion constantly 
 deferred the marriage, Orion once when intoxicated 
 offered violence to the maiden. Oenopion now 
 
 ORITAE. 
 
 503 
 
 implored the assistance of Dionysus, who caused 
 Orion to be thrown into a deep sleep by satyrs, in 
 which state Oenopion deprived him of his sight 
 Being informed by an oracle that he should recover 
 his sight, if he would go towards the east and ex- 
 pose his eye-balls to the rays of the rising sun, 
 Orion followed the sound of a Cyclops' hammer, 
 went to Lemnos, where Hephaestus gave to him 
 Cedalion as his guide. Having recovered his sight, 
 Orion returned to Chios to take vengeance on 
 Oenopion ; but as the latter had been concealed by 
 his friends, Orion was unable to find him, and then 
 proceeded to Crete, where he lived as a hunter 
 with Artemis. The cause of his death, which took 
 place either in Crete or Chios, is differently stated. 
 According to some, Eos (Aurora), who loved Orion 
 for his beauty, carried him off, but as the gods 
 were angrj' at this, Artemis killed him with an 
 arrow in Ortygia. According to others, he was 
 beloved by Artemis, and Apollo, indignant at his 
 sister's affection for him, asserted that she was un- 
 able to hit with her arrow a distant point whicli 
 he showed her in the sea. She thereupon took aim, 
 and hit it, but the point was the head of Orion, 
 who had been swimming in the sea. A third ac- 
 count, which Horace follows {Carm. ii. 4. 72), 
 states that he attempted to violate Artemis (Diana), 
 and was killed by the goddess with one of her 
 arrows. A fourth account, lastly, states that he 
 boasted he would conquer every animal, and would 
 clear the earth from all wild beasts ; but the earth 
 sent forth a scorpion which destroyed him. Aescu- ^ 
 lapius attempted to recall him to life, but was slain 
 by Zeus with a flash of lightning. The accounts 
 of his parentage and birth-place vary In the dif- 
 ferent writers, for some call him a son of Poseidon 
 and Euryale, and others say that he was bom of 
 the earth, or a son of Oenopion. He is further 
 called a Theban, or Tanagraean, but probably be- 
 cause Hyria, his native place, sometimes belonged 
 to Tanagra, and sometimes to Thebes. After his 
 death, Orion was placed among the stars where he 
 appears as a giant with a girdle, sword, a lion's 
 skin and a club. The constellation of Orion set at 
 the commencement of November, at which time 
 storms and rain were frequent ; hence he is often 
 called imhrifer^ niuibostis^ or aqmA'US. 
 
 Orion and Orus ("H/^iw*- and "^^i^os), names of 
 several ancient grammarians, who are frequently 
 confounded with each other. It appears, tiowever, 
 that we may distinguish 3 writers of these names. 
 1. Orion, a Theban grammarian, who taught at 
 Caesarea, in the 5 th century after Christ, and is 
 the author of a lexicon, still extant, published by 
 Sturz, Lips. 1820. — 2. Orus, of Miletus, a gram- 
 marian, lived in the 2nd century after Christ, and 
 was the author of the works mentioned by Suidas. 
 ^ 3. Orus, an Alexandrine grammarian, wlio 
 taught at Constantinople not earlier than the 
 middle of the 4th century after Christ. 
 
 Orippo, a town in Hispania Baetica, on the road 
 between Gades and Hispalis. 
 
 Oritae, Horitae, or Orae ('nptlTai, 'npai), a 
 people of Gedrosia, who inhabited a district on 
 the coast nearly 200 miles long, abounding in 
 wine, corn, rice, and palm-trees, the modern Urhoo 
 on the coast of Beloochistan. Some of the ancient 
 writers assert that they were of Indian origin, 
 while others say that, though they resembled the 
 Indians in many of their cusloms, they spoke a 
 different language. 
 
504 ORITHYIA. 
 
 Orithyia COpe(dvia\ daughter of Erechtheus, 
 king of Athens, and Praxithea. Once as she had 
 strayed beyond the river lUssua she was seized by 
 Boreas, and carried off to Thrace, where she bore 
 to Boreas Cleopatra, Chione, Zetes, and Calais. 
 
 Ormeuus ("Op^evos), son of Cercaphus, grandson 
 of Aeolus and father of Aniyntor, was believed to 
 have founded the town of Ormenium, in Thessaly. 
 From him Amyntor is sometimes called Orinenidcs, 
 and Astydamia, his grand- daughter, Ormenis. 
 
 Omeae ('Opj'eat: 'OpvetiTTjs), an ancient town 
 of Argolis, near the frontiers of the territory of 
 Phlius, and 120 stadia from Argos. It was origi- 
 nally independent of Argos, but was subdued by 
 the Argives in the Peloponnesian war, B.C. 415. 
 
 Omens ('Opreiis), son of Erechtheus, father of 
 Peteus, and grandfather of Menestheua ; from him 
 the town of Orneae was believed to have derived 
 its name, 
 
 Oroanda (^Op6av^a.\ 'OpoavSeus, or -ikcJs, Oro- 
 andensis), a "mountain city of Pisidia, S. E. of 
 Autiochia, from which the "Oroandicus tractus" 
 obte-ined its name. 
 
 Oroatis QOpodris : Tab), the largest of the. 
 minor rivers which flow into the Persian Gulf, 
 formed the boundary between Susianaand Persis. 
 
 Orobiae {'OpoSiai), a town on the coast of Eu- 
 boea, not far from Aegae, with an oracle of Apollo. 
 
 Orodes ('O/joJStjs), the name of 2 kings of Par- 
 thia. [Arsaces XIV., XVII.] 
 
 Oroetes ('OpoiTT^s-), a Persian, was made satrap 
 of Sardis by Cyrus, which government he retained 
 ^ uuder Cambyses. In b. c. 522, he decoyed Poly- 
 crates into his power by specious promises, and 
 put him to death. But being suspected of aiming 
 at the establishment of an independent sovereignty, 
 he Avas himself put to death by order of Darius. 
 
 Orontes ('OpocTi^s). 1. {NaJtr-eUAsy), the 
 krgest river of Syria, has 2 chief sources in Coe- 
 lesjTia, the one in the Antilibanus, the other fur- 
 ther N. in the Libanus ; flows N. E. into a lake 
 S. of Emesa, and thence N. past Epiphania and 
 Apamea, till near Antioch, where it suddenly 
 sweeps round to the S. W. and falls into the sea 
 at the foot of M. Pieria. According to tradition 
 its earlier name was Typhon (Tw^w*'), and it was 
 called Orontes from the person who first built a 
 bridge over it. ^3. A mountain on the S. side of 
 the Caspian, between Parthia and Hyrcania. ^ 
 3. A people of Assyria, E. of Gaugamela. . 
 
 Oropus i^CLpdmSs : ^ripwiros : Oropo), a town on 
 the eastern frontiers of Boeotia and Attica, near 
 the Euripus, originally belonged to the Boeotians, 
 
 matlzed by John, bishop of Jerusalem, when he 
 brought a formal charge against Pelagius. Orosiua 
 subsequently returned to Africa, and there, it is 
 believed, died, but at what period is not known. 
 The following works by Orosiua are still extant, 
 I. Historiaruin adversus Faganos Libri VII., 
 dedicated to St Augustine, at whose suggestion 
 the task was imdertaken. The pagans having 
 been accustomed to complain that the ruin of the 
 Roman empire must be ascribed to the wrath of 
 the ancient deities, whose worship had been aban- 
 doned, Orosius, upon his return from Palestine, 
 composed this history to demonstrate that from the 
 earliest epoch the world had been the scene of 
 calamities as great as the Roman empire was then 
 suffering. The work, which extends from the 
 Creation down to a. d. 417, is,with exception of the 
 concluding portion, extracted from Justin, Eutro- 
 pius, and inferior second-hand authorities. Edited 
 by Havercamp, Lug. Bat. 1738. 2. Liber Apolo- 
 geiicus de Arhiirii LibeHcde, written in Palestine, 
 A.D. 415, appended to the edition of the History 
 by Havercamp. 3. Commonitorium ad Avgusti- 
 num., the earliest of the works of Orosius, composed 
 soon after his first arrival in Africa. 
 
 Orospeda or Ortospeda {Sierra dd Mundo), the 
 highest range of mountains in the centre of Spain, 
 began in the centre of Mt Idubeda, ran first W. 
 and then S., and terminated near Calpe at the 
 Fretum Eerculeum. It contained several silver 
 mines, whence the part in which the Baetis 
 rises was called ML Argentarius or the Silver 
 Mountain. 
 
 Orpheus ("Op^eus), a mythical personage, was 
 regarded by the Greeks as the most celebrated of 
 the early poets, who lived before the time of Homer. 
 His name does not occur in the Homeric or He- 
 siodic poems ; but it already had attained to great 
 celebrity in the lyric period. There were numerous 
 legends about Orpheus, but the common story ran 
 as follows. Orpheus, the son of Oeagrus and Cal- 
 liope, lived in Thrace at the period of the Argonauts, 
 whom he accompanied in their expedition. Pre- 
 sented with the lyre by Apollo, and instructed by 
 the Muses in its use, he enchanted with its music 
 not only the wild beasts, but the trees and rocks 
 upon Olympus, so that they moved from their places 
 to follow the sound of his golden harp. The power 
 of his music caused the Argonauts to seek his aid, 
 which contributed materially to the success of their 
 expedition: at the sound of his lyre the Argo 
 glided down into the sea ; the Argonauts tore 
 themselves away from the pleasures of Lemnos ; 
 
ORPHEUS. 
 
 Arlstaeus into the legend cannot be traced to any 
 writer older than Virgil himself. He followed his 
 lost wife into the abodes of Hades, where the 
 charms of liis lyre suspended the torments of the 
 damned, and won back his wife from the most 
 inexorable of all deities ; but his prayer was only 
 granted upon this condition, that he should not 
 look back upon his restored wife, till they had 
 arrived in the upper world : at the very moment 
 when they were about to pass the fatal bounds, the 
 anxiety of love overcame the poet ; he looked 
 round to see that Eurydice was following him ; 
 and he beheld her caught back into the infernal 
 regions. His grief for the loss of Eurj'dice led him 
 to treat with contempt the Thracian women, who 
 in revenge tore hira to pieces under the excitement 
 of their Bacchanalian orgies. After his death, the 
 Muses collected the fragments of his body, and 
 buried them at Libethra at the foot of Olympus, 
 where the nightingale sang sweetly over his grave. 
 His head was thrown into the Hebrus, down which 
 it rolled to the sea, and was borne across to Lesbos, 
 where the grave in which it was interred was shown 
 at Antissa. His lyre was also said to have been 
 carried to Lesbos ; and both traditions are simply 
 poetical expressions of the historical fact that Les- 
 bos was the first great seat of the music of the lyre : 
 indeed Antissa itself was the birth-place of Ter- 
 pander, the earliest historical musician. The astro- 
 nomers taught that the lyre of Orpheus was placed 
 by Zeus among the stars, at the intercession of 
 Apollo and the Muses. In these legends there 
 are some points which are sufficiently clear. The 
 invention of music, in connection with the services 
 of Apollo and the Muses, its first great application 
 to the worship of the gods, which Orpheus is there- 
 fore said to have introduced, its power over the 
 passions, and the importance which the Greeks 
 attached to the knowledge of it, as intimately 
 allied with the very existence of all social order, 
 — are probably the chief elementary ideas of the 
 whole legend. But then comes in one of the dark 
 features of the Greek religion, in which the gods 
 envy the advancement of man in knowledge and 
 civilisation, and severely punish any one who 
 transgresses the bounds assigned to humanity. In 
 a later age, the conflict was no longer viewed as 
 between the gods and man, but betvveen the 
 worshippers of different divinities ; and especially 
 between Apollo, the symbol of pure intellect, 
 and Dionysus, the deity of the senses ; hence 
 Orpheus, the servant of Apollo, falls a victim to 
 the jealousy of Dionysus, and the fury of his wor- 
 shippers,— Orp/"'c Societies and Masteries, About 
 the time of the first development of Greek philo- 
 sophy, societies were formed, consisting of persons 
 called the followers of Orpheus (ot 'O/xfi/coi), who, 
 under the pretended guidance of Orpheus, dedicated 
 themselves to the worship of Dionysus. They per- 
 formed the rites of a mystical worship, but instead 
 of confining their notions to the initiated, they 
 published them to others, and committed them to 
 literary works. The Dionysus, to whose worship 
 the Orphic rites were annexed, was Dionysus Za- 
 greus, closely connected with Demeter and Cora 
 (Persephone). The Orphic legends and poems 
 related in great part to this Dionysus, who was 
 combined, as an infernal deity, with Hades ; and 
 upon whom the Orphic theologers founded their 
 hopes of the purification and ultimate immortality 
 of the soul. But their mode of celebrating this 
 
 OSCA. 
 
 505 
 
 worship was very different from the popular rites 
 of Bacchus. The Orphic worshippers of Bacchus 
 did not indulge in unrestrained pleasure and 
 frantic enthusiasm, but rather aimed at an ascetic 
 purity of life and manners. All this part of the 
 mythology of Orpheus, which connects him with 
 Dionysus, must be considered as a later invention, 
 quite irreconcilable with the original legend, in 
 which he is the servant of Apollo and the Muses : 
 but it is almost hopeless to explain the transition. 
 ■ — Many poems ascribed to Orpheus were current 
 as early as the time of the Pisrstratids [Optoma- 
 CRiTUs]. They are often quoted by Plato, and 
 the allusions to them in later writers are very fre- 
 quent. The extant poems, which bear the name 
 of Orpheus, are the forgeries of Christian gram- 
 marians and philosophers of the Alexandrian school ; 
 but among the fragments, which form a part of the 
 collection, are some genuine remains of that Orphic 
 poetry which was known to Plato, and which must 
 be assigned to the period of Onomacritus, or perhaps 
 a little earlier. The Orphic literature, which in 
 this sense may be called genuine, seems to have 
 included Hi/mns, a TJieogony, Oracles, &c. The 
 apocryphal productions which have come down to 
 us are, 1. Argonautica^ an epic poem in 1384 
 hexameters, giving an account of the expedition 
 of the Argonauts. 2. Hymm^ 87 or 88 in num- 
 ber, in hexameters, evidently the productions of 
 the Neo-Platonic school. 3. Lithica {AtdiKti), treats 
 of properties of stones, both precious and common, 
 and their uses in divination. 4. Fragments, 
 chiefly of the Tkeogony. It is in this class that 
 we find the genuine remains of the literature of 
 the early Orphic theology, but intermingled with 
 others of a much later date. The best edition is 
 by Hermann, Lips. 1805. 
 
 Orthia ('O/>0ta, 'O/jflis, or 'Opflwo-ia), a surname 
 of the Artemis who is also called Iphigenia or 
 Lygodesma, and must be regarded as the goddess 
 of the moon. Her worship was probably brought 
 to Sparta from Lemnos. It was at the altar of 
 Artemis Orthia that Spartan boys had to undergo 
 the flogging, called diamastigosis. 
 
 Orthosia ('Op^wo-io). 1. A city of Caria, on the 
 Maeander, with a mountain of the same name, 
 where the Rhodians defeated the Carians, B.C. 167. 
 ^2. A city of Phoenice, S. of the mouth of the 
 Eleutherus, and 12 Roman miles from Tripolis. 
 
 Orthrus ("OpOpos), the two-headed dog of Gery- 
 ones, who was begotten by Typhon and Echidna, 
 and was slain by Hercules. [See p. 309, b.] 
 
 Ortospana or -um ('OpT<J(r7rai'a : Cabulf), a 
 considerable city of the Paropamisadae, at the 
 sources of a W. tributary of the river Goes, and 
 at the junction of 3 roads, one leading N. into 
 Baotria, and the others S. and E. into India. It 
 was also called Carura or Cabura. 
 
 Ortygia ('Oprvyla). 1. The ancient name of 
 Delos. Since Artemis (Diana) and Apollo were 
 born at Delos, the poets sometimes call the goddess 
 Ortygia, and give the name of Ortygiae hoves to the 
 oxen of Apollo. The ancients connected the name 
 with Ortyx ("O/jtu^) a quail. [See p. 379, a.] 
 ^3. An island near Syracuse. [SyracijsaeJ.— 
 3. A grove near Ephesus, in which the Ephesians 
 pretended that Apollo and Artemis were bom. 
 Hence Propertius calls the Cayster, which flowed 
 near Ephesus, Ortygius Cayster. 
 
 Orus. [HoRus ; Orion.] 
 
 Osca. 1. (Huesca in Arragonia), an important 
 
506 
 
 OSCELA. 
 
 town of the Ilergetes and a Roman colony in His- 
 pania Tairaconensis, on the road from Tarraco to 
 lierda, with silver mines ; whence Livy speaks of 
 argentum Osciense, though these words may perhaps 
 mean silver money coined at 08ca.^2. (W. of 
 Huescar in Granada), a town of the Turdetani in 
 Hispania Baetica. 
 
 Oscela. [Lepontil] 
 
 Osci or Opici (*'0(TKot, 'Ottikoi'), one of the most 
 ancient tribes of Italy, inhabited the centre of the 
 peninsula, from which they had driven out the 
 Siculi. Their principal settlement was in Campania, 
 but we also find them in parts of Latium and Sam- 
 nium. They were subdued by the Sabines and 
 Tyrrhenians, and disappeared from history at a 
 comparatively early period. They were called in 
 their own language Uskus. They are identified by 
 many writers with the Ausones or Aurunci ; but 
 others think that the latter is a collective name for 
 all the people dwelling in the plain, and that the 
 Osci were a branch of the Ausones. The Oscan 
 language was closely connected with the other an- 
 cient Italian dialects, out of which the Latin lan- 
 guage was formed ; and it continued to be spoken 
 by the people of Campania long after the Oscans 
 had disappeared as a separate people. A know- 
 ledge of it was preserved at Rome by the Fabulae 
 Atellanae, which were a species of farce or comedy 
 written in Oacan, 
 
 Osi, a people in Germany, probably in the moun- 
 tains between the sources of the Oder and the 
 Gran, were, according to Tacitus, tributary to the 
 Sarmatians, and spoke the Pannonian language. 
 
 Osicerda. [Ossigerda.] 
 
 Osiris ("OcTipii), the great Egyptian divinity, 
 and husband of Isia. According to Herodotus 
 they were the only divinities who were worshipped 
 by all the Egyptians. His Egyptian name is said 
 to have been Hysiris, which is interpreted to mean 
 "son of Isis ;" though some said that it meant 
 " many-eyed." He is said to have been originally 
 king of Egypt, and to have reclaimed his subjects 
 from a barbarous life by teaching them agriculture, 
 and enacting wise laws. He afterwards trat'elled 
 into foreign lands, spreading, wherever he went, 
 the blessings of civilisation. On his return to 
 Egypt, he was murdered by his brother Typhon, 
 who cut his body into pieces, and tlirew them into 
 the Nile. After a long search isis discovered the 
 mangled remains of her husband, and with the 
 assistance of her son Horus defeated Typhon, and 
 recovered the sovereign power, which Typhon had 
 usurped. See Isis. 
 
 Osismii, a people in Gallia Lugdunensis, at the 
 N.W. extremity of the coast, and in the neigh- 
 bourhood of the modern Qidmper and Brest. 
 
 Osroene {'Oa-portv-f} : 'OupoTjvoi^ pi. : Fasludik 
 ofOr/uh), the W. of the 2 portions into which N. 
 Mesopotamia was divided by the river Chaboraa 
 (Khabour)^ which separated it from Mygdonia on 
 the E, and Irom the rest of Mesopotamia on the 
 S. ; the Euphrates divided it, on the W. and 
 N. W., from the Syrian districts of Clialybonitis, 
 Cyrrhestice, and Commagene ; and on the N. it 
 was separated by M. Masius from Armenia. Its 
 name was said to be derived from Osroes, an 
 Arabian chieftain, who, in the time of the Seleu- 
 cidae, established over it a petty principality, with 
 Edbssa for its capital, which lasted till the reign 
 of Carocalla, and respecting the history of which, 
 see Abgarus. 
 
 OTANES. 
 
 Ossa ("Offo-a : Kissavo, i,. e. ivy-dad), a cele- 
 brated mountain in the N. of Magnesia, in Thes- 
 saly, connected with Pelion on the S. E., and 
 divided from Ol3'-mpu8 on the N. W. by the vale 
 of Tempe. It is one of the highest moimtains in 
 Greece, but much less lofty than Olympus. It is 
 mentioned by Homer, in the legend of the war of 
 the Giants, respecting which see Olympus. 
 
 Osset, with the surname Constantia JuHa, a 
 town in Hispania Baetica, on the right bank of the 
 Baetis, opposite Hispalis. 
 
 Ossigerda or Osicerda (Ossigerdensis), a town 
 of the Edetani in Hispania Tanaconensis, and a 
 Roman municipium. 
 
 Ossigl (Maquiz), a town of the Turduli in His- 
 pania Baetica, on the spot where the Baetis first 
 enters Baetica, 
 
 Ossonoba {Estoy N. of Faro)y a town of the 
 Turdetani in Lusitania, between the Tagus and 
 Anas. 
 
 Osteodes ('0(tt€w57?s vtjo-os: AUcur), an island 
 at some distance from the N. coast of Sicily, oppo- 
 site the town of Soli. 
 
 Ostia (Ostiensis : Ostia), a town at the mouth 
 of the river Tiber, and the harbour of Rome, from 
 which it was distant 16 miles by land, was situated 
 on the left bank of the left arm of the river. It 
 was founded by Ancus Martius, the 4th king of 
 Rome, was a Roman colony, and eventually be- 
 came an important and flourishing town. In the 
 civil wars it was destroyed by Marius, but it was 
 soon rebuilt with greater splendour than before. The 
 emperor Claudius constructed a new and better 
 harbour on the right arm of the Tiber, which was 
 enlarged and improved by Trajan. This new har- 
 bour was called simply Partus Romanics or Forius 
 Augusti, and around it there sprang up a flourishing 
 town, also called Forius (the inhabitants Portu- 
 enses). The old town of Ostia, whose harbour had 
 been already partly filled up by sand, now sank 
 into insignificance, and only continued to exist 
 through its salt-works (salinae), which had been 
 established by Ancus Martius. The ruins of Ostia 
 are between 2 and 3 miles from the coast, as the 
 sea has gradually receded in consequence of the 
 accumulation ol'sand deposited by the Tiber. 
 
 Ostia Nili. [Nilus.] 
 
 Ostorius Scapiila. [Scapula.] 
 
 Ostra (Ostranus), a town in Umbria in the ter- 
 ritory of the Senones. 
 
 T. Otacilius Crassus, a Roman general during 
 the 2ud Funic war, was praetor b. c. 217, and 
 subsequently pro-praetor in Sicily. In 215 he 
 crossed over to Africa, and laid waste the Car- 
 thaginian coast. He was praetor for the 2nd time, 
 214, and his command was prolonged during the 
 next 3 years. He died in Sicily, 211. 
 
 L. OtaciliiLS Pilitus, a Roman rhetorician, who 
 opened a school at Rome b. c. 81, was originally a 
 slave ; but having exhibited talent, and a love of 
 literature, he was manumitted by his master. Cn. 
 Pompeius Magnus was one of his pupils, and he 
 wrote the history of Pompey, and of his father 
 likewise. 
 
 Otanes ('OTaVT?s). 1. A Persian, son of Phar- 
 naspes. was the first who suspected the imposture 
 of Smerdis the Magian, and took the chief part in 
 organizing the conspiracy against the pretender 
 (b.c. 521). After the accession of Darius Hys- 
 taspie, he was placed in command of the Persian 
 force which invaded Samos for the purpose of 
 
placing Syloson, brother of Polj-crates, in the 
 government. ^ 2. A Persian, son of Sisamnes, 
 succeeded Megabyzus (b. c. 506) in the command 
 of the forces on the sea-coast, and took Byzantium, 
 Chalcedon, Antandrus, and Lamponium, as well as 
 the islands of Lemnos and Imbros. He was pro- 
 bably the same Otanes who is mentioned as a son- 
 
 marched into the N. of Italy to oppose the generals 
 of Vitellius. The fortune of war was at first in 
 his favour. He defeated Caecina, the general of 
 Vitellius, in more than one engagement ; but hia 
 army was subsequently defeated in a decisive battle 
 near Bedriacum by the united forces of Caecina and 
 Valens, whereupon he put an end to his own life 
 
508 
 
 OVIDIUS, 
 
 criminal causes ; and in due time he was promoted 
 to be one of the Decemviri, who assembled and 
 presided over the court of the Centumviri. — Such 
 is all the account that can be given of Ovid's busi- 
 ness life. He married twice in early life at the 
 desire of his parents, but he speedily divorced 
 each of his wives in succession. The restraint of 
 a wife was irksome to a man like Ovid, who was 
 devoted to gallantry and licentious life. His chief 
 mistress in the early part of his life was the one 
 ■whom he celebrates in his poems under the name 
 of Corinna. If we may believe the testimony of 
 Sidoniiis Apollinaris, Corinna was no less a person- 
 age than Julia, the accomplished, but abandoned 
 daughter of Augustus. There are several passages 
 in Ovid's Amores which render the testimony of 
 Sidonius highly probable. Thus it appears that 
 his mistress was a married woman, of high rank, 
 but profligate morals ; all which particulars will 
 suit Julia. How long Ovid's connection with Co- 
 rinna lasted there are no means of deciding; but it 
 probably ceased before his marriage with his 3rd 
 •wife, whom he appears to have sincerely loved. We 
 can hardly place his 3rd marriage later than his 30th 
 year, since a daughter, Perilla, was the fruit of it 
 (Trisi. iii. 7. 3), who was grown up and married 
 at the time of his banishment. Perilla was twice 
 married, and had a child by each husband. Ovid 
 was a grandfather before he lost his father at the 
 ape of 90 ; soon after whose decease his mother 
 also died. Till his 50th year Ovid continued to 
 reside at Rome, where he had a house near the 
 Capitol, occasionally taking a trip to his Pelignan 
 farm. He not only enjoyed the friendship of a 
 large circle of distinguished men, but the regard 
 and favour of Augustus and the imperial family. 
 But in A. D. 9 Ovid was suddenly commanded by 
 an imperial edict to transport himself to Tomi, a 
 town on the Euxine, near the mouths of the 
 Danube, on the very border of the empire. He 
 underwent no trial, and the sole reason for his 
 banishment stated in the edict was his having 
 published his poem on the Art of Love (Ars Ama- 
 toria). It was not, however, an ewsilium, but a 
 rdegaiio ; that is, he was not utterly cut off from 
 ail hope of return, nor did he lose his citizenship. 
 The real cause of his banishment has long exer- 
 cised the ingenuity of scholars. The publication 
 of the Ars Amattyi-ia was certainly a mere pretext. 
 The poem had been published nearly 10 years pre- 
 viously ; and moreover, whenever Ovid alludes to 
 that, the ostensible cause, he invariably couples with 
 it another which he mysteriously conceals. Accord- 
 ing to some "writers, the real cause was his intrigue 
 with Julia. But this is sufficiently refuted by the 
 fact that Julia had been an exile since B. c. 2. 
 Other writers suppose that he had been guilty of 
 an intrigue with the younger Julia, the daughter 
 of the elder one ; and the remarkable fact that the 
 younger Julia was banished in the same year with 
 Ovid leads verj' strongly to the inference that his 
 fate was in some way connected with hers. But 
 Ovid states himself that his fault was an involun- 
 tary one ; and the great disparity of years between 
 the poet and the younger Julia renders it impro- 
 bable that there had been an intrigue between 
 them. He may more probably have become ac- 
 quainted with Julia's profligacy by accident, and 
 by his subsequent conduct, perhaps, for instance, 
 by concealing it, have given offence to Livia, or 
 Augustus, or both. Ovid draws an affecting pic- 
 
 OVIDIUS. 
 
 ture of the miseries to which he was exposed in 
 his place of exile. He complains of the inhos- 
 pitable soil, of the severity of the climate, and of 
 the perils to which he was exposed, when the 
 barbarians plundered the surrounding country, and 
 insulted the very walls of Tomi. In the most 
 abject terms he supplicated Augustus to change his 
 place of banishment, and besought his friends to 
 use their influence in his behalf. In the midst of 
 all his misfortunes he sought some relief in the 
 exercise of his poetical talents. Not only did he 
 finish his Fasti in his exile, besides writing the 
 /fii's, the Tristia^ Ex Ponto, &c., but he likewise 
 acquired the language of the Getae, in which he 
 composed some poems in honour of Augustus, 
 These he publicly recited, and they were received 
 with tumultuous applause by the Tomitae. With 
 his new fellow-citizens, indeed, he had succeeded 
 in rendering himself highly popular, insomuch that 
 they honoured him with a decree, declaring him 
 exempt from all public burthens. He died at 
 Tomi in the 60th year of his age, a. d. 18. ^ The 
 following is a list of Ovid's works, arranged, as far 
 as possible, in chronological order : — 1. Amorum 
 Libri III., the earliest of the poet's works. Ac- 
 cording to the epigram prefixed, the work, as we 
 now possess it, is a 2nd edition, revised and 
 abridged, the former one having consisted of 5 
 books. 2. Epistolae Hero'idum, 21 in number. 
 3. Ars Amaioria, or Z>e Aiie Amandi, written 
 about B. c. 2. At the time of Ovid's banishment 
 this poem was ejected frgm the public libraries by 
 command of Augustus. 4. Remedia Amoris, in 1 
 book. 5. Niix, the elegiac complaint of a nut- 
 tree respecting the ill-treatment it receives from 
 wayfarers, and even from its own master. 6. 
 Metaviorphoseon Libri XV. This, the greatest 
 of Ovid*s poems in bulk and pretensions, appears 
 to liave been written between the age of 40 and 
 50. It consists of such legends or fables as in- 
 volved a transformation, from the Creation to the 
 time of Julius Caesar, the last being that emperor's 
 change into a star. It is thus a sort of cyclic poem 
 made up of distinct episodes, but connected into 
 one narrative thread, with much skill. 7- Fasto- 
 rum Libri XIL, of which only the first 6 are 
 extant. This work was incomplete at the time of 
 Ovid's banishment. Indeed he had perhaps done 
 little more than collect the materials for it ; for 
 that the 4th book was written in Pontns appears 
 from ver. 88. The Fasti is a sort of poetical 
 Roman calendar, with its appropriate festivals find 
 raytholog)'', and the substance was probably taken 
 in a great measure from the old Roman annalists. 
 The work shows a good deal of learning, but it has 
 been observed that Ovid makes frequent mistakes 
 in his astronomy, from not understanding the books 
 from which he took it. 8. Trisiium Libn V., elegies 
 written during the first 4 years of Ovid's banish- 
 ment. They are chiefly made up of descriptions 
 of his afflicted condition, and petitions for mercy. 
 The 10th elegy of t)ie 4th book is valuable, as 
 containing many particulars of Ovid's life. 9. 
 Ejnstolarum ex Fonio Libri I K, are also in the 
 elegiac metre, and much the same in substance as 
 the Tristia^ to which they were subsequent. It 
 must be confessed that age and misfortune seem 
 to have damped Ovid's genius both in this and the 
 preceding work. Even the versification is more 
 slovenly', and some of the lines very prosaic. 10. 
 Ibis, a satire of between 600 and 700 elegiac 
 
OXIA. 
 
 verses, alfso written in exile. The poet inveighs 
 in it against an enemy who had traduced him. 
 Though the variety of Ovid's imprecations displays 
 learning and fancy, the piece leaves the impression 
 of an impotent explosion of rage. The title and 
 plan were borrowed from Callimachus. 11. Con- 
 solatia ad Liviam Atu/itstam, is considered by most 
 critics not to be genuine, though it is allowed on 
 all hands to he not unworthy of Ovid's genius. 
 12. The Medicamina Faciei and Halieuiicon are 
 mere fragments, and their genuineness not alto- 
 gether certain. — Of his lost works, the most cele- 
 brated was his tragedy, Medea, of which only two 
 lines remain. That Ovid possessed a great poetical 
 genius is unquestionable ; which makes it the more 
 to be regretted that it was not always under the 
 control of a sound judgment. He possessed great 
 vigour of fancy, warmth of colouring, and facility 
 of composition. Ovid has himself described how 
 spontaneously his verses flowed ; but the facility of 
 composition possessed more charms for hira than 
 the irksome, but indispensable labour of correction 
 and retrenchment. Ovid was the first to depart 
 from that pure and correct taste which charac- 
 terises the Greek poets, and their earlier Latin 
 imitators. His \vritings abound with those false 
 thoughts and frigid conceits which we find so fre- 
 quently in the Italian poets ; and in this respect 
 he must be regarded as unantique. The best 
 edition of Ovid's complete works is by Burmann, 
 Amsterdam, 1727, 4 vols. 4to. 
 
 Oxia Falus, is first mentioned distinctly by 
 Ammianus Marcellinus as the name of the Sea of 
 Aral, which the ancients in general did not dis- 
 tinguish from the Caspian. When Ptolemy, how- 
 ever, speaks of the Oxiana Falus (^ 'n|eiavTj 
 \ifj.vT}) as a small lake in the steppes of Sogdiana, 
 he is perhaps following some vague account of the 
 separate existence of the Sea of Aral,, and the same 
 remark may be applied to Pliny's account that the 
 source (instead of the termination) of the river Oxus 
 was in a lake of the same name. 
 
 Oxiani {^n^iavot, Ov^iayol), a people of Sog- 
 diana, on the N. of the O.'cus. 
 
 Oxii Montes (ra "H^eta, or Otj^ua^ tpn : prob. 
 Ak-tagh), a range of mountains between the rivers 
 Oxus and Jaxartes ; the N. boundary of Sogdiana 
 towards Scythia. 
 
 0XU3 or Oaxus ("O^oy, *'nfoy : Jilioun or 
 Amou), a great river of Central Asia, rose, ac- 
 cording to some of the ancient geographers, on the 
 N.side of the Paroparaisus M. (/AWoo/iToos/*), and, 
 according to others, in the Emodi M., and flowed 
 N. W., forming the boundary between Sogdiana 
 on the N. and Bactria and Margiana on the S., 
 and then, skirting the N. of Hyrcania, it fell into 
 the Caspian. The Jihoun now flows into the 
 S. W. corner of the Sea of Aral; but there are 
 still distinct traces of a channel extending in a 
 S. W. direction from the Sea of Aral to the 
 Caspian, by which at least a portion, and probably 
 the whole, of the waters of the Oxus found their 
 way into the Caspian ; and very probably the Sea 
 of Aral Itself was connected witK the Caspian by 
 this channel. The ancient geographers mention, 
 as important tributaries of the Oxus, the Ochus, 
 the 6argus, and the Bactrus, which are now 
 intercepted by the sands of the Desert. The 
 Oxus is a broad and rapid river, navigable through 
 a considerable portion of its course. It formed, in 
 ancient times, a channel of commercial intercourse 
 
 PACHYMERES. 
 
 509 
 
 between India and W. Asia, goods being brought 
 down it to the Caspian, and thence up the Cyrus 
 and across Armenia, into Asia Minor. It occupies 
 also an important place in history, having been in 
 nearly all ages the extreme boundary between the 
 great monarchies of S. W. Asia and the hordes 
 which wander over the central steppes. Cyrus 
 and Alexander both crossed it ; but the former 
 effected no permanent conquests on its N. side ; 
 and the conquests of the latter in Sogdiana, though 
 for a time preserved under the Bactrian kings, were 
 always regarded as lying beyond the limits of the 
 civilised world, and were lost at the fall of the 
 Bactrian kingdom. — Herodotus does not mention 
 the Oxus by name, but it is supposed to be the 
 river which he calls Araxes. 
 
 Oxybii, a Ligurian people on the coast of Gallia 
 Narbonensis, W. of the Alps, and between the 
 Flumen Argenteum {Argens) and Antipolis {An- 
 tibes). They were neighbours of the Salluvii and 
 Deciates. 
 
 Oxydracae ('O^ySpaKoi), a warlike people of 
 India intra Gangem, in the Punjab, between the 
 rivers Hydaspes (Jlielwn) and Acesines {CJienab), 
 in whose capital Alexander was wounded. They 
 called themselves descendants of Dionysus. 
 
 Oxylus f O|u\os), the leader of the Heraclidae 
 in their invasion of Peloponnesus, and subse- 
 quently king of Elis. [See p. 306, b.] 
 
 Osyrhynclius (^O^ipvyxos : Behr^seli, Ru.), 
 a city of Middle Egypt, on the W. bank of the 
 canal which runs parallel to the Nile on its \Y. 
 side {Bahr Yussuf). It was the capital of the 
 Nomos Oxyrhynchites, and the chief seat of the 
 worship of the fish called oxjTynchus. 
 
 Ozogardana, a city of Mesopotamia on the 
 Euphrates, the people of which preserved a lofty 
 throne or chair of stone, which they called Tra- 
 jan's judgment-seat. 
 
 Pacaris. [Hypacyris.] 
 
 Pacatiana. [Phkygia]. 
 
 Paccius or Paccius Antiochus, a physician 
 about the beginning of the Christian era, who was 
 a pupil of Philonides of Catana, and lived probably 
 at Rome. He made a large fortune by the sale of 
 a certain medicine of his own invention, the com- 
 position of which he kept a profound secret. At 
 his death he left his prescription as a legacy to the 
 emperor Tiberius, who, in order to give it as wide 
 a circulation as possible, ordered a copy of it to be 
 placed in all the public libraries. 
 
 Pachas (ndx7?y), an Athenian general in the 
 Peloponnesian war, took Mytilene and reduced 
 Lesbos, B.C. 427. On his return to Athens he 
 was brought to trial on some charge, and, per- 
 ceiving his condemnation to be certain, drew his 
 sword and stabbed himself in the presence of his 
 judges. 
 
 Pacliymeres, Georgius, an important Byzan- 
 tine writer, was born about A. d. 1242 at Nicaea, 
 but spent the greater part of his life at Constanti- 
 nople. He was a priest, and opposed the union ot 
 the Greek and Latin churches. Pachymeres wrote 
 several works, the most important of which is a 
 Byzantine History^ containing an account of the 
 emperors Michael Palaeologus and Andronicua 
 
Palaeologus the elder, in 13 books. The style is 
 remarkably good and pure for the age. Edited by 
 PoBsinus, Rome, 1666 — 1669, 2 yoIs. fol., and by 
 Bekker, Bonn, 1835, 2 vols. 8vo. 
 
 Pachynus or Pacbynum {Capo Passaro\ a pro- 
 montory at the S. E. extremity of Sicily, and one 
 of the 3 promontories which give to Sicily its trian- 
 gular figure, the other 2 being Pelorum and Lily- 
 baeum. By the side of Pachynus was a bay, 
 which was used as a harbour, and which is called 
 by Cicero Portus Pachyni {Porto di Palo). 
 
 Pacilus, the name of a family of the patrician 
 Foria gens, mentioned in the early history of the 
 republic, 
 
 Pacorus. 1. Son of Orodes L, king of Parthia. 
 His history is given under Arsaces XIV.— 
 2. King of Parthia. [Arsaces XXIV.] 
 
 Factolas (IlaKT(oK6s : Sarabat)^ a small but 
 celebrated river of Lydia, rose on the N. side of 
 Mt. Tmolus, and flowed N. past Sardis into the 
 Hermus, which it joined 30 stadia below Sardis, 
 The golden sands of Pactolus have passed into a 
 proverb. Lydia was long the California of the 
 ancient world, its streams forming so many gold 
 " washing ;" and hence the wealth of the Lydian 
 kings, and the alleged origin of gold money in that 
 country. But the supply of gold was only on the 
 surface, and by the beginning of our era, it was so 
 far ezhausted as not to repay the trouble of col- 
 lecting it. 
 
 Pactyas (XIcuctuos-), a Lydian, who on the con- 
 quest of Sardis (b.c. 546), was charged by Cyrus 
 with the collection of the revenue of the province. 
 "When Cyrus left Sardis on his return to Ecbatana, 
 Pactyas induced the Lydians to revolt against 
 Cyrus ; but when an army was sent against him he 
 first fled to Cyme, then to Mytilene, and eventually 
 to Chios. He was surrendered by the Chians to 
 the Persians. 
 
 Pactye [TlaKTVT] : St. George), a town in the 
 Thracian Chersonesus, on the Propontis, 36 stadia 
 from Cardia, to which Alcibiades retired when be 
 was banished by the Athenians, b. c. 407. 
 
 Pactyica (naKTut«^), the country of the Pac- 
 tyes (nafCTuey), in the N.W. of India, W. of the 
 Indus, and in the 13th satrapy of the Persian 
 Empire, is most probably the N.E. part of Af- 
 ghanistan, about JeUalahad, 
 
 M. Pacuvius, one of the early Roman trage- 
 dians, was bom about B. c. 220, at Brundisium, 
 and is said to have been the son of the sister of 
 Ennius, Pacuvius appears to have been brought 
 np at Brundisium, but he afterwards repaired to 
 Rome. Here he devoted himself to painting and 
 poetry, and obtained so much distinction in the 
 former art, that a painting of his in the temple of 
 Hercules, in the forum boarium, was regarded 
 as only inferior to the celebrated painting of Fabius 
 Pictor. After living many years at Rome, for he 
 was still there in his 80th year, he returned to 
 Brundisium, on account of the failure of his health, 
 and died in his native town, in the 90th year of 
 bis age, b.c. 130. We have no further particulars 
 of his life, save that his talents gained him the 
 friendship of Laelius, and that he lived on the 
 most intimate terms with his younger rival Accius. 
 Pacuvius wag universally allowed by the ancient 
 WTiters to have been one of the greatest of the 
 Latin tragic poets. (Hor. Ep. ii. 1. 6G.) He is 
 especially praised for the loftiness of hia thoughts, 
 the vigour of his language, and the extent of his 
 
 FAEAN. 
 
 knowledge. Hence we find the epithet docius 
 frequently applied to him. He was also a favourite 
 with the people, with whom his verses continued 
 to be esteemed in the time of Julius Caesar. Hia 
 tragedies were taken from the great Greek writers ; 
 but he did not confine himself, like his predecessors, 
 to a mere translation of the latter, but worked up 
 his materials with more freedom and independent 
 judgment. Some of the plays of Pacuvius were 
 not based upon the Greek tragedies, but belonged 
 to the class called Praeiextaiae^ in which the sub- 
 jects were taken from Roman story. One of these 
 was entitled Paulus, which had as its hero L. Ae- 
 milius Paulus, the conqueror of Perseus, king of 
 Macedonia. The fragments of Pacuvius are pub- 
 lished by Bothe, Pott, Lat. Scenic. Fragm. Lipg, 
 1834. 
 
 Padus (Po), the chief river of Italy, whose 
 name is said to have been of Celtic origin, and to 
 have been given it on account of the pine trees (in 
 Celtic padi) which grew on its banks. In the 
 Ligurian language it was called Bodencus or Bo- 
 dincus. Almost all later writers identified the 
 Padus with the fabulous Eridanus, from which 
 amber was obtained ; and hence the Roman poets 
 frequently give the name of Eridanus to the Padus. 
 The reason of this identification appears to have 
 been, that the Phoenician vessels received at the 
 mouths of the Padus the amber which had been 
 transported by land from the coasts of the Baltic to 
 those of the Adriatic. The Padus rises from 2 
 springs on the E. side of Mt. Vesula {Monte Viso) 
 in the Alps, and flows with a general E.-ly direction 
 through the great plain of Cisalpme Gaul, which 
 it divides into 2 parts, Gallia Cispadana and Gallia 
 Transpadana, It receives numerous affluents, which 
 drain the whole of this vast plain, descending from 
 the Alps on the N. and the Apennines on the S. 
 These affluents, increased in the summer by the 
 melting of the snow on the mountains, frequently 
 bring down such a large body of water as to cause 
 the Padus to overflow its banks. The whole course 
 of the river, including its windings, is about 450 
 miles. About 20 miles from the sea the river 
 divides itself into 2 main branches, of which the N. 
 one was called Padoa {Maestra, Po Grande, or 
 Po delle Fomaci) and the S. one Olana {Po 
 d^Ariano) ; and each of these now falls into the 
 Adriatic by several mouths. The ancient writers 
 enumerate 7 of these mouths, some of which were 
 canals. They lay between Ravenna and Altinum, 
 and bore the following names, according to Pliny, 
 beginning with the S. and ending with the N. 1. 
 Padusa, also called Augusta Fossa, was a canal dug 
 by Augustus, which connected Ravenna with thePo. 
 2. Vatrenus, also called Eridanum Ostium or Spine- 
 ticum Ostium {Po di Primaro)^ from the town of 
 Spina at its mouth. 3. Ostium Caprasiae {Porta 
 Interito di beW Ochio). 4. Ostium Sagis ( Porto rfs 
 Magnavacca). 5. Olane or Volane, the S. main 
 branch of the river, mentioned above. 6. Padoa, 
 the N. main branch, subdivided into several small 
 branches called Ostia Carbonaria. 7. Fossae Phi- 
 listinae, connecting the river, by means of the Tar- 
 tarus, with the Athesis. 
 
 Padusa. [Padus.] 
 
 Paean (Ilaiav, Tlai^wc or Uaidiv), that is, ."the 
 healing," is according to Homer the designation of 
 the physician of the Olympian gods, who heals, for 
 example, the wounded Ares and Hades. After 
 the time of Homer and Hesiod, the word Paean 
 
PAEANIA. PAETUS. 511 
 
 became a surname of Aesculapius, the god wlio had ferior to that of Artemis, was never finished. — 2. 
 
 the power of healing. The name was, however, Of Mende, in Thrace, a statuary and sculptor, 
 
 used also in the more general sense of deliverer flourished about 435. 
 
 from any evil or calamity, and was thus applied to Faeoplae (naidTrAai), a Paeonian people on the 
 
 Apollo and Thanatos, or Death, who are conceived lower course of the Strymon and the Angites, who 
 
 as delivering men from the pains and sorrows of were subdued by the Persians, and transplanted to 
 
 life. With regard to ApoUo and Thanatos, how- Phrygia by order of Darius, B. c. 513. They re- 
 
 ever, the name may at the same time contain turned to their native country with the help of 
 
 an allusion to traUtv, to strike, since both are Aristagoras, 500 ; and we find them settled N. of 
 
 also regarded as destroyers. From Apollo himself Mt. Pangaeus in the expedition of Xerxes, 480. 
 the name Paean was transferred to the song Faerisades or Farisades (UaipurdSTis or Ilap:- 
 
 dedicated to him, that is, to hymns chaunted to adSijs), the name of 2 kings of Bosporus. 1. Son 
 
 Apollo for the purpose of averting an evil, and to of Leucon, succeeded his brother Spartacus b. c. 
 
 warlike songs, which were sung before or during a 349, and reigned 38 years. He continued the 
 
 battle. same friendly relations with the Athenians which 
 
 Faeauia (naiavla : Ilaiovievs), a demus in were begun by his father Leucon. — 2. The last 
 Attica, on the E. slope of Mt. Hymettus, belong- monarch of the first dynasty that ruled in Pos- 
 ing to the tribe, Pandionis. It was the demus of poms. The pressure of the Scythian tribes induced 
 the orator Demosthenes. Paerisades to cede his sovereignty to Mithridates 
 
 Paemani, a people of German origin in Gallia the Great. The date of this event cannot be 
 
 Belgica. placed earlier than 112, nor later than 88. 
 
 FaeSnea (naiows), a powerful Thracian people, Faestanus SinOB. [Paestum.] 
 who in early times were spread over a great part of Faestum (Paestanus), called Foflidonia (no- 
 Macedonia and Thrace. According to a legend fffiSavla: Tlo(TeiSwvtdTTis) originally, was a citj._- 
 preserved by Herodotus, they were of Teucrian in Lucania, situated between 4 and 5 miles S. E. 
 origin ; and it is not impossible that they were a of the mouth of the Silarus, and near the bay 
 branch of the great Phrygian people, a portion of which derived its name from the town (Uoa-etSa- 
 which seems to have settled in Europe. In Homer tftdr-qs wJAttoj, Paestanus Sinus : G. of Salerno). 
 the Paeonians appear as allies of the Trojans, and Its origin is uncertain, but it was probably in ex- 
 are represented as having come from the river istence before it was colonized by the Sybarites 
 Axius. In historical times they inhabited the about B.C. 524. It soon became a powerful and 
 whole of the N. of Macedonia, from the frontiers flourishing city ; but after its capture by the 
 of lUyria to some little distance E. of the river Lucanians (between 438 and 424), it gradually 
 Strymon. Their country was called Paeonia lost the characteristics of a Greek city, and its in- 
 (Vlaiovia). The Paeonians were divided into se- habitants at length ceased to speak the Greek lan- 
 veral tribes, independent of each other, and go- guagc. Its ancient name of Posidonia was pro- 
 vemed by their own chiefs ; though at a later bably changed into that of Paestum at this time, 
 period they appear to have oivned the authority of Under the supremacy of the Romans, who founded 
 one king. The Paeonian tribes on the lower a Latin colony at Paestum about B. c. 274, the 
 course of the Strymon were subdued by the Per- town gradually sank in importance ; and in the 
 sians, B.C. 513, and many of them were trans- time of Augustus it is only mentioned on account 
 planted to Phrygia ; but the tribes in the N. of of the beautiful roses grown in its neighbourhood, 
 the country maintained their independence. They The ruins of Paestum are striking and magnifi- 
 were long troublesome neighbours to the Mace- cent. They consist of the remains of walls, of an 
 donian monarchs, whose territories they frequently amphitheatre, of 2 fine temples, and of another 
 invaded and phmdered ; but they were eventually building. The 2 temples are in the Doric style, 
 subdued by Philip, the father of Alexander the and are some of the most remarkable ruins of an- 
 Great, who allowed them nevertheless to retain tiquity. 
 
 their own monarchs. They continued to be governed Faesus (naiiriJj), a town in the Troad, men- 
 by their own kings till a much later period ; and tioned by Homer, but destroyed before the time 
 these kings were often virtually independent of the of Strabo, its population having been transplanted 
 Macedonian monarchy. Thus we read of their to Lampeacus. Its site was on a river of the same 
 king Audoleon, whose daughter Pyrrhus married, name {Beiram-Dere) between Lampsacus and Pa- 
 After the conquest of Macedonia by the Romans, rium. 
 
 168, the part of Paeonia E. of the Axius formed Faefimia, the name of a family of the Fulvia 
 
 the 2nd, and the part of Paeonia W. of the Axius Gens, which was eventually superseded by the 
 
 formed the 3rd, of the 4 districts into which Ma- name of Nobilior. [Nobiliok.] 
 cedonia was divided by the Romans. Paetus, a cognomen in many Roman gentes, 
 
 Paeonins (naimvios). 1. Of Ephesus, an archi- signified a person who had a slight cast in the eye. 
 tect, probably lived between B. c. 420 and 300. Paetus, Aeliua. I. P., probably the son of Q. 
 
512 
 
 PAETUS. 
 
 and a prudent man, whence he got the cognomen 
 Catus. He is described in a line of Ennius as 
 '* Egregie cordatus homo Catus Aeliiis Sextus.*' 
 He is enumerated among the old jurists who col- 
 lected or arranged the matter of law, which he did 
 in a work entitled Tripartita or Jus Aclianum. 
 This was a work on the Twelve Tables, which 
 contained the original text, an interpretation, and 
 the Legis actio subjoined. It was probably the 
 first commentary written on the Twelve Tables. ^ 
 3. Q., son of No. 1., was elected augur 174, in 
 place of his father, and was consul 167, when he 
 laid waste the territor}'' of the Ligurians. 
 
 Paetus, P. Autaronius, was elected consul for 
 B.C. 65 with P. Cornelius Sulla; but he and Sulla 
 were accused of bribery by L. Aurelius Cotta and 
 li. Manlius Torquatus, and condemned. Their 
 election was accordingly declared void : and their 
 accusers were chosen consuls in their stead. En- 
 raged at his disappointment Paetus conspired with 
 Catiline to murder the consuls Cotta and Tor- 
 quatus ; and this design is said to have been 
 frustrated solely by the impatience of Catiline, 
 who gave the signal prematurely before the whole 
 of the conspirators had assembled. [Catilina.] 
 Paetus afterwards took an active part in the Cati- 
 linarian conspiracy, which broke out in Cicero's 
 consulship, 63. After the suppression of the con- 
 spiracy Paetus was brought to trial for the share 
 he had had in it ; he was condemned, and went 
 into exile to Epirus, where he was living when 
 Cicero himself went into banishment in 58. Cicero 
 was then much alarmed lest Paetus should make 
 an attempt upon his life. 
 
 Paetus, C. Caesennius, sometimes called Cae- 
 sonius, consul a. d. 61, was sent by Nero in 63 
 to the assistance of Domitius Corbulo in Armenia. 
 He was defeated by Vologeses, king of Parthia, 
 and purchased peace of the Parthians on the most 
 disgraceful terras. After the accession of Ves- 
 pasian, he was appointed governor of Syria, and 
 deprived Antiochus IV., king of Commagene, of 
 his kingdom. 
 
 Paetus Thrasea. [Thraska.] 
 
 Pagae or Pegae (Jlayal^ Att Tl-nycd : 11070705 : 
 Psailio)^ a town in Megaris, a colony from Megara, 
 was situated at the E. extremity of the Alcyonian 
 sea, and was the most important town in the 
 country after Megara. It possessed a good harbour. 
 
 Pagasae, called by the Romans Fagasa -ae 
 (Jla.ya<Tai\ Volo\ a.to\vn of Thessaly, on the 
 coast of Magnesia, and on the bay called .after it 
 Sinus Pagasaeus or Pagasicus (n 0700-7] tik is 
 KoK-Kos: G. of Volo). It was the port of lolcos, 
 and afterwards of Pherae, and is celebrated in 
 mythology as the place where Jason built the 
 ship Argo. Hence some of the ancients derived 
 its name from irqyvuni ; but others comiected 
 the name with the fountains (Tnjyal) in the neigh- 
 bourhood. — The ■ ad]ective Pagasaeus is applied 
 to Jason on account of his building the ship Argo, 
 and to Apollo because he had a sanctuary at 
 Pagasae. The adjective is also used in the general 
 sense of Thessalian : thus Alcestis, the wife of 
 Admetus, is called by Ovid Pagasaea covjux. 
 
 Pagrae (na7pai : Pagras, Bagras, Bargas)^ a 
 city of Syria, on the E. side of Mt. Amanus, at the 
 foot of the pass called by Ptolemy the Syrian 
 Gates, on the road between Antioch and Alex- 
 andria : the scene of the battle between Alexander 
 Balas and Demetrius Nicator, b. c. 145. 
 
 PALAESTE. 
 
 Pagus (110705), a remarkable conical hill, about 
 500 — 600 feet high, a little N. of Smyrna in 
 Ionia. It was crowned with a shrine of Nemesis, 
 and had a celebrated spring. 
 
 Palaemon {UaKaSfjLuv). 1. Son of Athamas 
 and Ino, was originally called Melicertes. When 
 his mother, who was driven mad by Hei-a, had 
 thrown herself, with her boy, into the sea, both 
 were changed into marine divinities, Ino becoming 
 Leucothea, and Melicertes Palaemon. [For details 
 see Athamas.] According to some, Melicertes 
 after his apotheosis was called Glaucus, whereas, 
 according to another version, Glaucus is said to 
 have leaped into the sea from his love of Meli- 
 certes. The body of Melicertes, according to the 
 common tradition, was washed by the waves, or 
 carried by dolphins into the port Schoenus on the 
 Corinthian isthmus, or to that spot on the coast 
 where the altar of Palaemon subsequently stood. 
 There the body was found by his imcle Sisyphus, 
 who ordered it to be carried to Corinth, and on 
 the command of the Nereides he instituted the 
 Isthmian games and sacrifices of black bulls in 
 honour of the deified Palaemon. In the island of 
 Tenedos, it is said that children were sacrificed to 
 him, and the whole worship seems to have had 
 something gloomy about it. The Romans identified 
 Palaemon with their own god Portunus, or Por- 
 tumnua. [Portunus.] — 2. Q. Eemmius Pa- 
 laemon, a grammarian in the reigns of Tiberius, 
 Caligula, and Claudius. He was a native of Vw 
 centia {Vicenza), in the north of Ital}', and was 
 originally a slave ; but having been manumitted, 
 he opened a school at Rome, where he became the 
 most celebrated grammarian of his time, though 
 his moral character was infamous. He is twice 
 mentioned by Juvenal (vi. 451, vil. 251). He 
 was the master of Quintilian. 
 
 Palaeopolis. [Neapolis.] 
 
 Palaephatus {UaXalcpaTos). 1. Of Athens, a 
 mythical epic poet of the ante-Homeric period. 
 The time at which he lived is uncertain, but he 
 appears to have been usually placed after Phe- 
 monoe [Phemonoe], though some writers assigned 
 him even an earlier date. ^2. Of Paros, or Priene, 
 lived in the time of Artaxerxes. Suidas attributes 
 to him the work " On Incredible Tales," spoken 
 of below. -^ 3. Of Abydus, an historian, lived in 
 the time of Alexander the Great, and is stated t& 
 have been loved by the philosopher Aristotle. ^ 
 4. An Eg}'ptian or Athenian, and a grammarian. 
 His most celebrated work was entitled Troica 
 (TpoJiKo), which is frequently referred to by the 
 ancient grammarians. — There is extant a small 
 work in 51 sections, entitled U.aKo.i<paTos Trepl 
 aTTto-TOJc, or " On Incredible Tales," giving a 
 brief account of some of the most celebrated Greek 
 legends. It is an abstract of a much larger work, 
 which is lost. It was to the original work to 
 which Virgil refers {CiriSj 88) : " Docta Palae- 
 phatia testatur voce papyrus," It is doubtful who 
 was the author of this work ; but as he adopts the 
 rationalistic interpretation of the myths, he must 
 be looked upon as a disciple of Evemerus [Eve- 
 MERUs], and may thus have been an Alexandrine 
 Greek, and the same person as No. 4. The best 
 edition is by Westermann, in the MythograpM, 
 Brunswick, 1843. 
 
 Palaerus {Tia\aip6s\ TlaXaipivs)^ a town on 
 the coast of Acarnania near Leucas. 
 
 Palaeste {Palasa)^ a town of Epims, on the 
 
PALAESTINA, 
 
 coast of Chaonia, and a little S. of tlie Acroccrau- 
 nian mountains : here Caesar landed his forccB 
 when he crossed over to Greece to carry on the 
 war against Pompey. 
 
 Palaeatina (Tia\ai(TTii'% tj Ha\ata-Tlv7} SupiTj : 
 TIa\aiffTtv6s^ Palaestinus^ nnd rarely Palaestinensis : 
 Palestine, or the Holy Land), is the Greek and 
 Roman form of the Hebrew word which was used 
 to denote the country of the Philistines, and which 
 was extended to the whole country. In the Scrip- 
 tures it is called Canaan, from Canaan, the son of 
 Ham, whose descendants were its first inliahitants ; 
 the Land of Israel, the Land of Promise, the 
 Land of Jehovali, and the Holy Land. The 
 Romans usually called it Judaea, extending to the 
 wliole country the name of its S. part. It was 
 regarded by the Greeks and Romans as a part of 
 Syria. Its extent is pretty well defined by natural 
 boundaries ; namely, the Mediterranean on the 
 W. ; the mountains of Lebanon on the N. ; the 
 Jordan and its lakes on the E., in the original 
 extent of the country as defined in the 0. T., 
 but in the wider and usual extent of the coun- 
 try, the Arabian Desert was its boundary on 
 the E. ; and on the S. and S.W. the deserts 
 which stretch N. of the head of the Red Sea 
 as far as the Dead Sea and the Mediterranean : 
 here it was separated from Egypt by the small 
 stream called in Scripture the River of Egypt 
 (prob. the brook El-Arish\ which fell into the 
 Mediterranean at Rhinocolura {El-Arish)j the 
 frontier town of Egypt. The S. boundary of the 
 territory E. of Jordan was the river Arnon {Wttdt/- 
 el-Mujib). The extent of country within these 
 limits was about 11,000 square miles. The poli- 
 tical boundaries varied at different periods. By 
 the covenant of God with Abraham (Gen. xv. IH), 
 the whole land was given to his descendants, from 
 ilte liver of Egypt to the Eupliraies ; but the Is- 
 raelites never had the faith or courage to take 
 permanent possession of this their lot ; the nearest 
 approach made to the realisation of the promise 
 was in the reigns of David and Solomon, when the 
 conquests of the former embraced a large part of 
 Syria, and the latter built Tadmor (aft. Palmyra) 
 in the Syrian Desert ; and, for a time, the Eu- 
 phrates seems to have been tlie border of the king- 
 dom on the N.E. (See 2 Sain. viii. 3, 1 Chron. 
 xviii, 3). On the W. again, the Israelites never had 
 full possession of the Mediterranean coast, a strip of 
 which, N.of Mt.Carmel, was always retained by the 
 Phoenicians [Phoenice] ; and another portion in 
 the S.W. was held by the Philistines, who were in- 
 dependent, except during brief intervals. On the S- 
 and E. again, portions of the land were frequently 
 subjugated by the neighbouring peoples of Ama- 
 lek, Edom, Midian, Moab, Ammon, &c. On the 
 N., except during the reigns of David and Solomon, 
 Palestine ceased at tlie S- entrance of the valley of 
 Coelesyria, and at M. Hermon in Antilibanus. — 
 In the physical formation of Palestine, the most 
 remarkable feature is the depression which forms 
 by the valley of the Jordan and its lakes [Jor- 
 DANEs], between which and the Mediterranean 
 tiie country is intersected by mountains, chiefly 
 connected with the Lebanon system, and running 
 N. and S. Between these ranges, and between 
 the central range and the W. coast, are some 
 comparatively extensive plains, such as those of 
 Esdraelon and Sharon, and several smaller valleys ; 
 in the S. of the country tlie mountains gradually 
 
 PALAESTINA. 
 
 £13 
 
 subside into the rocky deserts of Arabia Petraea. 
 The valleys and slopes of the hills are extremely 
 fertile, and were much more so in ancient times, 
 when the soil on the mountain sides was preserved 
 by terraces which are now destroyed through neglect 
 or wantonness. This division of the country has 
 only a few small rivers (besides mountain streams), 
 which fall into the Mediterranean: the chief of 
 them are the BpUis, just S. of Ptolemais {Acrc}^ 
 the Kishon, flowing from M. Tabor, through the 
 plain of Esdraelon, and falling into the Bay of 
 Acre N. of M. Carmel, the Chorseus, N. of Caesarea, 
 the Kanah, W. of Sebaste (Samaria), the Jarkon, 
 N. of Joppa, the Eshcol, near Askelon, and the 
 Besor, near Gaza. On the E. of the Jordan, the 
 land rises towards the rocky desert of the Hauran 
 (the ancient Auranitia), and the hills bordering the 
 Syrian Desert, its lower portion, near the river, 
 forming rich pastures, watered by the E. tribu- 
 taries of the Jordan, the chief of which are the 
 Hieromax, the Jabbok, and the Arnon, the last 
 flowing into the Dead Sea. — The earliest inhabitants 
 of Palestine were the several tribes of Canaanites. 
 It is unnecessary to recount in detail those events 
 with which Ave are familiar through the sacred his- 
 tory : the divine call of Abraham from Mesopotamia 
 to liveas a stranger 'in the land which God promised 
 to his descendants, and the story of his and his 
 son's and his grandson's residence in it, till Israel 
 and his family removed to Ecjypt : their return 
 and conquest of the land of Canaan and of the 
 portion of territory E. of the Jordan, and the parti- 
 tion of the whole among the 12 tribes : the contests 
 with the surrounding nations, and the government 
 by Judges, till the establishment of the monarchy 
 under Saul: the conquests of David, the splendid 
 reign of Solomon, and the division of the king- 
 dom under Rehoboara into the kingdom of Israel, 
 including 2-3rds of the country W. of Jordan, and 
 all E. of it, and the kingdom of Judah, including 
 the S. portion which was left, between the Medi- 
 terranean on the W. and the Dead Sea and a small 
 extent of Jordan on the E. : and the histories of 
 these 2 monarchies down to their overthrow by 
 the Assyrians and Babylonians respectively. The 
 former of these conquests made an important 
 change in the population of Palestine, by the 
 removal of the greater part of the inhabitants of 
 the kingdom of Israel, and the settlement in their 
 place of heathen peoples from other parts of tiie 
 Assyriiin empire, tiius restricting the country occu- 
 pied Ijy the genuine Israelites within the limits of 
 the kingdom of Judah. Hence the names of Judaea 
 and Jews applied to the country and the people in 
 their subsequent history. Between these last and 
 the mixed people of N. Palestine a deadly enmitv 
 arose ; the natural dislike of the pure race of Isi-ael 
 to heathen foreigners being aggravated by the 
 wrongs they suffered from them, especially at their 
 return from the Babylonish captivity, and still 
 more by the act of religious usurpation of which 
 the remnant of the N. Israelites were guilty at a 
 later period, in setting up a temple for themselves 
 on M. Gerizim [Samaria]. The date assigned 
 to the Assyrian conquest of the kingdom of Israel 
 is B. c. 721. The remainder of the history of the 
 kingdom of Judah (passing over its religious his- 
 tory, which la most important during this period) 
 consists of alternate contests with, and submissions 
 to, the kings of Assyria, Egypt, and Babylon, till 
 the conquest ' of the country by Nebuchadnezzar 
 
514 
 
 PALAESTINA. 
 
 and the removal of a purt of its people to Baby- 
 lonia, in 598, and the destruction of Jerusalem 
 ajid the temple, after the rebellion of Zedekiah, in 
 580, when a still larjjer portion of the people were 
 carried captive to Babylon, while others escaped to 
 Egypt. In 504, during the siege of Tyre, Ne- 
 buchadnezzar Bent a further portion of the Jews 
 into captivity ; hut there was still a considerable 
 remnant left in the land, and (wliat is very im- 
 portant) foreign settlers were not introduced ; so 
 that, when Cyrus, after overthrowing the Baby- 
 lonian empire, issued his edict for the return of the 
 Jews to their own land (b. c. 5u6), there was no 
 great obstacle to their quiet settlement in it. They 
 experienced some trouble from the jealousy and 
 attacks of the Samaritans, and the changeful dis- 
 positions of the Persian court ; but at length, by 
 the efforts of Zerubbabel and Joshua, and tlie 
 preaching of Haggai and Zechariah, the new 
 temple was finished and dedicated, in 51G, and Je- 
 rusalem was rebuilt. Fresh bands of Jewish exiles 
 returned under Ezra, 458, and Nehemiah, 445 ; 
 and, between this time and that of the Macedonian 
 conquest, Judaea was repeopled by the Jews, and 
 through the tolerance of the Persian kings, it was 
 governed virtually by the high-priests. In B. c. 
 332, after Alexander had taken Tyre and Gaza, 
 he visited Jerusalem, and received the quiet sub- 
 mission of the Jews, paying the most marked 
 respect to their religion. Under the successors of 
 Alexander, Palestine belonged alternately to Egypt 
 and Syria, the contests between whose kings for 
 its possession are too complicated to recount here ; 
 but its internal government seems to iiave been- 
 pretty much in the hands of the high-priests, until 
 the tyranny of Antiochus Epiphanes provoked the' 
 Buccessful revolt under the Maccabees, or Asmo- 
 naeans, whose history is given under Maccabaei, 
 and the history of the Idumaean dynasty, who 
 succeeded them, is given under Antipateh, He- 
 KODES, and Archelaus. The later Asmonaean 
 princes had regained the whole of Palestine, in- 
 cluding the districts of Judaea, Samaria, and 
 Galilee (besides Iduraaea), W. of the Jordan, and 
 the several districts of Peraea, Batanea, Gaulonitis, 
 Ituraea,and Trachonitis or Auranitis, E. of it ; and 
 this was the extent of Herod's kingdom. But, 
 from B. c. 63, when Pompey took Jerusalem, the 
 country was really subject to the Romans. At 
 the death of Herod, his kingdom was divided 
 between his sons as tetrarchs, under the sanction of 
 Augustus, Arclielaus receiving Judaea, Samaria, 
 and Idumaea, Herod Antipas Galilee and Peraea, 
 and Philip Batanaea, Gaulonitis, and Trachonitis ; 
 all standing to the Roman empire in a relation of 
 virtual subjection, which successive events converted 
 into an integral union. First, a.d. 7, Archelaus was 
 deposed byAugustus, and Judaea was placed under a 
 Roman procurator : next, about 31, Philip died, and 
 his government was united to the province of Syria, 
 and was in ^7 again conferred on Herod Agrippa 
 I., with the title of king, and with the addition of 
 Abilene, the district round Damascus. In 39, 
 Herod Antipas was banished to Gaul, and hia 
 tetrarchy was added to the kingdom of Herod 
 Agrippa ; and 2 years later he received from 
 Claudius the government of Judaea and Samaria, 
 and thus Palestine was reunited under a nominal 
 king. On his death, in 44, Palestine again be- 
 came a part of the Roman province of Syria 
 under the name of Judaea, which was governed 
 
 PALES. 
 
 by a procurator. The Jews were, however, most 
 turbulent subjects of the Roman empire, and at 
 last they broke out into a general rebellion, which, 
 after a most sanguinary war, was crushed by Ves- 
 pasian and Titus ; and the latter took and drstroycd 
 Jerusalem in a. d. 70. Under Constantine, Pales- 
 tine was divided afresh into the three provinces 
 of P. Prima in the centre, P. Secunda in the N., 
 and P. Tertia, the S. of Judaea, with Idumaea. 
 
 Palamedes (ITaAaw^iSTjj). 1. Son of Nauplius 
 and Clymene. He joined the Greeks in their 
 expedition against Troy ; but Agamemnon, Dio- 
 medes, and Ul3'sses, envious of his fame, caused 
 a captive Phrygian to write to Palamedes a letter 
 in the name of Priam, and bribed a servant 
 of Palamedes to conceal the letter under his 
 master's bed. They then accused Palamedes of 
 treachery ; upon searching his tent they found 
 the letter which they themselves had dictated ; 
 and thereupon they caused him to be stoned to 
 death. When Palamedes was led to death, he 
 exclaimed, "Truth, I lament thee, for thou hast 
 died even before me." According to some tra- 
 ditions, it was Ulysses alone who hated and 
 persecuted Palamedes. The cause of this hatred 
 is also stated differently. According to some, 
 Ul3''S3e3 hated him because he had been compelled 
 by him to j'oin the Greeks against Troy ; according 
 to others, because he hud been severely censured 
 by Palamedes for returning with empty hands 
 from a foraging excursion into Thrace. The 
 manner in which Palamedes perished is likewise 
 related differently. Some say that Ulysses and 
 Diomedes induced him to descend into a well, 
 where they pretended they had discovered a trea- 
 sure, and when he was below they cast stones 
 upon him, and killed him ; others state that he 
 was drowned by them whilst fistiing ; and others 
 that he was killed by Paris with an arrow. The 
 place where he was killed is either Colonae in 
 Troas, or in Tenedos, or at Geraestus. The story 
 of Palamedes, which is not mentioned by llomcr, 
 seems to have been first related in the Cypria, and 
 was afterwards developed by the tragic poets, 
 especially by Euripides, and lastly by the sophists, 
 who liked to look upon Palamedes as their pattern. 
 The tragic poets and sophists describe him as a 
 snge among the Greeks, and as a poet ; and he is 
 said to have invented liglit-houses, measures, scales, 
 the discus, dice, the alphabet, and the art of regu- 
 lating sentinels. — 2. A Greek grammarian, was a 
 contemporary of Athenaeus, who introduces him 
 as one of the speakers in his work. 
 Palatinus Mons. [Roma.] 
 Palatium. [Roma.] 
 
 Pale {Ud\7]: rictAets, Ion, riaAeey, Att. naXi]?, 
 in Polyb. UaKaieh: nr. Liamri, Ru.),one of the 
 4 cities of Cephallenia, situated on a height op- 
 posite Zacynthus. 
 
 Pales, a Roman divinity of flocks and shep- 
 herds, is described by some as a male, and by 
 others as a female divinity. Hence some modern 
 writers have inferred that Pales was a combination 
 of both sexes ; but such a monstrosity is altogether 
 foreign to the religion of the Romans. Some of 
 the rites performed at the festival of Pales, which 
 was celebrated on the 2l8t of April, the birth-day 
 of the city of Rome, would seem to indicate, that 
 the divinity was a female ; but besides the express 
 statements to the contrarj', there are also other 
 reasons for believing that Pales was a male divi- 
 
PALICANUS. 
 
 nity. The name seems to be connected with 
 Palatinus, the centre of all the earliest legends of 
 Rome, and the god himself was with the Romans 
 the embodiment of the same idea as l*au among 
 the Greeks. Respecting the festival of the Palilia 
 see Diet, of Antiq. s. v, 
 
 Palicanus, LoUius. [Lollius.] 
 
 Falici (IlaXi/coi), were Sicilian gods, twin sons 
 of Zeus and the nymph Thalia, the danghter of 
 Hephaestus. Sometimes they are called sons of 
 Hephaestus by Aetna, the daughter of Oceaiiua. 
 Thalia, from fear of Hera, prayed to be swallowed 
 up by tlie earth ; her prayer was granted ; but in 
 due time she sent forth from the eartli twin buys, 
 who, according to the absurd etymology of tlie 
 ancients, were called na\i/coi, from tov iraAtu 
 iKeadat. They were worshipped in the neigh- 
 bourhood of Mt. Aetna, near Palice ; and in the 
 earliest times human sacrifices were offered to 
 them. Their sanctuary was an as5''Ium for lan- 
 away slaves, and near it there gushed forth from 
 the earth two sulphureous fountains, called Deilloi, 
 or brothers of the Palici ; at which solemn oaths 
 were taken. The oaths were written on tablets, 
 and thrown into one of the fountains ; if the tablet 
 swam on the water, the oath was considered to be 
 true, but if it sank down, the oath was regarded 
 as a perjury, and was believed to be punished in- 
 stantaneously by blindness or death. 
 
 Palinurum (C PalinuTo), a promontory on the 
 W. coast of Lucania, which was said to have de- 
 rived its name from Palinurus, the son of Jasus, 
 and pilot of the ship of Aeneas, who fell into the 
 sea, and was murdered on the coast by the natives. 
 
 Fallacopas (naWaKSiras)^ a canal in Baby- 
 lonia, cut from the Euphrates, at a point 800 stadia 
 (HO geog. miles) S. of Babylon, W.-ward to the 
 edge of the Arabian Desert, where it lost itself in 
 marshes. 
 
 Pallidas (ITaWaSos), the author of a large 
 number of epigrams in the Greek Anthology, was 
 a pagan and an Alexandrian grammarian. He 
 lived at the beginning of the 5th century of the 
 Christian era, for in one of his epigrams he speaks 
 of Hypatia, the daughter of Theon, as still alive. 
 Hypatia was murdered in a. D. 41 5. 
 
 Palladiuin (UaWaStov), properly any image of 
 Pallas Athena (Minerva), but generally applied to 
 an ancient image of this goddess, which was kept 
 hidden and secret, and was revered as a pledge of the 
 safety of the town, where it existed. Among these 
 ancient images of Pallas none is more celebrated than 
 the Trojan Palladium, concerning which there was 
 the following tradition. Athena was brought up 
 by Triton; and when his daughter, Pallas, and 
 Athena were once wrestling together for the sake 
 of exercise, Zeus interfered in the struggle, and 
 suddenly held the aegis before the face of Pallas. 
 Pallas, while looking up to Zeus, was wounded by 
 Athena, and died. Athena in her sorrow caused 
 an image of the maiden to be made, round wliich 
 she hung the aegis. When Electra had come as 
 a suppliant to the Palladium, Zeus hurled it down 
 from heaven upon the earth, because it had been 
 sullied by the hands of one, who was no longer a 
 pure maiden. The image fell upon the earth at 
 Trov, when llus was just beginning to build the 
 city. llus erected a sanctuary to it. According 
 to some, the image was dedicated by Electra, and 
 according to others it was given by Zeus to Dar- 
 danus. The image itself is said to have been 3 
 
 PALLADIUS. 
 
 515 
 
 cubits in height, with its legs close together, and 
 holding in its right hand a spear, and in the left a 
 spindle and a distaff. This Palladium remained 
 at Troy until Ulysses and Diomedes contrived to 
 carry it away, because the city could not be taken 
 so long as it was in the possessionof that sacred trea- 
 sure. According to some accounts Troy contained 
 two Palladia, one of which was carried olf by 
 Ulysses and Diomedes, while the other was con- 
 veyed by Aeneas to Italj', or the one taken by 
 the Greeks was a mere imitation, while that which 
 Aeneas brought to Italy was the genuine image. 
 But this twofold Palladium was probably a mere 
 invention to account for its existence in more than 
 one place. Several towns both in Greece and Italy 
 claimed the honour of possessing the genuine 
 Trojan Palladium ; as for example, Argos and 
 Athens, where it was believed that Deniophon 
 took it from Diomedes on his return from Troy. 
 [Demophon.] This Palladium at Athens, how- 
 ever, was different from another image of Pallas 
 there, which was also called Palladium, and stood 
 on the acropolis. In Italy the cities of Rome, 
 Lavinium, Luceria, and Siris likewise pretended 
 to possess the Trojtm Palladium. 
 
 Palladius (riaAAdStos). — 1. Of Methone, a 
 sophist or rhetorician, who lived in the reign of 
 Constantine the Great.^2. Bishop of Helenopolis, 
 in Bithynia, to which he was raised a, d. 400. 
 He was ordained by Chrysostom ; and on the 
 banishment of the latter, Palladius was accused of 
 holding the opinions of Origen, and, fearful of the 
 violence of his enemies, he fled to Rome, 405. 
 Shortly afterwards he ventured to return to the 
 East, but was arrested and banished to the extre- 
 mity of Upper Egypt. He was afterwards re- 
 stored to his bishopric of Helenopolis, from which 
 he was translated to that of Aspona or Aspuna in 
 Galatia, perhaps about 419 or 420. Three works 
 in Greek have come down to us under the name 
 of Palladius ; but there has been considerable 
 dispute, whether they were written by one indi- 
 vidual or more : — (1.) Historia Lausiaca, " the 
 Lausiac History^'*'' so called from its being dedi- 
 cated to Lausus, a chamberlain at the imperial 
 court. This work contains internal proofs of 
 having been written by the bishop of Helenopolis. 
 It gives biographical notices or characteristic anec- 
 dotes of a number of ascetics, with whom Palladius 
 was personally acquainted, or concerning whom he 
 received information from those who had known 
 them personally. Edited by Meursius, Lugd. Bat. 
 1616. (2.) Tlie Life of Chrysostom^ was probablv 
 wi-itten by a different person from the bishop of 
 Helenopolis. Edited by Bigotius, Paris, 1680. 
 (3.) De GeniibiLS Indiae et Brafimmiibus (ISrah- 
 7na?/s). The authorship of this work is uncertain. 
 It appears that the writer himself had visited 
 India. Edited by Camerariua in Lifter Gnomo- 
 lofficus, 8vo. Lips, without date ; and by Bissaeus, 
 London, 1665. —3. Surnamed lulrosophishi, a 
 Greek medical writer, of whose life nothing is 
 known. He lived after Galen. We possess ?> 
 works commonly attributed to him: namely, 2 
 books of commentaries on Hippocrates, and a short 
 treatise on Fevers, all of which are tiken chiefly 
 from Galen. — 4. Palladius Rutilius Taurus 
 Aemilianus, the author of a treatise L>e Be 
 Rustica, in the form of a Farmer's Calendar, the 
 various operations connected with agriculture and 
 a rural life being arranged in regular order, ac- 
 
516 
 
 PALLANTIA. 
 
 cording to the seasons in which they onght to be 
 performed. It is comprised in 14 books: the first 
 is introductory, the 12 following contain the duties 
 of the 12 months in succession, commencing with 
 January ; tiie last is a poem, in 85 elegiac conplets, 
 upon the art of grafting {De Iiisitione), A con- 
 siderable portion of the work is taken from 
 Columella. The date of the author is uncertain ; 
 but it is most probable thiit he lived in the middle 
 of the 4th century of the Christian aera. The 
 work was very popular in the middle ages. Edited 
 in the Scriptores Rei Rusticae by Gesner, Lips. 
 1735 ; reprinted by Ernesti in 1773, and by 
 Schneider, Lips. 1794. 
 
 Pallantia (Pallantinus: Pulencia)^ the chief 
 town of tlie Vaccaei in the N. of HispaniaTiirraco- 
 nensis, and on a tributary of the Duritis. 
 
 Pallantias and Pallantis, patronymics, given 
 to Aurora, the daughter of the giant Pallas. 
 
 Pallantium {UaWduTiov; TlaWavnevs)^ an 
 ancient town of Arcadia, near Te.iioa, said to have 
 been founded by Pallas, the son of Lycaon. Evander 
 is said to have come from this place, and to have 
 called the town, which he founded on the banks of 
 the Tiber, Pallanteum (afterwards PalaniXum and 
 PalaiXum)^ after the Ai"cadian town. On the foun- 
 dation of Megalopolis, most of the inhabitants of 
 Pallantium settled in the new city ; and the town 
 remained almost deserted, till it was restored by 
 Antoninus Pius, and exempted from taxes on ac- 
 count of its supposed connection with the imperial 
 ci ty. 
 
 Pallas (riaAAay). — 1. One of the Titans, son 
 of CriuB and Euiybin, husband of Styx, and father 
 of Zelus, Cratos, Bia, and Nice. — 2. A giant, 
 slain by Athena in the battle with tlie gods. — 3. 
 According to some traditions, the father of Athena, 
 who slew him when he attempted to violate her. 
 — 4. Sou of Lycaon, and grandfather of Evander, 
 is said to have founded the town of Pallantium in 
 Arcadia. Hence Evander is called by the poets 
 Pallaniius Jteros.—'5. Son of Evander, and an ally 
 of Aeneas, was slain by the Rutulian Turnus. — 6. 
 Son of the Atlienian king Pandion, and father of 
 Clytus and Butes. Plis 2 sons were sent with 
 Cephalus to implore assistance of Aeacus against 
 Minns. Pallas was slain by Theseus. The cele- 
 biated family of the Pallantidae at Athens traced 
 their origin from this Pallas. 
 
 Pallas (TlaAAas), a surname of Athena. In 
 Homer this name always appears united with that 
 of Athena, as UaWas 'A&tjct? or ITaAAas 'ABtj- 
 i^ait] ; hut in later writers we also find Pallas 
 alone instead of Athena. Some ancient writers 
 derive the name from iraAAeif, to brandish, in 
 reference to the goddess brandishing the spear or 
 aegis, otlicrs derive it from the giant Pallas, who 
 was slain by Athena. But it is more probable 
 that Pallas is the same word as TraAAa^, i, e, a 
 virgin or maiden. 
 
 Pallas, a favourite freedman of the emperor 
 Claudius. In conjnnction with another freedman. 
 Narcissus, he administered the affairs of the em- 
 pire. After the death of Messalina, Pallas per- 
 suaded the weak emperor to marry Agrippina ; and 
 as Narcissus liad been opposed to this marriage, he 
 now lost his former power, and Pallas and Agrip- 
 pina became the rulers of the Roman world. It 
 was Pallas who persuaded Claudius to adopt the 
 young Domitius (afterwards the emperor Nero), 
 the son of Agrippina ; and it was doubtless with 
 
 PALMYRA. 
 
 the assistance of Pallas that Agrippina poisoned 
 her husband. Nero soon after his accession be- 
 came tired of his mother's control, and as one step 
 towards emancipating himself from her authority, 
 he deprived Pallas of all his public offices, and 
 dismissed him from the palace in 5G. He was 
 suffered to live unmolested for some years, till at 
 length his immense wealth excited the rapacity of 
 Nero, who had him removed by poison in 63. 
 His enormous wealth, which was acquired during 
 the reign of Claudius, had become proverbial, as 
 we see from the line in Juvenal (i. 107), ego jms- 
 sideo plus Pallanie et Licinio. The brother of 
 Pallas was Antonius or Claudius Felix, who was 
 appointed by Claudius procurator of Judae;i. 
 [Felix, Antonius.] 
 
 Pallas Lacua, [Tjiiton.] 
 
 Palleus {TlaK\T]VT]). 1. (Ha A At? vaToy, IlaAA/j- 
 fios), the most W.-ly of the 3 peninsulas mnning 
 out from Chalcidice in Macedonia. It is said to 
 have been formerly called Phlegra (4>A€7pa), and 
 on the narrow isthmus, which connected it with 
 the main land, stood the important town of Poti- 
 daen. — 2. (naAATjreuj, rarely Xia\KT]Vcuos), a 
 demus in Attica belonging to the tribe Antiochis, 
 was situated on one of the slopes of Pentelicus, .i 
 few miles S. W. of Marathon, It possessed a 
 temple of Athena, sumamed Pallenis (UaWTjuis) 
 from the place,; and in its neighbourhood took 
 place the contest between Pisistratus and the pai-ty 
 opposed to him. 
 
 Palma (Pabna), a Roman colony on the S.W. 
 coast off the island Balearis Major (Mq/o7-ca). 
 
 Palmaria {Palmai-uola)^ a small uninhabited 
 island off the coast of Latimn and the promontory 
 Circeium. 
 
 Palmyra (UdKuvpa : Tla\iJ.vp7}p6s, Palmyrenus ; 
 0. T. Tadmor : Tadmor^ Ru.)? a celebrated city of 
 Syria, stood in an oasis of the great Syrian Desert, 
 which from its position must have been in the 
 earliest times a halting place for the caravans be- 
 tween Syria and Mesopotamia. Here Solomon 
 built a city, which was called in Hebrew Tadmor, 
 that is, tlie citij of palm-trees ; and of this name 
 the Greek Ild\fxvpa is a translation. It lies in 34° 
 18' N. lat. and 30° 14' E. long., and was reckoned 
 237 Roman miles from the coast of Syria, 176 
 N.E. of Damascus, fiO E. of Emesa, and 113 S.E. 
 of Apamea. With the exception of a tradition 
 that it was destroyed by Nebuchadnezzar, we hear 
 nothing of it till the time of the government of the 
 East by M. Antonius, who marched to surprise it, 
 but the inhabitants retreated with their moveable 
 property beyond the Euphrates. Under the early 
 Roman emptrors it was a free city and a great 
 commercial emporium. Its position on the border 
 between the Parthian and Roman dominions gave 
 it the command of the trade of both, but also sub- 
 jected it to the injuries of war. Under Hadrian 
 and the Antonines it was highly favoured and 
 reached its greatest splendour. The history of its 
 temporary elevation to the rank of a capital, in the 
 3rd century, is related under Odenathus and Ze- 
 NOBIA. On its capture by Aurelian, in 270, it was 
 plundered, and soon afterwards an insuirection of 
 its inhabitants led to its partial destruction. It 
 was fortified by Justinian, but never recovered 
 from its fall. In the Arabian conquest it was one 
 of the first cities taken; but it was still inliabited 
 by a small population, chiefly of Jews, till it was 
 ti'ilccn and plundered by Timour (Tamerlane) in 
 
PAMISUS. 
 
 1400. It has long been entirely deserted, except 
 when a horde of Bedouins pitch their tents among 
 its splendid ruins. Those ruins, wlilch form a 
 most striking object in the midst of the Desert, are 
 of the Roman period, and decidedly inferior in the 
 style of architecture, as well as in grandeur of 
 effect, to those of Baalbek [HELioPOLis],the sister 
 deserted city of Syria. The finest remains are 
 those of the temple of the Sun ; the most interest- 
 ing are the square sepulchral towers of from 3 to 
 5 stories. The streets and the foundations of the 
 houses are traceable to some extent ; and there are 
 several inscriptions in Greek and in the native 
 Palmyrene dialect, besides one in Hebrew and one 
 or two in Latin. Tiie surrounding district of 
 Palmyrene contained the Syrian Desert from the 
 E. border of Coelesyria to the Euphrates. 
 
 Pamisus (Ud/xitTos) . 1. A southern tributary of 
 the Peneus in Thessaly. — 2. (Pintatza), the chief 
 river of Messenia, rises in the E. part of the coun- 
 try, 40 stadia E. of Ithome, flows first S. W., and 
 then S. through the Messenian plain, and falls 
 into the Messenian gulf. ^3. A small river in 
 Laconia, fiills into the Messenian gulf near Leuc- 
 tra. It was at one time the ancient boundary be- 
 tween Laccuia and Messenia. 
 
 Pamphia or Famphiuin (Ua/xtpia^ Ud/j.^iov), a 
 village of Aetolia, destrnj-ed by the Macedonians. 
 
 Pamphila (na/x(ptA.Tj), a female historian of con- 
 siderable reputation, who lived in the reign of 
 Nero. She is described by some writers as a 
 native of Epidaurus, by others as an Egyptian. 
 Her principal work, of which Photius has given 
 some extracts, was a kind of Historical Miscellany 
 (entitled o"u/x/i(KTcyi' icrrop-Kcov vTro^i'7}/j.a.Ta}i' Adyoi). 
 It was not arranged according to sulijt^cts or ac- 
 cording to any settled plan, but it was more like a 
 common-place book, in which each piece of in- 
 formation was set down as it fell under the notice 
 of the writer. Modern scholars are best acquainted 
 with the name of Pamphila, from a statement in 
 her work, preserved by A. Gellius (xv. 23), bj' 
 which is ascertained the j'ear of the birth of Hel- 
 lanicuB, Herodotus, and Thucydides respectively. 
 
 Pamphilus {Ud/j.(pi\os). 1. A disciple of 
 Plato, who is only remembered by the circum- 
 stance that Epicurus, when a young man, heard 
 him at Samos. Epicunis used to speak of him 
 with great contempt, that he might not be thought 
 to owe anything to his instruction ; for it was the 
 great boast of Epicurus, that he was the sole 
 author of his own philosoph)'. — 2. An Alexandrian 
 grammarian, of the school of Avistarchus, and the 
 author of a lexicon, which is supposed by some 
 scholars to have formed the foundation of the 
 lexicon of Hesychius. He appears to have lived 
 in the 1st century of our era. — 3. A philosopher 
 or grammarian of Nicopolis, the author of a work 
 on agriculture, of which there are considerable 
 fragments in the Geo/ionictz. — 4. Presbyter of 
 Caesarea, in Palestine, saint and martyr, and cele- 
 brated for his friendship with Eusebius, who, as a 
 memorial of this intimacy, assumed the surname of 
 Pampliihis. [Eusebius.] He suffered martyrdom 
 A. D. 307. The life of Pamphilus seems to have 
 been entirely devoted to the cause of biblical 
 literature. He was an ardent admirer and follower 
 of Origen. He formed, at Caesarea, an impor- 
 tant public library chiefly of ecclesiastical authors. 
 Perhaps the most valuable of tiie contents of this 
 library were the T^trapla and Hexapia of Origen, 
 
 PAMPHYLIUM. 
 
 517 
 
 from which Pamphilus, in conjunction with Euse- 
 bius, formed a new recension of the Septuagint, 
 numerous copies of which were put into circulation. 
 — 5. Of Amphipolis, one of the most distinguished 
 of the Greek painters, flourished about b. c. 390 — 
 350. He was the disciple of Eupompus, the 
 founder of the Sicyonian school of painting, for 
 the establishment of which, however, Pamphilus 
 seems to have done much mure than even Eupompus 
 himself. Of his own works we have most scanty 
 accounts ; but as a teacher of his art he was sur- 
 passed by none of the ancient masters. According 
 to Pliny, he was the first artist who possessed 
 a thorough acquaintance with all brajiches of 
 knowledge, especially arithmetic and geometry, 
 without wliich he used to say that the art could 
 not be perfected. All science, therefore, which 
 could in any way contribute to form the perfect 
 artist, was included in his course of instruction, 
 which extended over ten years, and for which the 
 fee was no less than a talent. Among those who 
 paid this price for his tuition were Apelles and 
 Melanthius. Not only was the school of Pam- 
 philus remarkable for the importance which the 
 master attached to general learning, but also for 
 the minute attention which he paid to accuracy in 
 drawing. 
 
 Pampbos (na^</)ajs), a mythical poet, who is 
 placed by Pausanias later than Olen, and much 
 earlier than Homer. His name is connected par- 
 ticularly with Attica. 
 
 Pamphylia (Tlo^c^uX/a: Xid^fvKos^ nafx(p{/' 
 Mas, PamphylTus), in its original and more re- 
 stricted sense, was a narrow strip of the S. coast of 
 Asia Minor, extending in a sort of arch along the 
 Sinus Pamphyliua (6^. o/^rfa/wi), between Lycia 
 on the W., and Cilicia on the E., and on the N. 
 bordering on Pisidia. Its boundaries, as commonly 
 statiid, were Mt. Climax on the W., the river 
 Melas on the E., and the foot of Mt. Taurus on the 
 N. ; but the statements are not very exact : Strabo 
 gives to the coast of Pamphylia a length of 640 
 .suidia, from Olbia on the W. to Ptolemais, some 
 distance E. of the Melas, and he makes its width 
 barely 2 miles ; and there are still other different 
 accounts. It was a belt of mountain coast land, 
 intersected by rivers flowing down from the Taurus 
 in a short course, but several of them with a con- 
 siderab!s body of water : the chief of them, goino- 
 from W. to E., were the Catarrhactes, Oes- 
 trus, EuRYMEDON, and Mklas [No. b']. all 
 navigable for some distance from their moutiis. 
 The inhabitants were a mixture of races, whence 
 their name Udfj.cpv\oi^o/all races ( the genuine old 
 form, the other in -loi is later). Besides the abori- 
 ginal inhabitants, of the Semitic (Syro-Arabian) 
 family, and Cilicians, there were very early Greek 
 settlers and later Greek colonies in tl'ie land. Tra- 
 dition ascribed the first Greek settlements to Mop- 
 sus, after the Trojan War, from whom the country 
 was in early times called Mopsopia. It was suc- 
 cessively a part of the Persian, Macedonian, Greco- 
 Syrian, and Pergamene kingdoms, and passed by 
 the will of Attains III. to the Romans (b. c. 130), 
 under whom it was made a province ; but this pro- 
 vince of Pamphylia included also Pisidia and Isau- 
 ria, and afterwards a part of Lycia. Under Con- 
 stantine Pisidia was again separated from Pam- 
 phylia. 
 
 Pamphylium Mare, Pampbynus Sinua (rh 
 Ila/t^oAioc 7re'A.a7oy, llafitpvKioi K6Kiros : Gidf of 
 
S18 
 
 PAMPHYLUS. 
 
 Adalia\ tlie great gulf formed in the S. coast of 
 Asia Minor by the direction of the Tiuirua chain 
 and by Mt. Solyma, between the Pr. Sacrum or 
 Chelidonium (C. Khelidonia)^ the S.E. point of 
 Lycia, and Pr. Anemurium {C. Ane7}iour\t)\e S. 
 jioint of Cilicia. Its depth from N. to S., from 
 Pr. Sacrum to Olbia, is reckoned by Strabo at 
 3(j7 stadia f36"7 gi-'og. miles), which is too little. 
 
 Pampbylua {fl6.{Xipu\os\ son of Aegimius and 
 brother of Dymas, was king of the Dorians at the 
 foot of Mt. Pindus, and along with the Heraclidae 
 invaded Peloponnesus. 
 
 Pan (nai/), the great god of flocks and shep- 
 herds among the Greeks. He is usually called a 
 son of Hermes by the daughter of Dryops ; but he 
 is also described as a son of Hermes by Callisto, 
 by Oeneis or Thymbris, or by Penelope, whom the 
 god A'isited in the shape of a rara, or as a son of 
 Penelope by Ulysses, or by all her suitors in com- 
 mon. He was perfectly developed from his birth ; 
 and when his mother saw hira, she ran away 
 tlirough fear; but Hermes carried him to Olympus, 
 where all the gods were delighted with him, and 
 especially Dionysus. From his delighting all the 
 gnds, the Homeric hymn derives his name. He 
 was originally only an Arcadian god ; and Arcadia 
 was always the principal seat of his worship. 
 From this country his name and worship after- 
 wards spread over other parts of Greece ; but at 
 Athens his worship was not introduced till the 
 time of the battle of Marathon. In Arcadia he 
 was the god of forests, pastures, flocks, and shep- 
 herds, and dwelt in grottoes, wandered on the 
 summits of mountains and rocks, and in valleys, 
 either amusing himself with the chase, or leading 
 the dances of the nymphs. As the god of flocks, 
 both of wild and tame animals, it was his province 
 to increase and guard them ; but he was also a 
 hunter, and hunters owed their success or failure 
 to him. The Arcadian hunters used to scourge 
 the statute of the god, if they had been disap- 
 pointed in the chase. During the heat of mid-day 
 he used to slumber, and was very indignant when 
 any one disturbed him. As the god of flocks, bees 
 also were under his protection, as well as the coast 
 where fishermen carried on their pursuit. As the 
 god of every thing connected with pastoral life, he 
 was fond of music, and the inventor of the syrinx 
 or shepherd's flute, which he himself played in a 
 masterly manner, and in which he instructed 
 others also, such as Daphnis. He is thus said to 
 have loved the poet Pindar, and to have sung and 
 danced his lyric songs, in return for which Pindar 
 erected to him a sanctuary in front of his house. 
 ]'an, like other gods who dwelt in forests, was 
 dreaded by travellers to whom he sometimes ap- 
 peared, and whom he startled with sudden awe or 
 terror. Thus when Pliidippides, the Athenian, 
 was sent to Sparta to solicit its aid against the 
 Persians, Pan accosted him, and promised to terrify 
 the barbarians, if the Athenians would worship 
 him. Hence sudden fright without any visible 
 cause was ascribed to Pan, and was called a Panic 
 fcitr. He is further said to have had a terrific 
 voice, and by it to have frightened the Titans in 
 their fight with the gods. It seems that this fea- 
 ture, namely, his fondness of noise and riot, was 
 the cause of his being considered the minister 
 and companion of Cybele and Dionysus. He was 
 at the same time believed to be possessed of pro- 
 phetic powers, and to have even instructed Apollo 
 
 PANDAREO&. 
 
 in this art. While roaming in his formats he fell 
 in love with Echo, by whom or by Pitho he be- 
 came the father of lynx. His love of Syrinx, after 
 whom he named his flute, is well known from 
 Ovid(^/e^ i. 69l,3eq.). Fir-trees were sacred to 
 him, since the nymph Pitys, whom he loved, had 
 been metamorphosed into that tree ; and the sacri- 
 fices offered to him consisted of cows, rams, lambs, 
 milk, and honey. Sacrifices were also offered to 
 him in common with Dionysus and the nymphs. 
 The various epithets which are given him by the 
 poets refer either to his singular appearance, or are 
 derived from the names of the places in which he 
 was worshipped. The Romans identified with 
 Pan their own god Inuua, and also Faimus, which 
 name is merely another form of Pan. In works 
 of art Pan is represented as a voluptuous and 
 sensual being, with horns, puck-nose, and goat's 
 feet, sometimes in the act of dancing, and some- 
 times playing on the syrinx. 
 
 Panacea (navct/ceia), i.e. " the all-healing,"' a 
 daughter of Aesculapius, who had a temple at 
 Oropus. 
 
 Panachaicns Mons {rh TlavaxoXKhv opos)^ a 
 mountain in Achaia, 6300 feet high, immediately 
 behind Fatrae. 
 
 Panacra {XlduaKpM}^ a mountain in Crete, a 
 branch of Mt. Ida. 
 
 Panactum {Ilava.Krov\ a town on the frontiers 
 of Attica and Boeotia, originally belonged to 
 Boeotia, and after being a frequent object of con- 
 tention between the Athenians and Boeotians, at 
 length became permanently annexed to Attica. 
 
 Panaenus (Jlavaivos), a distinguished Athenian 
 painter, who flourished b. c. 44S. He was the 
 nephew of Phidias, whom he assisted in decorating 
 the temple of Zeus, at Olympia. He was also the 
 author of a series of paintings, of the battle of 
 Marathon, in the Poecile at Athens. 
 
 Panaetius (naraiTios), a native of Rhodes, and 
 a celebrated Stoic philosopher, studied first at 
 Pergamum under the grammarian Crates, and 
 subsequently at Atlie'ns under the stoic Diogenes, 
 of Babylon, and his disciple Antipater of Tarsus. 
 He afterwards went to Rome, where he became 
 an intimate friend of Laelius and of Scipio 
 Africanus the younger. In b. c. 144 he accom- 
 panied Scipio on the embassy which he undertook 
 to the kings of Egypt and Asia in alliance with 
 Rome. Panaetius succeeded Antipater, as head 
 of the stoic school, and died at Athens, at all 
 events before 111. The principal work of Panae- 
 tius was his treatise on the theory of moral obli- 
 gation (Trepl rov ica.Qi\KovTos)^\w 3 books, from which 
 Cicero took the greater part of his v/oxk De Officils. 
 Panaetius had softened down the harsh severity of 
 the older stoics, and, without giving up their 
 fundamental definitions, had modified them so as 
 to make them applicable to the conduct of life, and 
 had clothed them in the garb of eloquence. 
 
 Panaetolium, a mountain in Aetolia near Ther- 
 mon, in which town the Panaetolium or general 
 assembly of the Aelolians was held. 
 
 Panda, a river in the country of the Slraces in 
 the interior of Sarmatia Asiatica (Tac. Ann. xii. 
 
 Pandareos (JlavZap^ms), son of Merops of Mi- 
 letus, is said to Imve stolen from the temple of Zevis 
 in Crete the golden dog which Hepriaestns had 
 made, and to have carried it to Tantalus. When 
 Zeus sent Hermes to Tantalus to claim the dog 
 
PANDARUS. 
 
 PANIUM. 
 
 back, Tantalus declared tliat it was not in liis pos- I Acgeus obtained Athens, Lycus the E. coast of 
 
 ision. The god, however, took the animal by 
 force, and threw mount Sipylus upon Tantalus. 
 
 Attica, Nisua Megaris, and Pallas the S. coast. 
 Pandora (Uav^copa), the name of the first 
 
 Pandareos fled to Athens, and thence to Sicily, woman on earth. "When Prometheus had stolen 
 ■where he perished with his wife Harraothoe, The the fire from heaven, Zeus in revenge caused He- 
 story of Pandareos derives more interest from that phaestus to make a woman out of earth, who by 
 of his 3 daughters. Aedon, the eldest of them, her charms and beauty siiould bring misery upon 
 was married to Zethus. the brother of Amphion, the human race. Aphrodite adorned her with 
 by whom she became the mother of Itylus. From beauty; Hermes bestowed upon lier boldness and 
 envy of Amphion, who had many children, she cunning; and the gods called her Pandora, or ^ZZ- 
 determined to murder one of his sons, Araaleus, gt/ted, as each of tlie gods had given her some 
 bat in the night she mistook lier own son for her power by which she was to work the ruin of man. 
 nephew, and killed him. The 2 other daughters Hermes took her to Epimetheus, who made her 
 of Pandareos, Merope and Cleodora (according to his wife, forgetting the advice of his brother Pro- 
 Pausanias, Camira and Clytia), were, according metheus that he should not receive any gifts from 
 to Homer, deprived of their parents by the gods, Zeus. In the house of Epimetheus was a closed 
 and remained as helpless orphans in the palace, jar, which he had been forbidden to open. But 
 Aphrodite, however, fed them with milk, honey, the curiosity of a woman could not resist the 
 and wine. Hera gave them beauty and under- temptation to know its contents ; and when she 
 standing far above other womon. Artemis gave opened the lid all the evils incident to man poured 
 them dignity, and Athena skill in the arts. When out. She had only time to shut down the lid, and 
 Aphrodite went up to Olympus to arrange the prevent the escape of hope. Later writers relate 
 nuptials for her maidens, they were carried off by that Pandora brought with her from heaven a box 
 
 the Harpies. 
 
 Pandarus (UdvBapos.) 1. A Lycian, son of opening which all 
 
 (and not a jar), containing all human ills, upon 
 
 Lycaon, commanded the inhabitant: 
 
 earth, Hope alone remaining. At a still later pe- 
 
 Mt. Ida, in the Trojan war. He was distinguished riod, the box is said to have contained all the 
 in the Trojan army as an archer, and was said to blessings of the gods, which would have been pre- 
 have received his bow from Apollo. He was slain served for the human race, had not Pandora opened 
 
 by Diomedea, or, according to others, by Sthenelua. 
 He was afterwards honoured as a hero at Pinara 
 
 the vessel, so that the winged blessings escaped. 
 Pandosia (navSoaia). 1, {Kasiri), a town of 
 
 in Lycia. — 2. Son of Alcanor, and twin-brother of Epirus in the district Thesprotia, on the river 
 Bitias, was one of the companions of Aeneas, and Acheron, and in the territory of the Cassopaei. — 
 
 was slain by Tumus. 
 
 Pandataria ( Vendutene), a small island in the 
 
 Tyrrhenian sea off the coast of Campania, to which and also 
 
 2. {Castcl Franco ?), a town in Bruttium near the 
 frontiers of Lucaniji, situated on the river Acheron, 
 
 : the foot of 3 hil 
 
 Julia, the daughter of Augustus, was banished. 
 Pandemos (nt£y5T]jUos), i. e. " common to all 
 
 ' originally a residence of native Oenotrian chiefs. 
 i It was here that Alexander of Epirus fell, B. c. 32C, 
 
 the people," a surname of Aphrodite, used in a in accordance with an oracle. 
 
 twofold sense; 1. as the goddess of low sensual 
 pleasures as Venus vidgzvaga or popularis^ in oppo- 
 
 Pandrosos {Udi^Spoaos), i.e. "the all-bedewing." 
 or " refreshing," was a daughter of Cecrops and 
 
 sition to Venus Urania, or the heavenly Aphrodite; Agraulos, and a sister of Erysicbthon, Herse, and 
 
 2. as the goddess uniting all the inhabitants of a Aglauros, She was worshipped at Athens, along 
 
 country into one social or political body. Under with Thallo, and had a sanctuary there near the 
 
 the latter view she was worshipped at Athens temple of Athena Polias. 
 
 along with Peitho (persuasion), and her worship 
 was said to have been instituted by Theseus at the 
 
 Paneas. [CAESAnEA, No. 2.] 
 
 Paneum or -ium (Udveiov, Udvtov, i. e. Pa«V 
 
 time when he united the scattered townships into abode), the Greek name of the cave, in a mountain 
 
520 
 
 PANNONIA. 
 
 Pannoiua, one of the most important of the 
 Roman provinces between the Danube and the 
 Alps, was separated on the W. from Noricum by 
 the Mons Cetius, and from Upper Italy by the 
 Alpes Juline, on the S. from Illyria by the Savus, 
 on the E. from Dacia by the Danube, and on the 
 K. from Germany by the same river. It thus 
 corresponded to the eastern part of Atisli-ia^ Sii/ria, 
 Ciirinihia, Camiolii^ the whole of Hungary between 
 the Danube and the Save, Slavonian and a part of 
 Croatia and Bosnia. The mountains in the S. and 
 W. of the country on the borders of Illyria, Italy, 
 and Noricum, belonged to theA]ps,aiidare therefore 
 called by the general name of the Alpes Panno- 
 nicae, of which the separate names are Ocra, Car- 
 vancas, Cetiug, and Albii or Albani Montes. The 
 principal rivers of Pannonia, besides the Danube, 
 were the Dravus (Drave)^ Savus (Save), and 
 Arrabo (Raah), all of which flow into the Danube. 
 — The Pannonians (Pannonii), sometimes called 
 Paeonians by the Greek writers, were probably of 
 lUyrian origin, and were divided into numerous 
 tribes. They were a brave and warlike people, 
 but are described by the Roman writers as cruel, 
 faithless, and treacherous. They maintained their 
 independence of Rome, till Augustus, after his 
 conquest of the Illyrians (b. c. 35), turned his arms 
 against the Pannonians, who were shortly after- 
 wards subdued by his general Viblus. In A. d. 7 
 the Pannonians joined the Dalmatians and the 
 other lllyrian tribes in their revolt from Rome, and 
 were with difficulty conquered by Tiberius, after a 
 desperate struggle, which lasted 3 years (a. d. 
 7 — 9). It was after the termination ot this war 
 that Pannonia appears to have been reduced to the 
 form of a Roman province, and was garrisoned by 
 several Roman legions. The dangerous mutiny of 
 these troops after the death of Augustus (a. d. 1-1) 
 was with difficulty quelled by Drusus. From this 
 time to the end of the empire, Pannonia always 
 contained a large number of Roman troops, on ac- 
 count of its bordering on the Quadi and other 
 powerful barbarous nations. We find at a hiter 
 time that Pannonia was the regular quarters of 7 
 legions. In consequence of this large number of 
 troops always stationed in the country, several 
 towns were founded and numerous fortresses were 
 erected along the Danube. Pannonia originally 
 formed only one province, but was soon divided 
 into 2 provinces, called Pannonia Superior and 
 Pannonia Inferior. These were separated from 
 one another by a straight line drawn from the river 
 Arrabo S. as far as the Savus, the country W. of 
 this line being P. Supaiior^ and the part E. 
 P. Inferior. Each of the provinces was governed 
 by a separate propraetor ; but they were fre- 
 quently spnken of in the plural under the name 
 of PLmnoniae. In the 4tlr century the part of 
 P. Inferior between the Arrabo, the Danube, and 
 the Dravus, was formed into a separate province 
 by Galerius, who gave it the name of Valeria in 
 honour of his wife. But as P. Inferior had thus lost 
 a great part of its territory, Constantine added to 
 it a portion of P. Superior, comprising the upper 
 part of the course of the Dravus and the Savus. 
 P. Superior was now called Paimonia /., and P. In- 
 ferior Pannonia IT. ; and all 3 Pannonian pro- 
 vinces (together with the 2 Noric provinces and 
 Dalmatia) belonged to the 6 lllyrian provinces of 
 the Western Empire. In the middle of the 5th 
 lentury Pannonia was taken possession of by the 
 
 PANTHEUM. 
 
 Huns. After the death of Attila it passed into 
 the hands of the Ostrogoths, and subsequently into 
 those of the Langobards. 
 
 Panompliaeus {Xlavo}i<paXos\ i.e. the author of 
 all signs and omens, a surname of Zeus, who had a 
 sanctuaiy on the Hellespont between capes Rlioe- 
 teum nnd Sigeuiu. 
 
 Panopc (ncti/oTTT)), a nymph of the sea, daughter 
 of Nercus and Doris. 
 
 Panopeus (Ilai/fiTreur), son of Phocus and Aste- 
 ropaea, accompanied Amphitryon on his expedition 
 against the Taphians or Teleboans, and took an 
 oath not to embezzle any part of the booty ; but 
 having broken his oath, he was punished by his 
 son Epeus becoming unwarlike. He is also men- 
 tioned amnng the Calydonian hunters. 
 
 Panopeus (nafOTTeus, Horn.), Panopeae (IXctfo- 
 ■iT4ai)^ or Panope (JiavotrT]^ Thuc. ; ethnic Tiavo- 
 Treiis, Agio Vlasi)^ an ancient town in Phocis on 
 the Cephissus and near the frontiers of Boeotia, 
 20 stidia W. of Chaeronea, said to have been 
 founded by Panopeus, son of Phocus. 
 
 Panopolis. [Chemmis.] 
 
 Panoptes. [Argus.] 
 
 Panormus (navop^ios), that is, "All -Port," or 
 a place always fit for landing, the name of several 
 harbours. 1. (Tlaj'op^tTTjs, Panormlta, Panormi- 
 tanus : Palermo)^ an important town on the N. 
 const of Sicily and at the mouth of the river Ore- 
 thus, was founded by the Phoenicians, and at a 
 later time received its Greek name from its ex- 
 cellent harbour. From the Phoenicians it passed 
 into the hands of the Carthaginians, in whose 
 power it remained for a long time, and who made 
 it one of the chief stations for their fleet. It was 
 taken by the Romans in the 1st Punic war, B.C. 
 254, and was subsequently made a Roman colonj-. 
 — 2. {Porto RapMi)^ the principal harbour on the 
 E. coast of Attica, near the demiis Prasiae, and 
 opposite the S. extremity of Euboea. — 3. ( TekicJi), 
 a harbour in Ai;liaia, 15 stadia E. of the promon- 
 tory Rhiuni.— 4. A harbour in Epirus in the 
 middle of the Acroccraunian rocks. —5. (Nr. Mylo- 
 poiumn Rn.), a town and harbour on the- N. coast 
 ofCrete. — 6. The outer harbour of Ephesus formed 
 by the mouth of the river Cayster. [See p. 242, a. J 
 
 Pansa, C. Vibius, a friend and partisan of 
 Caesar, was tribune of the plebs B. c. 51, and was 
 appointed by Caesar in 46 to the government of 
 Cisalpnio Gaul as successor to M. Brutus. Caesar 
 subsequently nominated him and Hirtius, consuls 
 for 43. Pansa was consul in that year along with 
 Hirtius, and fell before Mutina in the month of 
 April. The details are given under Hirtius. 
 
 Pantacyas, Pantagaas, or Pantagies {Uav- 
 TaKvas'. Fiume di Porcari)^ a small river on the 
 E. coast of Sicily, which flowed into the sea be- 
 tween Megara and Syracuse. 
 
 Pantaleon (nafraAeW), son of Omphalion,king 
 or tyrant of Pisa in Elis at the period of the 34th 
 Olympiad (b. c. 644), assembled an anny, with 
 which he made himself master of Olympia, and 
 assumed by force the sole presidency of the Olympic 
 games. The Elcans on this account would not 
 reckon this as one of the regular Olympiads. 
 Pantaleon assisted the Messenians in the 2nd 
 Messenian war. 
 
 Panthea. [Adradatas.] 
 
 Pantkeum \udvdeiav\ a celebrated temple at 
 Rome in the Campus Martins, which is still ext.nit 
 and used as a Christian church. It is in a circular 
 
PANTHOUS. 
 
 form, surmounted by a dome, and contains a noljle 
 Corinthian portico of 16 pillars. In its general 
 fonn it resembles the Colosseum in the Rej^ent's 
 Park. It was built by M. Agrippa in his 3rd 
 consulship, b. c. 27, as the inscription on the por- 
 tico still testifies. All the ancient authors call it 
 a temple, and there is no reason for supposing, as 
 some modem writers have done, that it was origi- 
 nally an entrance to the public baths. The name 
 is commonly derived from its being supposed to be 
 sacred to all the gods ; but Dion Cassius expressly 
 states that it was dedicated to Mars and Venus. 
 The temple of Julius Caesar was erected by Au- 
 gustus in the interior of the temple, and that of 
 Augustus in the pronaos. It was restored by the 
 emperor Septimius Sevenis, a. n. 202, Between 
 fJOii and 610 it was consecrated as a Christian 
 church by the pope Boniface IV., with the appro- 
 bation of the emperor Phocas. In 655, the plates 
 of gilded-bronze that covered the roof were carried 
 to Constantinople by command of Constans II. 
 The Pantheon is the largest circular building of 
 antiquity ; the interior diameter of the rotunda is 
 142 feet, and the height from the pavement to the 
 summit about 148 feet. The portico is 103 feet 
 wide, and the columns 47 feet high. 
 
 Pantlxous contr. PantMs {Ududons, Udvdous), 
 one of the elders at Troy, husband of Phrontis, and 
 father of Euphorbus, Poiydamas, and Hyperenor, 
 Hence both Euphorbus and Poiydamas are called 
 Pantlioidp.s. He is said to have been originally a 
 priest of Apollo at Delphi, and to have been carried 
 to Troy by Antenor, on account of liis beauty. He 
 cfmtinued to be a priest of Apollo, and is called by 
 Virgil {Aen. ii. 319) Othryades, or son of Othryas. 
 
 Panticapaeuin iJia.VTiKa.-Kai.ov : TlavriKairalos^ 
 Ilai/Ti/caTrateiJs, Xia.vTiKa-KidTT)s : Kcrtscli), a town 
 in the Tauric Chersonesus, was situated on a hill 
 20 stadia in circumference on the Cimmerian Bos- 
 porus, and opposite the town of Phanagorla in 
 Asia. It derived its name from the river Pan- 
 tirapes. It was founded by the Milesians, about 
 B. c. 541, and from its position and excellent har- 
 bour soon became a place of great commercial im- 
 portance. It was the residence of the Greek kings 
 of the Bosporus, and hence is ^sometime callt-d 
 Bosporus. Justinian caused it to be surrounded 
 with new walls. 
 
 Panticapes (na;/T(K07r7js), a river in European 
 Sarmatia, which, according to Herodotus, vises in 
 a lake, separates the agricultural and nomad Scy- 
 thians, flows through the district Hylaea, and falls 
 into the Bor}'sthenes. It is usually identiiied 
 with the modem Soinara, but without sufficient 
 grounds. 
 
 Panyaais (Uafvaa-is). 1. A Greek epic poet, 
 was a native of Halicarnassus, and a relation of the 
 historian Herodotus, probably his uncle. Panyasis 
 began to be known about ii. c. 4UI), continued in 
 reputation till 467, and was put to death by Lyg- 
 damis, the tyrant of Halicarnassus, about 457. The 
 most celebrated of the poems of Panyasis was 
 his Heradea or TLracleas, which ga-e a detailed 
 account of the exploits of Hercules. It consisted 
 of 14 books and 9000 verses. Another poem of 
 Panyasis bore the name of /nni't-a ('Iwi'i'cc), and 
 contained 7000 verses ; it related the history of 
 Neleus, Codrus, and the Ionic colonies. In later 
 times the works of Panyasis were extensively read, 
 and much admired; the Alexandrine ^grammarians 
 ranked him with Homer, Ilesiod, Pisander, and 
 
 PAPHLAGONIA. 
 
 £21 
 
 Antimachus, as one of the 5 principal epic poets.^ 
 2. A philosopher, also a native of Halicamassua, 
 who wrote 2 books '"' On Dreams'" (Uepi ov^ipwv), 
 was perhaps a grandson of the poet. 
 
 Paphlagonia {IlacpXayovia : Ua^Xayco;/., pi. 
 -6ves, Paphlago), a district on the N. side of Asia 
 Minor, between Bithynia on the W. and Pontus 
 on the E., being separated from the former by the 
 river Parthenius, and from the latter by the H.ilys; 
 on the S. it was divided by the chain of Mt. 
 Olympus (according to others by Olgassys) from 
 Phrygia, in the earlier times, but from Galatia 
 afterwards ; and on the N. it bordered on the 
 Euxine. These boundaries, however, are not al- 
 ways exactly observed. Xenophon brings the 
 Paphlagonians as far E. as Themiscyra and the 
 Jasonian promontory. It appears to have been 
 known to the Greeks in the nij'tliical period. The 
 Argonautic legends mentioned Paphlagon, the son 
 of Phineus, as the hero eponymus of the country-. 
 In tlie Homeric Catalogue, Pylaemenes leads the 
 Paphlagonians, as allies of the Trojans, from the 
 land of the Hencti, about the river Parthenius, a 
 region famed for its mules : and from this Pylae- 
 menes the later princes of Paphlagonia claimed 
 their descent, and the country itself was sometimes 
 called Pylaemenia. Herodotus twice mentions 
 the Halys as the boundary between the Paphlago- 
 nians and the Syrians of Cappadocia ; but we 
 learn also from him and from other authorities that 
 the Paphlagonians were of the same race as the 
 Cappadocians (i. e. the Semitic or Syro-Arabian) 
 and quite distinct, in their language and their cus- 
 toms, from their Thracian neighbours on the W. 
 They were good soldiers, especially as cavalry ; 
 but uncivilised and superstitious. The country 
 had also other inhabitants, probably of a different 
 race, namely the Heneti and the Caucones ; and 
 Greek settlements were established on the coast at 
 an early period. The Paphlagonians were first 
 subdued by Croesus. Under the Persian empire 
 they belonged to the third satrapy, but their Ea- 
 traps made themselves independent and assumed 
 the regal title; maintaining themselves in this 
 position (with a brief interruption, during which 
 Paphlagonia was subject to Eumenes) until the 
 conquest of the country by Mithridates, who added 
 the E. part of his own kingdom, and made over 
 the W. part to Nicomedes, king of Bithynia, who 
 gave it to his son Pylaemenes. After the fall of 
 Mithridates the Romans added the N. of Paphla- 
 gonia, along the coast, to Bithynia; and the inte- 
 rior was left to the native princes, as tributaries to 
 Rome ; but, the race of these princes becoming 
 soon extinct, the whole of Paphhigonia was made 
 Roman, and Augustus made it a part of the pro- 
 vince of Galatia, It was made a separate province 
 under Constantino ; but tiie E. part, from Sinope 
 to the Halys, was assigned to Pontus, imder the 
 name of HellespontU'*. Paphlagonia was a moun- 
 tainous country, being intersected from W. to E. 
 by 3 chains of the Olympus system, namely the 
 Olympus itself on the S. border, Olgassys in the 
 centre, and a minor chain with no specific name 
 nearer to the coast. The belt of land between 
 this last chain and the sea was very fertile, and 
 the Greek cities of Amastris and Sinope brought a 
 considerable commerce to its shore ; but the inland 
 parts were chiefly covered with native forests, 
 which were celebrated as hunting grounds. TIih 
 country was famed for its horses and mulcSj and 
 
62'2 
 
 PAPHU3. 
 
 ill some parts there were extensive sheepwalks ; 
 and its rivers were particularly famous for their 
 fish. The countr}'' was divitled into 9 districts, 
 the names of which are not of enough importance 
 to be specified Iiere. 
 
 Paphus {Uatpos), son of Pygmalion by the 
 statue into which life had been breathed by Aphro- 
 dite. From him the town of Paphus is said to 
 have derived its name ; and Pygmalion himself is 
 culled the Paphian hero. (Ov. Met. x. 290.) 
 
 Paphus (nd(^os ; nd(pios), the name of 2 towns 
 on the W. coast of Cyprus, near each other, and 
 called respectively *' Old Paphos" (UaKalira(pos) 
 and "NewPaphos" (Tla^os vea). Old Paphos 
 was situated near the promontory Zephyrium on 
 the river Bocarus 10 stadia from the coast, where 
 it had a good harbour; while New Paphos lay 
 niore inland, in the midst of a fertile plain, 60 
 stadia from the former. Old Paphos was the 
 chief seat of the worship of Aphrodite (Venus), 
 who is said to have landed at this place after her 
 birth among- the waves, and who is hence fre- 
 quently called the Paphian goddess (Paphia). 
 Here she had a celebrated temple, the high priest 
 of which exercised a kind of religious superin- 
 tendence over the whole island. Every year there 
 was a grand procession from New Paphos to the 
 temple of the goddess in the old city. There were 
 2 legends respecting the foundation of Paphos, one 
 describing the Syrian king Cinyras as its founder, 
 and the other the Arcadian Agapenor on his 
 return from Troy. These statements are reconciled 
 by the supposition that Cinyras was the founder of 
 Old Paphos and Agapenor of New Paphos. There 
 can be no doubt of the Phoenician origin of Old 
 Paphos, and that the worship of Aphrodite was 
 introduced here from the East; but an Arcadian 
 colony cannot be admitted. When Paphos is 
 mentioned by later writers without any epithet, 
 they usually mean the New City; but when the 
 name occurs in the poets, we are generally to 
 understand the Old City, as the poets, for the 
 most part, speak of the place in connection with 
 the worship of Aphrodite. Old Paphos was de- 
 stroyed by an earthquake in the reign of Augustus, 
 but was rebuilt by order of the emperor, and called 
 Augusta. Under the Romans New Paphos was 
 the capital of one of the 4 districts into which the 
 island was divided. Old Paphos corresponds to 
 the modem Kukla or Ko?mklia, and New Paphos 
 to the modern Baffa. 
 
 Papias (naTTiax), an early Christian writer, said 
 to have been a hearer of the Apostle John, and a 
 companion of Polycarp, was bishop of Hierapolis, 
 on the border of Phrygia. He taught the doctrine 
 of the Millennium, maintaining that there will be for 
 1000 years after the resurrection of the dead, a 
 bodily reign of Christ on this earth. Only frag- 
 ments of his works are extant. 
 
 Papinianus, Aemilius, a celebrated Roman 
 jurist, was praefectus praetorlo, imder the emperor 
 Si-ptimius Severus, whom he accompanied to Britain, 
 'j'he emperor died at York a. d. 211, and is said 
 to have commended his 2 sons Caracalla and Geta 
 to the care of Papinian. On the death of his father, 
 Caracalla dismissed Papinian from his office, and 
 shortly afterwards put him to death. There are 
 h^db excerpts from Papinian's works in the Digest. 
 These excerpts are from the 37 books of Quaestioiies, 
 a work arranged according to the order of the Edict, 
 the 1 9 books of Re^^ofisa, the 2 books of DcJiiiUioiien, 
 
 PARAETACENE. 
 
 the 2 books De Jdulteriis, a single book De Adul' 
 teriis, and a Greek work or fragment, which pro- 
 bably treated of the office of Aedile both at Rome 
 and in other towns. No Roman jurist had a higher 
 reputation than Papinian. Nor is his reputation 
 unmerited. It was not solely because of the high 
 station that he filled, his penetration and his know- 
 ledge, that he left an imperishable name ; his ex- 
 cellent understanding, giiided by integrity of pur- 
 pose, has made him the model of a true lawyer. 
 
 Fapmius Statlus. [Statius.] 
 
 Papiria Gens, patrician and plebeian. The pa- 
 trician Papirii were divided into the families of 
 Crassus, Cursor, Afaso, and Mugillanus ; and the 
 Plebeian Papirii into those of Carlo, Faettm, and 
 Turdus. Of these the families of Carbo, Cursor, 
 Maso, and Mugillanus, alone require mention. 
 
 Papirianae Fossae, a village in Etruria on the 
 Via Aemilia, between Luna and Pisa. 
 
 Papirius, C. or Sex., the author of a supposed 
 collection of the Leges Regiae, which was called 
 Jus Papirianum, or Jus Civile Papirianum. He 
 is said to have lived in the reign of Tarquiniua 
 Superbus. 
 
 Papius ]jlutilus. [Mutilus.] 
 
 Pappua (naTTTToiJa), a lofty rugged mountain on 
 the extreme border of Numidia, perhaps the same 
 as the Thammes of Ptolemy, and as the mountain 
 abounding with wild cats, near the city of Meli- 
 tene, to which Diodorus Siculus refers (xx. 58), 
 but without mentioning its name. 
 
 Pappus (naTTTTos), of Alexandria, one of the 
 later Greek geometers, is said by Suidas to have 
 lived under Theodosius (a. d. 379 — 395). Of the 
 works of Pappus, the only one which has come 
 dov/n to us is his celebrated Matlwrnatical Col- 
 Iccttnns {Ma97)iJ.aTtKS}t^ ffuyayajycvu ^i§\ia). This 
 work, as we have it now in print, consists of the 
 last 6 of 8 books. Only portions of these books 
 have been published in Greek. There are 2 Latin 
 editions of Pappus ; the first, by Coramandinus> 
 Pisauri, 1508 ; and the second by Manolessius, 
 Bononiae, ] 660. 
 
 Papremis (naTrpij^is), a city of Lower Eg}'pt, 
 capital of the Nomos Papremites, and sacred to the 
 Egyptian god whom the Greeks identified with 
 Ares. It is only mentioned by Herodotus, and is 
 perhaps the same as the Chois of later times. 
 
 Papus, Aemilius. 1. M., dictator b. c. 32] . — 
 
 2. Q., twice consul 202, and 270 ; and censor 
 275. In both his consulships and in his censor- 
 ship he had as colleague C. Fabricius Luscinus.— 
 
 3. L., consul 225, defeated the Cisalpine Gauls 
 with great slaughter. He was censor 220 with C. 
 Flaminius. 
 
 Paracheloitis (napctxeAa-rns), the name of the 
 plain in Acarnania and Aetolia, near the mouth of 
 the Achelinis, and through which that river flows. 
 
 Parachoathras (Uapaxodepas, ra Xlapaxodepa : 
 Miiis. of Louristan), a part of the chain of moun- 
 tains forming the E. margin of the Tigris and 
 Euphrates valley, was the boundary between Su- 
 siana and Media. The same name is given to an 
 E. branch of the chain, which formed the boundary 
 l)etween Parthia and the desert of Cannaniu. 
 Strabo places it too far N. 
 
 Paraetacene {XiapaiTaKrivii : XiaparaKai, Tla- 
 patraKTivoi, Paraetacae, Paraetaceni), the name of 
 various mountainous regions in the Persian empire, 
 is the Greek form of a Persian word, signifying 
 mountainous. 1. The best known of those districta 
 
PARAETONIUM. 
 
 ■wns on the borders of Media and Persia, and was 
 inhabited by a people of Median origin, who are 
 mentioned several times by the historians of Alex- 
 ander and his successors. ^ 2. A district between 
 the rivers Oxus and Jaxartes, on the borders of 
 Bactria and Sogdiaiia. — 3. A district between 
 Arachosia and Drangiana, also called Sacastana, 
 from its inhabitints, the SL-ythian Sacae. 
 
 Paraetonium or Ammonia (napatT(i;/ioi', tj 
 ^Ajificavla : El-Dareton or Alarsa-Labeit)^ an im- 
 portant city on the N. coast of Africa, belonged to 
 Mannarica in its widest sense, but politically to 
 Kgypt, namely to the Nomos Libya : hence this 
 city on the W. and Pelusium on the E. are called 
 *■■ comua Aegypti." It stood near the promontory 
 Artos or Pythis (^Ras-el-Hazeit) \ and was reck- 
 oned 200 Roman miles W. of Alexandria, between 
 70 and 80, or, according to Strabo, 900 stadia (all 
 too small) E. of the Catabathmos Major, and 1300 
 stadia N. of Ammnnium in the Desert {Siwah\ 
 which Alexander the Great visited by the way of 
 Paraetonium. The city was 40 stadia in circuit. 
 It was an important sea-port, a strong fortress, and 
 a renowned seat of the worship of Isis. It was 
 restored by Justinian, and continued a place of some 
 consequence till its complete destruction by the 
 late Pasha of Egypt, Mehemet Ali, in lli20. 
 
 Paragon Sinus {Tiapaytav koKttqs : Gulf of 
 Omaii)^ a gulf of the Indicus Oceanus, on the 
 coast of Gedrosia, namely, the gulf fonned in 
 tiie N. W. of the Indian Ocean by the approach of 
 the N. E. coast of Arahia to that of Bdoocldsian 
 and Persia, outside of the entrance to the Persian 
 Gujf. _ 
 
 Paralia (JlapaXia)^ the sea-coast district of 
 Attica, around the promontory of Sunium, extend- 
 ing upwards as far as Halae Axonides on the W. 
 coast and Prasiae on the E. coast. The inha- 
 bitants of this district, the Paralii (UapdAtot), were 
 one of the 3 political parties, into which Attica 
 was divided at the time of Pisistratua, the other 2 
 being the Diacrii (AiaKpioi), or Highlanders, and 
 the Pediasii (IleSicitnoi), or inhabitants of the 
 plain. 
 
 Paralus (napaAoy), the younger of the 2 legiti- 
 mate sons of Pericles. He and his brother Xan- 
 thippus were educated by their father with the 
 greatest care, but they both appear to have been 
 of inferior capacity, which was anything but com- 
 pensated by worth of character, though Paralus 
 seems to have been a somewhat more hopeful 
 youth than his brother. They both fell victims to 
 the plague, B. c. 429. 
 
 ParapOtamii or ia (JiapaTrordfiiot^ -afxla : Be- 
 Ussi), an ancient town in Phocis, situated on a 
 steep hill, and on the left bank of the river Ce- 
 phissus, from which it derives its name. It was 
 near the fi'ontiers of Boeotia, being only 40 stadia 
 from Chaeronea and 60 stadia from Orchoraenus. 
 It is probably mentioned by Homer (II. ii. 522). 
 It was destroyed by Xerxes, but was rebuilt, and 
 was destroyed a second time in the Sacred War. 
 
 Parasopla {liapaawma), a district in the S. of 
 Boeotia, on both banks of the Asopns, the inha- 
 bitants of which were called ■ /'aj-asojou (flapo- 
 iTWTrini). 
 
 Parcae. [Moirae.] 
 
 Parentium [Parenzo)^ a town in Tstria, with a 
 good harbour, inhabited by Roman citizens, but 
 not a Roman colony, 31 miles from Pola. 
 
 Paris (nap(s), also called Alexander (*AAe^ar- 
 
 PARIS. 
 
 523 
 
 5po5), was the second son of Priam and Hecuba. 
 Before his birth Hecuba dreamed that she had 
 brought forth a firebrand, the flames of which 
 spread over the whole city. Accordingly as soon 
 as the child was bom, he was given to a shepherd, 
 who was to expose him on Mt. Ida. After the 
 lapse of 5 days, the shepherd, on returning to 
 Mt. Ida, found the child still alive, and fed by 
 a she-bear. Thereupon he carried the boy home, 
 and brought him up along with his own child, and 
 called him Paris. When Paris had grown up, he 
 distinguished himself as a valiant defender of the 
 flocks and shepherds, and hence received the name 
 of Alexander, i. e. the defender of men. He also 
 siicceeded in discovering his real origin, and was 
 received by Priam as his son. He now married 
 Oenone, the daughter of the river god Cebren, by 
 whom, according to some, he became the father of 
 Corythus. But the most celebrated event' in the 
 life of Paris was his abduction of Helen. This 
 came to pass in the following way. Once upon a 
 time, when Peleus and Thetis solemnized their 
 nuptials, all the gods were invited to the marriage, 
 with the exception of Eris, or Strife. Enraged at 
 her exclusion, the goddess threw a golden apple 
 among the guests, with the inscription,. " to the 
 fairest." Thereupon Hera, Aphrodite and Athena 
 each claimed the apple for herself. Zeus ordered 
 Hermes to take the goddesses to Mt. Gargarus, 
 a portion of Ida, to the beautiful shepherd Paris, 
 who was there tending his flocks, and who was to 
 decide the dispute. The goddesses accordingly ap- 
 peared before him. Hera promised him the sove- 
 reignty of Asia and great riches, Athena great 
 glory and renown in war, and Aphrodite the fairest 
 of women for his wife. Paris decided in favoiu: of 
 Aphrodite, and gave her the golden apple. This 
 judgment called forth in Hera and Athena fierce 
 hatred against Troy. Under the protection of 
 Aphrodite, Paris now sailed to Greece, and was 
 hospitably received in the palace of Menelaus at 
 Sparta. Here he succeeded in carrying off Helen, 
 the wife of Menelaus, who was the moat beautiful 
 woman in the world. — The accounts of this rape 
 are not the same in all writers. According to 
 the more usual account Helen followed her seducer 
 willingly, owing to the influence of Aphrodite, 
 while Menelaus was absent in Crete. Others 
 relate that the goddess deceived Helen, by 
 giving to Paris the appearance of Menelaus ; and 
 others again say that Helen was carried off by 
 Paris by force, either during a festival or during 
 the chase. — On his return to Tro)', Paris passed 
 through Egypt and Phoenicia, and at length arrived 
 at Truy with Helen and the treasures which he 
 had treacherously taken from the hospitable house 
 of Menelaus. — In regard to this voyage the ac- 
 counts again differ, for according to some Paris and 
 Helen reached Troy 3 days after their departure ; 
 whereas, according to later traditions, Helen did 
 not reach Troy at all, for Zeus and Hera allowed 
 only a phantom resembling her to accompany 
 Paris to Troy, while the real Helen was carried 
 to Proteus in Egypt, and remained there until she 
 was fetched by Menelaus. — The abduction of 
 Helen gave rise to thp Trojan war. Before her 
 marriage with Menelaus, she had been wooed by 
 the noblest chiefs in all parts of Greece. Her 
 fonner suitors now resolved to revenge her ab- 
 duction, and sailed against Troy. [Agamemnon.] 
 Homer describes Paris as a handsome man, fond 
 
o?A PARIS. 
 
 of the female sex and of music, and not ignorant nf 
 ■war, but as dilatory and cowardly, and detested 
 by his own friends for having; broiifrht upon them 
 the fatal war with the Greeks. He fought witli 
 Menelaus before the walls of Troy, and was de- 
 feated, but was carried oiF by Aphrodite. He is 
 said to have killed Achilles, either by one of his 
 arrows, or by treachery in the temple of the 
 Thymbraean Apollo. [Achilles.] On the cap- 
 ture of Troy, Paris was wounded by Philoctetes 
 with an arrow of Hercules, and then returned to 
 his long abandoned wife Oenone. But she, re- 
 membering the wrongs she had suffered, or accord- 
 injT to others being prevented by her father, refused 
 to heal the wound. He then went back to Troy 
 and died. Oenone quickly repented, and hastened 
 after him with remedies, but came too late, and in 
 her grief hung herself. According to others she 
 threw 'herself from a tower, or rushed into the 
 flames of the funeral pile on which the body of 
 Paris was burning. Paris is represented in works 
 of art as a beautiful youth, without a beard, with 
 a Phr}'gian cap, and sometimes with an apple in 
 his hand, which he presented to Aphrodite. 
 
 Paris, the name of two celebrated pantomimes. 
 1. The elder Paris lived in the reign of the em- 
 peror Nero, with whom he was a great favourite. 
 He was originally a slave of Doraitia, the aunt of 
 the emperor, and he purchased his freedom by pay- 
 ing her a large sum of money. Paris was after- 
 wards declared, by order of the emperor, to have 
 been free-born (ingenuus), and Domitia was com- 
 pelled to restore to him the sum which she had 
 received for his freedom. When Nero attempted 
 10 become a pantomime, he put Paris to death as a 
 dangerous rival. — S. The younger Paris, and the 
 more celebrated of the two, was a native of Kgypt, 
 and lived in the reign of Domitian, with whom he 
 was also a great favourite. He was put to death 
 by Domitian, because he had an intrigue with 
 Domitia, the wife of the emperor. 
 
 Parisii. [LuTETiA Parisiorum.] 
 
 Parxam, (rh Udpioi/ : Uapidu6s^ VlapiTjvSs^ Ua- 
 piavevs : Kemer^ Ru.), a city of Mysia, on tlie N. 
 coast of the Troad,on the Propontis, between Lamp- 
 sacus and Priapus, was founded by a colony from 
 Mlleius,mingled with natives of ParosandErytlirae, 
 and became a flourishing seaport, having a better 
 harbour than that of Prinpua. Under Augustus it 
 was made a Roman colony, by the name of Co- 
 lonia Pariana Julia Augusta. It was a renowned 
 seat of the worsliip of Eros, Dionysus, and Apollo. 
 The surrounding district was called t\ Uaptavrj. 
 
 Parma (Parmensis : Parma), a town in Gallia 
 Cispadana, situated on a river of the same name 
 and on the Via Aemilia, between Placentia and 
 Mutina, was originally a town of the Boii, hut 
 was made a Roman colony B.C. 183, along with 
 Mutina, and from that time became a place of 
 considerable importance. It suffered some injury 
 in the civil war after Caesar^s death, but w:is 
 enlarcred and embellished by Augustus, and re- 
 ceived tlie name of Colonia Julia Augusta. After 
 tile fall of the Western Empire it was for a time 
 called Chri/sopoUs^ or the '* Gold-City," but for 
 what reason we do not know. The country around 
 Parma was originally marshy; but the marshfs 
 were drained by the consul Scaurus, and converted 
 into fertile land. The wool of Farraa was par- 
 ticularly good. 
 
 Parmenidos (Uapfxevl^-qs), a distinguished 
 
 PARNASSUS. 
 
 Gi'eek philosopher, was a native of Elea in Italy. 
 According to Plato, Parmenides, at the age of 65, 
 came to Athens to the Panathenaea, accompanied 
 by Zeno, then 40 years old, and became acquainted 
 with Socrates, who at that time was quite young. 
 Supposing Socrates to have been 19 or 20 years of 
 age at the time, we may place the visit of Par- 
 menides to Athens in B.C. 448, and consequently 
 his birth in 513. Parmenides was regarded with 
 great esteem by Plato and Aristotle ; and his 
 fellow-citizens thoxight so highly of him, that every 
 year they bound their magistrates to render obe- 
 dience to the laws which he had enacted for them. 
 The philosophical opinions of Parmenides were 
 developed in a didactic poem, in hexameter verse, 
 entitled On Nature^ of which only fragments re- 
 main. In this poem he maintained that the phaeno- 
 mena of sense were delusive ; and that it was only 
 by mental abstraction that a person could attain to 
 the knowledge of the only realit}', a One and All, 
 a continuous and self-existent substance, which 
 could not be perceived by the senses. But al- 
 though he believed the phaenomena of sense to be 
 delusive, nevertheless he adopted 2 elements. 
 Warm and Cold, or Light and Darkness. The 
 best edition of the fragments of Parmenides is by 
 Karsten, in Fhihsopkorum Graee. Veierum Oper. 
 Reliquiae^ Amstelod. 1835. 
 
 Parmenion (Uapf^Gvicav). "L Son of Philotas, 
 a distinguished Macedonian general in the service 
 of Philip of Macedon and Alexander the Great. 
 Philip held him in high esteem, and used to say 
 of him, that he had never been able to find more 
 than one general, and that was Parmenion. In 
 Alexander's invasion of Asia, Parmenion was re- 
 garded as second in command. At the three great 
 battles of the Granicus, Issus and Arbela, while 
 the king commanded the right wing of the army, 
 Parmenion was placed at the head of the left, and 
 contributed essentially to the victory on all those 
 memorable occasions. The confidence reposed in 
 him by Alexander appears to have been unbounded, 
 and he is continually spoken of as the most attached 
 of the king's friends, and as holding, beyond all 
 question, the second place in the state. But when 
 Philotas, the only surviving son of Parmenion, 
 was accused in Drangiana (b. c. 330) of being 
 privy to the plot against the king's life, he not 
 only confessed his own guilt, when put to the tor- 
 ture, but involved his father also in the plot. 
 Whether the king really believed in the guilt of 
 Parmenion, or deemed his life a necessary sacrifice 
 to policy after the execution of his son, he caused 
 his aged friend to be assassinated in Media before 
 he could receive the tidings of his son's death. 
 The death of Parmenion, at the age of 70 years, 
 will ever remain one of the darkest stains upon the 
 character of Alexander. It is questionable whether 
 even Philotas was really concerned in the conspi- 
 racj'", and we may safely pronounce that Parmenion 
 had no connection with it. — 2, Of Macedonia, an 
 epigrammatic poet, whose verses were included in 
 the collection of Philip of Thessalonica ; whence 
 it is probable that he flourished in, or shortly be- 
 fore, the time of Augustus. 
 
 Parnassus {Uap^aaa-ds, UapvaaSs^ Ion. Uap- 
 urjirSs), the name, in its widest Rignification, of a 
 range of mountains, which extends from Oeta and 
 Coni:c S. E. through Doris and Phocis, and under 
 the name of Cirplds {Klptpis) terminates at the 
 Corinthian gxilf between Cii'rha and Anticyra. 
 
PAUNES. PAROREA. 525 
 
 Bat in its narrower sense, Parnassus indicates the the people soon regained their independence, though 
 
 highest part of the range a fttW miles N. of Delphi, parts of the country were nominally included iu 
 
 Its 2 highest summits wore called Tithorea (Ti- the limits of the Greco-Syrian and Tin^tT.;„T, v;,,™ 
 
 Oopea: Velitza)^ and LycorOa {Auic(i>pua: Lwkura\ doms. It is a rugged mountain re^ 
 
 the former being N. W. and the latter N. E. of by branches of the Paroparaisus. In the N. the 
 
 Delphi ; and hence Parnassus is fi-equently de- climate is so severe that, according to the ancient 
 
 scribed by the poets as double-headed. Imme- writers, confirmed by modern travellers, the snow 
 
 diately above Delphi the mountain forms a semi- almost buries the houses ; but in the S. the valleys 
 
 circular range of lofty rocks, at the foot of which of the lower mountain slopes yield all the products 
 
 the town was built. These rocks were called of the warmer regions of Asia. In its N. was the 
 
 Pluiedriades (*ai5pio56s) or the '"Resplendent," considerable river Cophes^or Cophen {CubooD, 
 
 frnm their facing the S., and thus receiving the flowing into the Indus, and having a tributary, 
 
 full rays of the sun during the most brilliant part Choas, Choes, or Choaspe.s (No. 2). The parti- 
 
 of the day. The sides of Parnassus were well cular tribes, included under the general name of 
 
 wooded: at its foot grew myrtle, laurel and olive- Parnpamisadae, were the Cabolltae [KaSoKirai) in 
 
 trees, and higher up firs ; and its summit was the N., whose name and position point to Cahool^ 
 
 covered with snow during the greater part of the the Parsii (Ilopcriof) in the S.W., the Ambaiitue 
 
 year. It contained numerous caves, glens and ('A^gaurat) in the E., on the river Choas, tiie 
 
 romantic ravines. It is celebrated as one of the ParsuGtae [Xiapcxvri'Tai) on the S., and tlie 'Ap;- 
 
 chief seats of Apollo and the Muses, and an o"tc(^u\oi, probably a dominant tribe of a difl^crent 
 
 inspiring source of poetry and song. On Mt. Ly- race, on the W, At the time of tlie Macedonian 
 
 corea was the Corycian cave, from which the conquest the people were little civilised, but quiet 
 
 Muses are sometimes called the Corycian nymphs, and inoffensive. The chief cities were Ortospiina 
 
 Just above Delphi was the far-fiuned Castalian and Alexandria, the latter founded by Alexander 
 
 spring, which issued from between 2 cliffs, called the Great. 
 
 Nauplia and Hyam-plia. These cliffs are frequently Paropamisus (iTapoTra^io-os-, and several other 
 
 called by the poets the summits of Parnassus, forms, of which the truest is probably IlcipoTrayiffos : 
 
 tiiough they are in reality only small peaks at the Hmdoo-Kooah)^ a word no doubt derived, as 
 
 base of the mountain. The mountain also was many other words beginning like it, from the Old 
 
 sacred to Dionysus, and on one of its summits Persian furu^ a mountain^ is the name of a part of 
 
 tlie Thyades held their Bacchic revels. Between the great moimtain-cliain which runs from W. to 
 
 Parnassus Proper and Mt. Cirphis was tlie valley E. throuc;h the centre of the S. portion of the high- 
 
 of the Plistus, through which the sacred road ran lands of Central Asia, and divides the part of the 
 
 from Delphi to Daulis and Stiris ; and at the continent, which slopes down to the Indian Ocean, 
 
 point where the road branched off to these 2 places from the great central table-land of Tuiiary and 
 
 (called (Txio-T^), Oedipus slew his father Laius.— Thibet. It is a prolongation of the chain of Anti- 
 
 2. A town in the N. of Cappadocia, on a mountain Taurus, The name was applied to that part of the 
 
 of the same name (Pascha JJagh), probably on the chain between the Sariplii M. {M. of Kohistan) 
 
 river Halys, and on the road between Ancyra and on the W. and M. Imaus [Himalaya) on the E,, 
 
 Archelaia. or from about the sources of the river Margus on 
 
 Pdmea (riapi/T/y, gen. Ua.pv'r]Qos : Ozia or No- the W. to the point where the Indus breaks 
 
 na), a mountain in the N. E. of Attica, in some through the chain on the E. Tbey were believed 
 
 parts as high as 4000 feet, was a continuation of by the ancients to be among the highest mountains 
 
 Mt. Cithaerou, from which it extended E.- wards in the world (which they are), and to contain the 
 
 as far as the coast at Rhamnus. It was well sources of the Oxus and the Indus ; the last stati^- 
 
 wooded, abounded in game, and on its lower slopes ment being an error which naturally arose from 
 
 produced excellent wine. It formed part of the confounding the cleft by which the Indus breaks 
 
 boundary between Boeotia and Attica ; and the through the chain with its unknown source. When 
 
 pass through it between these 2 countries was Alexander the Great crossed these mountains, his 
 
 easy of access, and was therefore strongly fortified followers — regarding the achievement as equiva- 
 
 by the Athenians. On the summit of the moun- lent to what a Greek considered as the highest 
 
 tain there was a statue of Zeus Parnethius, and geographical adventure, namely the passage of the 
 
 there were likewise altars of Zeus Seraaleos and C)aucasus — conferred this glory on tlieir chief by 
 
 Zeus Ombrius or Apemins. simply applying the name of Caucasus to the 
 
 Pamon {napvcav. Malevo\ a mountain 6335 mountain chain which he had thus passed : and 
 
PAROREATAE. 
 
 PARTHENIUS. 
 
 grandson of Lycaon, the inhabitants of which took I eminent ability. In epigrams inscribed on his 
 
 part in the building of Megalopolis. 
 
 Paroreatae (napoipeaTai), the most ancient in- habits, but he also claimed the honour of having 
 habitants of the mountains in Triphylia in Elis, assigned with his own hand the precise limits of 
 
 ■who were expelled by the Minyae. 
 Parorios. [Phrygia.] 
 
 Paros (Udpo^ : ndpws : Paro), an island in the test with Zeuxis, 
 
 works he not onlv made a boast of his luxurious 
 
 be transgressed. Respecting the st( 
 
 test with Zeuxis, see Zeuxis. Of the works of 
 Parrhasius, the most celebrated seems to have been 
 
 Aegean sea, one of the larger of the Cyclades, was Parrhasius, the most celebrated seems to have been 
 
 situated S. of Delos and W. of Naxos, being sepa- his picture of the Athenian People, 
 rated from the latter by a channel .5 or 6 miles Parsii. [Paropamis.adae' 
 wide. It is about 36 miles in circumference. It SaTsici 'Kontes (to. Uapa-iKa Spri, Bushkurd M. 
 
 is said to have been originally colonized by Cre- in the W. of Beloochislan), a chain of mountains 
 
 tans, but was afterwards inhabited by louians, and running N.E. from the Paragon Sinus (G. ofOvian) 
 
 beaime so prosperous, even at an early period, as and forming the boundary between Carmania and 
 
 to send out colonies to Thasos and to Pariura on Gedrosia. At the foot of these mountains, in the 
 
 the Propontis. In the first invasion of Greece by W. of Gedrosia, were a people called 
 
 the generals of Darius, Paros submitted to the with a capital Parsis (perhaps SerUih). 
 
 Persians ; and after the battle of Marathon, Mil- 
 tiades attempted to reduce the island, but failed 
 
 Parsyetae (napo-i/^rai), a people on the borders 
 f Ar.-ichosia and the Paropamisadae, with a moun- 
 
 in his attempt, and received a wound, of which he tain of the same name, which is probably identical 
 
 died. [MiLTiADES.] After the defeat of Xer.xes. with the Pariieti M. and with the Sotiriian 
 
 Paros came under the supremacy of Athens and mountains. 
 
 shared the fate of the other Cyclades. Its name Parthalis, the chief city of the Calingae, a tribe 
 
 rarely occurs in subsequent history. The most of the Gangaridae, in India intra Gangem, at the 
 
 celebrated production of Paros was its marble, head of the Sinus Gangeticus (.Sea o/"i/c/i(7a/). 
 
 which was extensively used by the ancient sculp- Partheni [Parthini.] 
 
 tors. It was chiefly obtained from a mountain Partheniaa {UapBiv'mt), also called Parthenla, 
 
 which was extensively used by the ancient sculp- Partheni [Parthini.] 
 
 tors. It was chiefly obtained from a mountain Partheniaa {UapBiv'mt), also called Parthenla, 
 
 called Marpessa. The Parian figs were also highly a small river in Elis, which flows into the Alpheus 
 
 prized. The chief town of Paros was situated on E. of Olympia not far from Harpinna. 
 
 the W. coast, and bore the same name as the Parthenium {Xlapdeviov). 1. A town in 
 
 island. The ruins of it are still to be seen at the Mysia, S. of Pergamum. ^2. (Felenk-Imnm), n 
 
 modem Paroikia. Paros was the birthplace of the promontory in the Chersonesus Taurica, on which 
 
 poet Archilochus In Paros was discovered the stood a temple of the Tauric Artemis, from whom 
 
 celebrated inscription called the Parian Chronicle, 
 
 It was in this temple that 
 
 which is now preserved at Oxford, The inscrip- human sacrifices were offered to the goddef-s. 
 tion is cut on a block of marble, and in its perfect Parthenium IJlare (rd XlapQ^viKiv ireKc 
 state contained a chronological account of the prin- the S.E. part of the Mediterranean, between 1 
 
 1582 to the archonship of Diognetus, 264. 
 
 history from Cecrops, B. c. and Cyprus. 
 
 Parthenius {Uapeefios), of Nicaea, or accord- 
 
 Parrhasia {nappatria: Ilap^dcriot), a district in ing to others, of Myrlea, a celebrated grammarian, 
 
 the S. of Arcadia, to which, according to Pausanias, is said by Suidas to have been taken prisoner by 
 
 the towns Lycosura, Thocnia, Trapezus, Proseis, Cinna, in the Mithridatic war, to have been 
 
 Acacesium, Acontium, Macaria, and Dasea be- manumitted on account of his learning, and to 
 
 longed. The Parrhasii are said to have been one have lived to the reign of Tiberius. If this state- 
 
 of the most ancient of the Arcadian tribes. At ment is true, Parthenius must have attained a 
 
 the time of the Peloponnesian war they were great age, since there were 77 years from the 
 
 under the supremacy of Mantinea, but were ren- death of Mithridates to the accession of Tiberius, 
 
 dered independent of that city by the Lacedae- Parthenius taught Virgil Greek ; and he seems to 
 
 monians. Homer ([l. ii. 608) mentions a town have been very popular among the distinguished 
 
 Parrhasia, said to have been founded by Par- Romans of his time. The emperor Tiberius iuii- 
 
 rhasus, son of Lycaon, or by Pelasgns, son of tated his poems, and placed his works and statues 
 
 Arestor. — The adjective Parrltasius is frequently in the public libraries, along with the most cele-' 
 
 used by the poets as equivalent to Arcadian. 
 
 brated ancient writers. Parthenius wrote many 
 
 Parrhasius (na^pdaios), one of the most cele- poems, but the only one of his works which has 
 
 brated Greek painters, was a native of Ephesns, 
 the son and pupil of Evenor. He practised his art 
 
 come down to us is m prose, and entitled Hep! 
 ipi^TMuv TraO-n^idTuii'. It contains 36 brief love- 
 
 chiefly at Athens : and by some writers he is stories, which ended in an unfortunate manner. 
 
 called an Athenian, probably because the Athe- 
 nians had bestowed upon him the right of citizen- 
 
 It is dedicated to Cornelius Gallus, and was com- 
 piled for his use, that he might avail himself of 
 
 ship. He flourished about b. c. 400. Parrhasius the materials in tlie composition of epic and elegiac 
 
 did for painting, at least in pictures of gods and poems. The best edition is by Westermann, in 
 
 heroes, what bad been done for sculpture by Phi- the Afythngrapld^ Brunswick, 1843. 
 dias in divine subjects, and by Polycletus in the Parthenius {Xlapdiuios). 1. A mountain on 
 
 human figure : he established a canon of proportion, the frontiers of Argolis and Arcadia, through 
 
 which was followed by all the artists that came which was an important pass leading from Argolis 
 
 after him. Several interesting observations on the to Tegea. This pass is still called Purt/ieni, but 
 
 principles of art which he followed are made in a the mountain itself, which rises to the height of 
 
 dialogue with Socrates, as reported by Xenophon 3993 feet, bears the name of Roinn. It was 'on 
 
 (Mmn. iii. 10). The character of Parrhasius was this mountain tliat Telephus, the son of Hercules 
 
 marked in the highest degree by that arroganc and Auge, was said to have been suckled by a 
 
 which often accompanies the consciouiiness of pn- hind ; and it was here also that the god Pan is 
 
PARTHENON 
 
 snid to have appeared to Pliidippidea, the Atlieni'an 
 courier, shortly before the battle of Marathoii.^2. 
 (also Uap64vT}s : Chali-Sti or Barlan-Su)^ the chief 
 river of Paphlagonia, rises in Mt. Olgassys, and 
 flows N.W. into the Euxine 90 stadia VV. of 
 Amastris, forming in tlie lower part of its course 
 the boundary between Bithynia and Paphlagonia. 
 Parthenon [6 Ilapdeuavy i. e. ilie virgin^s cham- 
 ber)^ was the usual name of one of the finest and, 
 in its influence upon art, one of the most important 
 edifices ever built, the temple of Athena Parthenos 
 on the Acropolis of Atliens. It was also called 
 Hecatompedon ('E/carii^TreSoy) orHecatompedos 
 ('E/faT(f/A7r65os, sc. p^djs) from its being 100 feet in 
 one of its chief dimensions, probably in the breadth 
 of the top step on which the front pillars stand. 
 It was erected, under the administration of Pe- 
 ricles, on the site of the older temple of Athena, 
 burnt during the Persian invasion, and was com- 
 pleted by the dedication of the statue of the god- 
 dess, B.C. 438. Its architects were Ictinus and 
 Callicrates, but all the works were under the 
 superintendence of Phidias. It was bnilt entirely 
 of Pentelic marble : its dimensions were, 227 En- 
 glish feet long, 101 broad, and Q5 high: it was 
 50 feet longer than the edifice which preceded it. 
 Its architecture was of the Doric order, and of the 
 purest kind. It consisted of an oblong central 
 lauilding (the cella or J^eeis), surrounded on all sides 
 by a peristyle of pillars, 46 in number, 8 at each 
 end and 17 at each side (reckoning the corner pil- 
 lars twice), elevated on a platform, which was 
 ascended by 3 steps all round the building. Within 
 the porticoes at each end was another row of 6 
 pillars, standing on a level with the floor of the 
 cella^ and 2 steps higher than that of the peristyle. 
 The cella was divided into 2 chambers of unequal 
 size, i)\Q prodomus or pronaos {7rp6SofJ.os^Trp6uaos), 
 and the opistkodomus {dTri(rd6Sop.os) or posticiim ; 
 the former, which was the larger, contained the 
 statue of the goddess, and was the true sanctuary, 
 the latter being probably used as a treasury and 
 vestry. Both these chambers had inner rows of 
 pillars (in 2 stories, one over the other), 16 in the 
 former and 4 in the latter, supporting the partial 
 roof, for the large chamber, at least, had its centre 
 open to the sky. Technically, the temple is called 
 peripteral octastyle hypaethral. It was adorned, 
 within and without, with colours and gilding, and 
 with sculptures which are regarded as the master- 
 pieces of ancient art. Tlie colossal chryselephan- 
 tine (ivory and gold) statue of Athena, which 
 stood at the end of the prodomus, opposite to 
 the entrance, was the work of Phidias himself, 
 and surpassed every other statue in the ancient 
 world, except that of Zeus at Olympia by the same 
 artist. The other seuiptureg were executed under 
 the direction of Phidias by different artists, as may 
 still be seen by differences in their style ; but the 
 most important of them were doubtless from the 
 hand of Phidias himself. (1.) T/ie tympana of the 
 pediments (1. e. the inner flat portion of the trian- 
 gular gable-ends of the roof above the 2 end porti- 
 coes), were filled with groups of detached colossal 
 statues, those of the E. or principal front repre- 
 senting the birth of Athena, and those of the W. 
 front the contest between Athena and Poseidon 
 for the land of Attica. (2.) In the frkze of ike 
 entablature (i. e. the upper of the 2 portions into 
 which the surface between the columns and the 
 roof is divided), the metopes between the tri<jlyyhs (i. e. 
 
 PARTHIA. 
 
 527 
 
 the square spaces between the projections answer- 
 ing to the ends of beams if the roof had been of 
 wood) were filled with sculptures in high relief, 
 92 in all, 1 4 on each front, and 32 on each side, 
 representing subjects from the Attic mythology, 
 among which the battle of the Athenians with the 
 Centaurs forms the subject of the 15 metopes from 
 the S. side, which are now in the British Museum. 
 (3.) Along the top of the external wall of the 
 cella, under the ceiling of the peristyle, ran a frieze 
 sculptured with a representation of the Panatlienuic 
 procession, in very low relief. A large number of 
 the slabs of this frieze were brought to England 
 by Lord Elgin, with the 15 metopes just men- 
 tioned, and a considerable number of other frag- 
 ments, including some of the most important, 
 though mutilated, statues from the pediments; and 
 the whole collection was purchased by the nation 
 in 1816, and deposited in the British Museum, 
 where may also be seen excellent models of tlie 
 ruins of the Parthenon and of the temple as con- 
 jecturally restored. The worst of the injuries 
 which it has suffered from war and pillage was 
 inflicted in the siege of Athens by the Venetians 
 in 1687, when a bomb exploded in the veiy centre 
 of the Parthenon, and threw down much of both 
 the side walls. Its ruins are still, however, in 
 suflicient preservation to give a good idea of the 
 construction of all its principal parts. 
 
 Partlieiiopaeus (TlapQ^voTralo^), one of the 7 
 heroes who accompanied Adrastus in his expe- 
 dition against Thebes. He is sometimes called a 
 son of Ares or Milanion and Atalanta, sometimes 
 of Meleager and Atalanta, and sometimes of 
 Talaus and Lysiraaclie. His son, by the nymph 
 Clymene, who mnrched against Thebes as one of 
 the Epigoni, is called Promachus, Stratolaus, The- 
 simenes, or Tlesimenes. Parthenopaeus was killed 
 at Thebes by Asphodicus, Araphidicus or Pericly- 
 menus. 
 
 Parthenopolis (nap0€i/(iTro\i5), a town in 
 Moesia Inferior near the Pontus Euxinus, and 
 between Calatis and Tomi. 
 
 Parthia, Parthyaea, Parthiene {TlapBia, Tlcp. 
 QvoSa^ IiapQvT]VT] : Tlapdoi^ na^j^i/aioi, Parthi, Par- 
 thieni : Khoraasan), a country of Asia, to the S.IC. 
 of the Caspian. Its extent was different at dif- 
 ferent times ; but, .is the term was generally undi-r- 
 stood by the ancient geographers, it denoted the 
 partly mountainous and partly desert country on the 
 S. of the mountains which hem in the Caspian on 
 the S.E. (M. Labuta), and which divided Parthia 
 on the N. from Hyrcania. On the N.E. and E., a 
 branch of the same chain, called Masdoranus, 
 divided it from Aria; on the S. the deserts of 
 Parthia joined those of Carmania, and further 
 W.-ward the M. Parachoathras divided Parthia 
 from Persis and Susiana: on the W. and N.W. it 
 was divided from Media by boundaries which can- 
 not be exactly marked out. Of this district, only 
 the N. part, in and below the mountains of Hyr- 
 cania, seems to have formed the proper countrj-^ of 
 the Parthi, who were a people of Scythian origm. 
 The ancient writers tell us that the name means 
 exiles ; but this is uncertain. They were a very 
 warlike people, and were especially celebrated as 
 horse-archers. Their tactics, of which the Romans 
 had fatal experience in their first wars with them, 
 became so celebrated as to pass into a proverb. 
 Their mail-clad horsemen spread like a cloud 
 round the hostile army, and poured in a shower of 
 
528 PARTIIINT. 
 
 darts ; and then evaded any closer conflict by a 
 rapid flight, during which thej-- still shot their 
 arrow backwards upon thQ enemy. Under the 
 Persian empire, the Parthians, with the Chorasniii, 
 Sogdii, and Arii, formed the 16th satrapy: under 
 Alexander and the Greek khigs of Syria, Parthia 
 and Hyrcania together formed a satrapy. About 
 B.C. 250 tfiey revolted from the Seleucidiie, under 
 a cliieftain named Arsaces, who founded an inde- 
 pendent monarchy, the history of which is given 
 under Arsaces. During the period of the down- 
 iJill of the Syrian kingdom, the Parthians overrau 
 the provinces E. of the Euphrates, and about 
 B.C. 130 they overthrew the kingdom of Bactria, 
 so that their empire extended over Asia from the 
 Euphrates to the Indus, and from the Indian 
 Ocean to the Paropamisus, or even to the Oxns ; 
 but on this N. frontier they had to maintain a 
 continual conflict with the nomad tribes of Central 
 Asia. On the VV. their progress was checked by 
 Mithridates and Tigranes, till those kings fell suc- 
 cessively before the Romans, who were thus brought 
 into collision with the Parthians. After the me- 
 morable destruction of Crassus and his arm}^, 
 B. c. 53 [Crassus], the Parthians threatened 
 Syria and Asia Minor; but their progress was 
 stopped by 2 signal defeats, which they suffered 
 from Antony''s legate Ventidius, in 3.9 and 3fJ. 
 The preparations for renewing the war with Rome 
 were rendered fruitless by the contest for the Par- 
 thian throne between Phi-aates IV. and Tiridates, 
 which led to an appeal to Augustus, and to the 
 restoration of the standards of Crassus, b. c. 20 ; 
 an event to which the Roman poets often allude 
 in terms of flattery to Augustus, almost as if he 
 Iiad conquered the Parthian empire. It is to be 
 observed That the poets of the Augustan age use 
 the names Parthi, Persae, and Medi indifferently. 
 The Parthian empire had now begun to decline, 
 owing to civil contests and the defection of the 
 governors of provinces, and had ceased to be for- 
 midable to the Romans. There were, however, 
 continual disputes between the 2 empires for the 
 protectorate of the kingdom of Armenia, In con- 
 sequence of one of these disputes Trajan invaded 
 the Parthian empire, and obtained possession for a 
 short time of Mesopotamia ; but his conquests were 
 surrendered under Hadrian, and the Euphrates 
 again became the boundary of the 2 empires. 
 There were other wars at iater periods, which re- 
 sulted in favour of the Romans, who took Seleucia 
 and Ctesiphon, and made the district of Oaroene a 
 Roman province. The exhaustion which was the 
 effect of these wars at length gave the Persians 
 the opportunity of throwing off the Parthian yoke. 
 Led by Artaxerxes (Ardshir) they put an end to 
 the Parthian kingdom of the Arsacidae, after it 
 had lasted 476 years, and established the Persian 
 dynasty of the Sassanidae, a. d. 226. [Aksaces: 
 Sassanidae.] 
 
 Parthini or Partheni {nap6iuo{, Uape-npoi), 
 an lUyrian people m the neighbourhood of Dyr- 
 rhachium. 
 
 Parthiscus or Parthissus, a river In Dacia, 
 probably the same as the Tibiscns. [TiBiscus.] 
 
 Paryadres {Ilapud5pT]s : Kara-lel Dayh, qv Kut- 
 T'a^A), a mountain chain of W. Asia, running S.W. 
 and N.E. from the E. of Asia Minor into the 
 centre of Annenia, and forming the chief connecting 
 link between the Taurus and the mountains of 
 Armenia. It was considered as the boundary 
 
 PASARGADA. 
 
 between Cappadocia (i. e. Pontus Cappadocius) and 
 Armenia (i. e. Armenia Minor). In a wide sense 
 the name seems sometimes to extend so far N.E. 
 as to include M. Abus {Ararat) in Armenia. 
 
 Paryeti Montes (ra XiapvoToJv opt]^ from the 
 Indian word^aru^a, i. e. a mountain : SoUman M.)^ 
 tiie great mountain chain which runs N. and S. on 
 the \V. side of the valley of the Indus, and fonus 
 the connecting link between the mountains whicli 
 skirt the N. coast of the Persian Gulf and the 
 Indian Ocean, and the parallel chain, further N., 
 called the Paropamisus or Indian Caucasus ; or, be- 
 tween the E. extensions of the Taurus and Anti- 
 Taurus systems, in the widest sense. This chain 
 fonned the boundary between Arachosia and the 
 Paropamisadae : it now divides Beloocliistan and 
 Afghanistan on the W. from Sciitde and ike Puvjah 
 on the E., and it meets the 11 indoo-Koosh in the 
 N.E. corner of Jfyluinistan^ between Cabool and 
 Feshawur. Its ancient inhabitants were called 
 Paryttae (rXapuTjrai) ; and the name Panda is 
 fonnd in old Persian inscriptions and in the Zend- 
 avesta (the old Persian sacred book), as that of a 
 people. 
 
 Parysatis (riapiJo-ans or napucrdTjs), daughter 
 of Artaxerxes I. Longimanus, king of Persia, was 
 given by her father in marriage to her own brother 
 Darius, surnamed Ochus, who in B. o. 424 suc- 
 ceeded Xerxes II. on the throne of Persia. The 
 feeble character of Darius threw the chief power 
 into the hands of Parysatis ; whose administration 
 was little else than a series of murders. Four of 
 her sons grew up to manhood. The eldest of 
 these, Artaxerxes Mnemon, was bom before Da- 
 rius had obtained the sovereign power, and on this 
 pretext Parysatis sought to set aside liis claims to , 
 the throne in favour of her second son Cyrus. 
 Failing in this attempt, she nevertiieless interposed 
 after the death of Darius, 405, to prevent Arta- 
 xerxes from putting Cyrus to death ; and prevniled 
 with the king to allow him to return to his satrajiy 
 in Asia Minor. After the death of Cyrus at the 
 battle of Cunaxa (401), she did not hesitate to 
 display her grief for the death of her favourite son, 
 by bestowing funeral honours on his mutilated 
 remains ; and she subsequently succeeded in getting 
 into her power all the authors of the death of 
 Cyrus, whom she put to death by the most cruel 
 tortures. She afterwards poisoned Statira, the 
 wife of Artaxerxes. The feeble and indolent king 
 was content to banish her to Babylon ; and it was 
 not long before he recalled her to his court, 
 where she soon recovered all her former influence. 
 Of this she availed herself to turn liis suspicions 
 against Tissaphernes, whom she had long hated as 
 having been the first to discover the designs of 
 Cyrus to his brother, and who was now put to 
 death by Artaxerxes at her instigation, 396. She 
 appears to have died soon afterwards. 
 
 Pasargada or -ae (ncccrapyaSa, nacTap7a5aO, 
 the older of the 2 capitals of Persis (tlie other 
 and later being Persepolis), is said to have been 
 founded by Cyrus the Great, on the spot where he 
 gained his great victory over Astyages. The tomb 
 of Cyrus stood here in the midst of a beautiful 
 park. The exact site is doubtful. Strabo describes 
 it as lying in the hollow part of Persis, on the river 
 Cyrus, S.E. of Persepnlis, and near the borders of 
 Carmania. Most modern geographers identity it 
 with Murgliah^ N.E. of Persepolis, where there are 
 the remains of a great sepulchral monument of the 
 
PASAllGADAI 
 
 ancient Persians. Others place it at Farsa or at 
 Darab-gherd^ both S.E. of Persepolis, but not 
 answering Strabo'a description in other respects so 
 well as Murghab. Others identify it with Perse- 
 polis; which is almost certainly an error- 
 
 Fasargadae {Uacrapydt7iat\ the most noble of 
 the 3 chief tribes of the ancient Persians, the other 
 2 being the Maraphii andMaspii. The royal house 
 of the Achaemenidae were of the race of the Pa- 
 sargadae. They had their residence chiefly in and 
 about the city of Pasargada. 
 
 Pasias, a Greek painter, belonged to the Sicy- 
 onian school, and flourished about b. c. 220. 
 
 Fasioa (Uaa-luv), a wealthy banker at Athens, 
 was originally a slave of Antisthenes and Arches- 
 tratus, who were also bankers. In iheir service 
 he displayed great fidelity as well as aptitude for 
 business, and was manumitted as a reward. He 
 afterwards set up a banking concern on his own ac- 
 count, by which, together with a shield manufactory, 
 he greatly enriched himself, while he continued all 
 along to preserve his old character for integrity, 
 and his credit stood high throughout Greece. He 
 did not however escape an accusation of fraudu- 
 lently keeping back some money which had been 
 entrusted to him by a foreigner from the Euxine. 
 The plaintiff's case is stated in an oration of Iso- 
 crates (rpa7re^irtK6s)^ still extant. Pasion did 
 good service to Athens with his money on several 
 occasions. He was rewarded with the freedom 
 of the city, and was enrolled in the demus of 
 Achaniae. He died at Athens in b. c. 370, after 
 a lingering illness, accompanied with failure of 
 sight. Towards the end of his life his affairs 
 were administered to a great extent by his freed- 
 man Phormion, to whom he let his banking shop 
 and shield manufactory, and settled in his will 
 that he should marry his widow Archippe, with a 
 handsome dowry, and undertake the guardianship 
 of his younger son Pasicles. His elder son, Apol- 
 lodorus, grievously diminished his patrimony by 
 extravagance and law-suits. 
 
 Pasiphae {Uaa-KpaTi)^ daughter of Helios (the 
 Sun) and Perscis, and a sister of Circe and Aeetes, 
 was the wife of Minos, by whom she became the 
 mother of Androgeos, Catreus, Deucalion, Glaucus, 
 Acalle, Xenodicc, Ariadne, and Phaedra. Hence 
 Phaedra is called l-'asipliatia (Ov. Met. xv. 500.) 
 Respecting the passion of Pasiphae for the beau- 
 tiful bull, and the birth of the Miuotaui-us, see 
 p. 450, a. 
 
 Pasiteles {Tl.a<nri\r\s). 1. A statuary, who 
 flourished about b. c. 468, and was the teacher of 
 Colotes, the contemporary of Phidias. — 2. A sta- 
 tuary, sculptor, and silver-chaser, of the highest 
 distinction, was a native of Magna Graecia, and 
 obtained the Roman franchise with his countrymen 
 in B. c. 90. He flourished at Rome from about 60 
 to 30. Pasiteles also wrote a treatise in 5 books 
 upon celebrated works of sculpture and chasing. 
 
 Pasitliea (noui^ea), 1. One of the Charlies, 
 or Graces, also called Aglaia. —2. One of the Ne- 
 reids. 
 
 Pasitigxis (nao-ir 17/3175 or TlatriTiypis : prob. 
 Karoon)^ a considerable river of Asia, rising in the 
 mountains E. of Mesobatene, on the confines of 
 Media and Persia, and Howing first W. by N. to 
 M. Za<Tro8 or Parachoathras, then, breaking through 
 this chain, it turns to the S., and flows through 
 Susiana into the head of the Persian Gulf, after 
 receiving the Eulaeus on its W. side. Some geo- 
 
 PATERCULUS. 
 
 529 
 
 grnphers make the Pasitigris a tributary of the 
 Tigris. 
 
 Passaron (Vlaa adptju : i\ea.v Dhramisius S.W. 
 oi Joanmjia)i a town of Epiriis in Molossia, and 
 the ancient capital of the Molossian kings. It 
 was destroyed by the Romans, together with 70 
 other towns of Epinis, after the conquest of Mace- 
 donia, B.C. 168. 
 
 Passienuo Crispus. [Crispus.] 
 
 Passienus Paulus. [Paolus.J 
 
 Pataeci (naroiKOi), Phoenician divinities whose 
 dwarfish figures were attached to Phoenician 
 ships. 
 
 Patala, Patalene. [Pattala, Pattalene.] 
 
 Patara {ra Udrapa: UaTapevs : Fatara^ Ru.), 
 one of the chief cities of Lycia, was a flourishing 
 sea-port, on a promontory of the same name (^ 
 TLaTcipwv &Kpa\ 60 stadia (6 geog. miles) E. of the 
 mouth of the Xanthus. It was early colonised by 
 Dorians from Crete, and became a chief seat of the 
 worship of Apollo, who had here a very celebrated 
 oracle, which uttered responses in the winter only, 
 and from whose son Patarus the name of the city 
 was mythically derived. It was restored and en- 
 larged by Ptolemy Philadelphus, who called it 
 Arsinoe, but it remained better known by its old 
 name. 
 
 Patavium (Patavlnus : Padova or Padua), an 
 ancient town of the Venetl in the N. of Italy, on 
 the Medoacus Minor, and on the road from Mutina 
 to Altinum, was said to have been founded by the 
 Trojan Antenor. It became a flourishing and 
 important town in early times, and was powerful 
 enough in b. c. 302 to drive back the Spartau 
 king Cleomenes with great loss, when he attempted 
 to plunder the surrounding country. Under the 
 Romans Patavium was the most important city in 
 the N. of Italy, and, by its commerce and manu- 
 factures (of which its woollen stuffs were the most 
 celebrated), it attained great opulence. According 
 to Strabo it possessed 500 citizens, whose fortune 
 entitled them to the equestrian rank. It was 
 plimdered by Attila ; and, in consequence of a 
 revolt of its citizens, it was subsequently destroyed 
 by Agilolf, king of the Langobards, and razed to 
 the ground ; hence the modern town, contains few 
 remains of antiquity. — Patavium is celebrated as 
 the birth-place of the historian Llvy. — In its 
 neighbourhood were the Aquae Patavinae, also 
 called Aponi Fons, respecting which, see p. 65, b. 
 
 Paterciilus, C. Velleius, a Roman historian, 
 was probably bom about B.C. 19, and was de- 
 scended from a distinguished Campanian family. 
 He adopted the profession of arms ; and, soon after 
 he had entered the army, he accompanied C. Caesar 
 in his expedition to the East, and was present with 
 the latter at his interview with the Parthian king, 
 in A.D. 2. Two years afterwards, A.n. 4, he served 
 under Tiberias in Germany, succeeding his father 
 in the rank of Praefectus Equituni, having pre- 
 viously filled in succession the offices of tribune of 
 the soldiers and tribune of the camp. For the 
 next 8 years Paterculus served under Tiberius, 
 either as praefectus or legatus, in the various cam- 
 paigns of the latter in Germany, Pannonia, and 
 Dalmatia, and, by his activity and ability, gained 
 the favour of the future emperor. He was quaestor 
 A.D. 7, but he continued to serve as legatus under 
 Tiberius. He accompanied his commander on his 
 return to Rome in 12, and took a prominent part 
 In the triumphal procession of Tiberius, along with 
 
£30 PATERNUS. 
 
 his brother Mjigius Celer. The 2 brothers were 
 praetors in 15. Paterculus was alive in 30, as he 
 drew up his history in that year for the use of 
 M. Vinicius, wlio was then consul ; and it is con- 
 jectured, with much probability, that he perished 
 in the following year (31), along with the other 
 friends of Sejanus. The favourable manner in 
 which he had so recently spoken in his history of 
 this powerful minister would be sufficient to ensure 
 his condemnation on the fall of the latter. The 
 work of Paterculus, which has come down to us, 
 is a brief historical compendium in two books, and 
 bears the title C. Velleii Patercidi Hisiorlae Bo- 
 mantle ad M. Vim'cium Cos. Libri II. The be- 
 ginning of the work is wanting, and there is also 
 a portion lost after the !3th chapter of the first 
 book. The object of this compendium was to give 
 a brief view of universal history, hut more espe- 
 cially of the events connected with Rome, the his- 
 tory of which occupies the main portion of the 
 book. It commenced apparently with the destruc- 
 tion of Tro}"", and ended with the year 30, In the 
 execution of his work, Velleius has shown great 
 skill and judgment. He does not attempt to give 
 a consecutive accoxmt of all the events of history; 
 he seizes only upon a few of the more prominent 
 facts, which he describes at sufficient length to 
 leave them impressed upon the recollection of his 
 hearers. His st^'le, which is a close imitation of 
 Sallust's, is characterised by clearness, conciseness, 
 and energy. In his estimate of the characters of 
 the leading actors in Roman history he generally 
 exhibits both discrimination and judgment ; but 
 he lavishes the most indiscriminate praises, as 
 might have been expected, upon his patron Ti- 
 berius. Only one manuscript of Paterculus has 
 come down to us ; and as this manuscript abounds 
 with errors, the text is in a very corrupt state. 
 The best editions are by Ruhnken, Lugd. Bat. 
 1789; by Orelli, Lips. 1835; and by Bothe, 
 Turici, 1H37. 
 
 Pateraus, Tarmntenus, a jurist, is probably 
 the same person who was praefectus praetorio 
 under Coramodus, and was put to death by the 
 emperor on a charge of treason. He was the author 
 of a work in 4 books, entitled De Re Militari or 
 AlllilaHum, from which there are two excerpts in 
 the Digest. 
 
 Patmos (TlaT^os: Patmo), one of the islands 
 called Sporades, in the Icarian Sea, at about equal 
 distances S. of Samos, and W. of the Prom. Posi- 
 dium on the coast of Caria, celebrated as the place 
 to which the Apostle John was banished, and in 
 wliich he wrote the Apocalypse. The natives still 
 affect to show the cave where St. John saw the 
 apocalyptic visions (t6 (nr7\\aiov t^s airoKoXv^Guii). 
 On the E. side of the island was a city with a 
 harbour. 
 
 Patrae (naTpat, Uarphs Herod.: Xlarpevs; 
 lytras)^ one of the 12 cities of Achaia, was situated 
 ■\V. of Rhium, near the opening of the Corinthian 
 gulf. It is said to have been originally called 
 Arne ('ApcJ?;), and to have been founded by the 
 autochthon Eumelus ; and after the expulsion of 
 the lonians to have been taken possession of by 
 Patreus, from whom it derived its name. The 
 town is rarely mentioned in early Greek histor}-, 
 and was chiefly of importance as the place from 
 which the Peloponnesians directed their attacks 
 against the opposite coast of Aetolia. Patrae was 
 one of the 4 towns which took the leading part in 
 
 PATROCLUS. 
 
 founding the 2nd Achaean league. In conse- 
 quence of assisting the Aetolians ag-.iinst the Gauls 
 in B.C. 279, Patrae became so weakened that most 
 of the inhabitants deserted the town and took up 
 their abodes in the neighbouring villages. Under 
 the Romans it continued to be an insignificant 
 place till the time of Augustus, who rebuilt the 
 town after the battle of Actium, again collected 
 its inhabitants, and added to them those of Rhypae. 
 Augustus further gave Patrae dominion over the 
 neighbouring towns, and even over Locrls, and 
 also bestowed upon it the privileges of a Roman 
 colony : hence we find it called on coins Colonia 
 Augusta Aroe Pairensi's. Striibo describes Pati'ue 
 in his time as a flourishing and populous town 
 with a good harbour ; and it was frequently tiie 
 place at which persons landed sailing from Italy to 
 Greece. The modern 2*atras is still an im- 
 portant place, but contains few remains of anti- 
 quity, 
 
 Patrocles (UarpoKXT^s), a Macedonian general 
 in the service of Seleucus I. and Antiochus I., 
 kings of Syria. Patrocles held, both under Se- 
 leucus and Antiochus, an important government 
 over some of the E. provinces of the Syrian empire. 
 During the period of his holding this position, he 
 collected accurate geographical information, which 
 he afterwards published to the world ; but though 
 he is frequently cited by Strabo, who placed the 
 utmost reliance on his accuracy, neither the title 
 nor exact subject of his work is mentioned. It 
 seems clear, however, that it included a general 
 account of India, as well as of the countries on the 
 banks of the Oxus and the Caspian Sea. Patrocles 
 regarded the Caspian Sea as a gulf or inlet of the 
 ocean, and maintained the possibility of sailing 
 thither by sea from the Indian Ocean. 
 
 PatrocU Insiila {IlaTp6K\ov vrja-os : Ga-daro- 
 nesi or Gaidronisi)^ a small island off the S.W. 
 coast of Attica, near Sunium, 
 
 Patroclus (JldTpOKXas or TiarponXris)^ the cele- 
 brated friend of Achillea, was son of Menoetius of 
 Opus, and grandson of Actor and Aegina, whence 
 he is called Actorides. His mother is connnonly 
 called Sthenele, but some mention her under the 
 name of Periapis or Polymele. Aeacus, the 
 grandfather of Achilles, was a brother of Menoe- 
 tius, so that Achilles and Patroclus were kins- 
 men as well as friends. While still a boy 
 Patroclus involuntarily slew Clysonymus, son of 
 Amphidamas. In consequence of this accident he 
 was taken by his father to Peleus at Piithia, 
 where he was educated together with Achilles. 
 He is said to have taken part in the expedition 
 against Troy on account of his attachment to 
 Achilles. He fought bravely against the Trojans, 
 until his friend withdrew from the scene of actinn, 
 when Patroclus followed his example. But when 
 the Greeks were hard pressed, he begged Achilles 
 to allow him to put on his armour, and with his 
 men to hasten to the assistance of the Greeks. 
 Achilles granted the request, and Patroclus suc- 
 ceeded in driving back the Trojans and extin- 
 guishing the fire which was raging among the 
 ships. He slew many enemies, and thrice made 
 an assault upon the walls of Troy ; but on a 
 sudden he was stmck by Apollo, and became 
 senseless. In this state Euphorbus ran him 
 through with his lance from behind, and Hector 
 gave him the last and fatal blow. Hector also 
 took possession of his armour. A long struggle 
 
PATRON. 
 
 now ensued between the Greeks and Trojans for 
 the body 'of Patroclua ; but the former obtained 
 possession of it, and brought it to Achilles, who 
 was deeply grieved, and vowed to avenge the 
 death of his friend. Thetis protected the body 
 with ambrosia against decomposition, until Achilles 
 had leisure solemnly to burn it with funeral sacri- 
 fices. His ashes were collected in a golden urn 
 which Dionysus had once given to Thetis, and 
 were deposited under a mound, where the remains 
 of Achilles were subsequently buried. Funeral 
 games were celebrated in his honour. Achilles 
 and Patrochis met again in tlie lower world ; or, 
 according to others, they continued after their 
 death to live together in the island of Leuce. 
 
 Patron, an Epicurean, philosopher, lived for 
 some time in Rome, where lie became acquainted 
 with Cicero and others. From Rome he removed 
 to Athens, and there succeeded Phaedrus as pre- 
 sident of the Epicurean school, b. c. 52, 
 
 Pattala. [Pattalene.] 
 
 Pattalene or Patalene {VlaTTa\7]vfj^ UaTa\7)p'fj : 
 Zou'crSdnde)^ the name of the great delta formed 
 by the 2 principal arms by which the Indus falls into 
 the 3(^a. At the apex of the delta stood the city 
 Pattala or Patala (prob. Hyderahad). The name 
 is probably a native Indian word, namely the 
 Sanscrit joa^a/a, which means tlie W. country^ and 
 is applied to tlie W. part of N. India about the 
 Indus, in contradistinction to the E. part about 
 the Ganges. 
 
 Patulcius, a surname of Janus. [Janus.] 
 
 Patumus ( Xldrovii.os : 0. T. Pithom : prob. near 
 Ilahasryh^ or Belbe'is), an Egyptian city in the 
 Arabian Desert, on the E. margin of the Delta, 
 near Bubastis, and near the commencement of-- 
 Nfcho's canal from the Nile to the Red Sea; built 
 by the Israelites during their captivity (Exod. i. 11). 
 
 Paulina or Paullina. 1. Lollia. [Lollia.] 
 •— 2. Pompeia, wife of Seneca the philosopher, 
 and probably the daughter of Pompeius Paulinus, 
 v/ho commanded in Germany in the reign of Nero. 
 AV'heu her husband was condemned to death, she 
 opt'iied her veins along with liim. After the blood 
 had flowed some time, Nero commanded her veins 
 to be bound up ; she lived a few years longer, but 
 with a paleness which testified how near she had 
 been to death. 
 
 Paulinus. 1. Pompeius, commanded in Ger- 
 many along with L. Antiatiua Vetusin A.D. 58, and 
 completed the dam to restrain the inundations of 
 the Rhine, which Drusus had commenced 63 years 
 before. Seneca dedicated to him his treatise De 
 Brevitate V'dae ; and the Pompeia Paulina, whom 
 the philosopher married, was probably the daughter 
 of this Paulinus. ^2. C. Suetonius, propraetor in 
 IMauretania, in the reign of the emperor Claudius, 
 A. D. 42, when he conquered the Moors who had re- 
 volted, and advanced as far as Mt. Atlas. He 
 had the command of Britain in the reign of 
 Nero, from b9 to G2. For the first 2 years all 
 his undertakings were successful ; but during his 
 absence on an expedition against the island of 
 Mona (Aiif/lesey), the Britons rose in rebellion 
 under Boadicea (61). They at f\rst met with 
 irreat success, but were conquered by Suetonius 
 on his return from Mona. [Boadicea.] In G6 
 be was consul ; and after the death of Nero in 68 
 he was one of Otlio's generals in the war against 
 Vltellius. It was against his advice that Otho 
 fought the battle at Bodriacum. lie was pardoned 
 
 PAULUS. 531 
 
 by Vltellius after Nero's death. — 3. Of Milan (il/e- 
 diolanensis\ was the secretary of St. Ambrose, after 
 whose death he became a deacon, and repaired to 
 Africa, where, at the request of St. Augustine, he 
 composed a biography of his former patron. This 
 biography, and 2 other small works by Paulinus, 
 are atlU extant. — 4. Meropius Pontius Anicius 
 Paulinus, bishop of Nola, and hence genendly 
 desijjnated PaiUinus NoLmus, was born at Bour- 
 deaux, or at a neighbouring town, which he calls 
 Embromagum, about a. d, 353. His parents were 
 wealthy and illustrious, and he received a careful 
 education, enjoying in particular the instructions of 
 the poet Ausonius. After many years spent in 
 worldly honoiu-s he withdrew from the world, and 
 was eventually chosen bishop of Nola in 409. Ho 
 died in 431. The works of Paulinus are still 
 extant, and consist oi Epistolae (51 in number), 
 Carmina (32 in number, composed in a great va- 
 riety of metres), and a short tract entitled Passio 
 S. Genesii Arelatensis. Edited by Le Brun, 4to, 
 Paris, 1685, reprinted at Veron. 1736. 
 
 Paullus or Paulus, a Roman cognomen in many 
 gentes, but best known as the name of a family of 
 the Aemilia gens. The name was origiually 
 written with a double I, but subsequently with 
 only one L 
 
 Paulus (riai/Aoj), Greek writers. 1. Aegineta, 
 a celebrated medical writer, of whose personal lii.s- 
 tory nothing is known except that he was born iu 
 Aegina, and that he travelled a good deal, visiting, 
 among other places, Alexandria. He probably 
 lived in the latter half of the 7th century after 
 Christ. He wrote several medical works in Greek, 
 of which the principal one is still exUmt, with 
 no exact title, but commonly called De lie Ale- 
 dica Libn Septem. This work is chiefly a compila- 
 tion from former writers. The Greek text has 
 been twice published, Venet. 1528, and Basil. 
 1538. There is an excellent English translation by 
 Adams, London, 1834, seq. ^2. Of Alexandria, 
 wrote, in a. d. 378, an Inirodactlon to Astro- 
 logy (EiVa7ei>7^ ds rj}!^ airoTi\€(T/j.aTiKT]v), which 
 has come down to us, edited by Schatua or Schato, 
 Wittenberg, 1586.— 3. Of Samosata, a cele- 
 brated heresiarch of the 3rd century, was made 
 bishop of Antioch, about a. d. 260, He was 
 condemned and deposed by a council held in 
 26.9. Paulus denied the distinct personality of 
 the Son of God, and maintained that the Word 
 came and dwelt in the man Jesus. — 4.-Silen- 
 tiarius, so called, because he was chief of the si- 
 lentiarii, or secretaries of the emperor Justinian. 
 He wrote various poems, of which the following 
 are extant: — (1.) A Description of tlie Church 
 of St. Sophia ( EKtppaffis rod vaov ttjs ayias 2o- 
 <!>las), consisting of 1029 verses, of which the 
 first 134 are iambic, the rest hexameter. This 
 poem gives a clear and graphic description of the 
 superb structure which fonns its subject, and was 
 recited by its author at the second dedication of 
 the church (a. d. 562), after the restoration of 
 the dome, which had fallen in. Edited by Graefe, 
 Lips. 1822, and by Bekker, Bonn, 1837. in the 
 Bonn edition of the Byzantine historians. (2.) 
 A Descripti07i of Vie Pulpit ("E/cc^patriy rov &a- 
 €u)Vos)^ consisting of 304 verses, is a supplement to 
 the former poem. It is printed in the editions 
 mentioned above. (3.) Epigrams, 83 in all, given 
 in the Anthologia. Among these is a poem On the 
 Pyihlan Baihn (E/s ra iy UuOlots ^epixa). 
 
532 PAULUS. 
 
 Paulu3, Aemllius. 1. M., consul b. c. 302, 
 and nifigister equitum to the dictator Q. Fabius 
 Maximua RuUianus, 301, -^2. M., consul 255 
 with Ser. Fulvius Paetinus Nobilior, about the 
 middle of the 1st Punic war. See Nobilior, 
 No. 1. — 3. L., son of No. 2., consul 219, when 
 he conquered Demetrius of tlie island of Pharos in 
 the Adriatic, and compelled him to fly for refuge 
 to Philip, king of Macedonia. He was consul a 
 2nd time in 216 with C. Terentius Varro. This 
 was the year of the memorable defeat at Cannae. 
 [Hannibal.] The battle was fought against the 
 advice of PauUis ; and he was one of the many 
 distinguished Romans who perished in tlie engage- 
 ment, refusing to fly from the field, when a tribune 
 of the soldiers offered him his horse. Hence we 
 find in Horace {Carm. i. 12) : " animaeque magnae 
 prodigum Paulum superante Poeno." Paulus was 
 a staunch adherent of the aristocracy, and was 
 raised to the consulship by the latter party to 
 counterbalance the influence of the plebeian Te- 
 rentius Varro. ^ 4. L., afterwards surnamed Mace- 
 DONicus, son of No. 3, was born about 230 or 229, 
 since at the time of his 2jid consulship, 168, he 
 was upwards of 60 years of age. He was one of 
 the best specimens of the high Roman nobles. He 
 would not condescend to flatter the people for the 
 offices of the state, maintained with strictness 
 severe discipline in the army, was deeply skilled 
 in the law of the augurs, to whose college he be- 
 longed, and maintained throughout life a pure and 
 unspotted character. He was elected curule aedile 
 192 ; was praetor 191, and obtained Further Spain 
 as his province, where he carried on war with the 
 Lusitani ; and was consul 181, when he conquered 
 the Ingauni, a Ligurian people. For the next 13 
 years he lived quietly at Home, devoting most of 
 his time to the education of his children. He was 
 consul a 2nd time in 168, and brought the war 
 against Perseus to a conclusion by the defeat of 
 the Macedonian monarch near Pydna, on the 22nd 
 of June. Perseus shortly afterwards surrendered 
 himself to Paulus. [Perseu.s.] Paulus remained 
 in Macedonia during the greater part of the follow- 
 ing year as proconsul, and arranged the affairs of 
 Macedonia, in conjunction with 10 Roman commis- 
 sioners, whom the senate had despatched for the 
 purpose. Before leaving Greece, he marched 
 into Epirus, where, in accordance with a cruel 
 command of the senate, he gave to his soldiers 70 
 towns to be pillaged, because they had been in 
 iilliance with Perseus. The triumph of Paulus, 
 which was celebrated at the end of November, 
 167, was the most splendid that Rome had yet 
 seen. It lasted three days. Before the triumphal 
 car of Aemilius walked the captiv« monarch of 
 Macedonia and his children, and behind it were 
 his two illustrious sons, Q. Fabius Maximus and 
 P. Scipio At'ricanus the younger, both of whom 
 had been adopted into other families. But the 
 glory of the conqueror was clouded by family mis- 
 fortune. At this very time he lost his two younger 
 sons ; one, 1 2 years of age, died only 5 days be- 
 fore his triumph, and the other, 14 years of age, 
 only 3 days after his triumph. The loss was all 
 the severer, since he had no son left to carry his 
 name down to posterity. In 164 Paulus was censor 
 with Q. Marcius Philippus, and died in 160, after 
 a long and tedious illness. The fortune he left 
 behind him was so small as scarcely to he sufficient 
 to pay his wife's dowry. The Adelphi of Terence 
 
 PAUSANIAS. 
 
 was brought out at the funeral games exhibited in 
 his honour. Aemilius Paulus was married twice. 
 By his first wife, Papiria, the daughter of C. Par 
 pirius Maso, consul 231, he had 4 children, 2 sons, 
 one of whom was adopted by Fabius Maximus and 
 the other by P. Scipio, and 2 daughters, one of 
 whom was married to Q. Aelius Tubero, and the 
 other to M. Cato, son of Cato the censor. He 
 afterwards divorced Papiria ; and by his 2nd wife, 
 whose name is not mentioned, he had 2 sons, whose 
 death has been mentioned above, and a daughter, 
 who was a child at the time that her father was 
 elected to his 2nd consulship. 
 
 Paultis, Julius, one of the most distinguished of 
 the Roman jurists, has been supposed, without 
 any good reason, to be of Greek origin. He was in 
 the auditorium of Papinian, and consequently was 
 acting as a jurist in the reign of Septiraius Severus. 
 He was exiled by Elagabalus, but he was recalled 
 by Alexander Severus when the latter became em- 
 peror, and was made a member of his consilium. 
 Paulus also held the office of praefectus praetorio : 
 he survived his contemporary Ulpian. Paulus was 
 perhaps the most fertile of all the Roman law 
 writers, and there is more excerpted from him in 
 the Digest than from any other jurist, except Ul- 
 pian. Upwards of 70 separate works by Paulus 
 are quoted in the Digest. Of these his greatest 
 work was Ad Edictum^ m 80 books. 
 
 Panlus, Passienus, a contempoi-ary and friend 
 of the younger Pliny, was a distinguished Roman 
 eques, and was celebrated for his elegiac and lyric 
 poems. He belonged to the same municipium 
 (Mevania in Umbria) as Propertius, whom he 
 numbered among his ancestors. 
 
 Pausamas (U.a.v<Ta.vias). 1. A Spartan of the 
 Agid branch of the royal family, the son of Cleom- 
 brotus and nephew of Leonidas. Several writers 
 incorrectly call him king; but he only succeeded 
 his father Cleombrotus in the guardianship of his 
 cousin Plistarchus, the son of Leonidas, for whom 
 he exercised the functions of royalty from b. c. 479 
 to the period of his death. In 479, when the 
 Athenians called upon the Lacedaemonians for aid 
 against the Persians, the Spartins sent a body of 
 5000 Spartan3,each attended by 7 Helots, under the 
 command of Pausanias. At the Isthmus Pausa- 
 nias was joined by the other Peloponnesian allies, 
 and at Eleusis by the Athenians, and forthwith 
 took the command of the combined forces, the other 
 Greek generals forming a sort of council of war. 
 The allied forces amounted to nearly 1 10,000 men. 
 Near Plataeae in Boeotia, Pausanias defeated the 
 Persian army under the command of Mardonius. 
 This decisive victory secured the independence of 
 Greece. Pausanias received as his reward a tenth 
 of the Persian spoils. In 477 the confederate 
 Greeks sent out a fleet under the command of 
 Pausanias, to follow up their success by driving 
 the Persians completely out of Europe and the 
 islands. Cyprus was first attacked, and the greater 
 part of it subdued. From Cyprus Pausanias sailed 
 to Byzantium, and captured the city. The capture 
 of this city afforded Pausanias an opportunity for 
 commencing the execution of the design which he 
 had apparently formed even before leaving Greece. 
 Dazzled by his success and reputation, his station 
 as a Spartan citizen had become too restricted for 
 his ambition. His position as regent was one 
 which must terminate when the king became of 
 nge. He therefore aimed at becoming tyrant over 
 
PAUSANIAS. 
 
 tlie whole of Greece, with the assistance of the 
 Persian king. Among the prisoners taken at B}'- 
 zantium were some Persians connected with the 
 royal family. These he sent to the king, with a 
 letter, in which he offered to bring Sparta and the 
 rest of Greece under his power, and proposed to 
 marry his daughter. His offers were gladly ac- 
 cepted, and whatever amount of troops and money 
 he required for accomplishing his designs. Pansa- 
 nias now set no bounds to his arrogant and do- 
 mineering temper. The allies were so disgusted 
 by his conduct, that they all, except the Pelopon- 
 nesians and Aeginetans, voluntarily offered to 
 transfer to the Athenians that pre-eminence of 
 rank which Sparta had hitherto enjoyed. In this 
 way the Athenian confederacy first took its 
 rise.' Reports of the conduct and designs of Pau- 
 sanias reached Sparta, and he was recalled and put 
 upon his trial ; but the evidence respecting his 
 meditated treachery was not yet thought sufficiently 
 strong. Shortly afterwards he returned to By- 
 zantium, without the orders of the ephors, and 
 renewed his treasonable intrigues. He was again 
 recalled to Sparta, was again put on his trial, and 
 again acquitted. But even after this second escape 
 he still continued to carry on his intrigues with 
 Persia. At length a man, who was charged with 
 a letter to Persia, having his suspicions awakened 
 by noticing that none of those sent previously on 
 similar errands had returned, counterfeited the seal 
 of Pausanias and opened the letter, in which he 
 found directions for his own death. He carried 
 the letter to the ephors, who prepared to arrest 
 Pausanias : but he took refuge in the temple of 
 Athena Chalcioecus. The ephors stripped off the 
 roof of the temple and built up the door ; the 
 aged mother of Pausanias is said to have been 
 among the first who laid a stone for this purpose. 
 When he was on the point of expiring, the ephors 
 took him out lest his deatlt should pollute the 
 sanctuary. He died as soon as he got outside, 
 B. c. 470. He left 3 sons behind him, Plistoanax, 
 afterwards king, Cleomenes and Ari3tocle8.^2. 
 Son of Plistoanax, and grandson of the preceding, 
 was king of Sparta from e. c. 408 to 394. In 403 
 he was sent with an army into Attica, and secretly 
 favoured the cause of Thrasybulus and the Athe- 
 nian exiles, in order to counteract the plans of 
 Lyaander. In 305 Pausanias was sent with an 
 army against the Thebans ; but in consequence of 
 the death of Lysander, who was slain under the 
 walls of Haliartus, on the day before Pausanias 
 reached the spot, the king agreed to withdraw 
 liis forces from Boeotia, On his return to Sparta 
 he was impeached, and seeing that a fair trial was 
 not to be hoped for, went into voluntary exile, and 
 was condemned to deaths He was living at Tegea 
 in 385, when Mantinea was besieged by his son 
 Agesipolis, who succeeded him on the throne. — 3, 
 King of Macedonia, the son and successor of Aero- 
 pus. He was assassinated in the year of his ac- 
 cession by Amyntas II., 394.-4. A pretender to 
 the throne of Macedonia, made his appearance in 
 367, after Alexander II. had been assassinated 
 by Ptolemaeus. Eiir}'dice, the mother of Alex- 
 ander, sent to request the aid of the Athenian 
 eencral, Iphicrates, who expelled Pausanias from 
 the kingdom. — 5. A Macedom'an youth of dis- 
 tinguished family, from the province of Orestis. 
 Having been shamefully treated by Attalup, ho 
 complained of the outrage to Philip ; but as Philip 
 
 PAUSILYPUM. 
 
 533 
 
 took no notice of his complaints, he directed his 
 vengeance against the king himself. He shortly 
 afterwards murdered Philip at the festival held at 
 Aegae, 336, but was slain on the spot by some 
 officers of the king^s guard. Suspicion rested on 
 Olympias and Alexander of having been privy to the 
 deed ; but with regard to Alexander at any rate 
 the suspicion is probably totally unfounded. There 
 was a story that Pausanias, while meditating re- 
 venge, having asked the sophist Hermocrates 
 which was the shortest way to fame, the latter re- 
 plied, that it was bj' killing the man who had per- 
 forraedthe greatest achievements. — 6. Thetraveller 
 and geographer, was perhaps a native of Lvdia. 
 He lived under Antoninns Pius and M. Aurelius, 
 and wrote his celebrated work in the reign of the 
 latter emperor. This work, entitled 'EAAaSos riepi- 
 ■f)yT}<nSj a Periegesis or Itinerary o/Greece, is in 10 
 books, and contains a description of Attica and 
 Megaris (i.), Corinthia, Sicyonia, Phliasia, and 
 Argolis (ii.), Laconica (iii.), Messenia (iv.), Elis 
 (v. vi.), Achaea (vii.), Arcadia (viii.), Boeotia 
 (ix.), Phocis (x.). The work shows that Pausa- 
 nias visited most of the places in these divisions 
 of Greece, a fact which is clearly demonstrated by 
 the minuteness and particularity of his description. 
 The work is merely an Itinerary. Pausanias gives 
 no general description of a country or even of a 
 place, but he describes the things as he comes to 
 them. His accoimt is minute ; but it mainly refers 
 to objects of antiquity, and works of art, such as 
 buildings, temples, statues, and pictures. He also 
 mentions mountains, rivers, and fountains, and the 
 mythological stories connected with them, which 
 indeed are his chief inducements to speak of them. 
 His religious feeling was strong, and his belief 
 sure, for he tells many old legends in true good 
 faith and seriousness. His style has been mucli 
 condemned by modem critics ; but if we except 
 some corrupt passages, and if we allow that his 
 order of words is not that of the best Greek writerr., 
 there is hardly much obscurity to a person who is 
 competently acquainted with Greek, except that 
 obscurity which sometimes is owing to the matter. 
 With the exception of Herodotus, there is no 
 writer of antiquity, and perhaps none of modern 
 times, who has comprehended so many valuable 
 facts in a small volume. The best editions are by 
 Siebelis, Lips. 18-22— 1828, 6 vols. 8vo. and by 
 Schubartand Walz,Lips. 1838—40, 3 vols. 8vo. 
 
 Pausias (Uava-lccs), one of the most distinguished 
 Greek painters, was a contemporary of Aristides, 
 Melanthius, and Apelles (about b. c. 360 — 330) 
 and a disciple of Pamphilus. He had previously 
 been instructed by his father Brietes, who lived at 
 Sicyon, where also Pausias passed his life. The 
 department of the art which Pausias most prac- 
 tised was painting in encaustic with the cestruin. 
 His favourite subjects were small panel-pictures, 
 chiefly of boys. One of his most celebrated pic- 
 tures was the portrait of Glycera, a flower-girl of 
 his native city, of whom he was enamourfd 
 when a young man. Most of his paintings were 
 probably transported to Rome with the other trea- 
 sures of Sicyonian art, in the aedileship of Scaunis, 
 when the state of Sicyon was compelled to sell all 
 the pictures which were public property, in order 
 to pay its debts. 
 
 PausUypum {rh TVavalhvTou), that is, the 
 "grief-assuaging," was the name of a splendid 
 Yilla near Neapolis in Campania, which Vedius 
 
 M M 3 
 
534 
 
 PAUSON. 
 
 PoUio bequeathed to Augiistua. The nnme was 
 tmnsferred to the celebrated grotto {now Posilippo) 
 between Naples nnd Puzzuoli, which was formed 
 Ijy a tunnel cut through the rock by the architect 
 Cocceius, by command of Agrippa. At its entrance 
 the tomb of Vii'gil is still shown. 
 
 Pauson (UaixTiM)!/)^ a Greek painter, who ap- 
 pears from the description of Aristotle {Poid. '2. § 2.) 
 to have lived somewhat eai'lier than the time of this 
 pliilosopher. 
 
 Pausiilae (Pausuliinus: Monte deW Olmo)^ a 
 town in the interior of Picenum, between Urbs 
 Salvia and Asculum. 
 
 Favor, [Pallor.] 
 
 Pax, the goddess of Peace, called Irene by the 
 Greeks. [Irene.] 
 
 Pax Julia or Pax Augusta {Beja\ a Roman 
 C(tlony in Lusitjmia, and the seat of a Conventus 
 juridicus, N. of Julia Myrtilis. 
 
 Paxi {Paxo iiXiH Antipaa!o\i\iQ name of 2 small 
 ishmds off the W. coast of Greece, between Corcyra 
 and Leucas. 
 
 Pedaeum or Pedaeus {Tl4\^a.iov^ accus., Hom. //. 
 xiii. 17-), a town of the Troad. 
 
 Pedalium {XlT}^d\iov). 1. [C. GMnazi), a pro- 
 montory of Caria, on the W. side of the Sinus 
 Glaucus, called also Artemisium from a temple of 
 Artemis upon it. — 2. (Capo della Grega) a pro- 
 montory on the E. side of Cyprus. 
 
 Pedasa (nTjSaaa : ni75a(reuy, pi. riTjSatreey, 
 Hernd.), a very ancient city of Caria, was originally 
 a chief abode of the Leleges. Alexander assigned it 
 to Halicamassus. At the time of the Roman empire 
 it had entirely vanished, though its name was pre- 
 Bervt^d in that of the district around its site, namely 
 Pedasis {Tiri'^aais). Its locality is only known 
 thus far, that it must have stood somewhere in the 
 triangle formed by Miletus, Halicarnassus, and 
 Stratonicea. 
 
 Pedasiis (n^5a(ros), a town of Mysia on the 
 Satiiio'is, mentioned several times by Homer. It 
 was destroyed by the time of Strabo, who says 
 that it was a settlement of the Leleges on M. Ida. 
 
 Podianus, Asconius. [Asconius.] 
 
 PediuB. 1. Q., the great-nephew of the dic- 
 tator C. Julius Caesar, being the grandson of Julia, 
 Caesar's eldest sister. He served under Caesar in 
 Gaul as his legatus, b. c. 57. In 55, he was a 
 candidate for the cumle aedileship with Cn. Plan- 
 cius and others, but he lost his election. In the 
 civil war he fought on Caesar's side. He was 
 praetor in 48, and in that year he defeated and 
 slew Milo in the neighboiu-hood of Thurii. In 45, 
 he served against the Pompeian party in Spain, 
 In Caesar's will Fedius was named one of his heirs 
 alimg with his two other great-nephews, C Octa- 
 vius and L. Pinarius, Octavius obtaining 3-4ths of 
 the property, and the remaining l-4th being divided 
 between Pinarius and Pedius ; the latter resigned 
 his share of the inheritance to Octavius. After 
 the fall of the consuls, Hirtius and Pansa, at the 
 battle of Mutina in April, 43, Octavius marched 
 upon Rome at the head of an army, and in the month 
 of August he wns elected consul along with Pedius. 
 Tlie latter forthwith proposed a law, known by the 
 name oH\\q Lex Fe.dla, by which ail the murderers 
 of Julius Caesar were punished with aquae el irjms 
 mUrdU'tio. Pediua w;i3 left in charge of the city, 
 while Octavius marched into the N. of Italy. He 
 died towards the end of tlie year shortly after the 
 rcwa of the proscription had reached Home. —3 
 
 PEGASUS. 
 
 SextUB, a Roman jurist, frequently cited bj' Paulas 
 and Ulpian. lived before the time of Hadrian. 
 
 Pednelis3US(ne5:/7;A.t(r(r£)s-),acity in the interior 
 of Pisidia, and apparently on the Eurymedon, 
 above Aspendus and Selge. It formed an inde- 
 pendent state ; but was almost constantly at war 
 with Selge. Mr. Fellowes supposes its site to be 
 marked by the ruins of the Roman period near 
 BoJkas-Koi on the E. bank of the Eurymedon. 
 
 Pedo Albinovanus. [Albinovanus.] 
 
 Peducaeus, Sex. 1. Propraetor in Sicily, n, c. 
 76 and 75, in the latter of which years Cicero 
 served under him as quaestor. — 2. Son of the 
 preceding, and an intimate friend of Atticus and 
 Cicero. In the civil war Peducaeus sided with 
 Caesar, by whom he was appointed in 48 to the 
 government of Sardinia. In 39, he was propraetor 
 in Spain. 
 
 Pedum (Pedanus : GalUcano)^ an ancient town 
 of Latiura on the Via Lavicana, which fell into 
 decay at an early period. 
 
 Pegae. [Pagae.] 
 
 Pegasia' {Ti-^-yacis), i, e. sprung from Pegasus, 
 was applied to the fountain Hippocrene, which 
 was called forth by the hoof of Pegasus. The 
 Muses are also called Pegasides, because the foun- 
 tain Hippocrene was sacred to them. 
 
 Pegasus (n^7acros). 1. The celebrated winged 
 horse, whose origin is thus related. "When Perseus 
 struck off the head of Medusa, with whom Posei- 
 don had had intercourse in the form of a horse or a 
 bird, there sprang from her Chrysaor and the horse 
 Pegasus. The latter received this name because 
 he was believed to have made his appearance near 
 the sources {-Tr-fiyai) of Oceanus. He ascended to 
 the seats of the immortals, and afterwards lived in 
 the palace of Zeus, for whom he carried thunder 
 and lightning. According to this view, which is 
 apparently the most ancient, Pegasus was the 
 thundering horse of Zeus ; but later writers de- 
 scribe him as the horse of Eos (Aurora), and place 
 him among the stars. — Pegasus also acts a promi- 
 nent part in the combat of Bellerophon against the 
 Chimaera. In order to kill the Chimaera, it 
 was necessary for Bellerophon to obtain possession 
 of Pegasus. For this purpose the soothsayer Po- 
 lyidus at Corinth advised him to spend a night in 
 the temple of Athena. As Bellerophon was asleep 
 in the temple, the goddess appeared to him in a 
 dream, commanding him to sacrifice to Poseidon, 
 and gave him a golden bridle. When he awoke 
 he found the bridle, offered the sacrifice, and caught 
 Pegasus, while he was drinking at the well Pirene. 
 According to some Athena herself tamed and bridled 
 Pegasus, and surrendered him to Bellerophon. 
 After he had conquered the Chimaera, he endea- 
 voured to rise up to heaven upon his winged horse, 
 but fell down upon the earth. [Bellerophon.] 
 Pegasus however continued his flight to heaven. 
 — Pegasus was also regarded as the horse of the 
 Muses, and in this connection is more celebrated 
 in modem times than in antiquity ; for with the an- 
 cients he had no connection with the Muses, except 
 producing with his hoof the inspiring fountain 
 Hippocrene. The story about this fountain runs 
 as follows. When the 9 Muses engaged in a con- 
 test with the 9 daughters of Pienis on Mt. Heli- 
 con, all became darkness when the daughters of 
 Pieiiis began to sing ; whereas during the song of 
 the Muses, heaven, the sea, and all the rivers 
 stuod still to listen, and Helicon rose heavenward 
 
PEISO. 
 with delight, until Pegasus, on the advioe of 
 Poseidon, stopped its ascent by kicking it with his 
 hoof. From tliis kick there arose Hippocreiie, 
 the inspiring well of the Muses, on Mt. Helicon, 
 which, for this reason, Persius callsyows cahallinus. 
 Others agiiin relate that Pegasus caused the well 
 to gush forth because he was thirst}'. Pegasus is 
 often seen represented in ancient works of art 
 along with Athena and liellerophon. — 2, A Ro- 
 man jurist, one of the followers or pupils of Procii- 
 lus and praefectus urbi under Domitian (Juv. iv. 
 76). The SenatusconsuUum Pegasianum, which 
 was passed in the time of Vespasian, when Pegasus 
 was consul suffcctus with Pusio, probably took its 
 name from !iim. 
 
 Peiso Lacus. [Pelso Lacus.] 
 
 Pelagiua, probably a native of Britain, cele- 
 brated as the propagator of those heretical opinions, 
 which have derived tlieir name from him, and 
 which were opposed with great energy by his con- 
 temporaries Augustine and Jerome. He first ap- 
 pears in history about tiie beginning of the 5th 
 century, when we find him residing at Rome. In 
 the year 409 or 410, when Alaric was threatening 
 tlie metropolis, Pelagius accompanied by his dis- 
 ciple and ardent admirer Coelestius, passed over 
 to Sicily, from thence proceeded to Africa, and 
 leaving Coelestius at Cai'tbage, sailed for Palestine. 
 The fame of his sanctity had preceded him, for 
 upon his arrival he was received with great warmth 
 by Jerome and many otlier distinguished fathers 
 of the church. Soon afterwards the opinions of 
 Pelagius were denounced as heretical ; and in 
 A. D. 417 Pelagius and Coelestius were anatliema- 
 tized by Pope Innocentius. A very few only of 
 the numerous treatises of Pelagius have descended 
 to us. They are printed with the works of Je- 
 rome. 
 
 Pelagonia (Tl^Xayovia. : Xl^Kajov^^^ pL). 1. A 
 district in Macedonia. The Pelagones were an 
 ancient people, probably of Pelasgic origin, and 
 seem originally to have inhabited the valley of the 
 Axius, since Homer calls Pelagon, a son of Axius. 
 The Pelagones afterwards migrated W. -wards to 
 tlie Erigon, the country around which received the 
 name of Pelagonia, which thus lay S. of Paeonia. 
 The chief town of this district was also called 
 Pelagonia (now VUolia or Monastir)y which was 
 under the Romans the capital of the 4th division 
 of Macedonia. It was situated on the Via Egnatia 
 not far from the narrow passes leading into Illyria. 
 — 2. A district in Thessaly, called the Pelagonian 
 Tripolis, because it consisted of the 3 towns of 
 AzOrus, Pythiura, and Doliche. It was situated 
 A\'. of Olympus in the upper valley of the Titare- 
 sius, and belonged to Perrhaebia, whence these 3 
 towns are sometimes called the Perrhaebian Tri- 
 polis. Some of the Macedonian Pelogonians, who 
 hud been driven out of their homes by the Paeo- 
 iiians, migrated into this pai't of Thessaly, which 
 was originally inhabited by Dorians. 
 
 Pelasgi {TliKaayoi\ the earliest inhabitants of 
 Greece who established the worship of the Dodo- 
 jiaonn Zeus, Hephaestus, the Cabiri, and other divi* 
 nities that belong to the earliest inhabitants of the 
 country. They claimed descent from a mythical 
 hpro Pclasgus, of whom we have different accounts 
 in the different parts of Greece inhabited by Pelas- 
 gians. The nation wna widely spread over Greece 
 and the islands of the Grecian archipelago ; and 
 the name of rehisgia was given at one time to 
 
 PELEUS. 
 
 £35 
 
 Greece. One of the most ancient traditions repre- 
 sented Polasgns, as a descendant of Phoroneus, king 
 of Argos; and it seems to have been generally be- 
 lieved by the Greeks that the Pelasgi spread from 
 Argos to the other countries of Greece. Arcadia, 
 Attica, Epirus and Thessaly, were, in addition to 
 Argos, some of the principal seats of the Pelasgi, 
 They were also found on the coasts of Asia Minor, 
 and according to some writers in Italy as well. Of 
 the language, habits, and civilisation of this people, 
 we possess no certain knowledge. Herodotus says 
 they spoke a barbarous language, tlmt is, a lan- 
 guage not Greek ; but from the facility with which 
 the Greek and Pelasgic languages coalesced in all 
 parts of Greece, and from the fact that the Athe- 
 nians and Arcadians are said to have.been of pure 
 Pelasgic origin, it is probable that the 2 langmigcs 
 had a close affinity. The Pelasgi are further said 
 to have been an agricultural pt^ople, and to have 
 possessed a considerable knowledge of the useful 
 arts. The most ancient architectural remains of 
 Greece, such as the treasury or tomb of Athens at 
 Mycenae, are ascribed to the Pelaegians, and are 
 cited as specimens of Pelasgian architecture, though 
 there is no positive authority for these statements. 
 
 PSlasgia [UeXaay ta.\ an ancient name of the 
 islands of Delos and Lesbos, referring, of course, to 
 their having been eai'ly seats of the Pelasgians. 
 
 Pelasg'!l!6tis(n6Aao'7iWTis),adi3trict in Thessaly, 
 between Hestiaeotis and Magnesia. [Thessalia.] 
 
 Pelas^us. [Pelasgi.] 
 
 Pelendones, a Celtiberian people in Hispania 
 Tarraconensis between the sources of the Uurius 
 and the Iberus. 
 
 Pelethronium {Ti^\idp6viov)^ a moimtainous dis- 
 trict in Thessaly, part of Mt. Pelion, where the 
 Lapithae dwelt, and which is said to have derived 
 its name from Pelethronius, "km^ of the Lapithae, 
 who invented the use of the bridle and the saddle. 
 
 Peleus (n7j\eus-), son of Aeacus and Endeis, 
 was king of the Myrmidons at Phthia in Thessaly. 
 He was a brother of Telamon, and step-brother of 
 Phocus, the son of Aeacus, by the Nereid Psamathe. 
 Peleus and Telamon resolved to get rid of Phocus, 
 because he excelled them in their military games, 
 and Telamon, or, according to others, Peleus, mur- 
 dered their step-lDrother. The 2 brothers concealed 
 their crime by removing the body of Phocus, but 
 were nevertheless found out, and expelled by 
 Aeacus from Aegina. Peleus went to Phthia in 
 Thessaly, where he was pm-ified from the murder 
 by Eurytion, the son of Actor, married his daughter 
 Antigone, and received with her a 3rd of Eurjnion's 
 kingdom. Others relate that he went to Ceyx at 
 Trachis ; and as he had come to Thessaly without 
 companions, he prayed to Zeus for an ai-my ; mid 
 the god, to please Peleus, metamorphosed the ants 
 (fj.vpfX7}K€s') into men, who were accordingly called 
 Myrmidons. Pelens accompanied Eurytion to the 
 Calydonian hunt, and involuntarily killed him 
 with his spear, in consequence of which he fled 
 from Phthia to lolcus, where he was again purified 
 by Acastus, the king of the place. While residing 
 at lolcus, Astydamia, the wife of Acastus, fell in 
 love with him ; but as her proposals were rejected 
 by Peleus, she accused him to her husband of 
 having attempted her virtue. Acastus, unwilling 
 to stain his hand with the blood of the man whom 
 he had hospitably received, and whom he had puri- 
 fied from his guilt, took him to Mt. Pelion, whero 
 tliey hunted wild beasts j and when Peleus, over- 
 
 M in 4 
 
536 PELIADES. 
 
 come with fatigue, had fallen asleep, Acastus left 
 hhn alone, and concealed his sword, that he might 
 he destroyed by the wild beasts. When Peleus 
 awoke and sought his sword, he was attacked by 
 the Centaurs, but was saved by Chiron, who also re- 
 stored to him his sword. There are some modifi- 
 cations of this account in other writers : instead of 
 Astydamia, some mention Hippolyte, the daughter 
 of Cretheus ; and others relate that after Acastus 
 had concealed the sw;ord of Peleus, Chiron or Her- 
 mes brought him another, which iiad been made 
 by Hephaestus. While on Mt. Pelion, Peleus 
 married the Nereid Thetis, by whom he became 
 the father of Achilles, though some regarded this 
 Thetis as diiferent from the marine divinity, and 
 called her a daughter of Chiron. The gods took 
 part in the mairiage solemnity ; Chiron presented 
 Peleus with a lance, Poseidon with the immortal 
 liorses, Balius and Xantlms, and the other gods 
 with arms. Eris or Strife was the only goddess 
 who was not invited to the nuptials, and she re- 
 venged herself by throwing an apple among the 
 gaests, with the inscription " to the fairest." 
 [Paris.] Homer mentions Achilles as the only 
 son of Peleus and Thetis, but later writers state 
 tliat she had alreaJy destroyed by fire 6 children, 
 of whom she was the mother by Peleus, and that 
 ns she attempted to make away with Achilles, her 
 7th child, she was prevented by Peleus. After 
 this Peleus, .who is also mentioned among the 
 Argonauts, in conjunction with Jason and the 
 Dioscuri, besieged Acastus and lolcus, slew Asty- 
 damia, and over the scattered limbs of her body 
 led his warriors into the city. The flocks of Peleus 
 were at one time worried by a wolf, which 
 Psamathe had sent to avenge the murder of her son 
 Phocus, but she herself afterwards, on the request of 
 Thetis, turned the animal into stone. Peleus, 
 who had in former times joined Hercules in his 
 ex[)edition against Troy, was too old to accompany 
 his son Achilles against that city: he remained at 
 home and survived the death of his son. 
 
 Feliades (IleAfaSes), the daughters of Pelias. 
 See Pelias. 
 
 Bellas {TTeAias), .son of Poseidon and Tyro, a 
 daughter of Salmoneus. Poseidon once visited 
 Tyro iu the form of the river-god Enipeus, with 
 whom she was in love, and she became by him the 
 mother of Pelias and Neleus. To conceal her 
 shame, their mother exposed the 2 boys, but they 
 were found and reared by some countrymen. They 
 subsequently learnt their parentage ; and after the 
 death of Cretheus, king of lolcos, who had married 
 their mother, they seized the throne of lolcoa, to the 
 exclusion of Aeson, the son of Cretheus and Tyro. 
 Pelias soon afterwards expelled his own brother 
 Neleus, and thus became sole ruler of lolcos. After 
 Pelias had long reigned over lolcos, Jason, the 
 son of Aeson, came to lolcos and claimed the king- 
 dom as his right. In order to get rid of him, Pe- 
 lias sent him to Colchis to fetch the golden fleece. 
 Hence arose the celebrated expedition of the Argo- 
 nauts. After the return of Jason, Pelias was cut 
 to pieces and boiled by his own daughters (the 
 Peliades), who had been told by Medea that 
 in this manner they might restore their father 
 to vigour and youth. His son Acastus held 
 funeral games in his honour at lolcus, and ex- 
 polled Jason and Medea from the country. [For 
 details, see Jason; Medea; Aroonautae.] 
 The namc3 of several of the daughter* of Pelias 
 
 PELLA. 
 
 are recorded. The most celebrated of them was 
 Alcestis, the wife of Admetus, who is therefore 
 called by Ovid Peliae gener. 
 
 Pelides (nTjA^iSijs, Tir]Miwv)^ a patronymic 
 from Peleus, generally given to his son Achilles, 
 more rarely to his grandson Neoptolemus. 
 
 Peligni, a brave and warlike people of Sabine 
 origin in central Ital}', bounded S.E. by the Marsi, 
 N. by the Marrucini, S. by Samniura and the 
 Frentani, and E. hy the Frentani likewise. The 
 climate of their country was cold (Hor. Carm, iii., 
 19. 8.); but it produced a considerable quantity 
 of flax and was celebrated for its honey. The 
 Peligni, like their neighbours, the Marsi, were 
 regarded as magicians. Their principal towns 
 were Corfinium and Sulmo. They oifered a 
 brave resistance to the Romans, but concluded a 
 peace with the republic along with their neighbours 
 the Marsi, Marrucini and Frentani in b. c. 304. 
 They took an active part in the Social war {90, 89), 
 and their chief town Corfinium was destined by the 
 allies to be the new capital of Italy in place of 
 Rome. They were subdued by Pompeius Stiabo, 
 after which time they are rarely mentioned. 
 
 Pelinaeus Mons (to Xi^Kivatov opos, or UeWrj- 
 vaiov: M. Mias), the highest mountain of the 
 island of Chios, a little N. of the city of Chios, with 
 a celebrated temple of Zevs H^Kivolos. 
 
 Pelinna, or more commonly PeliimaeTim {U4~ 
 Xivva^ HiXivpcuov ; Gardhiki)^ a town of Thessaly 
 in Hestiaeotis, on the left bank of the Peneus, was 
 taken by the Romans in their war with Antiochus. 
 
 Pelion, more rarely PelioB [jh TIt}Aiov 6pos : 
 Plcsaidhi or Zagora), a lofty range of mountains in 
 Thessaly in the district of Magnesia., was situated be- 
 tween the lake Boebeis and the Pagasaean gulf, and 
 formed the promontories of Sepias and Ae;intium. 
 Its sides were covered with wood, and on its sum- 
 mit was a temple of Zeus Actaeua, where the cold 
 was so severe, that the persons who went in pro- 
 cession to this temple once a year wore thick skins 
 to protect themselves. Mt. Pelion was celebrated 
 in mythology. The giants in their war with the 
 gods are said to have attempted to heap Ossa and 
 OljTiipns on Pelion, or Pelion and Ossa on Olym- 
 pus in order to scale heaven. Near the summit of 
 this mountain was the cave of the Centaur Chiron, 
 whose residence was probably placed here on ac- 
 count of the number of the medicinal plants which 
 grew upon the mountain, since he was celebratt^d 
 for his skill in medicine. On Pelion also the 
 timber was felled, with which the ship Argo was 
 built, whence Ovid applies the term Pelias arbor 
 to this ship. 
 
 Pella(n€X\a: neAXaTos, Pellaeus). 1. (Ala- 
 kfisi), an ancient town of Macedonia in the district 
 Bottiaea, was situated upon a hill, and upon a lake 
 formed by the river Lydias, 120 stadia from its, 
 mouth. It continued to be a place of small im- 
 portance till the time of Philip, who made it hia 
 residence and the capital of the Macedonian mo- 
 narchy, and adorned it with many public buildings. 
 It is frequently mentioned by subsequent writers 
 on account of its being the birth-place of Alexander 
 theGreat. It was the capital of one of the 4 districts 
 into which the Romans divided Macedonia [see p. 
 404,a.],and was subsequentiymadea Roman colony 
 under the name of Col. Jul, Aug. Pella. — 2. (E)- 
 Bujeh9)^ the S.-most of the 10 cities which com- 
 posed the Decapolis in Peraea, that is in Pales- 
 tine E, of the Jordan, stood 5 Roman miles S.E. 
 
PELLAEUS. 
 
 of Scy thopolis, and was also called Bovrts. It was 
 tiiken by Antioclius the Great, in the wars between 
 Syria and Egj'pt, and was held by a Macedonian 
 colony, till it was destroyed by Alexander Jannaeua 
 on account of the refusal of its inhabitants to em- 
 brace the Jewish religion. It was restored and given 
 back to its old inhabitants by Pompey. It was the 
 place of refuge of the Christians who fled from 
 Jerusalem before its capture by the Romans. The 
 exact site of Pella is very uncertain. — 3. A city 
 of Syria on the Orontes, formerly called Pharnace, 
 was named Pella by the Macedonians, and after- 
 wards Apamea (No, l.)^4. In Phrygia. [Pel- 
 
 TAE.] 
 
 Pellaeus PagTis was the name given by Alex- 
 ander, after Pella in Macedonia, to the district of 
 Susiana about the mouths of the Tigris ; in which 
 he built the city of Alexandria, afterwards called 
 Charax. 
 
 Pellaua. [Pellene, No. 2.] 
 
 Pellene (neAA-^i/?;, Dor. JJeWdva: TleWr^veu^). 
 1. A city in Achaia bordering on Sicyonia, the 
 most E.-ly of the 12 Achaean cities, was situated 
 on a hill 60 stadia from the city, and was strongly 
 fortified. Its port-town was Aristonautae. The 
 ancients derived its name from the giant Pallas, 
 or from the Argive Pellen, the son of Phorbas. It 
 is mentioned in Homer ; and the inhabitants of 
 Scione in the peninsula of Pallene in Macedonia 
 professed to be descended from the Pellenaeans in 
 Achaia, who were shipwrecked on the Macedonian 
 coast on their return from Troy. In the Pelopon- 
 nesian war Pellene sided with Sparta. In the 
 later wars of Greece between the Achaean and 
 Aetolian leagues, the town was several times taken 
 by the contending parties. — Between Pellene and 
 Aegae tliere was a smaller town of the same name, 
 where the celebrated Pellenian cloaks (IleAATj- 
 viaical ;^Aari/at) were made, which were given as 
 prizos to the victors in the games at this place. 
 — 2. Usually called Pellana, a town in Laconia 
 on the Eurotas, about 50 stadia N.W. of Sparta, 
 beliinging to the Spartan Tripolis. 
 
 Pelodes [TItjKoiStjs \t/x-f}v, in App. nah6eis : 
 Anvyro)^d. port-town belonging to Buthrotum in 
 J'lltirus, and on a bay which probably bore the 
 same name. 
 
 Pelopea or Pelopia (IleAoTreio), daughter of 
 Thyestes, dwelt at Sicyon, where her father offered 
 her violence, without knowing that she was his 
 d;iiighter. While pregnant by her father, she 
 married her uncle Atreus. Shortly afterwards she 
 bore a son Aegisthus, who eventually murdered 
 Atreus. [For details, see Aegisthus.] 
 
 Pelopidas (IleAoTriSas), the Theban general and 
 statesman, son of Hippocliis, was descended from a 
 jioble family and ijiherited a large estate, of which 
 he made a liberal use. He lived always in the 
 closest friendship with Epaminondas, to whose 
 simple frugality, as he could not persuade him to 
 share his riches, he is said to have assimilated his 
 own mode of life. He took a leading part in ex- 
 pelling the Spartans from Thebes, B. c. 379 ; and 
 from this time until hia death there was not a 
 3-ear in which he was not entnisted with some im- 
 portant command. In 371 he was one of the 
 'J'heban commanders at the battle of Leuctra, so 
 fatal to the Lacedaemonians, and joined Epami- 
 nondas in urging the expediency of immediate 
 action. la 369, he was also one of the generals in 
 tlie iBt invasion of Peloponnesus by the Thebana. 
 
 PELOPONNESUS. 
 
 637 
 
 Respecting his accusation on his return from this 
 campaign, see p. 241, b. In 368 Pelopidas was 
 sent again into Thessaly, on 2 separate occasions, 
 in consequence of complaints against Alexander of 
 Pherae. On his 1st expedition Alexander of 
 Pherae sought safety in flight; and Pelopidas ad- 
 vanced into Macedonia to arbitrate between Alex- 
 ander 11. and Ptolemy of Alorus, Among the 
 hostages whom he took with him from Macedonia 
 was the famous Philip, the father of Alexander 
 the Great. On his 2nd visit to Thessaly, Pelo- 
 pidas went simply as an ambassador, not expecting 
 any opposition, and unprovided with a military 
 force. He was seized by Alexander of Pherae, 
 and was kept in confinement at Pherae till his 
 liberation in 367, by a Theban force under Epa- 
 minondas. In the same year in which he was re- 
 leased he was sent as ambassador to Susa, to coun- 
 teract the Lacedaemonian and Athenian nego- 
 tiations at the Persian court. In 364, the Thessalian 
 towns again applied to Thebes for protection against 
 Alexander, and Pelopidas was appointed to aid 
 them. His forces, however, were dismayed by an 
 eclipse of the sun (June 13), and, therefore, leaving 
 them behind, he took with him into Thessaly only 
 300 horse. On his arrival at Pfaarsalus he col- 
 lected a force which he deemed sufficient, and 
 marched against Alexander, treating lightly the 
 great disparity of numbers, and remarking that it 
 was better as it was, since there would be more 
 for him to conquer. At Cynoscephalae a battle 
 ensued, in which Pelopidas drove the enemy from 
 their ground, but he himself was slain as, burning 
 with resentment, he pressed rashly forward to 
 attack Alexander in person. The Thebans and 
 Thessalians made great lamentations for his death, 
 and the latter, having earnestly requested leave to 
 bury him, celebrated his funeral with extraor- 
 dinary splendour. 
 
 Peloponnesus (•») Ti^XoTrSvvqffos : Aforea), the 
 S. part of Greece or the peninsula, which was con- 
 nected with Hellas proper by the isthmus of Corinth. 
 It is said to have derived its name Peloponnesus 
 or the " island of Pelops," from the mythical Pelops. 
 [Pelops.] This name does not occur in Homer, 
 In his time the peninsula was sometimes called 
 Apia, from Apia, son of Phoroneus, king of Argos, 
 and sometimes ^rpos; which names were given to 
 it on accoimt of Argos being the chief power in 
 Peloponnesus at that period. Peloponnesus was 
 bounded on the N. by the Corinthian gulf, on the 
 W. by the Ionian or Sicilian sea, on the S. by the 
 Libyan, and on the W. by the Cretan and Myrtoan 
 seas. On the E. and S. there are 3 great gulfs, 
 the Argolic, Laconian, and Messenian. The ancients 
 compared the shape of the countrj^ to the leaf of 
 a plane tree ; and its modern name, the Morea 
 (d Mwpeos), which first occurs in the 12th century 
 of the Christian aera, was given it on account of 
 its resemblance to a mulberry-leaf. Peloponnesus 
 was divided into various provinces, all of which 
 were bounded on one side by the sea, with the ex- 
 ception of Arcadia, which was in the centre of 
 the country. These provinces were Achaia in 
 the N., Elis in the W., Messenia in the W. 
 and S., Laconia in the S. and E., and Cohinthia 
 in the E. and N. An account of the geography 
 of the peninsula is given under these names. The 
 area of Peloponnesus is computed to be 7779 Eng- 
 lish miles ; and it probably contained a population of 
 upwards of a million in the flourishing period of 
 
538 
 
 PELOPS. 
 
 Greek history. — Peloponnesus was originnl]}'- in- 
 liabited by Pelt'sgiiins. Subsequently the Achaeana, 
 who belonged to the Aeolic nice, settled in the E. 
 and S. parts of the peninsula, in Argolis, Laconia, 
 and Messenia ; and the lonians in the N. part, in 
 Achaia ; while the remains of the oriy;inal inhabi- 
 tants of the country, the Pelasgians, collected chiefly 
 in the central part, in Arcadia. Eighty years after 
 the Trojan war, according to mythical chronolofry, 
 the Dorians, under the conduct of the Heraclidae, 
 invaded and conquered Peloponnesus, and esta- 
 blished Doric states in Argolis, Laconia, and Mes- 
 senia, from whence they extended their pov;er over 
 Corinth, Slcyon, and Megara. Part of the Achaean 
 population remained in these provinces as tributary 
 subjects to the Dorians under the name of Perioeci ; 
 while others of the Achaeans passed over to theN. 
 of Peloponnesus, expelled the lonians, and settled 
 in this part of the country, which was called after 
 tlicm Achaia. The Aotolians, who had invaded 
 Peloponnesus along with the Dorians, settled in 
 Elis and became intermingled with the original 
 inhabitants. The peninsula remained tinder Doric 
 influence during the most important period of Greek 
 liistory, and opposed to the great Ionic city of 
 Athens. After the conquest of Messenia by the 
 Spartans, it was under the supremacy of Sparta, 
 till the overthrow of the power of the latter by the 
 Tliebans .at the battle of Leuctra, b. c. 371. 
 
 Felops (ne\oii/), grandson of Zeus, and son of 
 Tantalus and Dione, the daughter of Atlas. Some 
 writers call his mother Eui-yanassa or Clytia. He 
 was married to Hippodaraia, by whom he became 
 the father of Atrcns, Thyestes, Diaa, Cynosunia, 
 Corinthius, Hippalmus ( Hippalcmus or Hippal- 
 cinuis), liippasus, Cleon,Axgius, Alcathous, Aelius, 
 Pittheus, Troezen, Nicippe, and Lysidice. By 
 Axioche or the nymph Danais he is said to have 
 been the father of Chrysippus. Pelops was king 
 of Pisa in Elis, and from him the great southern 
 peninsula of Greece was believed to have derived 
 its name Peloponnesus. According to a tradition 
 which became very general iil later tiraes,Pelops was 
 a Phrygian, who was expelled by Ilus from Phrygia 
 (hence called by Ovid, Met. viii. 622, Pelopa'ia 
 arva\ and thereupon migrated with his great wealth 
 to Pisa. Others describe him as a Paphlagonian, 
 and call the Paphlngonians themselves Xi^Koirifioi. 
 Others again represent hira as a native of Greece ; 
 and there can be little doubt that in the earliest 
 traditions Pelops was described as a native of 
 Greece and not as a foreign immigrant; and in 
 them he is called the tamer of horses and the 
 favourite of Poseidon. The legends about Pelops 
 consist mainly of the story of his being cut to 
 pieces and boiled, of his contest with Oenomaus 
 and Plippodamia, and of his relation to his sons; 
 to which we may add the honours paid to his 
 remains, 1 . Felops cut to pieces and boiled 
 (Kpeovpyia 11^\oitos). Tantalus, the favourite of 
 the gods, once invited them to a repast, and on 
 that occasion killed his own son, and having 
 boiled him set the flesh before them that they 
 ]night eat it. But the immortal gods, knowing 
 wiiat it was, did not touch it; Demeter alone, 
 being absorbed by grief for her lost daughter, con- 
 sumed the shoulder of Pelops. Hereupon the gods 
 ordered Hermes to pQt the limbs of Pelops into a 
 ciiuldron, and thereby restore him to life, "When 
 the i)roce8S was over, Clotho took him out of the 
 cauldron, and as the shoulder consumed by Demeter 
 
 PELOKIS. 
 
 was wanting, the goddess supplied its place by one 
 made of ivory ; his descendants (the Pelopidae), 
 as a mark of their origin, were believed to have 
 one shoulder as white as ivory, 2, Contest ivitk 
 Oenomaus mid ITippodamia. As an oracle had 
 declared to Oenomaus that he should be killed by 
 his son-in-law, he refused giving his fair daughter 
 Hippodamia in marriage to any one. But since 
 many suitors appeared, Oenomaus declared that he 
 would bestow her hand upon the man who should 
 conquer hira in the chariot-race, but that he should 
 kill all who were defeated by him. Among other 
 suitors Pelops also presented himself, but when he 
 saw the heads of his conquered predecessors stuck 
 up above the door of Oenomaus, he was seized 
 with fear, and endeavoured to gain the favour of 
 Myrtilus, the charioteer of Oenomaus, promising 
 hira half the kingdom if he would assist him in 
 conquering his master. Myrtilus agreed, and left 
 out the linch-pins of the chariot of Oenomaus. In 
 the race the chariot of Oenomaus broke down, and 
 he was thrown out and killed. Thus Hippodamia 
 became the wife of Pelops, But as Pelops had 
 now gained his object, he was unwilling to keep 
 faith with Myrtilus ; and accordingly as they were 
 driving along a cliff he threw Myrtilus into the 
 sea. As Myrtilus sank, he cursed Pelops and his 
 whole race. Pelops returned with Hippodamia to 
 Pisa in Elis, and soon also made himself master of 
 Olympia, where he restored the Olympian games 
 with greater splendour than they had ever been 
 celebrated before, 3. The sons of Pelops. Clir^-- 
 sippus was the favourite of his father, and was in 
 consequence envied by his brothers. The two 
 eldest among them, Atreus and Thyestes, with the 
 connivance of Hippodamia, accordingly murdered 
 Chrysippus, and threw his body into a well, Pe- 
 lops, who suspected his sons of the murder, expelled 
 them from the country. Hippodamia, dreading 
 the anger of her husband, fled to Midea in Argo- 
 lis, from whence her remains were afterwards con- 
 veyed by Pelops to Olympia. Pelops, after his 
 death, was honoured at Olympia above all other 
 heroes. His tomb with an iron sarcophagus existed 
 on the banks of the Alpheus, not far from the 
 temple of Artemis near Pisa. The spot on which 
 his sanctuary (JliK6-Kiov) stood in the Altis, was 
 said to have been dedicated by Hercules, who also 
 offered to hira the first sacrificea. The magistrates 
 of the Eleans likewise offered to him there an 
 annual sacrifice, consisting of a black rara, with 
 special ceremonies. The name of Pelops was so 
 celebrated that it Avas constantly used by the poets 
 in connection with his descendants and the cities 
 they inhabited. Hence we find Atreus, the son 
 of Pelops, called Pelope'ius Atreus^ and Agamem- 
 non, the grandson or great-grandson of Atreus, 
 called Pelopeius Agameonnon. In the same way 
 Iphigenia, the daughter of Agamemnon, and Her- 
 mione, the wife of Menelaus, are each called by 
 Ovid Pelope'ia virgo. Virgil {Aen. ii. 193) Uses 
 the phrase Pelopea moenia to signify the cities in 
 Peloponnesus, which Pelops and his descendants 
 raled over ; and in like manner Mycenae is called 
 by Ovid Pelope'iades Mycenae. 
 
 Peloris, Pelorias, or Pelorus (ne\wpfy, Ile- 
 Awpias, Xl4\oipos : C. Faro), the N.E. point of 
 Sicily, was N.E. of Messana on the Fretum Sicu* 
 lum, and one of the 3 promontories which formed 
 the triangular figure of the island. According 
 to the usual story it derived its name from 
 
PELORUS. 
 Pelnnia, the pilot of Hannibal''s ship, who was 
 buried here after being killed by Hannibal in 
 a fit of anger; but tlie name was more ancient 
 tlian Hannibal's time, being mentioned by Thucy- 
 dides. On the promontory tliere was a temple of 
 Poseidon, and a tower, probably a light-house, 
 from which the modern name of the Cape (Faro) 
 appears to have come. 
 
 Pelonis (IleAwpos : prob. Lo7-i or LuH)^ a river 
 of Iberia in Asia, appears to have been a S. tributiuy 
 of the Cyrus {Koitr.) 
 
 Pelao or Peiso {Platlcnsee\ a great hike in 
 Pannonia, the waters of which were conducted into 
 the Danube by the emperor Galeriua, who thus 
 gained a great quantity of fertile land for his newly 
 formed province of Valeria. 
 
 Peltae (TleKrai : IleATTji'rfs), an ancient and 
 flourishing city of Asia Minor, in the N. of Phrygia, 
 10 parasangs from Celaenae (Xenoph.), and no 
 doubt the same place as the Pella of the Roman 
 writers, 26 Roman miles N. or N.E. of Apamea 
 Cibotus, to the conirentus of which it belonged. 
 The surrounding district is called by Strabo rh 
 ITeA.TT/i'di/ ireBiov. Its site is uncertain. Some 
 identify it with the ruins 8 miles S. of SandaUi; 
 otliers with those near Isliekli. 
 
 Peltuinum (Peltulnas, -atis : Monte Bello), 
 a town of the Vestini in central Italy. 
 
 Pelusium {UT^kovciov : Egypt. Peremoun or 
 Peronii ; 0. T. Sin. : all these names are derived 
 from nouns meaning mud: I17}\ov(Ti6tt)s ; Pelu- 
 siota: Tinck, Ru.), also called Abaxis in early 
 times, a celebrated city of Lower Egypt, stood on 
 the E, side of the E.-raost mouth of the Nile, which 
 was called after it the Pelusiac mouth, 20 stadia 
 (2 geog. miles) from the sea, in the midst of mo- 
 rasses, from which it obtained its name. As the 
 key of Egypt on the N. E., and the frontier city 
 towards Syria and Arabia, it was strongly fortified, 
 nnd was the scene of many battles and sieges, in 
 the wars of Egypt with Assyria, Persia, Syria, and 
 Rome, fiom the defeat of Sennacherib near it by 
 Sethon, down to its capture by Octavianus after 
 tlie battle of Actiura. In later times it was the 
 ^:apit.^l of the district of Augustamnica. It was 
 the birth-place of the geographer Claudius Ptole- 
 niauus. 
 
 Penates, the household gods of the Romans, 
 both those of a private family and of the state, as 
 tlie great family of citizens. Hence we have to 
 distinguish between private and public Penates, 
 The name is connected with penus ; and the images 
 of those gods were kept in the penetralia^ or the 
 ct-ntral part of the house. The Lares were in- 
 cluded among the Penates ; both names, in fact, 
 aj-e often used synonymously.' The Lares, how- 
 ever, tliough included in the Penates, were not the 
 only Penates ; for each family had usually no 
 more than one Lar, whereas the Penates are 
 always spoken of in the plural. Since Jupiter and 
 Juno were regarded as the protectors of happiness 
 and peace in the family, these divinities were 
 worshipped as Penates. Vesta was also reckoned 
 among tlie Penates, for each hearth, being the 
 symbol of domestic union, had its Vesta. All other 
 Penates, both public and private, seem to have 
 consisted of certain sacred relics connected with 
 indefinite divinities, and hence Varro says that 
 the number and names of the Penates were indefi- 
 nite. Most ancient writers believe that the Penates 
 of the state were brought by Acncixs from Troy 
 
 PEiNEUS. 539 
 
 into Italy, and were preserved first at Lavinium, 
 afterwards at Alba Longa, and finally at Rome. 
 At Rome they had a chapel near the centre of tlie 
 city, in a place called sub Velia. As the public 
 Larea were worshipped in the central part of the 
 city, and nt the public hearth, so the private Pe- 
 nates had tJieir place at the hearth of every house ; 
 and the table also was sacred to them. On the 
 hearth a perpetual fire was kept up in their honour, 
 and the table always contained the saltcellar and 
 the firstlings of fruit for these divinities. Every 
 meal that was taken in the house thus resembled 
 a sacrifice offered to the Penates, beginning with a 
 purification and ending with a libation which was 
 poured either on the table or upon the hearth. 
 After every absence from the hearth, the Penates 
 were saluted like the living inhabitants of the 
 house ; and whoever went abroad prayed to the 
 Penates and Lares for a happy return, and when 
 he came back to his house, he hung up his armour, 
 staff, and the like by the side of their images. 
 
 Peneis, that is, Daphne, daughter of the river- 
 god Peneus. 
 
 Peneleos (n?7»'eA€ws), son of Hippalcmus and 
 Asterope, and one of the Argonauts. He was the 
 father of Opheltes, and is also mentioned among 
 the suitors of Helen. He was one of the leaders 
 of the Boeotians in the war against Troy, where 
 be slew Ilioneus and Lycon, and was wounded by 
 Polydamas. He is said to have been slain by 
 Eurypylus, the son of Telephus. 
 
 Penelope {U-qi/^Xo-mj, Vl^veKo-n-T}, Tl7]V€\6ireia)y 
 daughter of Icarius and Periboea of Sparta, married 
 Ulysses, king of Ithaca. [Respecting her niar- 
 ringe, see IcaRIUS, No. 2.] By Ulysses she bad 
 an only child, Telemachus, who was an infant when 
 her husband sailed against Troy. During the long 
 absence of Ulysses she was beleaguered by nume- 
 rous and importunate suitors, whom she deceived 
 by declaring that she must finish a large robe 
 which she was making for Laertes, her aged 
 father-in-law, before she could make up her mind. 
 During the daytime she accordingly worked at the 
 robe, and in the night she undid the work of the 
 day. By this means she succeeded in putting off 
 the suitors. But at length her stratagem was be- 
 trayed by her servants ; and when, in consequence, 
 the faithful Penelope was pressed more and 
 more by the impatient suitors, Ulysses at length 
 arrived in Ithaca, after an absence of 20 years. 
 Having recognised her husband by several signs, 
 she heartily welcomed him, and the days of her 
 grief and sorrow were at an end. [Ulysses.] 
 While Homer describes Penelope as a most chaste 
 and faithful wife, some later writers charge her 
 with the very opposite vice, and relate that by 
 Hermes or by all the suitors together she became 
 the mother of Pan. They add that Ulysses on his 
 retm-n repudiated her, whereupon she went to 
 Sparta, and thence to Mantinea, where her tomb 
 was shown in after-times. According to another 
 tradition, she married Telegonus, after he had 
 killed his father Ulysses. 
 
 Peneus {Uijvttds). 1. (Salambria or Salajn7-ia\ 
 the chief river of Thessaly, and one of the most 
 important in all Greece, rises near Alaicomenae in 
 Mt. Lacraon, a branch of Mt. Pindus, flows first 
 S.E. and then N.E., and after receiving many 
 affluents, of which the most important were the 
 Enipeus, the Lethaeus, and the Titaresiu^, forces 
 its way through the vale of Tempe between Mts. 
 
Ossa and Olympus into the sea. [Tkmpe.] As 
 a god Peneus was crilled a son of Oceanua and 
 Tethys. By the Naiad Creusa he became the 
 inther of Hypseus, Stilbe, and Daphne. Cyrene 
 also is called by some his wife, and by others his 
 d;iughter ; and hence Peneus is described as the 
 pcnitor of Ari3taeus.^2. (Gastuni\ a river in 
 Elis, which rises on the frontiers of Arcadia, flows 
 by the town of Elis, and falls into the sea between 
 tiie promontory Chelunatas and Ichthya. 
 
 PERAEA. 
 
 tree, and to worship it like the god DIon3"su3 ; and 
 accordingly out of the tree two carved images of 
 the god were made. The tragic fate of Pentheus 
 forms the subject of the Bacckac of Euripides. 
 
 Pentllilu3(neV0iAos), sonofOrestesandErigone, 
 is said to liave led a colonj'^ of Aeolians to Thrace. 
 He was the father of Echelatus and Damasias. 
 
 Pentri, one of the most important of the tribes 
 in Samnium, were conquered by the Romans along 
 with the otlier Samnites, and were the only one of 
 
PERCOTE. 
 
 prol)ably prf*serviiig in its name that of a district 
 once called Peraea Mytilenaeorum; for the people 
 of Mytilene are known to have had many settle- 
 ments on this coast. 
 
 Percbte (nepKaJxTj, formerly UepKa-m}^ accord- 
 ing to Strabo: Bwyas or Burgus^ Turk., and Per~ 
 cuie^ Grk.), a very ancient city of Mysia, between 
 Abydos and Lampsacns, near the Hellespont, on a 
 river called Percates, in a beautiful situation. It 
 is mentioned by Homer. 
 
 Perdiccas (flepSUKas) 1. 1. The founder of the 
 Macedonian monarchy, according to Herodotus, 
 though later writers represent Ciiranus as the 1st 
 king of Macedonia, and make Perdiccas only the 
 4th. [Caranus.] According to Herodotus, Per- 
 diccas and his two brothers, Gauanea and Aeropns, 
 were Argives of the race of Temenus, who settled 
 near Mt. Bermius, from -whence they subdued 
 the rest of Macedonia (Herod, viii. 137i 138). It 
 is clear, however, that the dominions of Perdiccas 
 and his immediate successors, comprised but a 
 very small part of the country subsequently known 
 under that name. Perdiccas was succeeded by 
 his son Argaeus. — 2. II. King of Macedonia, 
 from about B.C. 454 to 413, was the son and 
 successor of Alexander I. Shortly before the com- 
 mencement of the Peloponnesian war Perdiccas 
 was at war witli the Athenians, who sent a force 
 to support his brother Philip, and Derdas, a 
 Macedonian chieftain, against the king, while the 
 hitter espoused the cause of Potidaea, which had 
 shaken off the Athenian yoke, b. c. 432. In the 
 following year peace was concluded between Per- 
 diccas and the Athenians, but it did not last 
 long, and he was during the greater part of his 
 reign on hostile terms with the Athenians. In 
 429 liis dominions were invaded by Sitalces, 
 king of the powerful Thracian tribe of the Odry- 
 sians, but the enemy was compelled, by want of 
 provisions, to return home. It was in great 
 part at his instigation that Brasidas in 424 set out 
 on his celebrated expedition to Macedonia and 
 Thrace. In the following year (423) however a 
 misunderstanding arose between him and Brasidas ; 
 in consequence of which he abandoned the Spartan 
 alliance, and concluded peace with Athens. Sub- 
 sequently we find him at one time in alliance 
 with the Spartans, and at another time with the 
 Athenians ; and it is evident that he joined one or 
 other of the belligerent parties according to the 
 dictates of his own interest at the moment. — 3. 
 III. King of Macedonia, B.C. 364 — 359, was the 
 second son of Amyntas II., by his wife Eurydice. 
 On the assassination of his brother Alexander II., 
 by Ptolemy of Alorus, 367, the crown of Mace- 
 donia devolved upon him by hereditary right, but 
 Ptolemy virtually enjoyed the sovereign power as 
 guardian of Perdiccas till 364, when the latter 
 caused Ptolemy to be put to death, and took the 
 government into his own hands. Of the reign of 
 Perdiccas we have very little information. We 
 learn only that he was at one time engaged in 
 hostilities with Athens on account of Amphipolia, 
 and that he was distinguished for hie patronage of 
 men of letters. He fell in battle against the lUy- 
 rians, 359. — 4. Son of Orontes, a Macedonian of 
 the province of Orestis, was one of the most dis- 
 tinguished of the generals of Alexander the Great. 
 He accompanied Alexander throughout his cam- 
 paigns in Asia ; and the king on his death-bed 
 is said to have taken the royal signet ring from 
 
 PERGA. 
 
 S4I 
 
 his finger and given it to Perdiccas, After the 
 deatb of the king (323), Perdiccas had the chief 
 authority entrusted to him under the command 
 of the new king Arrhidaeus, who was a mere 
 puppet in his hands, and he still further 
 strengthened his power by the assassination of his 
 rival Meleager. [MeleaGEr.] The other gene- 
 rals of Alexander regarded him witii fear and 
 suspicion ; and at length his ambitious schemes 
 induced Antipater, Craterus, and Ptolemy, to unite 
 in a league and declare open war against Perdiccas. 
 Thus assailed on all sides, Perdiccas determinc^d to 
 leave Eumenes in Asia Minor, to make head against 
 their common enemies in that quarter, while he 
 himself marched into Egypt against Ptolemy, Ho 
 advanced without opposition as far as Pelnsinm, 
 but found the banks of the Nile strongly fortified 
 and guarded by Ptolemy, and was repulsed in re- 
 peated attempts to force the passage of the river ; in 
 the last of which, near Memphis, he lost great 
 numbers of men. Thereupon his troops, who had 
 long been discontented with Perdiccas, rose in 
 mutiny and put him to death in his own tent. 
 
 Perdix (IlepStl), the sister of Daedalus, and 
 mother of Talos, or according to others, the sister''3 
 son of Daedalus, figures in the mythological period 
 of Greek art, as the inventor of various implements, 
 chiefly for working in wood. Perdix is sometimes 
 confounded with Tales or Calos, and it is best to 
 regard the various legends respecting Perdix, Talos, 
 and Calos, as referring to one and the same person, 
 namely, according to the mythographers, a nephew 
 of Daedalus. The inventions ascribed to him are : 
 the saw, the idea of which is said to have been 
 suggested to him by the back-bone of a fish, or the 
 teeth of a serpent ; the chisel ; the compasses ; the 
 potter's wheel. His skill excited the jealousy of 
 Daedalus, who threw him headlong from the temple 
 of Athena on the Acropolis, but the goddess caught 
 him in his fall, and changed him into the bird 
 which was named after h.\m^ perdix^ the partridge. 
 
 PeregTinus Proteus, a cynic philosopher, bom 
 at Parium, on the Hellespont, flourished in the 
 reign of the Antonlnes. After a youth spent in 
 debauchery and crimes, he visited Palestine, where 
 he turned Christiiui, and by dint of hypocrisy at- 
 tained to some authority in the Church. He next 
 assumed the cynic garb, and returned to his native 
 town, where, to obliterate the memory of 'his 
 crimes, he divided his inheritance among the popu- 
 lace. He again set out on his travels, and after 
 visiting many places, and adopting every method 
 to make himself conspicuous, he at length resolved 
 on publicly burning himself at the Olympic games ; 
 and carried his resolution into effect in the 236iK 
 Olympiad, a. d. 165. Lucian, who knew Pere- 
 grinua, and who was present at his strange self- 
 immolation, has left us an account of his life. 
 
 Perenna, Anna. [Anna,] 
 
 Perennis, succeeded Paternua in a, d. 183, as 
 sole praefect of the praetorians, and Commodus 
 being completely sunk in debauchery and sloth, 
 virtually ruled the empire. Having, however, 
 rendered himself obnoxious to the soldiery, he was 
 put to death by them in 186 or 187. Dion Cassiua 
 represents Perennis as a man of a pure and upright 
 life ; but the other historians charge him with 
 having encouraged the emperor in all his excesses, 
 and urged him on in his career of profligacy. 
 
 Perga (n€p77j : Tiepycuos \ Mwiana^ Kw.)^ at 
 ancient and important city of Pamphylia, lay i 
 
542 PERGAMA. 
 
 little inland, N. E. of Attalia. between the rivers 
 Catarrhactes and Oestrus, 60 stadia (U geog. miles) 
 from the mouth of the former. It was a cele- 
 brated seat of the worship of Artemis. On an 
 eminence near the city stood a very ancient and 
 renowned temple of the goddess, at which a yearly 
 festival was celebrated; and the coins of Perga 
 bear inianes of the iroddess and her temnle. Uzider 
 
 PERIANDER. 
 
 however, the fortress of Pergamns in his own 
 hands ; and upon the death of Seleucus, in 290, 
 Philetaerus established himself as an independent 
 ruler. Tliis is the date of the commencement of 
 the kingdom of Pergamus, though the royal title 
 was only assumed by tiie second successor of Plii- 
 letaerus, Attai.us I., after his great victory ovL^r 
 the Gauls. The successive kintrs of Pertramiia 
 
PERIBOEA. 
 
 in tlie state. He made his power respected abroad 
 as well as at home ;. and besides his conquest of 
 Kpidaiirus, mentioned below, he kept Corcyra in 
 subjection. He was, like many of the other Greek 
 tyrants, a patron of literature and philosophy ; 
 and Arion and Anacharsis were in favour at his 
 court. He was very commonly reckoned among 
 ihe Seven Sages, though by some he was excluded 
 from their number, and Myson of Chenae in La- 
 conia was substituted in his room. The private 
 life of Periander was marked by misfortune and 
 cruelty. He married Melissa, daughter of Procles, 
 tyrant of Epidaurus. She bore him two sons, 
 Cypselua and Lycophron, and was passionately 
 heloved by hira ; but he is said to have killed her 
 by a blow during her pregnancy, having been 
 roused to a fit of anger by a false accusation brought 
 :igainst her. His wife's death embittered the re- 
 mainder of his days, partly through the remorse 
 ■which he felt for the deed, partly through the 
 alienation of his younger son Lycophron, inexorably 
 exasperated by his mother's fate. The young 
 man's anger had been chiefly excited by Procles, 
 and Periander in revenge attacked Epidaurus, and, 
 liaving reduced it, took his father-in-law prisoner. 
 I'eriander sent Lycophron to Corcyra ; but when 
 lie was himself advanced in years, he summoned 
 Lycophron back to Corinth to succeed to the ty- 
 ranny, seeing that Cypselus, his elder son, was 
 unfit to hold it, from deficiency of understanding. 
 Lycophron refiised to return to Corinth, as long as 
 liis father was there. Thereupon Periander offered 
 to withdraw to Corcyra, if Lycophron would come 
 home and take the government. To this he as- 
 sented ; but the Corcyi-aeans, not wishing to have 
 Periander among them, put Lycophron to death. 
 Periander shortly afterwards died of despondency, 
 at the age of 80, and after a reign of 40 years, 
 according to Diogenes Laertius. He was succeeded 
 Iiy a relative, Psammeticlms, son of Gordias. — 2. 
 Tyrant of Ambracia, was contemporary with his 
 more famous namesake of Corinth, to whom he was 
 also related, being the son of Gorgus, who was son 
 or brother to Cypselus. Periander was deposed by 
 the people, probablyafterthe death of the Corinthian 
 tyrant (585). 
 
 Penboea (Uepl€ota). 1. Wife of Tcanus, and 
 mother of Penelope. [IcARius, No. 2.] — 2. 
 Daughter of Alcathous, and wife of Telamon, by 
 whom she became the mother of Ajax and Teucer. 
 Some writers call her Eriboea. — - 3. Daughter of 
 Hipponous, and wife of Oeneus, by whom she be- 
 came the mother of Tydeus. [Oeneus.]— 4, 
 Wife of king Polybus of Corinth. 
 
 Pericles {n€piic\7}s), 1. The greatest of Athe- 
 nian statesmen, was the son of Xanthippus, and 
 An-ariste, both of whom belonged to the noblest 
 families of Athens. The fortune of his parents 
 procured for him a careful education, which his 
 extraordinary abilities and diligence turned to the 
 best account. He received instruction from Da- 
 mon, Zeno of Elea, and Anaxagoras. With An- 
 axagoras he lived on terms of the most intimate 
 friendship, till the philosopher was compelled to 
 retire from Athens. From this great and original 
 thinker Pericles was believed to have derived not 
 only the cast of his mind, but the character of his 
 eloquence, which, in the elevation of its sentiments, 
 and the purity and loftiness of its style, was the 
 fitting expression of the force and dignity of his 
 character and the grandeur of his conceptions. Of , 
 
 PERICLES. 
 
 £43 
 
 the oratory of Pericles no specimens remain to us, 
 but it is described by ancient writers as charac- 
 terised by singular force and energy. He was 
 described as thundering and lightning when he 
 spoke, and as carrying the weapons of Zeus upon 
 his tongue. — In b. c. 469, Pericles began to take 
 part in public affairs, 40 years before his death, 
 and was soon regarded as the head of the moro 
 democratical part in the state, in opposition to 
 Cimon. He gained the favour of tlie people by the 
 laws which he got passed for their benefit. Thus 
 it was enacted through his means that the citizens 
 should receive from the public treasury the price of 
 their admittance to the theatre, amounting to 2 
 oboli apiece ; that those who served in the courts of 
 the Heliaea should be paid for their attendance ; 
 and that those citizens who served as soldiers 
 should likewise be paid. It was at his instigation 
 that his friend Ephialtes proposed, in 4G1 the 
 measure by which the Areopagus was deprived of 
 those functions which rendered it formidable as an 
 antagonist to the democratical party. This success 
 was followed by the ostracism of Cimon, who was 
 charged with Laconism ; and Pericles was thus 
 placed at the head of public affairs at Athens. 
 Pericles was distinguished as a general as well as 
 a statesman, and frequently commanded tlie Athe- 
 nian armies in their wars with the neighbouring 
 states. In 454 he commanded the Athenians in 
 their campaigns against the Sicyonians and Acama- 
 nians ; in 448 he led the army which assisted the 
 Phocians in the Sacred War ; and in 445 he 
 rendered the most signal service to the -state by 
 recovering the island of Euboea, which had revolted 
 fi'om Athens. Cimon had been previously recalled 
 from exile, without any opposition from Pericles, 
 but had died in 449. On his death the aristo- 
 cratical party was headed by Thucydides, the son 
 of Melesias, but on the ostracism of the latter in 
 444, the organized opposition of the aristocratical 
 party was broken up, and Pericles was left without 
 a rival. Throughout the remainder of his political 
 course no one appeared to contest his supremacy ; 
 but the boundless influence which he possessed was 
 never perverted by him to sinister or unworthy 
 purposes. So far from being a mere selfish dema- 
 gogue, he neither indulged nor courted the multi- 
 tude. The next important event in which Pericles 
 was engaged was the war against Samos, which 
 had revolted from Athens, and which he subdued 
 after an arduous campaign, 440. The poet Sopho- 
 cles was oneof the generals w^ho fought with Peric'es 
 against Samos. For the next 10 years till the out- 
 break of the Peloponnesian war, the Athenians were 
 not engaged in any considerable military operations. 
 During this period Pericles devoted especial atten- 
 tion to the Athenian navy, as her supremacy rested 
 on her maritime superiority, and he adopted various 
 judicious means for consolidating and strengthening 
 her empire over the islands of the Aegaean. The 
 funds derived from the tribute of the allies and 
 from other sources were to a large extent devoted 
 by him to the erection of those magnificent temples 
 and public buildings which rendered Athens the 
 wonder and admiration of Greece. Under his 
 administration the Propylaea, and the Parthenon, 
 and the Odeum were erected, as well as numerous 
 other temples and public buildings. With the 
 stimulus afforded by these works architecture and 
 sculpture reached their highest perfection, and 
 some of the greatest artists of antiquity were em-' 
 
Ui 
 
 PERICLES. 
 
 ployed in erecting or adorning the buildings. The 
 chief direction and oversight of the public edifices 
 was entrusted to Phidias. [Phidias.] These 
 works calling into activity almost every branch of 
 industry and commerce at Athens, diffused uiii- 
 Tcrsal prosperity while they proceeded, and thus 
 contributed in this, as well as in other ways, to 
 maintain the popularity and influence of Pericles. 
 But he still had many enemies, who were not slow 
 to impute to him base and unwortfiy motives. 
 From the comic poets Pericles had to sustain nu- 
 merous attacks. They exaggerated his power, 
 spoke of his party as Pisistratids, and called upon 
 him to swear that he was not about to assume the 
 tyranny. His high character and strict probity, 
 however, rendered all these attacks harmless. But 
 as his enemies were unable to ruin his reputation 
 by these means, they attacked him through his 
 friends. His friends Phidias and Anaxagoras, 
 and his mistress Aspasia were all accused before 
 the people. Phidias was condemned and cast into 
 prison [Phidias] ; Anaxagoras was also sentenced 
 to pay a fine and quit Athens [Anaxagoras] ; 
 and Aspasia was only acquitted through the en- 
 treaties and tears of Pericles. — The Peloponnesian 
 war has been falsely ascribed to the ambitious 
 schemes of Pericles. It is true that he counselled 
 the Athenians not to yield to the demands of the 
 Lacedaemonians, and he pointed out the immense 
 advantages which the Athenians possessed in carry- 
 ing on the war ; but he did this because he saw that 
 ■war was inevitable ; and that as long as Athens 
 retained the great power which she then possessed, 
 Sparta would never rest contented. On the out- 
 break of the war in 431 a Peloponnesian army 
 under Archidamus invaded Attica ; and upon his 
 advice the Athenians conveyed their moveable 
 property into the city, and their cattle and beasts 
 of burden to Euboea, and allowed the Peloponne- 
 sians to desolate Attica without opposition. Next 
 year (430), when the Peloponnesians again invaded 
 Attica, Pericles pursued the same policy as before. 
 In this summer the plague made its appearance in 
 Athens. The Athenians, being exposed to the 
 devastation of the war and the plague at the same 
 time, began to turn their thoughts to peace, and 
 looked upon Pericles as the author of all their 
 distresses, inasmuch as he had persuaded them to 
 go to war. Pericles attempted to calm the public 
 ferment ; but such was the irritation against him, 
 that he was sentenced to pay a fine. The ill feel- 
 ing of the people having found this vent, Pericles 
 soon resumed his accustomed sway, and was again 
 elected one of the generals for the ensuing year 
 (429). Meantime Pericles had suffered in common 
 with his fellow-citizens. The plague carried off 
 most of his near connections. Plis son Xanthippus, 
 a profligate and undutifiU youth, his sister, and 
 most of his intimate friends died of it. Still he 
 maintained unmoved his calm bearing and philo- 
 sophic composure. At last his only surviving 
 legitimate son, Paralus, a youth of greater promise 
 than his brother, fell a victim. The firmness of 
 Pericles then at last gave way ; as he placed the 
 funeral garland on the head of the lifeless youth 
 he burst into tears and sobbed aloud. He had one 
 Bon remaining, his child by Aspasia ; and he was 
 allowed to enrol this son in his own tribe and give 
 him his own name. In the autumn of 429 Pericles 
 himself died of a lingering sickness. When at the 
 point of death, as his friends were gathered round 
 
 PERIPHAS. 
 
 his bed, recalling his virtues and enumerating his 
 triumphs, Pericles overhearing their remarks, said 
 that they had forgotten his greatest praise : thiit 
 no Athenian through his means had been made to 
 put on mourning. He survived the commencement 
 of the war 2 years and 6 months. The name of 
 the wife of Pericles is not mentioned. She had 
 been the wife of Hlpponicus, by whom she was the 
 mother of Callias. She bore two sons to Pericles, 
 Xanthippus and Paralus. She lived unhappily 
 with Pericles, and a divorce took place by nuitual 
 cousent, when Pericles connected himself with 
 Aspasia. Of his strict probity he left the decisive 
 proof in the fact that at his death he was found 
 not to have added a single drachma to his here- 
 ditary property. —3. Son of the preceding, by 
 Aspasia, was one of the generals at the battle of 
 Arginusae, and was put to death by the Athenians 
 wiiii the other generals, 406. 
 
 Periclymemia (UepiKXvfxevos). 1. One of the 
 Argoiiauls, was son of Neleus and Chloris, and 
 brother of Nestor. Poseidon gave him the power 
 of changing himself into different forms, and con- 
 ferred upon him great strength, but he was never- 
 theless slain by Hercules at the capture of Pylos. 
 — 2. Son of Poseidon and Chloris, the daughter 
 of Tiresias, of Thebes. In the war of the Seven 
 ngainst Thebes he was believed to have killed 
 Parthenopaeus ; and when he pursued Amphiaraus, 
 the latter by the command of Zeus was swallowed 
 up by the earth. 
 
 Peneres {'n€piripr}s)j son of Aeolus and Enarete, 
 king of Messene, was the father of Aphareus and 
 Leucippus by Gorgophone. In some traditions 
 Perieres was called a son of Cynortas, and besides 
 the sons above mentioned he is said to have been 
 the father of Tyndareos and Icarius. 
 
 Perilaus (riepUaos), son of Icarius and Peri- 
 boea, and a brother of Penelope. 
 
 Perillus (nepiXAos), a statuary, was the maker 
 of the bronze bull of the tyrant Phalaris, respecting 
 which see further under Phalaris. Like tlie 
 makers of other instruments of death, Perillus is 
 said to have become one of the victims of his own 
 handiwork. 
 
 Perinthus {UspivBos : Uipiudios : Eshi Eregli)^ 
 an important town in Thrace on the Propontis, 
 was founded by the Samians about u. c. Sb^. It 
 was situated 22 miles W. of Selymbria on a small 
 peninsula, and was built on the slope of a hill with 
 rows of houses rising above each other like seats 
 in an amphitheatre. It is Celebrated for the ob- 
 stinate resistance which it offered to Philip of 
 Macedon, at which time it was a more powerful 
 place than Byzantium. Under the Romans it still 
 continued to be a flourishing town, being the point 
 at which most of the roads met leading to Byzan- 
 tium. The commercial importance of the town is 
 attested by its numerous coins which are still 
 extant. At a later time, but not earlier than the 
 4th century of the Christian aera, we find it called 
 Heradea^ which occurs sometimes alone without 
 any addition and sometimes in the fonn of 
 Ileraclea Thraciae or Heracka PeHnthus. 
 
 Periplias (Hepic/jas), an Attic autochthon, pre- 
 vious to the time of Cecrops, was a priest of Apollo, 
 and on account of his virtues was made king of the 
 country. In consequence of the honours paid to 
 him, Zeus wished to destroy him ; but at the re- 
 quest of Apollo ho was metamorphosed by Zeus 
 into an eagle, and his wife hito a bird. 
 
PERIPPIETES. 
 
 Periplietes (VLepi(pr}T7]s)^ son of Hephaestus and 
 Anticl(3a, suriiaraed Corynetes, tliat is, Club- 
 bearer, was a robber at Epidaunis, who slew 
 travellers with an iron cIuIj. Theseus at last killed 
 him and took his club for his own use. 
 
 Permessus (nep/iijcro-rfs : Keftdari), a river in 
 Boeotia, which descends from Mt. Helicon, unites 
 with the Olraius, and falls into the lake Copaia 
 near Haliartus. 
 
 Perne (Tlepj/Tj), a little island off the coast of 
 Ionia, opposite to the territory of Miletus, to which 
 au earthquake united it. 
 
 Pero (TlTjpcS), daughter of Neleus and Chloris, 
 was married to Bias, and celebrated for her beauty. 
 
 Perperena {IlepirepT}va, and other forms), a 
 small town of Mysia, S. of Adramyttium, in the 
 neighbourhood of which there were copper-mines 
 *ind celebrated vineyards. It was said to be the 
 place at which Thucydides died. 
 
 Perpema or Perpenna (the former is the pre- 
 ferable form). 1. M<, praetor B.C. 135, when he 
 carried on war against the slaves in Sicily ; and 
 consul ] 30, when he defeated Aristonicus in Asia, 
 and took him prisoner. He died near Pergamum 
 on his return to Rome in 129. — 2. ItC., son of the 
 last, consul 92, and censor 86. He is mentioned 
 by the ancient writers as an extraordinary instance 
 of longevity. He attained the age of 98 years, 
 and died in 49, the year in which the civil war 
 broke out between Caesar and Porapey. He took 
 no prominent part in tlie agitated times in which 
 he lived. — 3. M. Perpema Tento, son of the 
 last, joined the Marian party in the civil war, and 
 was raised to the praetorship. After the conquest 
 of Italy by Sulla, in 82, Perpema fled to Sicily, 
 which he quitted however upon the arrival of Pom- 
 pey shortly afterwards. On the death of Sulla, in 
 78, Perpema joined the consul M. Lepidus in his 
 attempt to overthrow the new aristocratical consti- 
 tution, and retired with him to Sardinia on the 
 failure of this attempt. Lepidus died in Sardinia 
 in the following year, 77, and Perpema with the 
 remains of his army crossed over to Spain and 
 joined Sertorius. Perpema was jealous of the 
 ascendancy of Sertorius, and after serving under 
 him some years he and his friends assassinated 
 Sertorius at a banquet in 72. His death soon 
 brought the war to a close. Perpema was de- 
 feated by Pompey, was taken prisoner, and was 
 put to death. 
 
 Perrhaebi (Tle^^aiSoi or Xlepai^oi), a powerful 
 and warlike Pelasgic people, who, according to 
 Strabo, migrated from Euhoea to the mainland, 
 and settled in the districts of Hestiaeotis and Pe- 
 lasgiotis in Thessaly, Hence the northern part of 
 this country is frequently called Perrliaebia( Ile/J- 
 pai§ia, UipaiSia), though it never formed one of 
 the regular Thessalian provinces. Homer places 
 the Perrliaebi in the neighbourhood of the Thes- 
 salian Dodona and the river Titaresius ; and at a 
 later time the name of Perrhaebia was applied to 
 the district bounded by Macedonia and the Cam- 
 bunian mountains on the N., by Pindus on the W., 
 by the Peneus on the S. and S.E., and by the 
 Peneus and Ossa on the E. The Perrhaebi were 
 members of the Amphictyonic league. At an early 
 period they were subdued by the Lapithae; at the 
 time of the Peioponnesian war they were subject 
 to the Thessalians, and subsequently to Philip of 
 Macedon ; but at the time of the Roman wars in 
 Greece they appear independent of Macedonia. 
 
 PERSEPHONE. 
 
 545 
 
 Perrhidae {Uepf>lBat), an Attic demus near 
 Aphidna, belonging to the tribe Aiitiochis. 
 
 Persabora or Perisabora (HepcraSiSpa : Jnbar)^ 
 a strongly fortified city of Babylonia, on the W. 
 side of the Euphrates, at the point where the canal 
 called Maarsares left the river. 
 
 Persae. [Persis.] 
 
 Persaeus {Tl^pa-alos), a Stoic philosopher, was 
 a native of Cittium in Crete, and a disciple of 
 Zeno. He lived for some years at the court of 
 Antigonus Goiiatas, with whom he seems to have 
 been in high favour. Antigonus appointed him to 
 the chief command in Corinth, where lie was slain, 
 when the city was taken by Aratus, B. c. 243. 
 
 Perse (nepo-i)), daughter of Oceanus, and wife 
 of Helios (the Sun), by whom she became the 
 mother of Aeetea and Circe. She is further called 
 the mother of Pasiphae and Perses. Homer and 
 Apollonius Rhodius call her Perse, while others 
 call her Perseis or Persea. 
 
 Perseia, a name given to Hecate, as the daughter 
 of Perses by Asteria. 
 
 Persephone (ne/jo-e^tJi^T^), called Proserpina 
 by the Romans, the daughter of Zeus and Deme- 
 ter. Ln Homer she is called FersephonJa {Uepcre- 
 <p6feia) ; the form Persephone first occurs in He- 
 siod. But besides these forms of the name, we 
 also find Persephassa, PhersepJiassa^ Persephaita^ 
 P/terst-phaiiay PherrepJuzssa, P/ierephatia, and P/ie?-- 
 sephmiMy for which various etymologies have been 
 proposed. The Latin Proserpina is probably only 
 a corruption of the Greek. In Attica she was 
 worshipped imder the name of Cora {K6p'r], Ion. 
 KoupTj), that is, the Daughler^ namely, of Demeter; 
 and the two were frequently called Tlie Mother 
 and tlie Daughter (t} Mtjtt/p koI t) KSp'q). Being 
 the infernal goddess of death, she is also called a 
 daughter of Zeus and Styx. In Arcadia she was 
 worshipped under the name of Despoena, and was 
 called a daughter of Poseidon Hippius and Deme- 
 ter, and said to have been brought up by the Titan 
 Anytus. Homer describes her as the wife of 
 Hades, and the formidable, venerable, and majestic 
 queen of the Shades, who rules over the souls of 
 the dead, along with her husband. Hence she is 
 called by later writers Juno Iii/ej-ntty Aveima, and 
 Slygia ; and the Erinnyes are said to have been 
 her daughters by Pluto. Groves sacred to her are 
 placed by Homer in the western extremity of the 
 earth, on the frontiers of the lower world, which 
 is itself called the house of Persephone. The stoiy 
 of her being carried off by Hades or Pluto against 
 her will is not mentioned by Homer, who simply 
 describes her as the wife and queen of Hades. Her 
 abduction is first mentioned by Hesiod. The ac- 
 count of her abduction, which is the most celebrated 
 part of her story, and the wanderings of her mother 
 in search of her, and the worship of the 2 goddesses 
 in Attica at the festival of the Eleusinia, are related 
 under Demeter. In the mystical theories of the 
 Orphics, Persephone is described as the all-per- 
 vading goddess of nature, who both produces and 
 destroys every thing; and she is therefore men- 
 tioned along, or identified with, other mystic divi- 
 nities, such as lais, Rhea, Ge, Hestia, Pandora, 
 Artemis, Hecate. This mystic Persephone is fur- 
 ther said to have become by Zeus the mother of 
 Dionysus, lacchus. Zagreus or Sabazius. — Perse- 
 phone frequently appears in works of art. She is 
 represented either with the grave and severe cha- 
 ; racter of an infernal Juno, or as a mystical divinity 
 
UG PERSEPOLIS. 
 
 with a Bceptre and a little box, in the act of beinj 
 carried off by Pluto. 
 
 th a Bceptre and a little box, in the act of being Zeus caused the chest to land in the island of 
 rried off by Pluto. Seriphos, one of the Cyclades, where Dictys, a 
 
 Persepolis {UeptrciroXts, TlipaaiTr(i\is : in the fisherman, found them, and carried them to Poly- 
 
 liddle ajjes, IsiakJiar : now Takhti-Jemskid, i. e. 
 Throne of Jemshid, or Chil-Minar, i. e. Forty PU- 
 lars : large Ru.) is the Greek name, probably 
 
 translated from the Persian name, which is not finding it impossible to gratify his desires in con- 
 recorded, of the great city which succeeded Pasar- sequence of the presence of Perseus, v/ho had 
 gada as the capital of Persis and of the Persian mefintirae grown up to manhood, he sent Perseus 
 
 dectes, the king of the country. They were treated 
 with kindness by Polydectes; but the latter hav- 
 ing afterwards fallen in love with Danae, and 
 
 empire. From the circumstance, however, of the away to 
 conquest of the Babylonian empire taking place Gorgona, 
 about the time when Persepolis attained this dig- seus firs 
 
 Ctesias, nor the sacred writers dur 
 period, mention it at all ; though t 
 of Babylon, Susa, and Ecbatana, as 
 the empire. It is only from the 
 
 away to fetch the head of Medusa, one of the 
 Gorgona. Guided by Hermes and Athena, Per- 
 seus first went to the Graeae, the sisters of the 
 
 nity, it appears to have been seldom used as the Gorgons, took from them their one tooth and their 
 royal residence. Neither Herodotus, Xenophon, one eye, and would not restore them until they 
 
 writers during the Persian showed him the way to the nymphs, who pos- 
 
 ; though they often speak sesscd the winged sandals, the magic wallet, and 
 
 cbatana, as the capitals of the helmet of Hades, which rendered the wearer 
 
 r from the Greek writers invisible. Having received from the Nymphs 
 
 after the Macedonian conquest that we learn its these invaluable presents, from Hermes a sickle, 
 
 rank in the empire, which appears to have con- and from Athena a mirror, he mounted into the 
 
 fiisted chiefly in its being one of the "2 burial places air, and arrived at the Gorgons, who dwelt near 
 
 of the kinira ^thfi other beinfr Pasar^adal. and also Tartessus on the coast of the Ocean, whose heads 
 
PERSEUS. 
 
 Alcaeus, Sthenelus, Helens, Mestor, Electryon, 
 Gorgophone, and Autochthe. Perseus was wor- 
 shipped as a hero in several places. 
 
 Perseus or Perses (Ilepo-eus), the last king of 
 Macedonia, was the eldest son of Philip V., and 
 reigned 11 years from B.C. 178 to 168. Before 
 his accession he persuaded his father to put to 
 death his younger brother Demetrius, whom he 
 suspected that the Roman senate intended to set 
 up as a competitor for the throne on the death of 
 Philip. Immediately after his accession he began 
 to make preparations for war with the Romans, 
 which he knew to be inevitable, though 7 years 
 elapsed before actual hostilities commenced. The 
 war broke out in 17 !■ The 1st year of the war 
 was marked by no striking action. The consul 
 P. Licinius Crassua first suffered a defeat in Thes- 
 saly in an engagement between the cavalry of the 
 2 armies, but subsequently gained a sliglit advan- 
 tage over the king's troops. — The 2nd year of the 
 war (170), in which the consul A. Hostiliua Man- 
 cinus commanded, also passed over without any im- 
 portant battle, but was on the whole favourable to 
 Perseus. — The 3rd year (16'9), in which the con- 
 sul Q. Marcius Philippus commanded, again pro- 
 duced no important results. The length to which 
 the war had been unexpectedly protracted, and the 
 ill success of the Roman arms, had by this time 
 excited a general feeling in favour of the Macedo- 
 nian monarch ; but the ill-timed avarice of Perseus, 
 who refused to advance the sura of money which 
 Eumenes, king of Pergamus, demanded, deprived 
 him of this valuable ally ; and the same unseason- 
 able niggardliness likewise deprived him of tlie 
 services of 20,000 Gaulish mercenaries, who had 
 actually advanced into Macedonia to his support, 
 but retired on failing to obtain their stipulated 
 pay. He was thus led to carry on the contest 
 against Rome single-handed. — The 4th year of the 
 war (168) was also the last. The new consul, 
 L. Aemilius Paulus, defeated Perseus with great 
 loss in a decisive battle fought near Pydna on 
 June 22, 168. Perseus took refuge in the island of 
 Samothrace, where he shortly afterwards surren- 
 dered with his children to the praetor Cn. Octa- 
 vius. When brought before Aemilius, he is said 
 to have degraded himself by the most abject sup- 
 plications : but he was treated with kindness by 
 the Roman general. The following year he was 
 carried to Italy, where he was compelled to adorn 
 the splendid triumph of his conqueror (Nov. 30, 
 167), and afterwards cast into a dungeon, from 
 whence, however, the intercession of Aemilius pro- 
 cured his release, and he was permitted to end his 
 days in an honourable captivity at Alba. He sur- 
 vived his removal thither a few years, and died, 
 according to some accounts, by voluntary starva- 
 tion, while others — fortunately with less proba- 
 bility — represent him as falling a victim to the 
 cruelty of his guards, who deprived him of sleep. 
 Perseus had been twice married ; the name of his 
 first wife, whom he is said to have killed with his 
 own hand in a fit of passion, is not recorded ; his 
 second, Laodice, was the daughter of Seleucus IV. 
 Philopator. He left two children; a son, Alex- 
 ander, and a daughter, both apparently by his 
 second marriage, as they were mere children when 
 carried to Rome. Besides these, he had adopted 
 his younger brother Philip, who appears to have 
 been regarded by him as the heir to his throne, 
 and became the partner of his captivity. 
 
 PERSIS. 
 
 547 
 
 Persia. [Per.sis.] 
 
 Persici Monies. [Parsici Montes.] 
 
 Persicus Sinus, Persieum Mare (6 Ilepa-iitis 
 Ko\iroy, ^ TlepatK}} SoAntrffa, and other forms: the 
 Persian Gulf)^ is the name given by the later geo- 
 graphers to the great gijf of the Mare Erythraeum 
 {Indian Ocean)^ extending in a S.E. direction from 
 the mouths of the Tigris, between the N.E. coast 
 of Arabia and the opposite coast of Susiana, Pcrsis, 
 and Kannania, to the narrow strait foiTned by the 
 long tongue of land which projects from the N. 
 side of Oman in Arabia, by which strait it is con- 
 nected with the more open gulf of the Indian 
 Ocean called Paragon Sinus (Gulf of Oman). The 
 earlier Greek writers know nothing of it. Hero- 
 dotus does not distinguish it from the Erythraean 
 Sea. The voyage of Alexander's admiral Nearchus 
 from the Indus to the Tigris made it better known, 
 but still the ancient geographers in general give 
 very inaccurate statements of its size and form. 
 
 Persldes (ITeptrefST^y, neptnjiaSTjs), a patrony- 
 mic given to the descendants of Perses. 
 
 Persis, and very rarely Persia (ij riepini, and 
 ij Tlepaiicii, so. ■yv, the fem. adjectives, the masc. 
 being nepiruclis, from the ethnic noun Tieparis, ph 
 Uepcrai, fem. Ilepiris, Latin Persa and Perses, 
 pi. Persae : in modern Persian and Arabic, Fars 
 or Farsisian, i, e. stan, land of, Fars^oli Persian 
 pars, horse or horseman ; Eng. Persia), originally 
 a small mountainous district of W. Asia, lying on 
 the N.E. side of the Persian Gulf, and surrounded 
 on the other sides by mountains and deserts. On 
 the N.W. and N. it was separated from Susiana, 
 Media, and Parthia, by the little river Oroatia or 
 Orosis, and by M. Parachoathras ; and on the E. 
 from Carmania by no definite boundaries in the 
 Desert. The only level part of the country was 
 the strip of sea-coast called Persis Faralia : the 
 rest was intersected with branches of M. Para- 
 choathras, the valleys between which were watered 
 by several rivers, the chief of which were the 
 Arj1,\es, Cyrus, and Medus; in this part of 
 the country, which was called Eoile Persis, stood 
 the capital cities P.4SARG.\da and Persepoli.s. 
 The country has a remarkable variety of climate 
 and of products ; the N. mountainous regions being 
 comparatively cold, but with good pastures, espe- 
 cially for camels ; the middle slopes havii]g a tem- 
 perate climate and producing abundance of fruit 
 and wine ; and the S- strip of coast being intensely 
 hot, and sandy, with little vegetation except the 
 palm-tree. The inhabitants were a collection of 
 nomad peoples of the Indo-European stock, who 
 called themselves by a name which is given in 
 Greek as Artaei {'ApTa7oi), and which, like the 
 kindred Median name of Arii ("Apioi), signifies 
 noble or honourable, and is applied especially to the 
 true worshippers of Ormuzd and followers of Zo- 
 roaster: it was in fact rather a title of honour 
 than a proper name; the true collective name of 
 the people seems to have been Paraca. According 
 to Herodotus, they were divided into 3 classes or 
 castes ; 1st, the nobles or warriors, containing the 
 3 tribes of the Pasargadae, who were the most 
 noble, and to whom the royal family of the Achae- 
 menidae belonged, the Maraphii and the Maspii; 
 2ndly, the agricultural and other settled tribes, 
 namely, the Panthialaei, Derusiaei, and Germanii 
 3rdly, the tribes which remained nomadic, namely 
 the Daae, Mardi, Dropici, and Sagartii, names com- 
 mon to other parts of W. and Central Asia. The 
 
ZonoASTER]. The simple and warlike habits, residences, Pasargada and Persepolis in Pcrsis. 
 "which they cnltivated in tlieir native mountains, (See the several articles.) Of this vast empire 
 
 preserved them from tlie cornipting influences Diirius undertook the organisation, and divided it 
 
 which enervated their Median brethren ; so that into 20 satrapies, of which a full account is given 
 
 from being, as we find them at the beginning of by Herodotus. For the other details of his reign, 
 
 their recorded history, the subject member of the and especially the commencement of the wars with 
 
 Medo-Persian kingdom, they obtained the snpre- Greece, see Dakius. Of the remaining period of 
 
 macy under Cyrus, the founder of the great Per- the ancient Persian history, till the Macedonian 
 
 sian Empire, B.C. 5.59. Of the Persian history conquest, a sufficient abstract will be found under 
 
 before this date, we know but little : the native the names of the several kings, a list of whom is 
 
 poetical annalists of a later period are perfectly now subjoined: — (1) CvRU.'i, B.C. 559 — 529: 
 
 untrustworthy: the additional light lately ob- (2) Cambvses, 529 — 522: (3) Usurpation of the 
 
 tained from the Persian inscriptions is, so far as it pseudo-SMERDis, 7 months, 522 — 521 : (-t) Da- 
 
 goes, confirmatory^ of the Greek writers, from whom, nius I., son of Hystaspes, 521 — 405 : (5) Xerxes 
 
 and from some small portions of Scripture, all our I. 485 — 465: (6) Usurpation of Art.ibanus, 
 
 knowledge of ancient Persian history is derived. 7 months, 465 — 464 : (7) Artaxerxes I. LoN- 
 
 According to these accounts, the Persians were gimanus, 464 — 425: (8) Xerxes II., 2 months: 
 
 first subjected by the Modes under Phraortes, about (9) Sogdianos, 7 months,425 — 424: (10) Ochus, 
 
 B.C. 688, at the time of the formation of the Great or Darius II. Nothus, 424 — 405: (11) Aktax- 
 
 Median Empire ; but they continued to be governed erxes II. Mnemon, 405 — 359: (12) Ochus, or 
 
 by their own princes, the Achaemenidae, An Artaxerxes III., 359 — 333: (13) Arses, 338 
 
 account of the revolution, by which the supremacy — 336: (14) Darius III. Codomannus, 336 — 
 
 was transferred to the Persians, is given under 331 [Alexander]. Here the ancient history of 
 
 Cyrus. At this time there existed in W. Asia Persia ends, as a kingdom; but, as a people, the 
 
 two other great kingdoms, the Lydian, which com- Persians proper, under the influence especially of 
 
 prised nearly the whole of Asia Minor, W. of the their religion, preserved their existence, and at 
 river Halys, which separated it from the Medo- length regained their independence on the downfall 
 Persian territories; and the Babylonian, which, of the Parthian Empire [Sassanidae]. — In read- 
 besides the Tigris and Euphrates valley, embraced ing the Roman poets it must be reme: 
 Syria and Palestine. By the successive conquest they constantly use Fersae, as well as lueui, 
 of these kingdoms, the dominions of Cyrus were general term for the peoples E. of the Euoh 
 extended on the W. as far as the coasts of the and Tigris, and especiaily for the Parthif 
 Euxine, the Aegean, and the Mediterranean, and A. Persius Flaccus, the poet, was a Roman 
 to the frontier of Egypt. Turning his arms in the knight connected by blood and niamage with per- 
 opposite direction, he subdued Bactria, and effected sons of the highest rank, and was born at Vola- 
 some conquests beyond the Oxus, but fell in battle teiTae in Etruria on the 4th of December, a. d. 34. 
 with the Massagetae. [Cvuus.] His son Cam- He received the first rudiments of education in his 
 byses added Egj-pt to the empire. [Cambyses.] native town, remaining there until the age of 12, 
 
 Upon his death the Magian priesthood made 
 
 ,nd then removed to Rome, where he studied 
 
 effort to restore the supremacy to the Medes grammar under the celebrated Remmius Palaemon, 
 fMAoi : SiviEnnisl. which was defeated bv the and rhetoric under VerBinius Flavius. He was 
 
PERTINAX. 
 
 experienced in removing these impediments neces- 
 sarily invpresses both the words and the ideas upon 
 every one who has carefully studied his pages, and 
 hence no author clings more closely to our memory. 
 The first satire is superior both in plan and exe- 
 cution to the rest; and those passages in the 5th, 
 where Persius describes the process by which his 
 own moral and intellectual faculties were ex- 
 panded, are remarkable for their grace and beauty. 
 The best editions are by Jahn, Lips. 1843, and by 
 Heinrich, Lips. 1844. 
 
 Pertinax, Helvius, Roman emperor from Ja- 
 nuary 1st to March 28th, A. D. 193, was of humble 
 origin, and rose from the post of centurion both to 
 the highest military and civil commands in the 
 reigns of M. Aurelius and Comraodus. On the 
 murder of Commodus on the last day of December, 
 192, Pertinax, who was then 66 years of age, was 
 reluctantly persuaded to accept the empire. He 
 commenced his reign by introducing extensive 
 reforms into the civil and military administration 
 of the empire; but the troops, who had been accus- 
 tomed both to ease and license under Commodus, 
 ■were disgusted with the discipline which he at- 
 tempted to enforce upon them, and murdered their 
 new sovereign after a reign of 2 months and 27 
 days. On his death the praetorian troops put up 
 the empire to sale, which was purchased by M. 
 Didius Salvias Julianus. [See p. 219, b.] 
 
 Perusia (Pemsinus: Perugia\ an ancient city 
 in the E. part of Etruria between the lake Trasi- 
 menus and the Tiber, and one of the 12 cities of 
 the Etruscan confederacy. It was situated on a 
 hill, and was strongly fortified by nature and by 
 art. In conjunction with the other cities of Etniria, 
 it long resisted the power of the Romans, and at a 
 later period it was made a Roman colony. It is 
 memorable in the civil wars as the place in which 
 L. Autonius, the brother of the triumvir took 
 refuge, when he was no longer able to oppose Oc- 
 tavianus in tho field, and where he was kept closely 
 blockaded by Octavianus for some months, from 
 the end of b. c. 41 to the spring of 40. Famine 
 compelled it to surrender ; but one of its citizens 
 having set fire to liis own house, the flames spread, 
 and the whole city was burnt to the ground. The 
 war between L, Antonius and Octavianus is known 
 from the long siege of this town by the name of 
 the Bellum Perusinum. It was rebuilt and colo- 
 nised anew by Augustus, from whom it received 
 the surname of Augusta. In the later time of the 
 empire it was the most important city in all Etruria, 
 and long resisted the Goths. Part of the walls 
 and some of the gates of Perusia still remain. The 
 best preserved of the gates is now called Area 
 d''Augusta, from the inscription Avgvsta Per- 
 vvsiA over the arch : the whole structure is at 
 least 60 or 70 feet high. Several interesting tombs 
 with valuable remains of Etruscan art have been 
 discovered in the neighbourhood of the city. 
 
 Pescennius Niger. [Niger.] 
 
 Pessinus or Pesmus {XiGatnvovs, U^<tivovs : 
 Xleatrivovvrios., fern. Tl^(T(rivQvvTis : Bala-Hisar 
 Ru.), a city of Asia Minor, in tlie S.W. comer of 
 Galatia, on the S. elope of M. Dindymus or Agdis- 
 tis, was celebrated as a chief seat of the worship of 
 Cvbele, under the surname of Agdistis, whose 
 temple, crowded with riches, stood on a hill out- 
 side the city. In this temple was a wooden (Livy 
 says stone) image of the goddess, which was re- 
 moved to Rome, to satisfy an oracle in the Sibyl- 
 
 PETRA. 
 
 549 
 
 line books. Under Constantino the city was made 
 the capital of the province of Galatia Salutarls, but 
 it gradually declined until tiie 6th century, after 
 which it is no more mentioned. 
 
 Petalia or PetS.liae {Petalius), an uninhadited 
 and rocky island off the S.W, coast of Euboea at 
 tlie entrance into the Euripus. 
 
 Petelia or Petilia (UgttjKIo. : Petellnus : Stro7i- 
 goli\ an ancient Greek town on the E. coast of 
 Bruttium, founded, according to tradition, by Phi- 
 loctetes. (Virg. Aen. iii. 402.) It was situated 
 N. of Croton, to whose territory it originally be- 
 longed, but it was afterwards conquered by the 
 Lucanians. It remained faithful to the Romans, 
 when the other cities of Bruttium revolted to 
 Hannibal, and it was not till after a long and 
 desperate resistance that it was taken by one of 
 Hannibars generals. It was repeopled by Han- 
 nibal withBnittians; but the Romans subsequently 
 collected the remains of the former population, and 
 put them again in possession of the town. 
 
 Peteon (nereti;/ : IleTettJi/ios), a small town in 
 Boeotia, of uncertain site, dependent upon Hali- 
 artus, according to some, and upon Thebes, ac- 
 cording to others. 
 
 Peteos (nerecis), son of Orneus, and father of 
 Menestlieus, was expelled from Athens by Aegeus, 
 and went toPhocis, where he founded Stirls, 
 
 PetUius or Petillms. 1. Capitolinus. [Capi- 
 TOUNUs.] — 2. Cerealis, [Cerealis,]^3. Spu- 
 rinus, [Spurinus.] 
 
 Petosiris (nertJinpis), an Egyptian priest and 
 astrologer, generally named along with Nechepsos, 
 an Egyptian king. The two are said to be the 
 founders of astrology. Some works on astrology 
 were extant under liisname. Like our own Lill}--, 
 Petosiris became the common name for an astro- 
 loger. (Juv. vi. 580.) 
 
 Petovio or Poetovio (Peltau\ a town in Pan- 
 nonia Superior, on the frontiers of Noricum, and on 
 the Dravus (ZJraue), w.is a Roman colony with the 
 surname £//joia, having been probably enlarged and 
 made a colony by Trajan or Hadrian. It was one 
 of the chief towns of Pannonia, had an imperial 
 palace, and was the head-quarters of a Roman 
 legion. The ancient town was probably on the 
 right bank of the Drave, opposite the modem 
 Pettau^ as it is only on the former spot that in- 
 scriptions, coins, and other antiquities have been 
 found. 
 
 Petra (^neVpa: TleTpaTos, Petraeus, later Pe- 
 trensis), the name of several cities built on rocks, 
 or in rocky places.— 1. A small place in the Co- 
 rinthian territory, probably on the coast, near the 
 borders of Argolis — 2. A place in Elis, not far 
 from the city of Elis, of which some suppose it 
 to have been the Acropolis. The sepulchral mo- 
 nument of the philosopher Pyrrho was shown here. 
 — 3. {Casa delta Pietra)^ also called Petraea and 
 Petrine (the people Xif^rpivoi and Petrini), an in- 
 land town of Sicily, on the road from Agrigentum 
 to Panormus. ^ 4. A town on the coast of Illyri- 
 cum, with a bad harbour. ^ 5. A city of Pieria in 
 Macedonia. — 6. A fortress of the Maedi, in 
 Thrace. — 7. (Pl.neut.), a place in Dacia, on one 
 of the 3 great roads which crossed the Danube. — 
 8. In Pontus, a fortress built by Justinian, on a 
 precipice on the sea-coast, between the rivers Ba- 
 thys and Acinasis.- 9. In Sogdiana, near the 
 Oxus (Q. Curt. vii. II). — 10. By far the most 
 celebrated of all the places of this name was Petra 
 
550 PETREIUS. 
 
 or Petrae (Wadt/-Musa)^ in Aiabia Petraea. the ca- 
 pital, first of tlie Idumaeans, and afterwards of the 
 Nabathaeans. It is probaVjly the same place which 
 is called Selah (which means, like TreVpa, a rock) 
 and Joktheel, in the 0. T. It lies in the midst of 
 the mountains of Seir, at the font of Mt. Hor, just 
 half-way between the Dead Sea and the head of 
 the Aelanitic Gulf of the Pted Sea, in a valley, or 
 rather ravine, suiTounded by almost inaccessible 
 precipices, which is entered by a narrow gorge on 
 the E., the rocky walls of which approach so 
 closely as sometimes hardly to permit 2 horsemen to 
 ride abreast. On the banks of the river which runs 
 through this ravine stood the city itself, a mile in 
 length, and half-a-mile in breadth between the 
 aides of the valley, and some fine ruins of its public 
 buildings still remain. But this is not all : the 
 rocks which surround, not only the main valley, 
 but all its lateral ravines, are completely honey- 
 combed with excavations, some of which were 
 tombs, some temples, and some private houses, at 
 the entrances to which the surface of the rock is 
 sculptured into magnificent architectural facades, 
 and other figures, whose details are often so 
 well preserved as to appear but just chiselled, 
 while the effect is wonderfully heightened by 
 the brilliant variegated colours of the rock, where 
 red, purple, yellow, sky-blue, black, and white, are 
 seen in distinct layers. These ruins are chiefly of 
 the Roman period, when Petra had become an im- 
 portant city as a centre of the caravan traffic of the 
 Nabathaeans. At the time of Augustus, as Strabo 
 learnt from a friend who had resided there, it con- 
 tained many Romans and other fi)reigners, and was 
 governed by a native prince. It had maintained 
 its independence against the Greek kings of Syria, 
 and retained it under the Romans, till the time of 
 Trajan, by whom it was taken. It was the chief 
 city of the whole country of Arabia Petraea, which 
 probably derived its name from Pet'a ; and under 
 the later empire, it was the capital of Palaestina 
 Tertia. 
 
 M. Petreius, a man of great military espericnce, 
 is first mentioned in b. c. 6'2, wlien he served as 
 legatus to the proconsul C. Antonius, and com- 
 manded the army in the battle in which Catiline 
 perished. He belonged to the aristocratical party; 
 and in 55 he was sent into Spain along with L. 
 Afranius as legatus of Pompey, to whom the pro- 
 vinces of the two Spains had bt-en granted. Soon 
 after the commencement of the civil war in 49, 
 Caesar defeated Afranius and Petreius in Spain, 
 whereupon the latter joined' Pompey in Greece. 
 After the loss of the battle of Pharsalia (48) Pe- 
 treius crossed over to Africa, and took an active part 
 in the campaign in 46, which was brought to 
 an end by the decisive defeat of the Pompeian 
 army at the battle of Thapsus. Petreius then fled 
 with Juba, and despairing of safety they fell by 
 each other's hands. 
 
 Petrinus {Rocca di monti Ragoni\ a mountain 
 near Sinuessa on the confines of Latium and Cam- 
 pania, on which good wine was grown. 
 
 Petrocorii, a people in Gallia Aquitanica, in 
 the modern Perigord. Their country contained 
 iron-mines, and their chief town was Vesunna 
 {^Pcrigue.vjr), 
 
 Petronius, C, or T., an accomplished voluptuarj- 
 at the court of Nero. He was one of the chosen 
 compiinifins of Nero, and was regarded as director- 
 in-chief of the imperial pleasures, the judge whose 
 
 PEUCESTAS. 
 decision upon the merits of any proposed scheme 
 of enjoyment was held as final {Elcgavtiae arbHer\ 
 The influence thus acquired excited the jfalous 
 suspicions of Tigellinus: he was accused of treason; 
 and believing that destruction was inevitable, he 
 resolved to die as he had lived, and to excite ad- 
 miration by the frivolous eccentricity of his end. 
 Having caused his veins to be opened, he from 
 time to time arrested the flow of blood by the ap- 
 plication of bandages. During the intervals he 
 conversed with his friends, and even showed him- 
 self in the public streets of Cumae, where these 
 events took place ; so that at last, when he sunk 
 from exhaustion, his death (a. d. 66), although, 
 compulsorj'-, appeared to be the result of natural 
 and gradual decay. He is said to have despatched 
 in his last moments a sealed document to the 
 prince, taunting him with his brutal excesses. — A 
 work has come down to us bearing the title Pe- 
 tronii Arbitri Satyricon, which, as it now exists, is 
 composed of a series of fragments, chiefly in prose, 
 but interspersed with numerous pieces of poetry. 
 It is a sort of comic romance, in which the adven- 
 tures of a certain Encolpius and his companions 
 in the S. of Italy, chiefly in Naples or its environs, 
 are made a vehicle for exposing the false taste and 
 vices of the age. Unfortunately the vices of the 
 personages introduced are depicted with such fi- 
 delity that we are perpetually disgusted by the 
 obscenity of the descriptions. The longest section 
 is generally known as the Supper of Tnmalchio, 
 presenting us witli a detailed account of a fantastic 
 banquet, such as the gourmands of the empire were 
 wont to exhibit on their tables. Next in interest 
 is the well-known tale of the Ephesian Matron. — 
 A great number of conflicting opinions have been 
 formed by scholars with regard to the author of 
 the Satt/ricon. Many suppose that he is the same 
 person as the C. or T. Petronius mentioned above; 
 and though there are no proofs in favour of this 
 hypothesis, yet there is good reason to believe that 
 the work belongs to the first centurj', or, at all 
 events, is not later than the reign of Hadrian. 
 The best edition is by P. Burmannus, 4to. Traj. ad 
 Rhen, 1709, and again Amst. 1743. 
 
 Peuce {Il€VK7} : Piczina)^ an island in Moesia 
 Inferior formed by the 2 southern mouths of the 
 Danube, of which the most southernly was also 
 called Peuce, but more commonly the Sacred Mouth. 
 This island is of a triangular form, and is said by 
 the ancients to be as large as Rhodes. It was in- 
 habited b}' the Peucini, who were a tribe of the 
 Bastamae, and took their name from the island. 
 
 Peucela, Peucelaotis (IleuKeAa, U^vK^Xawns: 
 Pekheli or Pakholi), a city and district in the N.W. 
 of India intra Gangem, between the rivers Indus 
 and Suastus. 
 
 Peucestaa (neuKeVray), a Macedonian, and ti 
 distinguished officer of Alexander the Great. He 
 had the chief share in saving the life of Alexander 
 in the assault on the city of the Malli in India, 
 and was afterwards appointed by the king to the 
 satrapy of Persia. In the division of the provinces 
 after the death of Alexander (b. c. 323) he ob- 
 tained the renewal of his government of Persia. 
 He fought nn the side of Eumenes against Anti- 
 gonus (317 — 316), but displayed both arrogance 
 iind insubordination in these campaigns. Upon 
 the surrender of Eumenes by the Argyraspids, 
 Peucestas tell into the hands of Antigonus, who 
 deprived him of his satrapy. 
 
PEUCETIA. 
 
 Peucetia. [Apulia,] 
 
 Peucini. [Peucb.] 
 
 Phacium (idKuiv: iaKieds: Ali/aka), a mnun- 
 tain fortress of Thessaly in the district Hestlaeotis 
 oil the right bank of the Peneus, N,E. of Limnaea. 
 
 Phacussa (4>aKoiJ(rcra : Fecussa), an island in 
 the Aegaean sea, one of the Sporades. 
 
 Phaea (<l'aia), the name of the sow of Crommyon 
 in Megaris, which ravaged the neighbourhood, and 
 was slain by Theseus. 
 
 Phaeaces (<PalaK£s^ *afijK€s), a fabulous people 
 immortalised by the Odyssey, who inhabited the 
 islan-d Sclieria (2x«p*ct)j situated at the extreme 
 western part of the earth, and who were governed 
 by king Alcinous. [Alcinous.] They are de- 
 scribed by Homer as a people fond of the feast, the 
 lyre, and the dance, and hence their name passed 
 into a proverb to indicate persons of luxurious and 
 sensual habits. Thus a glutton is called Plioecus 
 by Horace {Ep.\. 15. 24). — The ancients identified 
 the Homeric Scheria with Corcyra, whence the 
 latter is called by the poets Pltaeada tellus ; but 
 there is no sound argument in favour of the identity 
 of the 2 islands, and it is better to regard Scheria 
 as altogether fabulous. 
 
 Phaeax (4»a(a|), an Athenian orator and states- 
 man, and a contemporary of Nicias and Alcibiades. 
 Some critics maintain that the extant speech against 
 Alcibiades, commonly attributed to Andocides was 
 written by Phaeax. 
 
 Phaedon (^aiSwv), a Greek philosopher, was a 
 native of Elis, and of high birth, but was taken 
 prisoner, probably about b. c. 400, and was brought 
 to Athens. It is said that he ran away from his 
 master to Socrates, and was ransomed by one of 
 the friends of the latter. Phaedon was present at 
 the death of Socrates, while he was still quite a 
 youth. He appears to have lived in Athens some 
 time after the death of Socrates, and then returned 
 to Elis, where he became the founder of a school 
 of philosophy. He was succeeded by Plistanus, 
 after whom the Elean school was merged in the 
 Eretrian. The dialogue of Plato, which contains 
 an account of the death of Socrates, bears the name 
 of Phaedon. 
 
 Pliaedra (*aiSpa), daughter of Minos by Pasi- 
 phae or Crete, and the wife of Theseus. She was 
 the stepmother of Hippolytus, the son of Theseus, 
 with whom slie fell in love ; but having been re- 
 pulsed by Hippolytus, she accused him to Theseus 
 of having attempted her dishonour. After the 
 death of Hippolytus, his innocence became known 
 to his father, and Phaedra made away with herself. 
 For details see Hippolytus. 
 Pliaedriades. [Parnassus.] 
 Pliaedrias (^aiSptas), a town in the S. of Ar- 
 cadia, S.W. of Megalopolis, 15 stadia from the 
 Messenian frontier. 
 
 Phaedrus {^alZpos.) 1. An Epicurean philoso- 
 pher, and the president of the Epicurean school 
 during Cicero's residence in Athens, B.C. 80. 
 He died in 70, and was succeeded by Patron. He 
 was the author of a work on the gods (Ile^i ^sS>v), 
 of which an interesting fragment was discovered at 
 Herculaneum in ] 806, and published, by PeterseH-, 
 Hamb. 1833. Cicero was largely indebted to this 
 work for the materials of the first book of the De 
 Natura Deanim.-^2. The Latin Fabulist, of whom 
 we'know nothing but what is collected or inferred 
 from his fables. He was originally a slave, and , 
 was brought from Thrace or Macedonia to Rome, | 
 
 PHAETHONTIADES. 
 
 551 
 
 where he learned the Latin language. As the title 
 of his work is Phaedri Aug. Liberti Fahulae Aeso- 
 piae^ we must conclude that he had belonged to 
 Augustus, who manumitted him. Under Tiberius 
 he appears to have undergone some persecution 
 from Sejanus. The fables extant under the name 
 of Phaedrus are 97 in number, written m iambic 
 verse, and distributed into 5 books. Most of the 
 fables are transfusions of the Aesopian fables, or 
 those which pass as such, into Latin verse. Tlie 
 expression is generally clear and concise, and the 
 language, with some few exceptions, as pure and 
 correct as we should expect from a Roman writer 
 of the Augustan age. But Phaedrus has not es- 
 caped censure, when he has deviated from his Greek 
 model, and much of the censure is just. The beat 
 fables are those in which he has kept the closest to 
 his original. Many of the fables, however, are not 
 Aesopian, as the matter clearly shows, for they 
 refer to historical events of a much later period 
 {v. 1, 8, iii. 10) ; and Phaedrus himself, in the 
 prologue to the 5th book, intimates that he had 
 often used the name of Aesop only to recommend 
 his verses. — There is also another collection of 32 
 fables, attributed to Aesop, and entitled Epitome 
 Fahularum, which was first published at Naples, 
 in 1809, by Cassitti. Opinions are much divided 
 as to the genuineness of this collection. The pro- 
 bability is, that the Epitome is founded on genuine 
 Roman fables, which, in the process of transcription 
 during many centuries, have undergone considerable 
 changes. — The last and only critical edition of 
 Phaedrus is by Orelli, Zurich, 1831. 
 
 Phaenarete. [Socrates.] 
 
 Phaenias. [Phanias.J 
 
 Phaestus {^aiaros : ^alarios), 1. A to'wn in 
 the S. of Crete near Gortyna, 20 stadia from the 
 sea, with a port-town Matala or Matalia, said to 
 have been built by the Heraclid Phaestus, who 
 came from Sicyon to Crete. The town is mentioned 
 by Homer, but was destroyed at an early period 
 by Gortyna. It was the birth-place of Epimenideg, 
 and its inhabitants were celebrated for their wit 
 and sarcasm. — 2. A town of Thessaly in the 
 district Thessaliotis. 
 
 Phaethon (^aeflwj'), that is, " the shining," 
 occius in Homer as an epithet or surname of Helios 
 (the Sun), and is used by later writers as a proper 
 name for Helios ; but it is more commonly known 
 as the name of a son of Helios by the Oceanid 
 Clymene, the wife of Merops. The genealogy of 
 Phaethon, however, is not the same in all writers, 
 for some call him a son of Clymenus, the son of 
 Helios, by Merope, or a son of Helios by Prote, 
 or, lastly, a son of Helios by the nymph Rhode or 
 Rhodes. He received the significant name of 
 Phaethon from his father, and was afterwards 
 presumptuous and ambitious enough to request his 
 father to allow him for one day to drive the chariot 
 of the sun across the heavens. Helios was induced 
 by the entreaties of his son and of Clymene to 
 yield, but the youth being too weak to check the 
 horses, they ruslied out of their usual track, and 
 came so near the earth, as almost to set it on 
 fire. ThereupoH Zeu& kilkd him with a flash of 
 lightning, and hurled him down into the river 
 Eridanus. His sisters, the Heliadae or Phaethon- 
 Hades, who had yoked the horses to the chariot, 
 were metamorphosed into poplars, and their tears 
 into ambiT. [Heliadae.J 
 
 Phaethontiades. [Heliadae.] 
 
562 
 
 PHAETHUSA. 
 
 PhaethUsa. [Heliadab.] 
 
 PhagTes {^dypTjs : Orfan or Orfana)^ an ancient 
 and fortified town of the Pierians in Macedonia at 
 the foot of Mt. Pangaeon. 
 
 Phalaecus (^dKaiKos). L Son of Onomarchus, 
 succeeded h\a uncle Phayllus as leader of the 
 Phocians in the Sacred War, b. c. 351. In order 
 to secure his own safety, he concluded ii treaty 
 with Philip, by which he was allowed to withdraw 
 into the Peloponnesus with a body of 8000 merce- 
 naries, leaving the unhappy Phocians to their fate, 
 346. Phalaecus now assumed the part of a mere 
 leader of mercenary troops, in which character we 
 find him engaging in various enterprises. He was 
 slain at the siege of Cydonia in Crete. ^ 2. A 
 lyric and epigrammatic poet, from whom the metre 
 called Plialaecian took its name. Five of his epi- 
 grams are preserved in the Greek Anthology. His 
 date is uncertain ; but he was probably one of the 
 principal Alexandrian poets. 
 
 Plialaesiae (^aAaio-tat), a town in Arcadia, S. 
 of Megalopolis on the road to Sparta, 20 stadia 
 from the Laconian frontier. 
 
 Phalanna (^aAapj/a: ^aKawatos: KaradjoH\ 
 a town of the Perrhaebi in the Thessalian district 
 of Hestiaeotis on the left bank of the Peneus, not 
 far from Tempe. 
 
 PhalantliTis (*aA.ai'0os), son of Axacus, was 
 one of the Lacedaemonian Partheniae, or the off- 
 spring of some marriages of disparagement, which 
 the necessity of the first Messenian war had in- 
 duced the Spartans to permit. (See Diet, of Antiq. 
 art. Partlteniae.) As the Partheniae were looked 
 down upon by their fellow-citizens, they formed a 
 conspiracy under Phalanthus, against the govern- 
 ment. Their design having been detected, they 
 went to Italy under the guidance of Phalanthus, 
 and founded the city of Tarentum, about b.c. 70y. 
 Phalanthus was afterwards driven out from Ta- 
 rentum by a sedition, and ended his days at Brun- 
 disiuni. 
 
 Phalara {rh. ^dXapa : <^aAap6i5s), a town iu the 
 Thessalian district of Phthiotis on the Sinus Ma- 
 liacus, served as the harbour of Lamia. 
 
 Plialaris (*aAapis), ruler of Agrigentum in 
 Sicily, has obtained a proverbial celebrity as a 
 cruel and inhuman tyrant ; but we have scarcely 
 any real knowledge of his life and history. His 
 reign probably commenced about e. c, 570, and is 
 said to have lasted 16 years. He was a native of 
 Agrigentum, and appears to have been raised by 
 his fellow-citizens to some high office in the state, 
 of which he afterwards availed himself to assume 
 a despotic authority. He was engaged in frequent 
 wars with his neighbours, and extended his power 
 and dominion on all sides, though more frequently 
 by stratagem tlian open force. He perished by a 
 sudden outbreak of the popular fury, in which it 
 appears that Telemachua, the ancestor of Theron, 
 must have borne a conspicuous part. No circum- 
 stance connected with Phalaris is more celebrated 
 than the brazen bull in which he is said to have 
 burnt alive the victims of his cruelty, and of which 
 we are told that he made the first experiment upon 
 its inventor Perillus. This latter story has much 
 the air of an invention of later times; but the fame 
 of tliis celebrated engine of torture was inseparably 
 associated with the name of Plialaris as early as 
 the time of Pindar. (Piiid. P^/:. i. 105.) That poet 
 also sptraks of Phalaris himself in terms which 
 dearly pro\e that his reputation as a barbarous 
 
 PHANIAS. 
 
 tyrant was then already fully established, and all 
 subsequent writers, until a very late period, allude 
 to him in terms of similar import. But in the later 
 ages of Greek literature, there appears to have 
 existed or arisen a totally different tradition con- 
 cerning Phalaris, which represented him as a man 
 of a naturally mild and humane disposition, and 
 only forced into acts of severity or occasional cruelty, 
 by the pressui-e of circumstances and the machina- 
 tions of his enemies. Still more strange is it that 
 he appears at the same time as an admirer of lite- 
 rature and "philosophy, and the patron of men of 
 letters. Such is the aspect under which his cha- 
 racter is presented to us in 2 declamations commonly 
 ascribed to Lucian, and still more strikingly in the 
 well-known epistles which bear the name of Pha- 
 laris himself. These epistles are now remembered 
 chiefly on account of the literary controversy to 
 which they gave rise, and the masterly dissertation 
 in which Bentley exposed their spuriousness. They 
 are evidently the composition of some sophist ; 
 though the period at which this forgeiy was com- 
 posed cannot now be determined. The first author 
 who refers to them is Stobaeus, The best edition 
 is by Schaefer, Lips. 1323. 
 
 Phalarium {'^axd.piov)^ a fortress named after 
 Phalaris near the S. coast of Sicily, situated on a 
 hill 40 stidia E. of the river Himera. 
 
 Phalasama (ra ^aKduapva.)^ a town on the 
 N.W. coast of Crete. 
 
 Phalerum {^dkyipov. ^aXTjpGus), the most E.-ly 
 of the harbours of Athens, and the one chiefly 
 used by the Athenians before the time of the 
 Persian wars. Phalerum is usually described as 
 the most E.-ly of the 3 harbom*s in the peninsula 
 of Piraeus; but this appears to be incorrect. The 
 names of the 3 harbours in the peninsula were 
 Piraeus, Zea, and Munychia ; while Phalerum lay 
 S.E. of these 3, nearer the city atffagios Gcorgion^ 
 After the establishment by Themistocles of the 3 
 harbours in the peninsula of Piraeus, Phalerum 
 was not much used; but it was connected with the 
 city by means of a wall called the Fhalerian Wall 
 {^aK-qpiKhv nixos). Paleron or Phalerus was also 
 an Attic demus, containing temples of Zeus, De- 
 meter, and other deities. 
 
 Plialoria ($a\a'pta), a fortified town of Thessaly 
 in Hestiaeotis, N. of Tricca on the left bank of the 
 Peneus. 
 
 Phanae {^dvai, 7} Zavala &itpa : C. ^tasiico)^ 
 the S. point of the island of Chios, celebrated for 
 its temple of Apollo, and for its excellent wine. 
 
 Pkanagozia {^avay6p€i.a^ and other fonns : Plia- 
 nagori^ Ru., near Taman, on the E. side of the 
 Straits o/Kqfa), a Greek city, founded by a co- 
 lony of Teians under Phanagoras, on the Asiatic 
 coast of the Cimmerian Bosporus. It became the 
 great emporium for all the traffic between the coasts 
 of the Palus Maeotis and the countries on the S. 
 side of the Caucasus, and was chosen by the kings 
 of Bosporus as their capital in Asia. It had a 
 temple of Aphrodite Apaturos, and its neighbour- 
 hood was rich in olive yards. In the 6th century 
 of our era, it was destroyed by the surrounding 
 barbarians, 
 
 Phanaroea {i'avdpoia)^ a great plain of Pontus 
 in Asia Minor, enclosed by the mountain chains of 
 Paryadres on the E., and Lithrus and Ophlinms on 
 the W., was the most fertile part of Pontus. 
 
 Phanias m- Phaeniaa {^avlas, Oaa/ias), of 
 Ercsoa in Lesbos, a distinguished PcrJpatotic phi- 
 
PPIANOCLES. 
 
 losopher, the immediate disciple of Aristotle, and 
 the contemporary, feUow-citizen, and friend of 
 Theophrastus. He flourished about b. c. 336. 
 Plianias does not seem to have founded a distinct 
 school of his own, but he was a moat diligent 
 writer upon every department of philosophy, as it 
 was studied by the Peripatetics, especially logic, 
 physics, history, and literature. His works, all of 
 which are lost, are frequently quoted by later 
 writers. One of his works most frequently cited 
 was a sort of chronicle of his native city, bearing 
 the title of IIpuTai/eiy ^Epetrioi. 
 
 Phanocles {^avoK\T}s)j one of the best of the 
 later Greek elegiac poets, probably lived in the 
 time of Philip and Alexander the Great. He seems 
 only to have written, one poem, which was entitled 
 ^Epures ^ Ka\oi. The work was upon paederasieia; 
 but the subject was so treated as to exhibit the 
 retribution which fell upon those who addicted 
 themselves to the practice. We still possess a 
 considerable fragment from the opening of the 
 poem, which describes the love of Orpheus for 
 Calais, and the vengeance taken upon him by the 
 Thracian women. The fragments of Phanocles are 
 edited by Bach, Philetae^ Uennesianactis, aique 
 Phanoclis Reliquiae ; and by Schneidewin, Delectus 
 Poes. Graec. p. 158. 
 
 Pliaiiodemus (^occiSrj/Ltos), the author of one of 
 those works ou the legends and antiquities of 
 Attica, kno%vn under the name of Atthides. His 
 age and birthplace are uncertain, but we know 
 that he lived before the time of Augustus, as he is 
 cited by Dionysius of Halicamassus. 
 
 Pbanote {Gardhiki), a fortified town of Epirus 
 in Chaonia near the lUyrian frontier. 
 
 Phantasia {^avTao-ia), one of those numerous 
 mythical personages, to whom Homer is said to 
 have been indebted for his poems. She is said to 
 have been an Egyptian, the daughter of Nicarchus, 
 an inhabitant of Memphis, and to have written an 
 account of the Trojau war, and the wanderings of 
 Ulysses. 
 
 Phaon (4»aa)i/), a boatman at Mytilene, U said 
 to have been originally an ugly old man ; but in 
 consequence of his carrying Aphrodite across the 
 sea without accepting payment, the goddess gave 
 him youth and beauty. After this Sappho is said 
 to have fallen in love with him, and to have leapt 
 from the Leucadion rock, when he slighted her; 
 but this well-known story vanishes at the first 
 approach of criticism. [Sappho.] 
 
 Pb.arae (*opoi or '^Tjpai). 1. (^apatevs or *a- 
 p^vs\ an ancient town in the "W. part of Achaea, 
 and one of the 12 Achaean cities, was situated on 
 the river Pierus, 70 stadia from the sea, and 150 
 from Patrae. It was one of the states which took 
 an active part in reviving the Achaean League in 
 B.C. 281. Augustus included it in the territory 
 of Patrae. —2. {^apairtis, ^apatdr-ns, ^apaTTjs : 
 Kulamaia), an ancient town in Messenia mentioned 
 by Homer, on the river Nedon, near the frontiers 
 of Laconia, and about 6 miles from the sea. In 
 B. c. 180 Pharae joined the Achaean League to- 
 gether with the neighbouring towns of Thuria and 
 Abia. It was annexed by Augustus to Laconia, 
 — 3. Originally Pharis [^dpis: ^apiTTis, ^api~ 
 dT7}s), a town in Laconia in the valley of the 
 Eurotas, S. of Sparta. —4. A town in Crete, 
 founded by the Messenian Pharae. 
 
 Pharbaetbus (^dpSaiOos: Hurheyt'} Put.), the 
 capitjil of the Nomos Pharbaethites in Lower 
 
 PHARNACIA. 
 
 553 
 
 Egypt, lay S. of Tanis, on the W. side of the Pe- 
 lusiac branch of the Nile. 
 
 Pbarcadon. {^apKatdiv)^ a town of Thessaly, in 
 the E. part of Hestiaeotis. 
 
 Pharis. [Pharae, No. 3.] 
 
 Pkarinaciissae (^ap/jLaKovaaai), 1. Two small 
 islands off the coast of Attica, near Salamis, in the 
 bay of Eleusis, now called Kyradlies or Megali and 
 Mikri Kyra : on one of them was shown the tomb 
 of Circe. ^2. Phannacusa (4>ap/j.aKov<Ta), an 
 island off the coast of Asia Minor, 1'20 stadia from 
 Miletus, where king Attains died, and where Julius 
 Caesar was taken prisoner by pirates, when a very 
 voung man. The whole adventure is related by 
 Plutarch (Caes. 1,2). 
 
 Pkaniabazus (4»ap(/a§a^"oy\ son of Phamaces, 
 succeeded his father as satrap of the Persian pro- 
 vinces near the Hellespont. In B.C. 411 and the 
 following years, he rendered active assistance to 
 the Lacedaemonians in their war against the 
 Athenians. When Dercyllidas, and subsequently 
 Agesilaus, passed over into Asia, to protect the 
 Asiatic Greeks against the Persian power, we find 
 Pharnabazus connecting himself with Conon to 
 resist the Lacedaemonians. In 374 Pharnabazus 
 invaded Egypt in conjunction with Iphicrates, but 
 the expedition failed, chiefly through the dilatory 
 proceedings and the exce^ive caution of Pharna- 
 bazus. The character of Pharnabazus is eminently' 
 distinguished by generosity and openness. He 
 has been charged, it is true, with the murder of 
 Alcibiades ; but the latter probably fell by the 
 hands of others. [Alcibiades.] 
 
 Phamaces (^apvaK-qs). 1. King of Pontus, 
 was the son of Mithridates IV., whom he suc- 
 ceeded on the throne, about b. c. 190. He carried 
 on war for some years with Eumenes, king of 
 Pergaraus, and Ariarathes, king of Cappadocia, 
 but was obliged to conclude with them a disad- 
 vantageous peace in 179. The year of his death, 
 is uncertain ; it is placed by conjecture in 156. 
 — 2. King of Pontus, or more properly of the 
 Bosporus, was the son of Mithridates, the Great, 
 whom he compelled to put an end to his life in 63. 
 [Mithridates VI.] After the death of his 
 father, Phamaces hastened to make his submission, 
 to Pompey, who granted him the kingdom of the 
 Bosporus with, the titles of friend and ally of the 
 Roman people. In the civil war between Caesar 
 and Pompey, Phamaces seized the opportunity to 
 reinstate himself in his father's dominions, and 
 made himself master of the whole of Colchis and 
 the lesser Armenia. He defeated Doraitius Cal- 
 vinus, the lieutenant of Caesar in Asia, but was 
 shortly afterwards defeated by Caesar himself in 
 a decisive action near Zela (47). The battle was 
 gained with such ease by Caesar, that he informed 
 the senate of his victory by the words, Vc7ii^ vidi, 
 vici. In the course of the same year, Phamaces 
 was again defeated and was slain by Asander, one 
 of his generals, who hoped to obtain his master's 
 kingdom. [Asander.] 
 
 Pharnacia {^apvaida ; Kheresaun or Kerasxin- 
 da)^ a flourishing city of Asia Minor, on the coast 
 of Pontus Polemoniacus, was built near (some think 
 on) the site of Cerasus, probably by Phamaces, the 
 grandfather of Mithridates the Great, and peopled 
 by the transference to it of the inhabitants of Co- 
 tyora. It had a large commerce and extensive 
 iisheries ; and in its neighbourhood were the iron- 
 minea of the Chalybes. It was strongly fortified. 
 
55i PHARSALUS. 
 
 and was used by Mithridates, in the war with 
 
 Rome, for the place of refuge of his harem. 
 
 Fharsalns {^dptraKos, Ion. ^dpinjKos: 'tapad- 
 Xios : Pharsa or Fersala)^ a town in Thessaly in 
 the district Thessaliotis, not far from the frontiers 
 of Phthiotis, W. of the river Enipeus, and on the 
 N. slope of Mt. Narthacius. It was divided into 
 an old and new city, and contained a strongly for- 
 tified acropolis. In its neighbourhood, N.E. of the 
 town and on the other side of the Enipeus was a 
 celebrated temple of Thetis, called Tfietidium. 
 Near Pharsalus was fought the decisive battle be- 
 tween Caesar and Pompey, B. c. 48, whicli made 
 Caesar master of the Roman world. It is frequently 
 called the battle of Pharsalia, which was the name 
 of the territory of the town. 
 
 Pharus (idpos). 1. {Pharos or Raudhat-el- 
 tin^ i. e. Fig-garden)^ a small island off tlie Medi- 
 terranean coast of Egypt, mentioned by Homer, 
 who describes it as a whole day's sail distant from 
 Aegyptns, meaning probably, not Egypt itself, but 
 the river Nile. When Alexander the Great 
 planned the city of Alexandria, on the coast oppo- 
 site to Pharos, he caused the island to be united to 
 the coast by a mole 7 stadia in length, thus form- 
 ing the 2 harbours of the city. [Alexandria.] 
 The island was chiefly famous for the lofty tower 
 built upon it by Ptolemy II. Philadelphus, for a 
 light-house, whence the name of pharus was applied 
 to all similar structures. It was in this island too 
 that, according to the common story, the 70 trans- 
 lators of the Greek version of the Old Testament, 
 hence called the Septuagint, were confined till their 
 work was finished. The island was well peopled, 
 according to Julius Caesar, but soon afterwards 
 Strabo tells us that it was inhabited only by a few 
 fishermen.— 3. (Lesina OT ffvar), an island of the 
 Adriatic, off the coast of Dalmatia, E. of Issa, 
 with a Greek city of the same name (Civila Vec- 
 chia, Ru.), which was taken and destroyed by the 
 Romans under Aemilius Paulus, but probably 
 rebuilt, as it is mentioned by Ptolemy under the 
 name of Pharia. 
 
 Phariisii {^apovawi)^ a people in the interior 
 (prob. nr. the W. coast) of N. Africa, who carried 
 on a considerable traffic with Mauritania. 
 
 Phasaelia {'ia.aariX.is : prob. Ain-el-Fusail), n 
 city of Palestine, in the valley of the Jordan, N. of 
 Jericho, built by Herod the Great. 
 
 Phaselis (*ao-7)\i'5, ^atrij^irTjs : Tekrova,'Ra.), 
 an important sea-port town of Lycia, near the 
 borders of Pamphylia, stood on the gulf of Pam- 
 piylia, at the foot of Mt. SoljTn.i, in a narrow pass 
 between the mountains and the sea. It was 
 founded by Dorian colonists, and from its position, 
 and its command of 3 fine harboiirs, it soon gained 
 an extensive commerce. It did not belong to the 
 Lycian confederacy, but had an independent go- 
 vernment of its own. It became afterwards the 
 head-quarters of the pirates who infested the S. 
 coasts of Asia Minor, and was therefore destroyed 
 by P. Servilius Isauricus ; and though the city 
 was restored, it never recovered its importance. 
 Phaselis is said to have been the place at which 
 the light quick vessels called ipdin\Kiii were first 
 built, and the figure of such a ship appears on its 
 coins. 
 
 Phasis (*So-ij). 1. (Fax OT Jiioni), a renowned 
 river of the ancient world, rose in the Moschici M. 
 (or according to others in the Caucasus, where, in 
 &ct, its chief tributaries rise), and flowed W.- ward 
 
 PHEA. 
 
 through the plain of Colchis into the E. end of the 
 Pontus Euxinus {Black Sea)^ after receiving several 
 affluents, the chief of which were the Ghmcus and 
 the Rion : the name of the latter was sometimes 
 transferred, as it now is, to the main river. It 
 was navigable about 38 miles above its mouth for 
 large vessels, and for small ones further up, as far 
 as Sarapana {Sharapan\ whence goods were con- 
 veyed in 4 days across the Moschici M. to the 
 river Cyrus, and so to the Caspian. It was 
 spanned by 120 bridges, and had many towns 
 upon its banks. Its waters were celebrated for 
 their purity and for various other supposed qualities, 
 some of a very marvellous nature ; but it was most 
 famous in connection with the story of the Argo- 
 nautic expedition. [Argonautae.] Some of the 
 early geographers made it the boundary between 
 Europe and Asia ; it was afterwards the N.E. limit 
 of the kingdom of Pontus, and, under the Romans, 
 it was regarded as the N. frontier of their empire 
 in W. Asia. Another notable circumstance con- 
 nected with it, is that it has given name to the 
 pheasant (phasianus, (pa(nav6s^ (patnavLnhs Spvis), 
 which is said to have been first brought to Greece 
 from its banks, where the bird is still found in 
 great numbers. — When the geography of these 
 regions was comparatively unknown, it was natural 
 that there should be a doubt as to the identification 
 of certain celebrated names ; and thus the name 
 Phasis, like Araxes, is applied tor difiFerent rivers. 
 The most important of these variations is Xeno- 
 phon's application of the name Phasis to the river 
 Araxes in Armenia. (Jnab. iv. 6.) — 2. Near the 
 mouth of the river, on its S. side, was a town of 
 the same name, founded and fortified by the Mile- 
 sians as an emporium for their commerce, and used 
 under the Kings of Pontus, and under the Romans, 
 as a frontier fort, and now a Russian fortified sta- 
 tion, under the name of Pati. Some identify it 
 with Sebastopolis, but most likely incorrectly. ^3. 
 There was a river of the same name in the island 
 of Taprobane {Ceylon). 
 
 Phavorinus. [Favorinu.s.] 
 
 Phayllua {idOWos). 1. A celebrated athlete 
 of Crotona, who had thrice gained the victory at 
 the Pythian games. He fought at the battle of 
 Salamis, B. c. 480, in a ship fitted out at his own 
 expense. — 2. A Phocian, brother of Onomarchus, 
 whom he succeeded as general of the Phocians in 
 the Sacred War, 352. He died in the following 
 year after a long and painful illness. Phayllus 
 made use of the sacred treasures of Delphi with a 
 far more lavish hand than either of his brothers, 
 and he is accused of bestowing the consecrated 
 ornaments upon his wife and mistresses. 
 
 Phazania {Fezzan), a district of Libya Interior. 
 [Garamantes.] 
 
 Phazemon [•^a^y)p.(jiv: prob. Mar^ivan\ a city 
 of Pontus in Asia Minor, N.W. of Amasia, and 
 the capital of the 'W. district of Pontus, called 
 Phazemonitis (nafiyiuorrns), which lay on the E. 
 side of the Halys, S. of Gazelonitis, and was cele- 
 brated for its warm mineral springs. Pompey 
 changed the name of the city to Neapolis, and the 
 district was called Neapolitis ; but these names 
 seem to have been soon dropt. 
 
 Phea (4»6ia, ^ea, 4»eaf : *caTos), a town on the 
 frontiers of Elis and Pisatis with a harbour situated 
 on a promontory of the same name, and on the 
 river lardaiius. In front of the harbour was a 
 small island called Pheas (4>efay.) 
 
PHECA. 
 
 Pkeca or Phecadum, a fortress in Thessaly in 
 the district He^tiaeotis. 
 
 Phegeus (*7j7€us), king of Psophis in Arcadia, 
 father of Alpliesiboea or Arsinoe, of Pronoiis and 
 Agenor, or of Temenus and Axion. He purified 
 Alcmaeon after he had killed his mother, and gave 
 him his daugb/.er Alphesiboea in marriage. Alc- 
 maeon presented Alphesiboea with the celebrated 
 necklace and peplus of Harmonia ; but when Alc- 
 maeon afterwards wished to obtain them again for 
 his new wife Callirrhoe, he was murdered by the 
 sons of Phegeus, by their father's command, Phe- 
 geus was himself subsequently put to death by the 
 sons of Alcmaeon. For details see Alcmaeon. 
 
 Phellus (4>e\A.os or ^eh\6s : 4'eAAtT7jy : Ru. 
 near Saaret\ an inland city of Lycia, on a moun- 
 tain between Xanthus and Antiphellus ; the latter 
 haying been at first the port of Phelius, but after- 
 wards eclipsing it. 
 
 Fhellusa, a small island near Lesbos. 
 Phemius (^-ijfiios), a celebrated minstrel, son of 
 Terpius, who entertained with his song the suitors 
 in the palace of Ulysses in Ithaca, 
 
 Pliemoiioe (^t]fiov6r])^ a mythical Greek poetess 
 of the ante-Homeric period, was said to have been 
 the daughter of Apollo, and his first priestess at 
 Delphi, and the inventor of the hexameter verse. 
 There were poems which went under the name of 
 Phemonoe, like the old religious poems which were 
 ascribed to Orpheus, Musaeus, and the other my- 
 thological bards. 
 
 Pheneus {^dueos or ^eveos : ^evedT7}s : Fonia)^ 
 a town in the N.E. of Arcadia, at the foot of Mt. 
 Cyllene, and on the river Aroanius. Its territory 
 was called Pheneatis (^ei^earis). There were 
 extensive marshes in the neighbourhood, the waters 
 of which were partly carried off by a subterraneous 
 emissary, which was supposed to have been made 
 by Hercules. The town was of great antiquity. 
 It is mentioned by Homer, and was said to have 
 been built by an autochthon Pheneus. It contained 
 a strongly fortified acropolis with a temple of 
 Athena Tritonia ; and in the town itself were the 
 tombs of Iphicles and Myrtilus, and temples of 
 Hermes and Demeter. 
 
 Pherae {^€pai\ ^epaTos: Fa?e5;i«o), an ancient 
 town of Thessaly in the S.E. of the Pelasgian 
 plain, W. of Mt. Pelion, S.W. of the lake Boebeis, 
 and 90 stadia from its port-town Pagasae on the 
 Pagasaean gulf. Pherae is celebrated in mythology 
 as the residence of Admetus, and in history on 
 account of its tyrants who extended their power 
 over nearly the whole of Thessal3^ Of these the 
 most powerful wa« Jason, who was made Tagiis or 
 generalissimo of Thessaly about b. c. 374. Jason 
 was succeeded in 370 by his 2 brothers Polydonis 
 and Polyphron. The former was soon after assas- 
 sinated by Polyphron. The latter was murdered 
 in his turn in 369 by his nephew Alexander, who 
 was notorious for his cruelty, and who was put to 
 death in '6Q1 by his wife Thebe and her 3 brothers. 
 At a later period we read that Pherae was sur- 
 rounded by a number of gardens and country 
 houses. 
 Pherae. [Phar.^e.] 
 
 Pherecrates (^epeKpdTTjs), of Athens, one of 
 the best poets of the Old Comedy, was contempo- 
 rary with the comic poets Cratinus, Crates, Eiipolis, 
 Plato, and Aristophanes, being somewhat younger 
 than the first two, and somewhat older than the 
 others. He gained his first victory B.C. 4^11, and 
 
 AeRON. 555 
 
 he imitated the style of Crates, whose actor he had 
 been. Crates and Pherecrates very much modified 
 the coarse satire and vituperation of which this 
 sort of poetry had previously been the vehicle, 
 and constructed their comedies on the basis of a 
 regular plot, and with more dramatic action, Phe- 
 recrates did not, however, abstain altogether from 
 personal satire, for we see by the fragments of his 
 plays that he attacked Alcibiades, the tragic poet 
 Melanthius, and others. He invented a new metre, 
 which was named, after him, the Fherecruiean. 
 The system of the verse is^__ wu^« 
 which may be best explained as a choriambus, with 
 a spondee for its base, and a long syllable for its 
 termination. The metre is very frequent in the 
 choruses of the Greek tragedians, and in Horace, 
 as, for example — G^-ato PynJia sub antra. The 
 extant titles of the plays of Pherecrates are 18, 
 
 Pherecydes (^fpeKySijy). 1. Of Syros, an island 
 in the Aegean, an early Greek philosopher or rather 
 theologian. He flourished about b, c. 544, He is 
 said to have obtained his knowledge from the 
 secret books of the Phoenicians, and to have tra- 
 velled in Egypt. Almost all the ancient writers 
 who speak of him state that he wa& the teacher &f 
 Pythagoras. According to a common tradition he 
 died of the lousy disease or Morbus Pediculosus ; 
 though others give different accounts of his death. 
 The most important subject which he is said to 
 have taught was the doctrine of the Metempsy- 
 chosis, or, as it is put by other writers, the doctrine 
 of the immortality of the soul. He gave an ac- 
 count of his views in a work, which was extant in 
 the Alexandrian period. It waa written in prose, 
 which he is said to have been the first to employ 
 in the explanation of philosophical questions. — 
 2. Of Athens, one of the most celebrated of the 
 early Greek logographers. He lived in the former 
 half of the 5th century b. c, and was a contempo- 
 rary of Hellanicus and Herodotus. His principal 
 work was a mythological history in 1 books. 1 1 be- 
 gan with a theogony, and then proceeded to give an 
 account of tlie heroic age and of the great families 
 of that time. His fragments have been collected 
 by StuTiz, Flicrecydis Frapmenta^ Lips. 1824, 2nd 
 ed. ; and by C, and T. MUller in Fragmenta His- 
 ioricum Graecorum, vol. i. 
 
 Pheres {^Sp-qs). 1. Son of Cretheus and Tyro, 
 and brother of Aeson and Amythaon; he was 
 married to Periclymene, by whom he became the 
 father of Admetus, Lycurgus, Idomene, and Pe- 
 riapis. He was believed to have founded the town 
 of Pherae in Thessaly. — 2, Son of Jason and 
 Medea. 
 
 Pheretiades (*epTjTia57js), i. e. a son of Pheres, 
 is especially used as the name of Admetus. 
 
 Pheretima {^ep^Ti^a), wife of Battus III., and 
 mother of Arcesilaus III., successive kings of Gy- 
 rene. After the murder of her son bv the Bar- 
 caeans [Battiadae, No. 6], Pheretim"a fled into 
 Egypt to Aryandes, the viceroy of Darius Hystas- 
 pis, and representing that the death of Arcesilaus 
 had been the consequence of his submission to the 
 Persians, she induced him to avenge it. On the 
 capture of Barca by the Persian army, she caused 
 those who had the principal share in her son's 
 murder to be impaled, and ordered the breasts of 
 their wives to be cut off. Pheretima then returned 
 to Egypt, where she soon after died of a painful 
 and loathsome disease. 
 
 Pheron or Pheroa (^epaiy, *e/)cjs), king of 
 
556 
 
 PHIDIA^, 
 
 Egypt, and son of Sesostns. He was visited with 
 blindness, an hereditary conipliiint, though, ac- 
 cording to the legend preserved in Herodotus, it 
 "was a punishment for his presumptuous impiety in 
 throwing a spear into the watei's of the Nile when 
 it had overflowed tlie fields. By attending to the 
 directions of an oracle he was cured; and he dedi- 
 cated an obelisk at Heliopolis in gratitude for his 
 recovery. Pliny tells us that this obelisk, together 
 ■with another also made by him but broken in its 
 removal, was to be seen at Rome in the Circus of 
 Caligula and Nero at the foot of the Vatican hill. 
 Pliny calls the Pheron of Plerodotus Nuncoreus, 
 or Nencoreus, a name corrupted, perhaps, from 
 Menophtheus. Diodorus gives him his father's 
 name, Sesoosis. Pheron is of course the same word 
 as Pluiraoh. 
 
 Phidias (^eiSms), the greatest sculptor and 
 statuary of Greece. Of his personal history we 
 possess but few det;nls. He was a native of Athens, 
 and the son of Charmides, and was born about the 
 time of the battle of Marathon, b. c. 490. He 
 began to work as a statuary about 464, and one of 
 his tirst great works was the statue of Athena Pro- 
 machus, which may be assigned to about 460. This 
 work must have established his reputation ; but it 
 was surpassed by the splendid productions of his 
 own hand, and of others working under his direc- 
 tion, during the administration of Pericles. That 
 statesman not only chose Phidias to execute the 
 principal statues which were to be setup, but gave 
 him the oversiglit of all the works of art which 
 were to be erected. Of these works the chief 
 were the Propylaea of the Acropolis, and, above 
 all, the temple of Athena on the Acropolis, called 
 the Paiihenon^ on which, as the central point of 
 the Athenian polity and religion, the highest efforts 
 of the best of artists were employed. There can 
 be no doubt that the sculptured ornaments of this 
 temple, the remains of which form the glory of the 
 British Museum, were executed under the imme- 
 diate superintendence of Phidias ; but the colossal 
 statue of the divinity made of ivory and gold, 
 which was enclosed within that raagniticent shrine, 
 was the work of the artist's own hand. The statue 
 was dedicated in 438. Having finished his great 
 work at Athens, he went to Elis and Olympia, 
 which he was now invited to adorn. He was 
 there engaged for about 4 or 5 years from 437 to 
 434 or 433, during which time he finished his 
 statue of the Olympian Zeus, the greatest of all 
 his works. On his return to Athens, he fell a 
 victim to the jenlousy against his great patron, 
 Pericles, which was then at its height. The 
 party opposed to Pericles, thinking him too power- 
 ful to be overthrown by a direct attack, aimed at 
 him in the persons of his most cherished friends, 
 Phidias, Anaxagoras, and Aspasia. [Pericles.] 
 Phidias was first accused of peculation, but this 
 charge was at once refuted, as, by the advice of 
 Pericles, the gold had been affixed to the statue of 
 Athena, in such a manner that it could be removed 
 and the weight of it examined. The accusers then 
 charged Phidias with impiety, in having intro- 
 duced into the battle of the Amazons, on tlie shield 
 of the goddess, his own likeness and that of Pericles, 
 On this latter cliarge Phidias was thrown into 
 prison, where he died from diseasi*, in 432. — Of 
 the numerous works executed by Phidias for the 
 Athenians the most celebrated was the st'itue of 
 Athena in the Parthenon, to which reference has 
 
 PHIDIAS, 
 
 already been made. This statue was of that kind 
 of work which the Greeks called chryselephantine^ 
 that is, the statue was formed of plates of ivory 
 laid upon a core of wood or stone, for the flesh 
 parts, while the draper}' and other ornaments were 
 of solid gold. The statue stood in the foremost 
 and larger chamber of the temple (prodomus). It 
 represented the goddess standing, clothed with a 
 tunic reaching to the ancles, with her spear in her 
 left hand and an image of Victory 4 cubits high in 
 her right : she was girded with the aegis, and had 
 a helmet on her head, and her shield rested on the 
 ground by her side. The height of the statae was 
 26 cubits, or nearly 40 feet, including the base. 
 The eyes were of a kind of marble, nearly resembling 
 ivory, perliaps painted to imitate the iris and pupil ; 
 there is no sufficient authority for the statement 
 which is frequently made, that they were of pre- 
 cious stones. Tiie weight of the gold upon the 
 statue, which, as above stated, was removable at 
 pleasure, is said by Thucydides to have been 40 
 talents (ii, 13), —Still more celebrated than his 
 statue of Athena was the colossal ivory and gold 
 statue of Zeus, which Phidias made for the great 
 temple of this god, in the AUis or sacred grove at 
 Olympia. This statue was regarded as the master- 
 piece, not only of Phidias, but of the whole range 
 of Grecian art ; and was looked upon not so much 
 as a statue, but rather as if it were the actual 
 manifestation of the present deity. It was placed in 
 the prodomiis or front chamber of the temple, 
 directly facing the entrance. It was only visible, 
 however, on great festivals, at other times it was 
 concealed by a magnificent curtain^. The god 
 was represented as seated on a throne of cedar 
 wood, adorned with gold, ivory, ebony, stones, and 
 colours, crowned with a wreath of olive, holding in 
 his right hand an ivory and gold statue of Victory, 
 and in his left hand supporting a sceptre, which 
 was ornamented with all sorts of metals, and sur- 
 mounted by an eagle. The throne was brilliant 
 both with gold and stones, and with ebony and 
 ivory, and was ornamented with figures both 
 painted and sculptured. The statue almost reached 
 to the roof, which was about 60 feet in height. 
 The idea which Phidias essayed to embody in this, 
 his greatest work, was that of the supreme deity 
 of the Hellenic nation, no longer engaged in con- 
 flicts with the Titans and the Giants, but having 
 laid aside his thunderbolt, and enthroned as a 
 conqueror, in perfect majesty and repose, ruling 
 with a nod the subject world. It is related that 
 when Phidias was asked what model he meant to 
 follow in making his statue, be replied that of 
 Homer (//. i. 528— 530). The imitation of this 
 passage by Milton gives no small aid to the compre- 
 hension of the idea {Paradise Lost, in. 135 — 137): 
 
 ' Thus while God spake, ambrosial fragrance 
 
 fill'd 
 All heaven, and in the blessed spirits elect 
 Sense of new joy ineffable diffused." 
 
 The statue was removed by the emperor Theo- 
 dosius I. to Constantinople, where it was destroyed 
 by a fire in a. d. 475. — The distinguishing character 
 of the art of Phidias was idecd hcauiy^ and that of 
 tlic sidj/iinesi order, especially in the representation 
 of divinities, and of subjects connected with their 
 worship. While on the one hand he set himself 
 free from tlie stiff and unnatural forms which, by 
 a sort of religious precedent, had fettered his pre- 
 
PHIDIPPIDES. 
 
 decessors of the archaic or hieratic school, he 
 never, on the other hand, descended to the exact 
 imitation of any human model, howevei- beautiful,- 
 nor did he ever approach to that almost meretri- 
 cious grace, by which some of his greatest fol- 
 lowers, if they did not corrupt the art themselves, 
 gave the occasion for its corruption in the hands 
 of their less gifted and spiritmU imitators. 
 
 Phidippides orPlulippidea {^€idnnrlST}s,^iXLir~ 
 tiStjs), a courier, was sent by tlie Athenians to 
 Sparta in b. c. 490, to ask for aid against the Per- 
 sians, and arrived there on the 2nd day from his 
 leaving Athens, On his return to Athens, he re- 
 lated that on his way to Sparta he had fallen in 
 ■with Pan on Mt. Parthenium, near Tegea, and 
 that the god had bid him ask the Athenians why 
 they paid him no worship, though he had been 
 hitherto their friend, and ever would be so. In 
 consequence of this revelation, they dedicated a 
 temple to Pan after the battle of Marathon, and 
 honoured him thenceforth, with annual sacrifices 
 and a torch-race. 
 
 Pliidon(*€i5w»'). 1. Sonof Aristodamidas,and 
 king of Argos, restored the supremacy of Argos 
 over Cleonae, Pbliiis, Sicyon, Eptdaurus, Troezen, 
 and Aegina, and aimed at extending his dominions 
 over the greater part of the Peloponnesus. The 
 Pisans invited him, in the 8th Olympiad (b. c. 
 748), to aid them in excluding the Eleans from 
 their usurped presidency at the Olympic games, 
 and to celebrate them jointly with themselves. 
 The invitation quite fell in with the ambitious 
 pretensions of Phidon, who succeeded in dispos- 
 sessing the Eleans and celebrating the games along 
 ■with the Pisans ; but the Eleans not long after de- 
 feated him, with the aid of Sparta, and recovered 
 their privilege. Thus apparently fell the power of 
 Phidon; but as to the details of the struggle we 
 have no information. The most memorable act of 
 Phidon was his introduction of copper and silver 
 coinage, and a new scale of weights and measures, 
 which, through his influence, became prevalent in 
 the Peloponnesus, and ultimately throughout the 
 greater portion of Greece. The coinage of Phidon 
 is said to have been struck in Aegina.— 2. An 
 ancient Corinthian legislator of uncertain date. 
 
 Fhigalia {^lyaKla, ^i^aAeio, ^tyahea: ^tya- 
 Kevs : PaoUtza)^ at a later time called Phialia, a 
 town in the S W. comer of Arcadia on the frontiers 
 of Messenia and Elis, and upon the river Lyraax. 
 It was taken by the Spartans B. c. 559, but was 
 afterwards recovered by the Phigalians with the 
 help of the Oresthasians. It is frequently men- 
 tioned in the later wars of the Achaean and 
 Aetolian Leagues. — Phigalia however owes its 
 celebrity in modern times to the remains of a 
 splendid temple in its territory, situated about 6 
 miles NE. of the town at Bassae on Mt. Cotylum. 
 This temple was built bylctinus, the contemporary 
 of Pericles and Phidias, and the architect, along 
 with Callicrates, of the Parthenon at Athens. It 
 was dedicated to ApoUoEpicurius, or the Deliverer, 
 because the god had delivered the country from 
 the pestilence during the Peloponnesian war. 
 Pauaanias describes this temple as the most beau- 
 tiful one in all Peloponnesus after the temple of 
 Atlieua at Tegea. Most of the columns are still 
 standing. In 1812 the frieze round the interior 
 of the inner cella was discovered, containing a 
 series of sculpt'ires in alto-relievo, representing the 
 combat of the Centaurs and the Lapithae, and of 
 
 PIIILAENI. 
 
 557 
 
 the Greeks and the Amazons. Their hpii^ht is a 
 little more than 2 feet, and their total ienj^th is 
 100 feet. They were found on the ground under 
 the spot which they originally occupied, and were 
 much injured by their fall, and by the weight of 
 the ruins lying upon them. They were purchased 
 for the British Museum in 1814, where tliey are 
 still preserved, and are usually known by the name 
 oi i\i& Phigalian Marbles. They are some of the 
 most interesting and beautiful remains of ancient 
 art in this country. 
 
 Phila (*fAa), d;uighter of Antipater, the repent 
 of Macedonia, was mitrried to Cniterus in e. c. 322, 
 and after the death of Craterus, who survived his 
 marriage with Iier scarcely a year, she was again 
 married to the young Demetrius, tlie son of Anti- 
 gonus. When Demetrius was expelled from Mace- 
 donia in 287, she put an end to her own life at 
 Cassandrea, She k-ft 2 children by Demetrius ; 
 Antigonus, surnamed Gonatns, and a daughter, 
 Stratonice, married first to Seleucus, and afterwards 
 to his son Antiochus. 
 
 Ph.ila(*iXa: ^lAaior, ^jAcittjs). 1, A town of 
 Macedonia in the province Pieria, situated on a 
 steep hill on the Peneua between Dium and Terape 
 and at the entrance into Theasaly, built by Deme- 
 trius II, and named after his mother Phila.— 2. 
 An island off the S, coast of Gaul, one of the 
 Stoechades. 
 
 Philadelpliia (*iAa5eX<^efo : ^i\a8eK<p€us .) 1. 
 (Allah Shfhr, Ru.), a city of Lydia, at the foot of 
 M, Tmolus, on the little river Cogamus, S.E. of 
 Sardis. It wr-s built by Attalus Philadelphus, 
 king of Pergamus. It suffered greatly from earth- 
 quakes ; 30 that in Strabo's time (under Augustus) 
 it had greatly declined. In the reign of Tiberius, 
 it was almost destroyed by one of these visitations. 
 It was an early seat of Christianity^ and its 
 church is one of the 7 to which the Apocalypse is 
 addressed. (Rev. iii. 7.) — 3. A city of Cilicia 
 Aspera, on the Calycadnus, above Aphrodisias. — 
 3. In Palestine. [Rabbat-aman^.] 
 
 Philadelphus {^i\d5eK(pos), a surname of Pto- 
 lemaeus II, king of Egypt [Ptolemaeus] and of 
 Attalus II. king of Pergamum [Attalus]. 
 
 Philae (*i\a(: Jesiret-el-Birbeh^ i. e. the Island 
 of Temples), an island in the Nile, just below the 
 First Cataract, on the S. boundary of the country 
 towards Aethiopia. It was inhabited by Egyptians 
 and Ethiopians jointly, and was covered with 
 magnificent temples, whose splendid ruins still 
 remain. It was celebrated in Egj-'ptian mythology 
 as the burial-place of Osiris and Isis, 
 
 Philaeni {^ihaivoC), 2 brothers, citizens of Car- 
 thage, of whom the following story is told. A dis- 
 pute having arisen between the Carthaginians and 
 Cyrenaeans about their boundaries, it was agreed 
 that deputies should start at a fixed time from 
 each of the cities, and that the place of their meet- 
 ing, wherever it might be, should thenceforth form 
 the limit of the 2 territories. The Philaeni were 
 appointed for this service on the part of the Car- 
 thaginians, and advanced much further than the 
 Cyrenaean party. The Cyrenaeans accused them of 
 having set forth before the time agreed upon, but 
 at length consented to accept the spot which they 
 had reached as a boundary-line, if the Philaeni 
 would submit to be buried alive there in the sand. 
 Should they decline the offer, they were willing, 
 they said, on their side, if permitted to advance as 
 far as they pleased, to purchase for Cyrene an ex- 
 
558 PHILAGRIUS. 
 
 tension of territory by a similar death. The Phi- 
 laeni accordingly then and there devoted themselves 
 for their country, in the way proposed. The Car- 
 thaginians paid high honours to their memory, and 
 erected altars to them where they had died ; and 
 from these, even long after all traces of them had 
 vanished, the place still continued to be called 
 "The Altars of the Philaeni." Our main authority 
 for this story is Sallust, who probably derived his 
 information from African traditions during the 
 time that he was proconsul of Nuraidia, and at 
 least 300 years after the event. We cannot, there- 
 fore, accept it unreservedly. The Greek name by 
 which the heroic brothers have become known to 
 us — ^lAai^'oi, or lovers of praise — seems clearly 
 to have been framed to suit the tale. 
 
 PhilagTius (*i\a7pios), a Greek medical writer, 
 born in Epirus, lived after Galen and before Oriba- 
 sius, and therefore probably in the 3rd century 
 after Christ. He wrote several works, of which, 
 however, only a few fragments remain. 
 
 Philammon {^iKd^/j-uf)^ a mythical poet and 
 musician of the ante-Homeric period, was said to 
 have been the son of Apollo and the nymph Chione, 
 or Philonis, or Leuconoe. By the nymph Agriope, 
 who dwelt on Parnassus, he became the father of 
 
 with the worship of Apollo at Delphi, and with 
 the music of the cithara. He is said to have esta- 
 blished the choruses of girls, who, in the Delphian 
 worship of Apollo, aang hymns in which they 
 celebrated the births of Latona, Artemis, and 
 Apollo. Pausaniaa relates that in the most ancient 
 musical contests at Delphi, the first who conquered 
 was Chrysothemis of Crete, the second was Phi- 
 lammon, and the next after him his son Thamyris. 
 
 Hdlargyritis Jtinius, or Philargyms, or Ju- 
 nilius ITagrius, an early commentator upon Vir- 
 gil, who wrote upon the Bucolics and Georgics. 
 His observations are less elaborate than those of 
 Servius, and have descended to us in a mutilated 
 condition. The period when he flourished is alto- 
 gether uncertain. They are printed in the edition 
 of Virgil by Burmann. 
 
 Phjie or PMles, Manuel (MarauTjA 6 *i\i)s), a 
 Byzantine poet, and a native of Ephesus, was born 
 about A. n. 1275, and died about 1340. His poem, 
 De Ammalium I'roprieiaie, chiefly extracted from 
 Aelian, is edited by De Paw, Traj. Rhen. 1733 ; 
 and his other poems on various subjects are edited 
 by Wemsdorf, Lips. 1768. 
 
 Phileas (*i\€'as), a Greek geographer of Athens, 
 whose time cannot be determined with certainty, 
 but who probably belonged to the older period of 
 Athenian literature. He was the author of a Pe- 
 riplus, which was divided into 2 parts, one on Asia, 
 and the other on Europe. 
 
 Philemon {9iKi\ixav). 1. An aged Phrygian 
 and husband of Baucis. Once upon a time, Zeus 
 and Hermes, assuming the appearance of ordinary 
 mortals, visited Phrygia; but no one was willing 
 to receive the strangers, until the hospitable hut of 
 Philemon and Baucis was opened to them, where 
 the two gods were kindly treated. Zeus rewarded 
 the good old couple by taking them to an eminence, 
 while all the neighbouring district was visited with 
 ■^ sudden inundation. On that eminence Zeus ap- 
 pointed them the guardians of his temple, and 
 allowef] them both to die at the same moment, and 
 
 PHILETAERUS. 
 
 of Damon, and a native of Soli in Cilicia, but at 
 an eariy age went to Athens, and there received 
 the citizenship. He flourished in the reign of 
 Alexander, a little eailier than Menander, whom, 
 however, he long survived. He began to exhibit 
 about B. c. 330. He was the first poet of the 
 New Comedy m order of time, and the second 
 in celebrity; and he shares with Menander 
 the honour of its invention, or rather of reducing 
 it to a regular form. Philemon lived nearly 
 100 years. The manner of his death is dif- 
 ferently related ; some ascribing it to excessive 
 laughter at a ludicrous incident ; others to joy at 
 obtaining a victory in a dramatic contest; while 
 another story represents him as quietly called 
 away by the goddesses whom he served, in the 
 midst of the composition or representation of his 
 last and best work. Although there can be no 
 doubt that Philemon was inferior to Menander as 
 a poet, yet he was a greater favourite with the 
 Athenians, and often conquered his rival in the 
 dramatic contests. [MEN.ifJDER.] The extant 
 fragments of Philemon display much liveliness, 
 wit, ek'gance, and practical knowledge of life. 
 His favourite subjects seem to have been love in- 
 trigues, and his characters were the standing ones 
 
 Terence have made us familiar. The number of 
 his plays was 97 ;^ the number of extant titles, 
 after the doubtful and spurious ones are rejected, 
 amounts to about 53 ; but it is very probable that 
 some of these should be assigned to the younger 
 Philemon. The fragments of Philemon are printed 
 with those of Menander by Meineke, in his Frag- 
 iiienta Comicorum Graecorum, Berol. 1841. — 
 3. The younger Philemon, also a poet of the New 
 Comedy, was a son of the former, in whose fame 
 nearly all that belongs to him has been absorbed ; 
 so that, although he was the author of 54 dramas, 
 there ai-e only 2 short fragments, and not one title, 
 quoted expressly under his name. ^ 4. The author 
 of a Ae^Mhv Tex''oAo7iK(ij', the extant portion of 
 which was first edited by Bumey, Lend. 1812, 
 and afterwards by Osann, Berlin, 1821. The au- 
 thor informs us that his work was intended to take 
 the place of a similar Lexicon by the Grammarian 
 Hyperechius. The work of Hyperechius was ar- 
 ranged in 8 books, according to the 8 different 
 parts of speech. Philemon's lexicon was a meagre 
 epitome of this work; and the part of it which is 
 extant consists of the 1st book and the beginning 
 of the 2nd. Hyperechius lived about the middle 
 of the 5th century of our era, and Philemon may 
 probably be placed in the 7th. 
 
 PhUgtaerus (SiAeTaipos). 1, Founder of the 
 kingdom of Pergaraus, was a native of Tieium in 
 Paphlagonia, and an eunuch. He is first men- 
 tioned in the service of Docimus, the general 
 of Antigonus, from which he passed into that 
 of Lysimachus, who entrusted him with the charge 
 of the treasures which he had deposited in the 
 strong fortress of Pergamus. Towards the end of 
 the reign of Lysimachus he declared in favour of 
 Seleucus ; and, alter the death of the latter (b. c. 
 280), he took advantage of the disorders in Asia 
 to establish himself in virtual independence. At 
 his death he transmitted the government of Perga- 
 mus, as an independent state, to his nephew £u- 
 menes. He lived to the a^e of 80. and died appa- 
 
PHILETAS. 
 
 of Aristophanes, but others maintained that it was 
 Nicostratus. He wrote 21 plays. 
 
 Pluletas (*tA7jTay), of Cos, the son of Tele- 
 phus, a distinguished Alexandrian poet and gram- 
 mai'ian, flourished during the reign of the first 
 Ptolemy, who appointed him tutor of his son, 
 Ptolemy II. Philadelphus. His death may be 
 placed about B. c. 280. Philetas seems to have 
 been naturally of a very weak constitution, which 
 at last broke down under excessive study. He 
 was so remarkably thin as to become an object for 
 the ridicule of the comic poets, who represented 
 him as wearing leaden soles to his shoes, to prevent 
 his being blown away by a strong wind. His 
 poetry was chiefly elegiac. Of all the writers in 
 that department he was esteemed the best after 
 Callimachus ; to whom a taste less pedantic than 
 that of the Alexandrian critics would probably 
 have preferred him ; for, to judge by his fragments, 
 he escaped the snare of cumbrous learned affecta- 
 tion. These 2 poets formed the chief models for 
 the Roman elegy : nay, Propertius expressly states, 
 in one passage, that he imitated Philetas in piefer- 
 ence to Callimachus. The elegies of Philetas were 
 chiefly amatory, and a large portion of them was 
 devoted to the praises of his mistress Bittis, or, as 
 the Latin poets give the name, Battis. Besides 
 his poems, Philetas wrote in prose on grammar 
 and criticism. His most important grammatical 
 work was entitled ■'AraKra. The fragments of 
 Philetas have been collected by Bach, with those 
 of Hermesianax and Phanocles, Halis Sax. 1829. 
 
 Fhileus, an eminent Ionian architect, built the 
 Mausoleum, in conjunction with Satyrus, and 
 the temple of Athena Polias, at Priene. The date 
 of the erection of the Mausoleum was soon after 
 E. c. 353, the year in which Mausolus died ; that 
 of the temple at Priene must have been about 20 
 years later, 
 
 Philinus {•^iKivos). 1. A Greek of Agrigen- 
 tum, accompanied Hannibal in his campaigns 
 against Rome, and wrote a history of the Punic 
 wars, in which he exhibited much partiality 
 towards Carthage. — 2. An Attic orator, a con- 
 temporary of Demosthenes and Lycurgus. He is 
 mentioned by Demosthenes in his oration against 
 Midias, who calls him the son of Nicostratus, and 
 says that he was trierarch with him. Three ora- 
 tions of Philinus are mentioned by the gram- 
 marians. — 3. A Greek physician, born in the 
 island of Cos, and the reputed founder of the sect of 
 the Empirici, probably lived in the 3rd century b. c. 
 He wrote a work on part of the Hippocratic col- 
 lection, and also one on botany. 
 
 Philippi (^fXtTTTTOt : 'tiKnnrevs, 4'i\nnrr}(rios, 
 ^iKntTT-QvSs : Filibah OTFelibeji/c), a celebrated city 
 in Macedonia adjecta [see p. 404, a], was situated 
 on a steep height of Mt. Pangaeus, and on the 
 river Gangas or Gangites, between the rivers 
 Nestus and Strymon. It was founded by Philip 
 on the site of an ancient town Crenides (Kf^TjWSes), 
 a colony of the Thasians, who settled here^ on 
 account of the valuable gold mines in the neigh- 
 bourhood. Philippi is celebrated in history in 
 consequence of the victory gained here by Octa- 
 vianus and Antony over Brutus and Cassius, b. c, 
 42, and as the place where the Apostle Paul first 
 preached the gospel in Europe, a.d. 53. The church 
 at Philippi soon became one of the most important 
 of the early Christian churches : one of St. PauPa 
 Epistles is addressed to it. It was made a Roman 
 
 PHILIPPUS. 
 
 569 
 
 colony by Octavianus after the victory over Brutus 
 and Cassius, under the name of CoL Augusta Julia 
 Philippensis ; and it continued to be under the 
 empire a flourishing and important cit}'. Its sea- 
 port was Datum or Datus on the Strymonic gulf. 
 
 Philippides (*iAi7r7ri57]y). 1. See Phidippi- 
 nES. —2. Of Athens, the son of Philocles, is men- 
 tioned as one of the 6 principal comic poets of the 
 New Comedy by the grammarians. He flourished 
 about B. c. 323. Philippides seems to have de- 
 served the rank assigned to him, as one of the best 
 poets of the New Comedy. He attacked the 
 luxuiy and corruptions of his age, defended the 
 privileges of his art, and made use of personal 
 satire with a spirit approaching to that of the Old 
 Comedy. His death is said to have been caused 
 by excessive joy at an unexpected victory : similar 
 tales are told of the deaths of other poets, as for 
 example, Sophocles, Alexis, and Philemon. The 
 number of his dramas is stated at 45. There are 
 15 titles extant. 
 
 PhilippopoUs {^iXnrirdTToXis : FhilippopoH)^ an 
 important town in Thrace founded by Philip of 
 Macedon on the site of a place previously called 
 Eumolpias or Poneropolis. It was situated in a 
 large plain S.E. of the Hebrus on a hill with 3 
 summits, whence it was sometimes called Trimon- 
 tium. Under the Roman empire it was the capital 
 of the province of Thracia in its narrower sense,and 
 one of the most important towns in the country. 
 
 Philippus (^lAiTTTTor). I, Minor historical 
 persons. 1. Son of Alexander I. of Macedonia, 
 and brother of Perdiccas IT., against whom he re- 
 belled in conjunction with Derdas. The rebels 
 were aided by the Athenians, B.C. 432.^2. Son 
 of Herod the Great, king of Judea, by his wife 
 Cleopatra, was appointed by-'his father's will te- 
 trarch of Ituraea and Trachonitis, the sovereignty 
 of which was confirmed to him by the decision of 
 Augustus. He continued to reign over the domi- 
 nions thus entrusted to his charge for 37 years 
 (b. c. 4 — A. D. 34). He founded the city of Cae- 
 sarea, sumamed Paneas, but more commonly known 
 as Caesarea Philippi, near the sources of the Jor- 
 dan, which he named in honour of Augustus. 
 [Caesarea, No. 2.] ^3. Sonof Herod the Great, 
 by Mariamne, whose proper name was Herodes 
 PhilipptLs. He must not be confounded with the 
 preceding Philip. He was the first husband of 
 Herodias, who afterwards divorced him, contrary 
 to the Jewish law, and married his half-brother, 
 Herod Antipas. It is Herod Philip, and not the 
 preceding, who is meant by the Evangelists (Matt. 
 xiv. 3 ; Mark, vi. 17 ; Luke, iii. 19), when they 
 speak of Philip, the brother of Herod. 
 
 II. Kings of Macedonia. 
 I. Son of Argaeus, was the 3rd king, according 
 to Herodotus and Thucydides, who, not reckonino- 
 Cakanus and his two immediate successors (Coe- 
 nu3 and Thurimas or Turimmas), look upon Per- 
 diccas I. as the founder of the monarchy. Philip 
 left a son, named Aeropus, who succeeded him.— 
 II. Youngest son of Arayntas II. and Eurydice, 
 reigned b. c, 359 — 336. He was born in 382, and 
 was brought up at Thebes, whither he had been 
 carried as a hostage by Pelopidas, and where he 
 received a most careful education. Upon the death 
 of his brother Perdiccas III., who was slain in 
 battle against the Illyrians, Philip obtained the 
 government of Macedonia, at first merely as regent 
 
5C0 PHILIPPUS. 
 
 and gniardian to his infiint nephew Amyntas ; hut 
 at the end of a few months he was eimbied to set 
 aside the claims of the young prince, and to assume 
 for himself the title of king. Macedonia was beset 
 by dangers on every side. Its territory was ra- 
 vaged by the Illyrians on the W., and the Paeo- 
 nians on tlie N., while Pausanias and Argaeus 
 took advantage of the crisis to put forward their 
 pretensions to the throne. Philip was fully equal 
 to the emergency. By his tact and eloquence he 
 sustained the failing spirits of the Macedonians, 
 while at the same time he introduced among them 
 a stricter military discipline, and organised their 
 army on the plan of the phalanx. He first turned 
 his arms against Argaeus, the most formidable of 
 the pretenders, since he was supported by the 
 Athenians. He defeated Argaeus in battle, and 
 then concluded a peace with the Athenians. He 
 next attacked the Paeonlans, whom he reduced to 
 subjection, and immediately afterwards defeated 
 the Illyriaiis iq^ a decisive battle, and compelled 
 them to accept a peace, by which they lost a portion 
 of their territory. Thus in the short period of one 
 year, and at the age of 24, had Philip delivered 
 himself from his dangerous position, and provided 
 for the security of his kingdom. But energy and 
 talents such as his were not satisfied with mere 
 security, and henceforth his views were directed, 
 not to defence, but to aggrandisement. His first 
 efforts were directed to obtain possession of the 
 various Greek cities upon the Macedonian coast. 
 Soon after his accession he had withdrawn his 
 garrison from Amphipolis, and had declared it a 
 free city, because the Athenians had supported 
 Argaeus with the hope of recovering Amphipolis, 
 and his continuing to hold the place would have 
 interposed difficulties in the way of a peace with 
 Athens, which was at that time an object of great 
 importance to him. But he had never meant se- 
 riously to abandon this important town ; and ac- 
 cordingly having obtained pretexts for war with 
 the Amphipolitans, he laid siege to the town and 
 gained possession of it in 358. The Athenians 
 had sent no assistance to Amphipolis, because 
 Philip in a secret negotiation with the Athenians, 
 led them to believe that he was willing to restore 
 the city to them when he had taken it, and would 
 do so on condition of their making him master of 
 Pydna. After the capture of Amphipolis, he 
 proceeded at once to Pydna, which seems to have 
 yielded to him without a struggle, and the acqui- 
 eition of which, by his own arms, and not through 
 the Athenians, gave him a pretext for declining to 
 stand by his secret engagement with them. The 
 hostile feeling which such conduct necessarily 
 excited against him at Athens, made it most im- 
 portant for him to secure the good will of the 
 powerful town of Olynthus, and to detach the 
 Olynthians from the Athenians. Accordingly he 
 gave to the Ol3rnthians the town of Potidaea, 
 which he took from the Athenians in 356. Soon 
 after this, he attacked and took a settlement of 
 the Thaaians, called Crenides, and, having intro- 
 duced into the place a number of new colonists, he 
 named it Phillppi after himself. One great ad- 
 vantage of this acquisition was, that it put him in 
 possession of the gold mines of the district. From 
 this point there is for some time a pause in the 
 active operations of Philip. In 352 he took Me- 
 thone after a lengthened siege, in the course of 
 which lie himself lost an eye. The capture of this 
 
 PHILIPPUS. 
 place was a necessary preliminary in any movement 
 towards the S., lying as it did between him and 
 the Thessalian border. He now marched into 
 Thessaly to aid the Aleuadae against Lycophron, 
 the tyrant of Pherae. The Phocians sent a force 
 to support Lycophron, but they were defeated by 
 Philip, and their general Onomarchus slain. This 
 victory gave Philip the ascendancy in Thessaly. 
 He established at Pherae what he wished the 
 Greeks to consider a free government, and then. 
 advanced S.-ward to Thermopylae. Tiie pass, 
 however, he found guarded by a strong Athenian 
 force, and he was compelled, or at least thought it 
 expedient to retire. He now turned his arms 
 against Thrace, and succeeded, in establishing hLs 
 ascendancy in that country also. Meanwhile Philip's 
 movements in Thessaly had opened the eyes of 
 Demosthenes to the real danger of Athens and 
 Greece, and his first Philippic (delivered in 352) 
 was his earliest attempt to rouse his countrymen 
 to energetic efforts against their enemy; but he did 
 not produce much effect upon the Athenians. In 
 349 Philip commenced his attacks on the Chalcidian 
 cities. OljTithus, in alarm, applied to Athens for 
 aid, and Demosthenes, in his 3 Olynthiac orations, 
 roused the people to efforts against the common 
 enem}^ not very vigorous at first and fruitless in 
 the end. In the course of 3 years Philip gained 
 possession of all the Chalcidian cities, and the war 
 was brought to a conclusion by the capture of 
 Olynthus itself in 347. . In the following year 
 (346) he concluded peace with the Athenians, and 
 straightway marched into Phocis, and brought the 
 Phocian war to an end. The Phocian cities were 
 destroyed, and their place in the Amphictyonic 
 council was made over to the king of Macedonia, 
 who was appointed also, jointly with the Thebans 
 and Thessalians, to the presidency of the Pythian 
 games. Kuling as he did over a barbaric nation, 
 such a recognition of his Hellenic character was of 
 the greatest value to him, especially as he looked 
 forward to an invasion of the Persian empire in 
 the name of Greece, united under him in a great 
 national confederacy. During the next fevi^ years 
 Philip steadily pursued his ambitious projects. 
 From 342 to 340 he was engaged in an expedition 
 in Thrace, and attempted to bring under his power 
 all the Greek cities in that country. In the last 
 of these years he laid siege to Perinthus and By- 
 zantium; but the Athenians, who had long viewed 
 Philip's aggrandisement with fear and alarm, now 
 resolved to send assistance to these cities, Phocion 
 was appointed to the command of the armament 
 destined for this service, and succeeded in com- 
 pelling Philip to raise the siege of both the cities 
 (339). Philip now proceeded to carry on war 
 against his northern neighbours, and seemed to give 
 himself no further concern about the affairs of 
 Greece. But meanwhile his hirelings were treache- 
 rously promoting his designs against the liberties 
 of Greece. In 339 the Amphictyons declared war 
 against the Locrlans of Amphissa for having taken 
 possession of a district of the sacred land ; but as 
 the general they had appointed to the command 
 of the Amphictyonic army was unable to effect 
 any thing against the enemy, the Amphictyons at 
 their next meeting in 33J3 conferred upon Philip 
 the command of their army. Philip straight- 
 way marched through Thermopylae and seized 
 Elatea. The Athenians heard of his approach with 
 alarm; they succeeded, mainly through the influerxe 
 
PHILIPPUS. 
 
 of Demosthenea in forming an alliance with the 
 Thehans ; but their united arniy was defeated by 
 Philip in the month of August, 'd'6U, in the decisive 
 battle of Chaeronea, which put an end to the in- 
 dependence of Greece. Thebes paid dear for her 
 resistance, but Athens was treated with more 
 favour than she could have expected. Philip now 
 seemed to have within his reach the accomplish- 
 ment of the great object of his ambition, the in- 
 vasion and conquest of the Persian empire. In a 
 congress held at Corinth, which was attended by 
 deputies from every Grecian state with the excep- 
 tion of Sparta, war with Persia was determined 
 on, and the king of Macedonia was appointed to 
 command the forces of the national conl'ederac}'. 
 In 337 Philip's marriage with Cleopatra, tlie 
 daughter of Attains, one of his generals, led to the 
 most serious disturbances in his family. Olympias 
 and Alexander withdrew in great indignation 
 from Macedonia; and though they returned home 
 soon afterwards, they continued to be on hostile 
 terms with Philip. Meanwhile, his preparations 
 for his Asiatic expedition were not neglected, and 
 early in 336 he sent forces into Asia, under Par- 
 menion, to draw over the Greek cities to his cause. 
 But in the summer of this year he was murdered 
 at a grand festival which he held at Aegae, to 
 solemnise the nuptials of his daughter with Alex- 
 ander of Epirus. His murderer was a j'outh of 
 noble blood, named Pausanias, who stabbed him 
 as he was walking in the procession. The assassin 
 was immediately pursued and slain by some of the 
 royal guards. His motive for the deed is stated 
 by Aristotle to have been private resentment 
 against Philip, to whom he had complained in 
 vain of a gross outrage offered to him by Attains. 
 Olympias and Alexander, however, were suspected 
 of being implicated in the plot. [Olympias.] 
 Philip died in the 47th year of his age and the 
 24th of his reign, and was succeeded by Alexander 
 the Great. - Philip had a great number of wives 
 and concubines. Besides Olympias and Cleopatra, 
 we may mention, 1. his first wife Audata, an llly- 
 rinn princess, and the mother of Cynane; 2. Phila, 
 sister of Derdas and Machatas, a princess of Ely- 
 miotis ; 3. Nicesipolis of Pherae, the mother of 
 Thessalonica; 4. Philinna of Larissa, the mother 
 of Arrhidaeus ; 5. Meda, daughter of Cithelas, king 
 of Thrace; 6. Arsinoi/, the mother of Ptolemy I., 
 king of Egypt, with whom she was pregnant when 
 she married Lagus. To these numerous coimections 
 temperament as well as policy seems to have in- 
 clined him. He was strongly addicted, indeed, to 
 sensual enjoyment of every kind; but his passions, 
 however strong, were always kept in subjection to 
 his interests and ambitious views. He was fond 
 of science and literature, in the patronage of which 
 he appears to have been liberal ; and his apprecia- 
 tion of great minds is shown by his connection with 
 Aristotle. In the pursuit of his political objects he 
 was, as we have seen, unscrupulous, and ever ready 
 to resort to duplicity and corruption; but when we 
 consider his humanity and generous clemeucy, we 
 may admit that he does not appear to disadvantage, 
 even morally speaking, by the side of his fellow- 
 conquerors of mankind. ^III. The name of Philip 
 was bestowed by the Macedonian army upon Arr- 
 hidaeus, the bastftrd son of Philip II., when he 
 was raised to the throne after the death of Alex- 
 ander the Great He accordingly appears in the 
 list of Macedonian kings as Philip III. For his 
 
 PHILIPPUS. 
 
 561 
 
 life and reign see Arrhidaeus. ^ IV. Eldest son 
 of Cassander, whom he succeeded on the throne, 
 B. c. 296. He reigned only a few months, and 
 was carried off by a consumptive disorder. ^ V, 
 Son of Demetrius II., reigned b. c. 220 — 178. He 
 was only 8 years old at the death of his father 
 Demetrius ("220) ; and the sovereign power was con- 
 sequently assumed by his uncle Antigonus Doson, 
 who, though he certainly ruled as king rather than 
 merely as guardian of his nephew, was faithful to 
 the interests of Philip, to whom he transferred the 
 sovereignty at his death in 220, to the exclusion 
 of his own children. Philip was only 17 years old 
 at the time of his accession, but he soon showed 
 that he possessed ability and wisdom superior to 
 his years. In consequence of the defeat of the 
 Achaeaiis and Aratus by the Aetolians, the former 
 applied for aid to Philip. This was granted; and 
 for the next 3 years Philip conducted with distin- 
 guished success the war against the Aetolians. 
 This war, usually called the Social war, was 
 brought to a conclusion in 217, and at once gained 
 for Philip a distinguished reputation throughout 
 Greece, while his clemency and moderation secured 
 him an equal measure of popularity. But a change 
 came over his character soon after the close of the 
 Social war. He became suspicious and cruel; and 
 having become jealous of his former friend and 
 counsellor Aratus, he caused him to be removed by 
 a slow and secret poison in 213. Meantime he 
 had become engaged in war with the Romans. In 
 215 he concluded an alliance with Hannibal ; but 
 he did not prosecute the war with any activity 
 against the Romans, who on their part were too 
 much engaged with their formidable adversary in 
 Italy to send any powerful armament against the 
 Macedonian king. In 211 the war assumed a 
 new character in consequence of the alliance entered 
 into by the Romans with the Aetolians. It was 
 now carried on with greater vigour and alternate 
 success; but as Philip gained several advantaf;es over 
 the Aetolians, the latter people made peace with 
 Philip in 205. In the course of the same year the 
 Romans likewise concluded a peace with Philip, 
 as they wore desirous to give their undivided at- 
 tention to the war in Africa. It is probable that 
 both parties looked upon this peace as little more 
 than a suspension of hostilities. Such was clearly 
 the view with which the Romans had accepted it; 
 and Philip not only proceeded to carry out his 
 views for his own aggrandisement in Greece, with- 
 out any regard to the Roman alliances in that 
 country, but he even sent a body of auxiliaries to 
 the Carthaginians in Africa, who fought at Zama 
 under Hannibal. As soon as the Romans had 
 brought the 2nd Punic war to an end, they again 
 declared war against Philip, 200. This war lasted 
 between 3 and 4 years, and was brought to an end 
 by the defeat of Philip by the consul Flamininus 
 at the battle of Cynoscephalae in the autunm of 
 197. [FLAMINJNUS.J By the peace finally granted 
 to Philip (196), the king was compelled to abandon 
 all his conquests, both in Europe and Asia, sur- 
 render his whole fleet to the Romans, ana limit 
 his standing anny to 5000 men, besides paying a 
 sum of 1000 talents. Philip was now eftectually 
 humbled, and endeavoured to cultivate the friend- 
 ship of the all-powerful republic. But towards 
 the end of his nign he determined to try once 
 more the fortune of war, and began to make active 
 preparations for this purpose. His declining yeaBa 
 
562 
 
 PHILIPPUS. 
 
 were embittered by the disputes between his sons 
 Perseus and Demetrius ; and the former by forged 
 letters at length persuaded the king that Demetrius 
 was plotting against his life, and induced him to 
 consent to the execution of the unhappy prince. 
 Pliilip was struck with tlie deepest grief and re- 
 morse, when he afterwards discovered the deceit 
 that had been practised upon. him. He believed 
 himself to be haunted by the avenging Bpirit of 
 Demetrius, and died shortly after, imprecating 
 curses upon Perseus. His death took place in 179, 
 ill the 53th year of lua age, after a reign of nearly 
 4'2 years, 
 
 III. Family of the Marcii Philippt. 
 
 1 Q, Marcius PMlippus, praetor 188, with 
 Sicily as his province, and consul 18(), when he car- 
 ried on war in Lipuria with his coUengue Sp. Pos- 
 tumius Albinus. He was defeated by the enemy 
 in the cuuntry of the Apuani, and the recollection 
 of his defeat was preserved by the name of the 
 saltus Marcius. In 109 Philippus was consul a 
 2nd time, and carried on the war in Macedonia 
 against Perseus, but accomplished notliing of im- 
 portance. [Perseus.] In 164, Philippus was 
 censor with L. Aemilius Paulus, and in his censor- 
 ship he set up in the city a new sun-dial. ^2. L. 
 Marcius PMlippus, was a tribune of the plebs, 
 104, when he brought forward an agrarian law, 
 and was consul in 91 with Sex. JitHus Caesar. In 
 this year Philippus, who belonged to the popular 
 party, opposed with the greatest vigour the mea- 
 sures of the tribune Drusus, who at first enjoyed 
 the full confidence of the senate. But Ins oppo- 
 sition was all in vain ; the laws of the tribune were 
 carried. Soon afterwards Drusns began to be re- 
 garded with mistrust and suspicion ; Philippus 
 became reconciled to the senate, and on his pro- 
 position a senatus consultum was passed, declaring 
 all the laws of Drusus to be null and void, as 
 having been carried agiiinst the auspices [Dru- 
 sus.] In the civil wars between Marius and 
 Sulla, Philippus took no part. He survived the 
 death of Sulla ; and he is mentioned afterwards 
 as one of those who advocated sending Pompey to 
 conduct the war in Spain against Sertorius. Phi- 
 lippus was one of the most distinguished orators of 
 liis time (Hor. Epist i. 7. 46). As an orator he 
 was reckoned only inferior to Crassus and Anto- 
 nius. He was a man of Uixuriouti habits, which 
 his wealth enabled him to gratify: his fish-ponds 
 were particularly celebrated for their magnificence 
 and extent, and are mentioned by the ancients 
 along with those of LucuUus and Hortensiua. 
 Besides his son, L. Philippus, who is spoken of 
 below, he had a step-son Gellins Publicola [PuB- 
 licola].^3. L. Marcius PMlippus, son of the 
 preceding, was consul in 6Q. Upon the death of 
 C. Octavius, the father of Augustus, Philippus 
 married his widow Atia, and thus became the 
 step-father of Augustus. Philippus was a timid 
 man. Notwithstanding his close connection with 
 Caesar''s family, he remained neutral in the civil 
 wars ; and after the assassination of Caesar, he 
 endeavoured to dissuade his step-son, the young 
 Octavius, from accepting the inheritance which the 
 dictator had left him. He lived till his step-son 
 had acquired the supremacy of the Roman world. 
 He restored the temple of Hercules and the Muses, 
 and surrounded it with a colonnade, which is fre- 
 quently mentioned under the name of Portions 
 
 PHILISCUS. 
 
 Pkilippi, (filari monimenla Philippic Ov. Fast, 
 vi. 801.) 
 
 IV. Emperors of Rome. 
 
 1. M. Julius PMlippus I., Roman emperor 
 A. D. 244 — 249, was an Arabian by birth, and 
 entered the Roman army, in which he rose to high 
 rank. He accompanied Gordianus III. in his ex- 
 pedition against the Persians ; and upon the death 
 of the excellent Misitheus [Misitheus] he was 
 promoted to the vacant office of praetorian praefect. 
 He availed himself of the influence of his high 
 office to excite discontent among the soldiers, who 
 at length assassinated Gordian, and proclaimed 
 Philippus emperor, "244. Philippus proclaimed his 
 son Caesar, concluded a disgraceful peace with 
 Sapor, founded the city of Philippopolis, and then 
 returned to Rome. In 245 he was engaged in 
 prosecuting a successful war against the Carpi, on 
 the Danube. In 248, rebellions, headed by lota- 
 pinus and Marinus, broke out simultaneously in 
 the East and in Moesia. Both pretenders speedily 
 perished, but Decius having been despatched to 
 recall the legions on the Danube to their duty, waa 
 himself forcibly invested with the purple by the 
 troops, and compelled by them to march upon Italy, 
 Philippus having gone forth to encounter his rival, 
 was slain near Verona either in battle or by his own 
 soldiers. The great domestic event of the reign of 
 Philippus was the exhibition of the secular games, 
 which were celebrated with even more than tlie 
 ordinary degree of splendour, since Rome had now, 
 according to the received tradition, attained the 
 thousandth year of her existence (a. D. 248). — 
 2. M. Julius Philippus XL, son of the foregoing, 
 was a boy of 7 at the accession (244) of his father, 
 by whom he was proclaimed Caesar, and 3 years 
 afterwards (247) received the title of Augustus. 
 In 249 he was slain, according to Zosimus, at the 
 battle of Verona, ormurdered, according to Victor, 
 at Rome by the praetorians, when intelligence 
 arrived of the defeat and death of the emperor. 
 
 V. Literary. 
 
 1. Of Medma, in the S. of Italy, a Greek astro- 
 nomer, and a disciple of Plato. His observations, 
 which were made in the Peloponnesus and in 
 Locris, were used by the astronomers Hipparchus, 
 Geminusthe Rhodian, and Ptolemy. ^2. OfThes- 
 salonica, an epigrammatic poet, who, besides com- 
 posing a large number of epigrams himself, com- 
 piled one of the ancient Greek Anthologies. The 
 whole number of epigrams ascribed to him in the 
 Greek Anthology is nearly 90 ; but of these, 6 
 (Nos. 36 — 41) ought to be ascribed to Lucillius, 
 and a few others are manifestly borrowed from 
 earlier poets, while others are mere imitations. 
 The Anthology {'AvdoAoyta) of Philip, in imitation 
 of that of Meleager, and as a sort of supplement 
 to it, contains chiefly the epigrams of poets who 
 lived in, or shortly before, the time of Philip. The 
 earliest of these poets seems to be Philodemus, the 
 contemporary of Cicero, and the latest Automedon, 
 who probably flourished under Nerva. Hence it 
 is inferred that Philip flourished under Trajan. 
 
 PMliscus (*iA((rKoi). L An Athenian poet of 
 the Middle Comedy, of whom little is known. He 
 must have flourished about B. c. 400, or a little later, 
 as his portrait was painted by Parrhasius. — 2. Of 
 Miletus, an ox-ator or rhetorician, and the disciple 
 of Isocrates^ wrote a life of the omtor Lycurgus, 
 
PHILISTINAE. 
 
 and an epitaph on Lysias. — 3. Of Aegina, a cynic 
 philosopher, was the disciple of Diogenes the Cynic, 
 and the teacher of Alexander in granimar.^4. Of 
 Corcyra, a distinguished tragic poet, and one of 
 the 7 who formed the Tmgic Pleiad at Alexandria, 
 was also a priest of Dionysus, and in that character 
 lie was present at the coronation procession of 
 Ptolemy Philaiielphus in B.C. 204. He wrote 4*2 
 dramas.— 5. Of Rhodes, a sculptor, fteveral of 
 whose works were placed in the temple of Apollo, 
 adjoining the portico of Octavia at Rome. One of 
 these stfitues was that of the god himself: the 
 others were Latona and Diana, the 9 Muses, and 
 another statue of Apollo, without drapery. He 
 probably lived about B. c. 146. The group of 
 Muses, found in the villa of Casaius at Tivoli, is 
 supposed by some to be a copy of that of PhiUscus. 
 Others take the beautiful statue at Florence, known 
 as theApollino, for the naked Apollo of Philiscus. 
 
 Philistinae Fossae. [Padus.] 
 
 Philistion {^iMo-tIwv). 1, Of Nicaea or Mag- 
 neaiii, a mimographer, who flourished in the time 
 of Augustus, about a. d. 7. He was an actor, as 
 well as a writer of mimes, and is said to have died 
 of excessive laughter, — 3. A physician, bom either 
 at one of the Greek towns in Sicily, or at Locri 
 Epizephyrii in Italy, waa tutor to the physician 
 Clirysippus of Cuidos and the astronomer and phy- 
 sician Eutloxus, and therefore must have lived iu 
 the 4th century n. c. 
 
 Philistus (^lAttTTos), a Syracusan, son of Ar- 
 chonides or Arcliomenides, was bom probably 
 about B. c. 435. He assisted Dionysius in obtain- 
 ing the supreme power, and stood so high in the 
 favour of the tyrant, that the latter entrusted him 
 witli the charge of the citadel of Syracuse. But 
 at a later period he excited the jealousy of the 
 tyrant by marrying, without his consent, one of 
 the daughters of his brother Leptines, and was in 
 consequence banished from Sicily. He at first re- 
 tired to Thurii, but afterwards established himself 
 at Adria, where he composed the historical work 
 which has given celebrity to his name. He was 
 recalled from exile by the younger Dionysius soon 
 after his accession, and quickly succeeded in esta- 
 blishing his influence over the mind of the latter. 
 He exerted all his efforts to alienate Dionysius 
 from his former friends, and not only caused Plato 
 to be sent back to Athens, but ultimately suc- 
 ceeded in effecting the banishment of Dion also. 
 Philistus was unfortunately absent from Sicily, 
 when Dion first landed in the island, and made 
 himself master of Syracuse, B.C. 336. He after- 
 wards raised a powerful fleet, with which he gave 
 battle to the Syracusans, but having been de- 
 feated, and finding himself cut off from all hopes 
 of escape, he put an end to his own life to avoid 
 fidling into the hands of his enraged countrymen. 
 Philistus wrote a history of Sicily, which was one 
 of the most celebrated historical works of antiquity, 
 though unfortunately only a few fragments of it 
 have come down to us. It consisted of 2 portions, 
 wliich might be regarded either as 2 separate 
 works, or as parts of one great whole, a circum- 
 stance which explains the discrepancies in the 
 statements of the number of books of which it was 
 composed. Tlie first 7 books comprised the general 
 histoiy of Sicily, commencing from the earliest 
 times, and ending with the capture of Agrigentum 
 by the Carthaginians, b. c. 406. The 2nd part, 
 which formed a sequel to the 1st, contained the 
 
 PHILO. 
 
 503 
 
 historj' of the elder Dionysius in 4 books, and that 
 of the younger in 2 : the latter was necessarily im- 
 perfect. In point of style Philistus is represented 
 by the concurrent testimony of antiquity as imi- 
 tating and even closely resembling Thucydides, 
 though still falling far short of his great model. 
 The fragments of Philistus have been collected by 
 Goeller in an appendix to his work, De Situ et 
 Oriyine Syracusarum^ Lips. 1818, and by C. Miil- 
 ler, in the Fragnicnta Hutoricorum GraecoruiU, 
 Pari8^1841. 
 
 Philo (^iXtav). 1. An Academic philosopher, 
 was a native of Larissa and a disciple of Clitoma- 
 chus. After the conquest of Athens by Mithri- 
 dates he removed to Rome, where he settled as a 
 teacher of philosophy and rhetoric, and had Cicero 
 as one of his hearers.^ 2, Bytlius, also called 
 Herennius Bvblius, a Roman grammarian, and 
 a native of Byblus in Phoenicia, as his patronymic 
 indicates, was bom about the time of Nero, and 
 lived to a good old age, having written of the reign 
 of Hadrian. He wrote many works, which are 
 cited by Suidas and others ; but his name is chiefly 
 memorable by his translation of the writings of 
 the Phoenician Sanchuniathon, of which consider- 
 able fragments have been preserved by Eusebius. 
 [Sanchuniathon.] ^3. Of Byzantium, a cele- 
 brated mechanician, and a contemporary of Ctesi- 
 bius, flourished about B.C. 146. He wrote a work 
 on military engineering, of which the 4th and 5th 
 books have come down to us, and are printed in 
 the Veieimm Malliemaitcorum Opera^ of Thevenot, 
 Paris, 1693. There is also attributed to this Phila 
 a work On tlie Scveii Wonders of the World ; but 
 this work must have been written at a later time. 
 The 7 wonders are the Hanging Gardens, the Pyra- 
 mids, the statue of Jupiter Olympius, the Walls of 
 Babylon, the Colossus of Rhodes, the Temple of 
 Artemis at Ephesus, and, we may presume, from 
 the prooeinium, the Mausoleum ; but the last is 
 entirely wanting, and we have only a fragment of 
 the Ephesian temple. Edited by Orelli, Lips. 
 1816.^4. Judaeus, the Jew, was bom at Alex- 
 andria, and was descended from a priestly family of 
 distinction. He had already reached an advanced 
 age, when he went to Rome (a. d. 40) on an em- 
 bassy to the emperor Caligula, in order to procure 
 the revocation of the decree which exacted from 
 the Jews divine homage to the statue of the em- 
 peror. We have no other particulars of the life of 
 Philo worthy of record. His most important works 
 treat of the books of Moses, and are generally 
 cited under different titles. His great object was 
 to reconcile the Sacred Scriptures with the doc- 
 trines of the Greek philosophj-, jind to point out 
 the conformity between the two. He maintained 
 that the fundamental truths of Greek philosophy 
 were derived from the Mosaic revelation ; and in 
 order to make the latter agree more perfectly witii 
 the former, he had recourse to an allegorical inter- 
 pretation of the books of Moses. Philo may there- 
 fore be regarded as a precursor of the Neo-Platonic 
 philosophy. The beat edition of his works is by 
 aiangey, Lond. 1742, 2 vols, fo. — 5. A Mega- 
 riau piiilosopher, was a disciple of Diodorus Cro- 
 nus, and a friend of Zeno. — 6. Of Tarsus in Cili- 
 cia, a celebrated physician, frequently quoted by 
 Galen and others. — 7. Artists. (1). Son of Anti- 
 pater, a statuary who lived in the time of Alex- 
 ander the Great, and made the statue of Hephae- 
 stion, and also the statue of Zeus Oarios, which 
 
564 PHILO. 
 
 stood on the sHuro of the Black Sen, at the entrance 
 of the Bosporus, nenr Chalcedon, and formed an 
 important landmark for sailors. It was still per- 
 fect in the time of Cicero (in Verr. iv. 5H), and the 
 base has been preserved to modern times, bearing 
 an inscription of iJ elegiac verses. — (2.) A very 
 eminent architect at Athens in the time of the 
 immediate successors of Alexander. He built for 
 Demetrius Phalereus, abnnt B.C. 318, the portico 
 of 12 Doric columns to the great temple at Eleusia. 
 He also constructed for the Athenians, under tlie 
 administration of Lycuvgus, a basin {armamcnta- 
 riuin) in the Piraeus, in which 1000 ships could 
 lie. This work, which excited the greatLut admi- 
 ration, was destroyed in the taking of Athens bv 
 Sulla.^ 
 
 Philo, Q. Publiliua, a distinguished general in 
 the Saranite wars, and the anther of one of the 
 great reforms in the Roman constitution. He was 
 consul B. c. 339, with Ti. Aeniilios Mamerclnus, 
 and defeated tlie Latins, over whom he triumphed. 
 In the same j'ear he was appointed dictator by 
 his colleague Aemilius Mamercinus, and, as such, 
 proposed the celebrated Piihlitiae Leges^ which 
 abolished the power of the patrician assembly of 
 the curiae, and elevated the plebeians to an equality 
 with the patricians for all practical purposes. {Diet. 
 ofAntiq. art. PiiUi/iae Let/es.) In 337 Philo was 
 the 1st plebeian praetor, and in 332 he was censor 
 with Sp. Postumius Albinus. In 327 he was con- 
 sul a 2nd time, and carried on war in the S. of 
 Italy. He was continued in the command for the 
 following year with the title of proconsul, the 1st 
 instance in Roman history in which a person was 
 invested with proconsular power. He took Palae- 
 piilis in 326. In 320 he was consul a 3rd time, 
 with L. Papirius Cursor, and carried on the war 
 with success against the Samnites. 
 
 Fbilo, L. Veturius. 1. L., consul b.c. 220, 
 ■with C. Lutatius Catulus ; dictator 217 for the 
 purpose of holding the comitia ; and censor 210 
 with P. Licinius Crassus Dives, and died while 
 holding this office. — 2. L., praetor 209 with Cisal- 
 pine Gaul as his province. In 207 he served 
 under Claudius Nero and Livius Salinator in the 
 campaign against Hasdrubal. In 206 he was 
 consul with Q. Caecilius Metellus, and in con- 
 junction with his colleague carried on the war 
 against Hannibal in Bruttium. He accompanied 
 Scipio to Africa, and after the battle of Zama, 
 202, was sent to Rome to announce the news of 
 Hannibiirs defeat. 
 
 Philochares (*(Aoxapijr), a distinguished 
 painter, mentioned by Pliny, is supposed by the 
 modern writers on art to be the same person as 
 the brother of Aeschines, of whose artistic per- 
 fomiances Demosthenes speaks contemptuously, 
 but whom Ulpian ranks with the most distin- 
 guished painters. 
 
 Philocliorus (*(Aoxopos), a celebrated Athe- 
 nian writer, chiefly known by his Atthis, or work 
 on the legends, antiquities, and history of Attica, 
 He was a person of considerable importance in his 
 native cit}', and was put to death by Antigonus 
 Gonatas when the latter obtained possession of 
 Athena, about B. c. 260. Hia Atthis consisted of 
 17 books, and related the history of Attica, from 
 the earliest times to the reign of Antiochus Theos, 
 11. c. 261. The work is frequently quoted by the 
 BcholiastB, lexicographers, as well as other later 
 authors. He also wrote many other works, the 
 
 PHILODEMUS. 
 
 titles of which are preserved by Saldas and tha 
 grammarians. The fragments of Philochorus have 
 been published by Siebelis, Lips. 1811, and by 
 Miiller, Paris, 1841. 
 
 Fhilocles {*(Ao)f\'^y), an Athenian tragic poet, 
 the sister's son of Aeschylus; Lis father*8 name 
 w;i8 Philopithes. He is said to have composed 
 100 tragedies. In the general character of his 
 plays he was an imitator of Aeschylus ; and thnt 
 he was not unworthy of his great master, may 
 be inferred from the fact that he gained a victory 
 over Sophocles, when the latter exhibited his 
 Onlipus Tyriiimua^ b. c. 429. Pliilocles was fre- 
 quently ridiculed by the comic poets. 
 
 Philocrates (*iAo«paT7js), an Atlienlan orator, 
 was one of the venal supporters of Philip in oppo- 
 sition to Demosthenes. 
 
 Philoctetes (^iPLoffTTjTTjs), a son of Poeas 
 (whence he is QT\\\eA PoemUiailes^Oi. Met. xiii. 313) 
 and Demonassa, the most celebrated archer in the 
 'J'rojiin war. He led the warriors from Methone, 
 Thaumacia, Meliboea, and Olizon, against Troy, 
 in 7 ships. But on his voyage thither he was left 
 behind by his men in the island of Lemnos, bo- 
 cause he was ill of a wound which he had received 
 from the bite of a snake ; and Medon, the son of 
 Oileus and Rhene, undertook the command of his 
 troops. This is all that the Homeric poems rehite 
 of Philoctetes, with the addition that he returned 
 home in safety; but the cyclic and tragic poets 
 have added numerous details to the storj'. Thus 
 they relate that he was the friend and armour- 
 bearer of Hercules, who instructed him in the use 
 of the bow, and who bequeathed to him his how, 
 with the poisoned arrows. These presents were a 
 reward for his having erected and set fire to the 
 pile on Mt. Oeta, where Hercules burnt himsflf. 
 Philoctetes was also one of the suitors of Helen, 
 and thus took part in the Trojan war. On hia 
 voyage to Troy, while staying in the island of 
 Chryse, he was bitten by a snake. This misfor- 
 tune happened to him when he was showing to the 
 Greeks the altar of Athena Chryse, or while he 
 was looking at the tomb of Troilus in the temple 
 of Apollo Thyrabraeus, or as he was pointing out 
 to his companions the altar of Hercules. According 
 to some accounts, the wound in his foot was not 
 inflicted by a serpent, but by his own poisoned 
 arrows. The wound is said to have become ulcer- 
 ated, and to have produced such an intolerable 
 stench that the Greeks, on the advice of Ulysses, 
 abandoned Philoctetes and left him alone on the 
 solitary coast of Lemnos. He remained in tliis island 
 till the 10th year of the Trojan war, when Ulysses 
 and Diomedea came to fetch him to Troy, as an 
 oracle had declared tliat the city could not he taken 
 without the arrows of Hercules. He accompanied 
 these heroes to Troy, and on his arrival Apollo 
 sent him into a deep sleep, during which Machaon 
 (or Podalirius, or both, or Aesculapius himself) 
 cut out the wound, washed it with wine, and ap- 
 plied healing herbs to it. Philoctetes was thus 
 cured, and soon after slew Paris, whereupon Troy 
 fell into the hands of the Greeks. On his return 
 from Troy he is said to have been cast upon the 
 coast of Italy, where he settled, and built Petelia 
 and Crimissa. In the latter place he founded a 
 sanctuary of Apollo Alaeus, to whom he dedicated 
 his bow. 
 
 Philademus (*iX(i5i7/ios) of Gadarn, in Pa- 
 lestine, an Epicurean philosopher and epigrammatic 
 
PHILOLAUS. 
 
 poet, contemporary with Cicero. The Greek An- 
 thology contains 34 of his Epigrams, which are 
 chiefly of a light and amatory character, and which 
 quite bear out Cicero''s statements concerning the 
 licentiousitesa of his matter and the elegance of his 
 manner. (Cic. in Pis. 28, 29.) Philodemus is also 
 mentioned by Horace {Sat. i. 2. ]21.) 
 
 FhUolaus (*iA(JXaoy), a distinguished Pytha- 
 gorean philosopher, was a native of Croton or Ta- 
 rentuni. He was a contemporary of Socrates, and 
 the instructor of Simmias and Cebes at Thebes, 
 where he appears to have lived many years. Py- 
 thagoras and his earliest successors did not commit 
 any of their doctrines to writing ; and the first 
 publication of the Pythagorean doctrines is pretty 
 uniformly attributed to Philolaus. He composed 
 a work on the Pythagorean philosophy in 3 books, 
 which Plato is said to have procured at the cost of 
 100 minae through Dion of Syracuse, wiio pur- 
 chased it from Philolaus, who was at the time in 
 deep poverty. Other versions of the story repre- 
 sent Plato as purchasing it himself from Philolaus 
 or his relatives when in Sicily. Plato is said to 
 liave derived from this work the greater part of 
 his Tinmeus. 
 
 Philomela (^iXo/tijAo), dnughter of king Pan- 
 dioii in Attica, who, being dishonoured by her 
 brother-in-law Tereus, was metamorphosed into a 
 nightingale. The stor}' is given under Tekeus. 
 
 Philomeliiun or Philomeliim (*tAo^i^X(of, or 
 in the Pisidian dialect ^t\oiJ.7]^T} : "I'iAo/uijAeuy, 
 Pliilomelensis or Philomeliensis : ^roh. A Ic-Shehr, 
 Ku.), a city of Phrygia Parortos, on the borders of 
 Lycaonia and Pisidia. said to have been named 
 from the numbers of nightingales in its neighbour- 
 hood. It is nientioned several times by Cicero. 
 According to the division of the provinces under 
 Constantino, it belonged to Pisidia, It is still 
 found mentioned at the time of the Crusades, by 
 the name of Philomene. 
 
 Pbilomelus (*iAd^7j\oy), a general of the Pho- 
 cians in the Phocian or Sacred war, was the person 
 who persuaded his countrymen to seize the temple 
 of Delphi, and to apply the riches of the temple 
 to the purpose of defending themselves against the 
 Amphictyonic forces, b. c. 357. He commanded 
 the Phocians during the early years of the war, 
 but was slain in battle in 353. He was succeeded 
 in the command by his brother Onomarchus. 
 
 Phllonidea (*iAaii/t5-?7s), an Athenian poet of 
 the Old Comedy, who is, however, better known 
 on account of liis connection with the literary his- 
 tory of Aristophanes. It is generally stated that 
 Philonides was an actor of Aristophanes, who is 
 said to have committed to him and to Callistratus 
 his chief characters ; but the best modern critics 
 have shown tiiat this is an erroneous statement, 
 and that the true state of the case is, that several 
 of the plays of Aristophanes were brought out in 
 the names of Callistratus and Philonides. We 
 leani from Aristophanes himself, not only the fact 
 that he brought out liis early plays in the names of 
 other poets, but also his reasons for so doing. In 
 tlie Parabasis of the Knights (v, 514), he states 
 that he had pursued this course, not from want of 
 thouTht, but from a sense of the difficulty of his 
 profe'ssion, and from a fear that he might suffer 
 from that fickleness of taste which the Athenians 
 had shown towards other poets, as Magnes, Crates, 
 and Cratinus. It appears that Aristophanes used 
 tlie name of Philonides, probably, for the Clouds^ 
 
 PHILOPOEMEN. 5(i5 
 
 and certainly for the Wasps, the Proagon^ the 
 Amphiaraus, and the Frogs. The Daetaleis^ the 
 Babylonians^ the Acharnians^ the Birds, and the 
 Lysisiraia^ were brought out in the name of Callis- 
 tratus. Of the extant playa of Aristophanes, the 
 only ones which he is known to have brought out 
 in his own name are the Kniglds, the Peace, and 
 the Plutus. 
 
 Phildnome. [Tenes.] 
 
 Philopoemen (^lAoTrof/iiji/), of Megalopolis in 
 Arcadia, one of the few great men that Greece 
 produced in the decline of her political independ- 
 ence. The great object of his life was to infuse 
 among the Achaeans a military spirit, and thereby 
 to establish their independence on a firm and 
 lasting basis. He was the son of Crangis, a dis- 
 tinguished man at Megalopolis, and was bnrn about 
 B. c, 252. He lost his father at an early age, and 
 was brought up by Oleander, an illustrious citizen 
 of Mantinea, who had been obliged to leave his 
 native city, and had taken refuge at Megalopolis. 
 He received instmction from Ecdemus and Demo- 
 phanes, both of whom had studied the Academic 
 philosophy under Arcesilaus. At an early age he 
 became distinguished by his love of arras and his 
 bravery in war. His name, however, first occurs 
 in history in b. c. 222, when Megalopolis was 
 taken by Cleomenes, and in the following year 
 (221) he fought with conspicuous valour at the 
 battle of Sellasia, in which Cleomenes was com- 
 pletely defeated. In order to gain additional mi- 
 litary experience, he soon afterwards sailed to 
 Crete, and served for some years in the wars be- 
 tween the cities of that island. On his return to 
 his native country, in 210, he was appointed com- 
 mander of the Achaean cavalry ; and in 208 he 
 was elected strategus, or general of the Achaean 
 league. In this year he defeated Machanidas, 
 tyrant of Lacedaemon, and slew him in battle with 
 his own hand. In 201 he was again elected ge- 
 neral of the league, when he defeated Nabis, who 
 had succeeded Machanidas as tyrant of Lacedae- 
 mon. Soon afterwards Philopoemen took another 
 voyage to Crete, and assumed the command of the 
 forces of Gortyna. He did not return to Pelopon- 
 nesus till 1&4. He was made general of the league 
 in 192, when he again defeated Nabis, who was 
 slain in the course of the year by some Aetolian 
 mercenaries. Philopoemen was reelected general 
 of the league several times afterwards; but the 
 state of Greece did not afford him much further 
 opportunity for the display of his military abilities. 
 The Romans were now in fact the masters of 
 Greece, and Philopoemen clearly saw that it would 
 be an act of madness to offer open resistance to 
 their authority. At tlie anme time as the Romans 
 still recognised in words the independence of the 
 league, Philopoemen offered a resolute resistance to 
 all their encroachments upon the liberties of his 
 country, whenever he conld do so without affording 
 them any pretext for war. In HI8, when he was 
 general of the league, he took Sparta, and treated 
 it with the greatest severity. He razed the walls 
 and fortifications of the city, abolished the insti- 
 tutions of Lycurgus, and compelled the citizens to 
 adopt the Achaean laws in their stead. In 183 
 the Mfssenians revolted from the Achaean league. 
 Philopoemen, who was general of the league for 
 the 8th time, hiistily collected a body of cavalry, 
 and pressed forward to Messene. He fell in with 
 a large body of Jleticnian troops, by whom ha 
 
5GG 
 
 PIIILOSTEPHANUS. 
 
 wns taken prisoner, and carried to Messene. Here 
 he was thrown into a dungeon, and was compelled 
 by Dinocrates to drink poison. The news of his 
 death filled the whole of Peloponnesus with prief 
 and rage. An assembly was immediately held at 
 Megalopolis ; Lycortas was chosen general; and in 
 the following year, he invaded Messenia, which 
 was laid waste far and wide ; Dinocrates and the 
 chiefs of his party were obliged to put an end to 
 their lives. The remains of Philopoemen were 
 convej'ed to Mcgiilopolis in solemn procession; and 
 the urn which contained the ashes was carried by 
 the historian Polybius. His remains were then 
 interred at Megalopolis with heroic lionours ; and 
 Boon afterwards statues of him were erected in 
 most of tlie towns belonging to the Achaean league. 
 
 Philostepliamis ( ^i\o(rT4(papos)^ of Cyrene, an 
 Alexandrian writer of history and geography, the 
 friend or disciple of Callimachus, flourished under 
 Ptolemy II. Philadelphus, about B.C. 249. 
 
 Philostorgius {^lAoa-rSpyios), a native of Bo- 
 rissus in Cappadocia, was born about a. d. 358. 
 He wrote an ecclesiastical histor}', from the heresy 
 of Arius in 300, down to 425. Philostorgius was 
 an Arian, which is probably the reason why his 
 work has not come down to us. It w.is originally 
 in J 2 books; and we still possess an abstract of it, 
 made by Photius. 
 
 Philostrat'iiG {^iXScrrpaTos), the name of a 
 distinguished family of Lemnos, of which there are 
 mentioned 3 persons in the history of Greek lite- 
 rature. 1. Son of Venis, taught at Athens ; but 
 we know nothing about him, with the exception 
 of the titles of his works, given by Suidas. He 
 could not however have lived in the reign of Nero, 
 according to the statement of Suidas, since his son 
 T.vas not born till the latter part of the 2nd century. 
 — 2. Plavius Philostxatus, son of the preceding, 
 and the most eminent of the 3, was bom about 
 A. D. 1 82. He studied and taught at Athens, and 
 is usually called the Athenian to distinguish him 
 from the younger Philostratus [No. 3], who more 
 usually bears the surname of the Lemnian. Flavins 
 afterwards removed to Rome, where we find him a 
 member of the circle of literary men, whom the 
 philosophic Julia Domna, the wife of Severus, had 
 drawn around her. It was at her desire that he 
 ■wrote the life of Apolloniua. He was alive in the 
 reign of the emperor Philippus (244 — 249). The 
 following works of Philostratus have come down 
 to us: — 1. The Life of Apotloniim of Tyana (ra 
 is rhv Tvai/ia 'ATToAAaJcior), in 8 books. [See 
 Apollonius, No. 7.] — 2, Lives of (he Sophists 
 (B(ot So^xo-Twi/), in 2 books, contains the histoiy 
 of philosophers who had the character of being 
 sophists, and of those who were in reality 
 sophists. It begins with the life of Gorgias, 
 and comes down to the contemporaries of Philo- 
 stratus in the reign of Philippus. 3. Ilcrolca 
 or HcroTcus ('HpwiKa, *Hpaii/cis), is in the form 
 of a dialogue, and gives an account of the 
 heroes engaged in the Trojan war. 4. Imagines 
 {EiKOyes\ in 2 books, contains an account of various 
 paintings. This is the author's most pleasing work, 
 exhibiting great richness of fancy, power and 
 variety of delineation, and a rich exuberance of 
 style. 6. Epistolae ('ETrio-roAai), 73 in number, 
 chiefly amatory. The best editions of the collected 
 works of Philostratus are by Olearius, Lips. 1709, 
 and by Kayser, Turic. 1844. — 3. Philostratus, 
 the younger, usually called ^hc Lemnian, as men- 
 
 PHILOXENUS. 
 
 tioned above, was a son of Nervianus and of a 
 daughter of Flavins Philostratus, but is erroneously 
 called by Suidas a son-in-law of the latter. He 
 enjoyed the instructions of his grandfather and ot* 
 the sophist Hippodromus, and had obtained suffi- 
 cient distinction at the early age of 24 to receive 
 exemption from taxes. He visited Rome, but 
 he taught at Athens, and died in Lemnos. He 
 wrote several works, and among others one 
 entitled Imagines^ in imitation of his grandfather's 
 work with the same title, of which a portion is still 
 extant. 
 
 Philotas ('J»iAci3Tay), son of Parmenion, enjoyed 
 a high place in the friendship of Alexander, and 
 in the invasion of Asia obtained the chief command 
 of the eTaTpoi, or native Macedonian cavalry. He 
 served with distinction in the battles of the Gra- 
 nicns and Arbcla, and also on other occasions; hut 
 in B.C. 330, while the army was in Drangiana, he 
 was accused of being privy to a plot which had 
 been formed by a Macedonian, named Dimnus, 
 against the king's life. There was no proof of his 
 guilt; but a confession was wrung from him by 
 the torture, and he was stoned to death by the troops 
 after the Macedonian custom. [Parmenion.] 
 
 Philotimtis {*iA(iTijUos), an eminent Greek 
 physician, pupil of Praxagoras, and fellow-pupil of 
 Herophilus, lived in the 4th and 3rd centuries b. c. 
 
 Pluloxenus {^lX61^vos). L A Macedonian 
 officer of Alexander the Great, received the go- 
 vernment of Cilicia from Perdiccas in 321.— 2. 0{ 
 Cythera, one of the most distinguished dithyrambic 
 poets of Greece, was bom o. c. 435 and died 380, 
 at the age of 55. He was reduced to slavery in 
 his youth, and was bought by the lyric poet Me- 
 lanippides, by whom he was educated in dithy- 
 rambic poetry. After residing some years at 
 Athens, he went to Syracuse, where he speedily 
 obtained the favour of Dionysius, and took up his 
 abode at his court But soon afterwards he offended 
 Dionj'sius, and was cast into prison ; an act of 
 oppression which most writers ascribe to the 
 wounded vanity of the tyrant, whose poems Phi- 
 loxenus not only refused to praise, but, on being 
 asked to revise one of them, said that the best 
 way of correcting it would be to draw a black line 
 through the whole paper. Another account ascribes 
 his disgrace to too close an intimacy with tlie 
 tyrant's mistress Galatea; but this lopks like a 
 fiction, arising out of a misunderstanding of the 
 object of his poem entitled Cyclops or Galatea. 
 After some time he was released from prison, and 
 restored outwardly to the favour of Dionysius; but 
 he finally left his court, and is said to have spent 
 the latter part of his life in Ephesus. — Of the 
 dithyrambs of Philoxenus by far the most important 
 was his Cyclops or Galatea^ the loss of which is 
 greatly to be lamented, Philoxenus also wrote 
 another poem, entitled Deipiinn (Ae7irvou) or the 
 Banquet^ which appears to have been the most 
 popular of his works, and of which we have more 
 fragments than of any other. This poem was a 
 most minute and satirical description of a banquet, 
 and the subject of it was furnished by the luxury 
 of the court of Dionysius. Philoxenus was included 
 in the attacks which tlie comic poets made on all 
 the musicians of the day, for their corruptions of 
 the simplicity of tiie ancient music ; but we have 
 abundant testimony to the high esteem in which 
 he wns held both during his life and after his 
 death. — 3. The Lcucadian, lived at Athens about 
 
PIIILUS. 
 
 the eame time as Philoxenua of Cythera, with 
 whom he is frequently confounded by the gram- 
 marians. Like his more celebrated namesake, the 
 Leucadian was ridiculed by the poets of the Old 
 Comedy, and seems to have spent a part of his life 
 in Sicily. Tlie Leucadian was a most notorious 
 parasite, glutton, and etfeminate debauchee ; but 
 lie seems also to have had great wit and good- 
 humour, which made him a favourite at the 
 tables whicli he frequented. — 4. A celebrated 
 Alexandrian grammarian, who tauglit at Rome, 
 and wrote on HomiT, on the Ionic and Laconian 
 dialects, and several other grammatical works, 
 among which was a Glossary^ which was edited by 
 H. Stephanus, Paris, lo73. ^5. An Aegyptian 
 surgeon, who wrote several valuable volumes on 
 surgery. He must have lived in or before the first 
 century after Christ.^6. A painter of Eretria, the 
 disciple of Nicomachus, who painted for Cassander 
 a battle of Alexander with Darius. 
 
 Philus, Furiua. 1. P., was consul B.C. 223 
 with C. Flarainius, and accompanied his colleague 
 in his campaign against the Gauls in the N. of 
 Italy. He was praetor 21G, when he commanded 
 the fleet, with which he proceeded to Africa. In 
 214 he was censor with M. Atilius Rcgulus, but 
 died at the beginning of the following year. ^2. 
 L., consul 136, received Spain as his province, and 
 was commissioned by the senate to deliver up to 
 the Nnmantines C. Hostilius Mancinus, the consul 
 of the preceding year. Philus, like liis contempo- 
 raries Scipio Africauus the younger and Laelius, 
 was fond of Greek literature and refinement. He 
 is introduced by Cicero as one of the speakers in 
 his dialogue De I-fepublica. 
 
 Philyllius (4>iAi5a.Aios), an Athenian comic poet, 
 belongs to the latter part of tlie Old Comedy, and 
 the beginning of the Middle, 
 
 Philjrreis [^iKvptjis : prob. the little island oiF 
 C Zrfi'ch^ E. of Kcrastml-Adtx)^ an island off the 
 N. coast of Asia Minor (Pontus), E. of the country 
 of the Mosynoeci, and near the promontory of 
 Zephyrium {^Zefreh\ where Chikon' waa nurtured 
 by his mother Philyra, 
 
 Philyi'es (^I'Aupes), a people on the coast of 
 Pontus, in the neighbourhood of the island Phiiy- 
 
 ItEIS. 
 
 Phinens (^ij/etJs). 1. Son of Belus and An- 
 chinoe, and brother of Cepheus. He was slain by 
 Perseus. For details see Andromeda and Pek- 
 SEUS. — 2. Son of Agenor, and king of Salniy- 
 dessus in Thrace. He was first married to Cleo- 
 patra, the daughter of Boreas and Orithyia, by 
 whom he had 2 children, Oryithus (Oarthus) and 
 Cranibis ; but their names are different in the 
 ditTerent legends: Ovid calls them Polydectus and 
 Polvdorus. Afterwards he was married to Idaca 
 (some call her Dia, Eurytia, or Idothea), by whom 
 he again had 2 sons, Thynus and Mariandynus, 
 — Phinens was a blind soothsayer, who had re- 
 ceived his prophetic powers from Apollo ; but the 
 cause of his blindness is not the same in all accounts. 
 He is most celebrated on account of his being 
 tormented by the Harpies, who were sent by the 
 gods to punish him on account of his cruelty 
 towards his sons by the first marriage. His second 
 wife falsely accused them of liaving made an at- 
 tempt upon her virtue, whereupon Phineus put out 
 their eves, or, according to others, exposed tliem 
 to be devoured by wild beasts, or ordered them to 
 be half buried in the earth, and then to be scourged. 
 
 PHLEGYAS. 
 
 S67 
 
 Whenever a meal was placed before Phineus, the 
 Harpies darted down from the air and carried it off ; 
 later writers add that they either devoured the food 
 themselves, or rendered it unfit to be eaten. When 
 the Argonauts visited Thrace, Phineus promised to 
 instruct them respecting their vo^'age, if they would 
 deliver him from the monsters. This was done by 
 Zetes and Calais, the sons of Boreas, and brothers 
 of Cleopatni. [See p. 76, a.] Phineus now ex- 
 plained to the Argonauts the further course they 
 had to take, and especially cautioned them against 
 the Symplegades. According to another story the 
 Argonauts, on their arrival at Thrace, found the 
 sons ©f Phineus half byried, and demanded their 
 liberation, which Phineus refused. A battle there- 
 upon ensued, in which Phineus was slain by Her- 
 cules. Tlie latter also delivered Cleopatra from her 
 confinement, and restored the kingdom to the sons 
 of Phineus ; and on their advice he also sent the 
 second wife of Phineus hack to her father, who 
 ordered her to be put to death. Some traditions, 
 lastly, state tliat Phineus was killed by Boreas, or 
 that he was carried off by the Harpies into the 
 country of the Bistones or Milchesaians. Those 
 accounts in which Phineus is stated to liavcput out 
 the eyes of his sons, add that they had their sight 
 restored to them by the sons of Boreas, or by Ae- 
 sculapius. 
 
 PhiiLopolis (*ir(j7roA(s), a town in Thrace on 
 the Pontus Eoiinus near the entrance to the Bos- 
 porus. 
 
 Phintias (*iFTfas). 1. A Pythagorean, the 
 friend of Damon, who was condemned to die by 
 Dionysiua the elder. For details see Damon. -^2. 
 Tyrant of Agrigentum, who established his power 
 over that city during the period of confusion which 
 followed the death of Agathocles (b.c. 289.) He 
 founded a new city on the S. coast of Sicily, to 
 which he gave his own name, and whither he re- 
 moved all the inhabitants from Gela, which he 
 razed to the ground. 
 
 Phintouia Insula {Isola di Figo)^ an island 
 between Sardinia and Corsica. 
 
 PMegethon (^Ae^tfloii/), i.e. the flaming, a 
 river in the lower woiHd, in whose channel flowed 
 flames instead of water. 
 
 Fhlegou {^K^yu!v\ a native of Tralles in Lydia, 
 was a freedman of the emperor Hadrian, whom he 
 survived. The only 2 works of Phlegon wliich 
 have come down to us, are a small treatise on 
 wonderful events (Ilefil 6a.vixa(r'\wv\ and another 
 short treatise on long-lived persons (Ilepl ^anpo- 
 Siatv), which gives a list of persons in Italy who 
 had attained tbe age of a hundred years and up- 
 wards. Besides these 2 works Phlegon wrote 
 many others, of whicli tbe most important was an 
 account of the Olympiads in 17 books, from 01. I 
 to 01. 229 (a. D. 137)- The best edition of Phlegon 
 is by Westermann in his Parudoxoyraphi^ Bruns- 
 vig. 183J). 
 
 Flilegra. [Paliene.] 
 
 Plilegraei Campi (tb ^Mypcua ireSi'a, or ^ 
 ^\4ypa: iSolfntara), the name of the volcanic plain 
 extending along the coast of Campania fromCumae 
 to Capua, so called because it was believed to havo 
 been once on fire. It was also named Laboriae or 
 Laborinus Campus, either on account of its great 
 fertility, which occasioned its constant cultivation, 
 or on account of the frequent earthquakes and in- 
 ternal convulsions to which it was exposed. 
 
 Phlegyas (*Ae7i)as), son of Ares and Chryse, 
 4 
 
56n 
 
 PHLIASIA. 
 
 the daughter of Ilalmua, succeeded Eteocles iii the 
 govemnii-nt of Orchomenos in Boeotia, which he 
 called after himself Phlegyantia. He was the 
 fiither of Ixion and Coronis, the latter of whom 
 became by Apollo the mother of Aesculapius. En- 
 raged at tliis, Phlegyas set fire to the temple of the 
 God, who killed him with his arrows, and con- 
 demned him to severe punishment in the lower 
 world. Phlegyas is represented as the mythical 
 ancestor of the race of the Phlegj'ae, a branch of 
 the Minyae, who emigrated from Orcliomenos in 
 Boeotia and. settled in Phocis. 
 
 Phliasia. [Phlius.] 
 
 Plllius (^Aious, -oiJi'Tos : ^Xiatrioy), the chief 
 town of a small province in the N.E. of Pelopon- 
 nesus, whose territory PhliaBia (4>Afa(Tlo), was 
 bounded on the N. by Sicyonia, on the W. by 
 Arcadia, on the E. by the territory of Cleonae, and 
 on the S. by that of Argos. The greater part of 
 tiiis country was occupied by mountains, called 
 Coelussa, Carneates, Arantinus and Tricaranon. 
 According to Strabo the most ancient town in the 
 country was Araethyrea, which the inhabitants 
 deserted, and afterwards founded Phlius; while 
 Pausanias says nothing about a migration, but 
 relates that the town was first called Arantia from 
 its founder Aras, an autochthon, afterwards Arae- 
 thyrea from the daugliter of Aras, and finally 
 Phlius, from Phlius, a grandson of Temenus. 
 Phlius was originally inhabited by Argives. It 
 afterwards passed into the hands of the Dorians, 
 with whom part of the Argive population inter- 
 mingled, while part migrated to Sanios and Clazo- 
 menae. During the greater part of its history it 
 remained faithful to Sparta. 
 
 Phlygomum {^\vy6uiov), a small toivn in 
 Phocis, destroyed in the Phocian war. 
 
 Phocaea (^wKaia: 4>a)KaeiJr, Phocaeensis : the 
 Ru, called Karaja-Fokia, i. e. Old Fo/cia, S.W. of 
 Fougcs or New Fokia), the N.-most of the Ionian 
 cities on the W. coast of Asia Minor, stood at the 
 W. extremity of the tongue of land which divides 
 the Sinus Elaiticus (6'. of Fouges'),, on the N. from 
 the Sinus Hermaeus {G. of iimyrna)^ on the S. 
 It was said to have been founded by Phocian 
 colonists under Philogenes and Damon. It was 
 originally within the limits of Aeolis, in the terri- 
 tory of Cyme ; but the Cymaeans voluntarily gave 
 up the site for the new cit}', which was soon ad- 
 mitted into the Ionian confederacy on the condition 
 of adopting oecists of the race of Codrus. Ad- 
 mirably situated, and possessing 2 excellent har- 
 bours, Naustathmus and Lampter, Phocaea became 
 celebrated as a great maritime state, and especially 
 as the founder of the most distant Greek colo- 
 nies towards the W., namely Masrilia in Gaul, 
 and the still more distant, though far less cele- 
 brated, city of Maenaca in Hispania Baetica. 
 After the Persian conquest of Ionia, Phocaea had 
 80 declined, that she could only furnish 3 ships to 
 support the great Ionian revolt ; but the spirit of 
 her people had not been extinguished ; when the 
 common cau5e was hopeless, and their city was 
 besieged by Harpagus, they embarked, to seek 
 new abodes in the distant W., and bent their 
 course to their colony of Aleria in Corsica. During 
 the voyage, however, a portion of the emigrants 
 resolved to return to their native city, which they 
 restored, and which recovered much of its pros- 
 perity, as is proved by the rich booty gained by 
 the Romans, when they plundered it under tlic 
 
 PHOCION. 
 
 praetor Aemilius, after which it does not appear aa 
 a place of any consequence in history. — Care must 
 be taken not to confound Phocaea with Phocis, or 
 the ethnic adjectives of the former ^wKa^vs and 
 Phocaeensis, with those of the latter, ^wneiis and 
 Phocensis : some of the ancient writers themselves 
 have fallen into such mistakes. It should be ob- 
 served also that the name of Phocaean is often 
 used with reference to Massilia ; and, by an 
 amusing affectation, the people of Maraeille still 
 call themselves Phocaeans. 
 
 Fhocion {^QjKiwv)^ the Athenian general and 
 BtJitesman, son of Phocus, was a man of humble 
 origin, and appears to have been bom in B. c. 
 402. He studied under Plato and Xenocrates. 
 He distinguished himself for the first time 
 under his friend Chabrias, in 376, at the battle 
 of Naxos ; but he was not employed promi- 
 nently in any capacity for many years after- 
 wards. In 354 (according to others in 350) 
 he was sent into Euboea in the command of a 
 Bmall force, in consequence of an application from 
 Plutarchus, tyrant of Eretria ; and he was subse- 
 quently employed on several occasions in the war 
 between the Athenians and Philip of Macedon. 
 He frequently opposed the measures of Demo- 
 sthenes, and recommended peace with Philip ; but 
 he must not be regarded as one of the niercennry 
 supporters of the Macedonian monarch. His virtue 
 is above suspicion, and his public conduct was 
 always influenced by upright motives. When 
 Alexander was marching upon Thebes, in 335, 
 Phocion rebuked Demosthenes for his invectives 
 against the king ; and after the destruction of 
 Thebes he advised the Athenians to comply with 
 Alexander's demand for the surrender of Demo- 
 sthenes and other chief orators of the anti- Mace- 
 donian party. This proposal was indignantly 
 rejected by the people, and an embassy was sent 
 to Alexander, which succeeded in deprecating 
 his resentment. According to Plutarch, there 
 were two embassies, the first of which Alex- 
 ander refused to receive, but to the second he 
 gave a gracious audience, and granted its prayer, 
 chiefly from regard to Phocion, who was at the 
 head of it. Alexander ever continued to treat Pho- 
 cion with the utmost consideration, and to cultivate 
 his friendship. He also pressed upon him valuable 
 presents ; but Phocion persisted in refusing his 
 presents, begging the king to leave him no less 
 honest than he found him, and only so far availed 
 himself of the royal favour as to request the liberty 
 of certain prisoners at Sardis, which was imme- 
 diately granted to him. After Alexander's death, 
 Phocion opposed vehemently, and with all the 
 caustic bitterness which characterised him, the 
 proposal for war with Antipater. Thus, to Hype- 
 rides, who asked hira tauntingly when he would 
 advise the Athenians to go to war, he answered, 
 " When I see the young willing to keep their 
 ranks, the rich to contribute of their wealth, and 
 the orators to abstain from pilfering the public 
 money." When tlie Piraeus was seized by Alex- 
 ander, the son of Pulysperchon in 318, Phocion 
 was suspected of luiving advised Alexander to 
 take this step ; whereupon, being accused of 
 treason by Agnonides, he fled, with several of 
 his friends, to Alexander, who sent them with 
 letters of recommendation to his father Poly- 
 sperclion. The latter, willing to sacriiicc them 
 as a peace- ofl'ering to the Atlicniaus, sent them 
 
PHOCIS. 
 
 back to Athens for the people to deal with 
 tliem as they would. Here Phocion was sentenced 
 to death. To the last, he maintained his calm, 
 and difinified, and somewhat contemptuous bear- 
 ing. When some wretched man spat upon him as 
 he passed to the prison, '* Will no one," said he, 
 " ciieck this fellow's indecency?" To one who 
 asked him wliether he had any message to leave 
 for his son Phocus, he answered, "Only that he 
 bear no s^u^ge against the Athenians." And when 
 the hemlock which had been prepared was found 
 insufficient for all tiie condemned, and the jailer 
 would not furnish more until he was paid for it, 
 " Give the man his money," said Phocion to one 
 of his friends, " since at Athens one cannot eveTi 
 die for nothing." He perished in 317, at the age 
 of 85. The Athenians are said to have repented 
 of their conduct. A brazen statue was raised to 
 the memory of Phocion, and Agnonides wag con- 
 demned to death. Phocion was twice married, 
 and his 2nd wife appears to have been as simple 
 and frugal in her habits as himself; but he was 
 less fortunate in his son Phocus, who, in spite of 
 his father's lessons and example, was a thorough 
 profligHte. As for Phocion himself, our commend- 
 ation of him must be almost wholly conftned to his 
 private qualities. His fellow-citizens may have 
 been degenemte, but he made no eifort to elevate 
 them. 
 
 Phocis ("q ^UKis : ^toKTJes Hom., *a)/cees Herod., 
 ^wKeTr Attic, Phncenses by the Romans), a countrj- 
 in Nortfiern Greece, was bounded on the N. by 
 the Locri Epicnemidii and Opuntii, on the E. by 
 Boeotia, on the W. by the Locrr Ozuiiie and Duris, 
 and on the S. by the Corinthian gulf. At one 
 time it possessed a narrow strip of country on the 
 Euboean sea with the seaport Daphnns, between 
 the territory of the Locri Ozolae and Locri Opuntii. 
 It was a mountainous and unproductive country, 
 and owes its chief importance in history to the fact 
 of its possessing the Delphic oracle. Its chief 
 mountain was Parnassus, situated in the interior 
 of the country, to which however Cnemis on its 
 N. frontier, CiRPHis S. of Delphi, and Helicon 
 on the S-E, frontier all belonged. The principal 
 river in Phocis was the Cefhissus, the valley of 
 which contained almost the only fertile land in the 
 country, with the exception of the celebrated Cris- 
 saean plain in the S.E. on the borders of the Locri 
 Ozolae. — Among the earliest inhabitants of Phocis 
 we find mentioned Leieges, Thracians, Abantes 
 and Hyantes. Subsequently, but still in the anti- 
 historical period, the Phlegyae, an Achaean race, a 
 branch of the Mlnyae at Orchomenos, took pos- 
 session of the country ; and from this time the 
 main bulk of the population continued to be 
 Achneaii, although there were Dorian settlements 
 at Delphi and Bulls. The Phocians are said to 
 have derived their name from an eponymous an- 
 cestor Phocus [Phocus], and they are mentioned 
 under this name in the Iliad. The Phocians played 
 no conspicuous part in Greek history till the time 
 of Philip of Macedon ; but at this period they be- 
 came involved in a war, called the Phocian or 
 Sacred War, in which the principal states of 
 Greece took part. The Thebans had long been 
 inveterate enemies of the Phocians ; and as tho 
 latter people had cultivated a portion of the Cris- 
 saean plain, which the Amphictyons had declared 
 in B. c. 5^0 should lie waste for ever, the Thebans 
 availed themselves of this pretext to persuade the 
 
 PHOEBE. 
 
 669 
 
 Amphictyons to impose a tine upon the Phocians, 
 and upon their refusal to pay it, the Thebans fur- 
 ther induced the council to declare the Phocian 
 land forfeited to the god at Delphi. Thus threat- 
 ened by the Amphictyonic council, backed by the 
 whole power of Thebes, the Phocians were per- 
 suaded by Philomelus, one of their citizens, to 
 seize Delphi, and to make use of the treasures of 
 the temple for the purpose of carrying on the war. 
 They obtained possession of the teniple in B.C. 3o7. 
 The war which ensued lasted 10 years, and was 
 carried on with various success on each side. Tlie 
 Phocians were commanded first by Philomelus, 
 B. c. 357 — 353, afterwards by his brotiier Ono- 
 MARCHUS, 3o'd — 352, then by Phayllus, the 
 brother of the 2 preceding, 352 — 351, and finally 
 by Phalaecus, the son of Onumarchu.% 351 — 
 346. The Phocians received some support from 
 Athens, but their chief dependence was upon their 
 mercenary troops. which the treasures of theDelphic 
 temple enabled them to hire. The Amphictyons 
 and the Thebans, finding at length that they were 
 unable with their own resources to subdue the 
 Phocians, called in the assistance of Philip of 
 Macedon, who brought the war to a close in 346. 
 The conquerors inflicted the most signal punish- 
 ment upon the Phocians, who were regarded as 
 guilty of sacrilege. All their towns weie razed to 
 the ground with the exception of Abae ; and the 
 inhabitants distributed in villages, containing not 
 more than 50 inhabitants. The 2 votes which they 
 bad in the Amphiutyonic council wure taken away 
 and given to Philip. 
 
 ?ilocra (^*iJ7tytr), a nracrrrtarn of N. Africa, in 
 Mauretania Tingitana, apparently on the W. bank 
 of the Mulucha, between the chains of the Great 
 and Little Atlas. 
 
 Pkocus (*ttJKOs). 1. Son of Omytion of Co- 
 rinth, or according to others of Poseidon, is said to 
 have been the leader of a colony from Corinth into 
 the territory of Tithorea and Mt. Parnassus, which 
 derived from him the name of Phocis. ^2. Son 
 of Aeacus and the Nereid Psamathe, husband of 
 Astoria or Asterodia, and father of Panopeus and 
 Crissus. He was murdered by his halt-brothers 
 Telamon and Peleus. [Pelecs.] According to 
 some accounts the country of Phocis derived its 
 name from him.— 3. Son of Phocion. [Phocion.] 
 
 Phocylides {^mkvXIStjsX of Miletus, an Ionian 
 poet, contemporary with Theognis, was bom u. c. 
 560. His poetry was chiefly gnomic; and the few 
 fragments of it which we possess display that con- 
 tempt for birth and station, and that loVe for sub- 
 stantial enjoyment, which always marked the 
 Ionian character. These fragments, which are 1(1 
 in number, are included in all the chief collections 
 of the lyric and gnomic poets. Some of these col- 
 lections contain a didactic poem, in 217 hexame- 
 ters, entitled iroiTjixa foudcriKop^ to which tlie 
 name of Phocylides is attached, but which is un- 
 doubtedly a forgery, made since the Christian era. 
 
 Phoebe {'^oiS-n)\ 1. Daughter of Uranus and 
 Ge, became by Coeus the mother of Asteria and 
 Leto (Latona).— 2. A surname of Artemis (Diana) 
 in her capacity as the goddess of the moon (Luna), 
 the moon being regarded as the female Phoebus or 
 sun. — 3. Daughter of Tyndareos and Leda, and a 
 sister of Clytaemnestra.— 4. Daughter of Leucip- 
 pus, and sister of Hilaira, a priestess of Athena, 
 was carried off with her sister by the Dioscuri, and 
 became by Pollux the mother of Mncsileos. 
 
570 
 
 PIIOEBIDAS. 
 
 Phoelsidas (*oi§t5as), a Lacedaemonian, who, 
 in B. c. 38*2, was appointed to tlie command of the 
 troops destined to reinforce his brother Eudamidas, 
 who had been sent against Olynthns. On his way 
 Phoebidas halted at Thebes, and treacherously 
 made himself master of the Cadmea. The Lace- 
 daemonians fined Phoebidas 100,000 drachmas, 
 but nevertheless kept possession of the Cadmea. 
 In 378 he was left by Agesilaus as hnrmost at 
 Thespiae, and was slain in battle by the Thebana, 
 
 Phoebus (*or§oy), the Bright or Pure^ occurs in 
 Homer as an epithet of Apollo, and is used to sig- 
 nify the brightness and purity of youth. At a 
 later time when Apollo became connected with 
 the Sun, the epithet Phoebus was also applied to 
 him as the Sun-god. 
 
 Phoenice (^oii/i/cTj : Phoenicia is only found in 
 a doubtful passage of Cicero : ^otVi|, pi. 4>o(rrKes, 
 fem. 4»o(^i(ro-a, Phoenix, Phoonices ; also, the adj. 
 Punicus, though used specifically in connection 
 with Carthago, is etyraologically equivalent to 
 *oiVi|, by the well-known interchange of oi and v; 
 parts of the Pashalicks of Aa-e and Al(ij)po)^ a 
 country of Asia, on the coast of Syria, extending 
 from the river Eleutherus {Nahr-el-Kthir) on the 
 N. to below Mt. Camiel on the S., and bounded 
 on the E. by Coelesyria and Palestine. (Some- 
 times, though rarely, the name is extended to the 
 whole W. coast of Syria and Palestine). It was 
 a mountainous strip of coast land, not more than 1 
 or 12 miles broad, hemmed in between the Medi- 
 terranean and the chain of Lebanon, whose lateral 
 branches, running out into the sea in bold promon- 
 tories, di\'ided the country into valleys, which are 
 well watered by rivers flowing down from Lebanon, 
 and are extremely fertile. Of these rivers, the 
 most important are, to one going from N. to S., 
 the Eleutherus {Nahr d-Kebir) ; the Sabbaticus 
 {Arka) ; the river of Tripolis {KadUha) ; the 
 Adonis {Nahr-lbraliim\ S. of Byblus ; the Lycua 
 {Nahr-el-Kelb) N. of Berytus ; the Magoras {NaJir- 
 Beirut), by Berytus ; the Tamyras {Nahr-el-Da- 
 mur)^ between Berytus and Sidon ; the Leo, or 
 Bostrenus {Nalir-d-Auly)^ N. of Sidon ; the great 
 river {Litany and Kasimiyeh) which flows from 
 Heliopolis S.S.W. through Coele-Syria, and then, 
 turning W. wards, falls into the sea N. of Tyre, 
 and which some call, but without sufficient autho- 
 rity, the Leontes ; the Belus, or Pagida (A'^maw or 
 Rahwin) by Ptolemais, and the Kishon (Kitihon), 
 N. of Mt, Caimel. Of the promontories referred to, 
 omitting a number of less important ones, the chief 
 were, Theu-prosopon (Hascsh-S/mkah)^ between 
 Tripolis and Bybhis, Pr. Album (Ras-el-Abiad, 
 i. e. W/iiie Cape), S. of Tyre, and Mt. Carmel, be- 
 sides those occupied by the cities of Tripolis, Byb- 
 lus, Berytus, Sidon, Tj'rus, and Ptolemais. This 
 conformation of the coast and the position of the 
 country rendered it admirably suited for the home 
 of great maritime stites ; and accordingly we find 
 the cities of Phoenicia at the head, both in time 
 and importance, of all the naval enterprise of the 
 ancient world. For the history of those great 
 cities, see Sidon, Tvrus, and the other articles 
 upon them. As to the country in general, there is 
 some difficulty about the origin of the inliabitanta 
 and of their name. In the 0. T. the name does 
 not occur ; the people seem to be included under 
 the general designation of Canaanites, and they are 
 also named specifically after their several cities, as 
 the Sidonians, Giblites (from Gebal, i. e. Byblus), 
 
 PHOENICE. 
 
 Slnites, Arkites, Arvaditcs, &c. The name *oi- 
 vIkt} is first found in Greek ■writers, as early as 
 Homer, and is derived bj- some from the abundance 
 of palm trees in the country {(polpi^^ the date-palm), 
 and by others from the purple-red (^otVi^), which 
 was obtained from a fish on the coasts, and was a 
 celebrated article of Phoenician commerce ; be- 
 sides the mythical derivation from Phoenix, the 
 brother of Cadmus. The people were of the Semi- 
 tic (Syro-Arabian) race, and closely allied to the 
 Hebrews ; and they are said to have dwelt origin- 
 ally on the shores of the Erythraean sea. Their 
 language was a dialect of the Aramaic, closely re- 
 lated to the Hebrew and Syriac. Their written 
 characters were the same as the Samaritan or Old 
 Hebrew; and from them the Greek alphabet, and 
 through it most of the alphabets of Europe, were 
 undoubtedly derived ; hence they were regarded 
 by the Greeks as the inventors of letters. Other 
 inventions in the sciences and arts are ascribed to 
 them ; such as arithmetic, astronomy, navigation, 
 the manufacture of glass, and the coining of money. 
 That, at a very early time, they excelled in the 
 fine arts, is clear from the aid which Solomon re- 
 ceived from Hiram, king of Tyre, in the building 
 and the sculptured decorations of the temple at 
 Jerusalem, and from the references in Homer to 
 Sidonian artists. Respecting Phoenician litera- 
 ture, we know of little beyond the celebrated work 
 of Sanchuniathon. In the sacred history of the 
 Israelitish conquest of Canaan, in that ot the He- 
 brew monarchy, and in the earliest Greek poetry, 
 we find the Phoenicians already a great maritimo 
 people. Early formed into settled states, supplied 
 with abundance of timber from Lebanon, and 
 placed where the caravans from Arabia and the E. 
 c;ime upon the Mediterranean, they carried over to 
 the coasts of this sea the products of those coun- 
 tries, as well as of their own, which was rich in 
 metals, and on the shores of which furnished the 
 materials of glass nnd the purple-fish already men- 
 tioned. Their voyages and their settlements ex- 
 tended beyond the Pillars of Hercules, to the W. 
 coasts of Africa and Spain, and even as far as our 
 own islands. [Britannia, p, 126, a.] Within the 
 Mediterranean they planted numerous colonies, on 
 its islands, on the coast of Spain, and especially on 
 the N. coast of Africa, the chief of which was 
 Carthago; they had also settlements on the 
 Euxine and in Asia Minor. In the E. seas, we 
 have records of their voyages to OrniR, in connec- 
 tion with the navy of Solomon, and to the coiists 
 of Africa under the kings of Egypt. [Africa, p. 
 22, b.] They were successively subdued by the 
 Assyrians, Babylonians, Persians, Macedonians, 
 and Romans ; but neither these conquests, nor the 
 rivalry of Carthage, entirely mined their com- 
 merce, which was still considerable at the Chris- 
 tian era ; on the contrary, their ships fwrmed the 
 fleet of Persia and the Syrian kings, and partly of 
 the Romans. [Sidon, Tvhus, &c.] Under the 
 Romans, Phoenice formed a part of the province of 
 Syria ; and, under the E. empire, it was erected, 
 with the addition of Coele-Syri;>, into the province 
 of Phoenice Libanesia or Libanonsis. 
 
 Phoenice {<t*oivii{rt). 1. {Finihi), an important 
 commercial town on the coast of the Epirus in the 
 district Ciianni.% 56 miles N.W. of Buthrotum, in 
 the midst of a marshy country'. It was fitronply 
 fortified by Justinian. — 2. A small island ofFGallia 
 Narbononsis, belonging to the Stoechades. 
 
PHOENICIUM. 
 
 Fhoenicinin, Mare (t^ ^oivLkiov Tr^Kayos : 2(- 
 dovlj} ^dKa(T(ra\ the part of the Mediterranean 
 which washes the coast of Phocnice. 
 
 Fhoenicus [^oivikovs: ^mviKovvrtos^^oiviKoxxT- 
 ffios), 1. Also Phoenix (4»otVi^), a harbour on 
 the S. of Crete, visited by St. Paul during his voy- 
 age to Rome. (Acta, xxvii. 1*2.)— 2. The harbour 
 of the city of Colone, in Messcnia.^S. A sea-port 
 of the island of Cythera.— 4. (Chesmeh or Ef/ri 
 Limim ?), a harbour of Ionia, in Asia Minor, at the 
 font of Mt. Mimas. — 5. {Deliktash^ Ru.), a flou- 
 rishing city in the S. of Lycia, on Mt. Olympus, 
 with a harbour below it. It is often called Olym- 
 pus. Having become, under the Romans, one of 
 the head-quarters of the pirates, who celebrated 
 liere the festival and mysteries of Mithras, it was 
 destroyed by Servilius Isauricus. 
 
 Phoenicusa. [Aeoliae Insulae.] 
 
 Phoenix {^oivi^). 1. Son of Agenorby Agrinpe 
 or Telephassa, and brother of Europa, but Homer 
 makes him the father of Europa. Being sent by 
 his father in search of his sister, who was carried 
 oif by Zeus, he settled in the country, which was 
 called after him Phoenicia.^3. Son of Amyntor 
 by Cieobule or Hippodaraia, and kiJig of the Do- 
 lopes, took part in the Calydonian hunt His 
 father Amyntor neglected his legitimate wife, and 
 attached himself to a mistress ; whereupon Cieobule 
 persuaded her son to seduce her rival. When 
 Amyntor discovered the crime, he cursed Phoenix, 
 who shortly afterwards fled to Peleus. Peleus re- 
 ceived him kindly, made him the ruler of the coun- 
 try of the Dolopes, on the frontiers of Phthia, and 
 entrusted to him his son Achilles, whom he was to 
 educate. He afterwards accompanied Achilles on 
 his expedition against Troy. According to another 
 tradition. Phoenix did not dishonour his father's 
 mistress, but she merely accused him of having 
 made improper overtures to her, in consequence ot 
 which his father put out his eyes. But Peleus 
 took him to Chiron, wlio restored to him his sight. 
 Phoenix moreover is said to have called the son of 
 Achilles Neoptolemus, after Lycomedes had called 
 him Pyrrhus. Neoptolemus was believed to have 
 buried Phoenix at Eion in Macedonia or at Trachis 
 in Thessaly. — 3. A fabulous bird Phoenix, which, 
 according to a tale related to Herodotus (ii. 73) at 
 Ilelinpolis in Egypt, visited that place once in 
 every 500 years, on his father's death, and buried 
 him in the sanctuary of Helios. For this purpose the 
 Phoenix was believed to come from Arabia, and to 
 make an egg of myrrh as large as possible ; this 
 egg he then hollowed'out and put into it his father, 
 closing it up carefully, and the egg was believed 
 then to be of exactly the same weight as before. 
 This bird was represented as resembling an eagle, 
 with feathers partly red and partly golden. It is 
 further related, that when his life drew to a close, 
 he built a nest for himself in Arabia, to which he 
 imparted tlie power of generation, so that after his 
 death a new phoenix rose out of it. As soon as 
 the latter was grown up, be, like his predecessor, 
 proceeded to Hellopolis in Egypt, and burned and 
 buried his father in the temple of Helios. — Accord- 
 ing to a story which has gained more currency in 
 modern times, the Phoenix, when he arrived at a 
 very old age (some say 500 and others 1461 years), 
 committed himself to the flames, — Others, again, 
 state that only one Phoenix lived at a time, and 
 that when he died a worm crept forth from his 
 body, and was developed into a new Phoenix by 
 
 PHORMION. 
 
 571 
 
 the heat of the sun. His death, further, took place 
 in Egypt after a life of 7006 years. — Another 
 modification of the same storj' relates, that when 
 the Phoenix arrived at the age of SCO years, he 
 built for himself a funeral pile, consisting of spices, 
 settled upon it, and died. Out of the decomposing 
 body he then rose again, and having grown up, he 
 wrapped the remains of his old bod}-- up in myrrh, 
 carried them to Heliopolis, and burnt them there. 
 Similar stories of marvellous birds occur in many 
 parts of the East, as in Persia, the legend of the 
 bird Simorg, and in Indiathat of thebirdSemendar, 
 
 Phoenix {^oivt^)^ a small river in the S.E. of 
 Thessaly, flowing into the Asopus near Thermo- 
 pylae. 
 
 Phoenix. [Phoenicus, No, 1.] 
 
 Phoetiae or Phytia (•toiretai, 4»oiTfai, <»uT/a, 
 Thuc), a town in Acarnania on a hill, W. of 
 Stratus. 
 
 Pholegandros {^oX4yav^pos : Polj/l-avdj-o)^ an 
 island in the Aegaean sea, one of the smaller Cy- 
 clades, situated between Melos and Sicinos. 
 
 Pholo§ {^oKSt] : Olono), a mountain forming 
 the boundaiy between Arcadia and Elis; being a 
 S. continuation of Mt. Erymnnthus, in which the 
 rivers Selleis and Ladon took their origin. It is 
 mentioned as one of the seats of the Centaurs. 
 [Pholus.] 
 
 Pholus (^ffAos), a Centaur, a son nf Lilenus 
 and the nymph Melia. He was accidentally slain 
 by one of the poisoned arrows of Hercules. The 
 mountain, between Arcadia and EHs, where he 
 was buried, was called Pholoe after him. The 
 details of his story are given on p. 309, a. 
 
 Phorbantia. [Aegates.] 
 
 Phorbas {'P6p§as). 1. Son of Lapitbes and 
 Orsmome, and brother of Periphas. The Rhodians, 
 in pursuance of an oracle, are said to have invited 
 him into their island to deliver it from snakes, and 
 afterwards to have honoured him with heroic wor- 
 ship. From this circumstance he was called Ophi- 
 uchus, and is said by some to have been placed 
 among the stars. According to another tradition, 
 Phorbas went from Thessiily to Olenos, where 
 Alector, king of Elia, made use of his assistance 
 against Pelops, and shared his kingdom with him, 
 Phorbas then gave his daughter Diogenia in mar- 
 riage to Alector, and he himself married Hynnine, 
 a sister of Alector, by whom be became the father 
 of AugeHS and Actor. He is also described as a bold 
 boxer, and is said to liave plundered the temple of 
 Delphi along with the Phlegj-ae, but to have been 
 defeated by Apollo, 
 
 Phorcides, Phorcydes, or Phorcynides, that 
 is. the daughters of Phorcus and Ceto, or the 
 Gorgona and Graeae. [Gorgones and Graear.] 
 
 Phorcus, Fhorcys, or Phorcyn (-^(J^kos, ^Sp- 
 Kus, ^opKvv). 1. A sea-deity, is described by 
 Homer as "* the old man of the sea." to whom a 
 harbour in Ithaca was dedicated, and is called the 
 father of the nymph Thoosa. Later writers call 
 him a son of Pontus and Ge, and a brother of 
 Thaumas, Ncreiis, Eurybia, and Ceto. By his 
 sister Ceto he became the father of the Graeae and 
 Gorgones, the Hesperian dnigon, and the Plespe- 
 rides ; and by Hecate or Cratais, he was the father 
 of Scylla. — 2, Son of Phacnops, commander of 
 the Phrygians of Asc^nia, assisted Priam in the 
 Trojan war, but was slain by Ajax. 
 
 Phormion {^opfj.iwv). I, a cclehnited .Athe- 
 nian general, the son of Asoplus. He distinguished 
 
572 
 
 PHORMIS. 
 
 himself particularly in the command of an Athe- 
 nian fleet in the Corinthian gulf, where witli far 
 inferior forces he gained some brilliant victories 
 over the Peloponnesian fleet in b. c. 429. In the 
 ensuing winter he landed on the coast of Acama- 
 nia, and advanced into the interior, where he also 
 gained some successes. He was a man of remark- 
 ably temperate habits, and a strict disciplinarian.^ 
 2. A peripatetic philosopher of Ephesus, of whom 
 is told the story that he discoursed for several 
 hours before Hannibal on the military art and the 
 duties of a general. When his admiring auditory 
 asked Hannibal what he thought of him, the latter 
 replied, that of all the old blockheads whom he 
 had seen, none could match Phormion. 
 
 Fb.ormis or Phormua {^Spfiis, ^6pfios)^ a native 
 of MaenaluB in Arcadia, removed to Sicily, where 
 he became intimate with Oelon, whose children he 
 educated. He distinguished himself as a soldier, 
 both under Galon and IJieron his brother. In 
 gratitude for his martial successes, he dedicated 
 gifts to Zeus at Olympia, and to Apollo at Delphi. 
 He is associated by Aristotle with Epicharmus, as 
 one of the originators of comedy, or of a particular 
 form of it. 
 
 Phoroneus (4>opct)»'€i5y), son of Inachus and the 
 Oceanid MelJa or Archia, was a brother of Aegia- 
 leus and the ruler of Argos. He was married to 
 the nymph Laodice, by whom he became the 
 father of Niobe, Apis, and Car. Accordiiig to other 
 ■writers his sons were Pelas^us, lasus, and Agenor, 
 who, after their father's death, divided the king- 
 dom of Argoa among themselves. Phoroneus is 
 said to have been the first who offered sacrifices 
 to Hera at Argos, and to have united the people, 
 who until then had lived in scattered habitations, 
 into a city which was called after him &(ttv ^opou- 
 vik6i/. The patronymic Plioronides is sometimes 
 used for Argives in general, and especially to de- 
 signate Amphiaraus and Adrastus. 
 
 Ph.6rdnis (^opweis), a surname of lo, being 
 according to some a descendant, and according to 
 others a sister of Phoroneus, 
 
 Photius (4»6JTioy). patriarch of Constantinople 
 in the 9th centur}', played a distinguished part in 
 the political and religious history of his age. After 
 holding various high offices in the Byzantine court, 
 he was, although previously a layman, elected 
 patriarch of Constantinople in a. d. 858, in place 
 of Ignatius, who had been deposed by Bardas, 
 who was all-powerful at the court of his nephew 
 Michael III., then a minor. The patriarchate of 
 Photius was a stormy one, and full of vicissitudes. 
 The cause of Ignatius was espoused by the Komish 
 church; and Photius thus became one of the great 
 promoters of the schism between the Eastern and 
 Western Churches. In 8fa7 Photius was himself 
 deposed by the emperor Basil I., and Ignatius was 
 restored; but on the death of Ignatius in 877, 
 Photius, who had meantime gained the favour of 
 Basil, was again elevated to the patriarchate. On 
 the death of Basil in 88G, Photius was accused 
 of a conspiracy against the life of the new emperor 
 Leo VI., and was banished to a monastery in 
 Armenia, where he seems to have remained till 
 his deatli. Photius was one of the most learned 
 men of his time, and in the midst of a busy life 
 found time for the composition of numerous works, 
 several of which have come down to us. Of these 
 tiie mo6t important is entitled MyriobiUion scu 
 BiUiollLcca {Mvpt6Ci6\oi/ ^ BiSKioe-qKr]). It may 
 
 PHRIXUS. 
 
 he described as an extensive review of ancient 
 Greek literature by a scholar of immense erudition 
 and sound judgment. It is an extraordinary monu- 
 ment of literary energy, for it was written while 
 the author was engaged in an embassy to Assyria, 
 at the request of Photius' brother Tjirasins, who 
 desired an account of the books which Photius had 
 read in his absence. It contains the analyses of 
 or extracts from 280 volumes ; and many valuable 
 works are only known to us from the account which 
 Photius has given of them. The best edition of 
 this work is by Bekker, Berlin, 1 824—1 8-25. Pho- 
 tius was also the author of a Nomocanon^ and of a 
 Lexicon or Glossary, which has reached us in a very 
 imperfect state. It was first published by Her- 
 mann, Lips. 1808, and subsequently at London, 
 1822, from the papers of Person. Photius like- 
 wise wrote many theological works, some of which 
 have been published, and others still remain in MS. 
 
 Phraata (xa *paaTo, and other fonns). a great 
 city of Media Atropatene, the winter residence of 
 the Parthian kings, especially as a refuge in time 
 of war, lay S.E. of Gaza, near the river Amardus. 
 The mountain fortress of Vera (Ouf'pa), which was 
 besieged by Antony, was probably the same place. 
 
 Phraatacea, king of Parthia. [ArsacesXVI.] 
 
 Pbraates, the name of 4 kings of Parthia. 
 [Ars-aces, V. VII. Xn. XV,] 
 
 Fhranza or Phranzes (*pa^T^ or ^parr^^s), 
 the last and one of the most important Byzantine 
 historians, was frequently employed on important 
 public business by Constantine XIII., tiie hist 
 emperor of Constantinople. On the capture of 
 Constantinople by the Turks, in 14.53, Piiranza 
 was reduced to slavery, but succeeded in making 
 his escape. He subsequently retired to a monas- 
 tery, wliere he wrote his Chronicon. Tliis work 
 extends from 1259 to 1477, and is the most valu- 
 able authority for the history of the author's time, 
 especially for the capture of Constimtinople. It is 
 edited by Alter, Vienna, 1796, and by Bekker, 
 Bonn, 1838. 
 
 Phraortes (^parfprT^s), 2nd king of Media, and 
 son of Deioces, whom he succeeded, reigned from 
 B. c, QbQ to 634, He first conquered the Persians, 
 and then subdued the greater part of Asia, but was 
 at length defeated and killed while laying siege to 
 Ninus (Nineveh), the capital of the Assyrian em- 
 pire. He was succeeded by his son Cyaxares. 
 
 Phricimn {^piKiov\ a mountain in the E. of 
 Locris near Thermopylae. 
 
 Phriconis. [Cvme: L.arissa, II. 2.J 
 
 Phrixa (*p(|a, *p£|ai, ©pi^ai : Faleo/iwaro)^ a 
 town of Elis in Triphylia on the borders of Pisatis, 
 was situated upon a steep hill on the river Alpheus, 
 and was 30 stadia from Olj'mpia. It was founded 
 by the Minyae, and is said to have derived its 
 name from Phrixu.s. 
 
 Phrixus (i'pi^os), son of Athamas and Nephele, 
 and brother of Helle. In consequence of the in- 
 trigues of his stepmother, Ino, he was to be sacri- 
 ficed to Zeus ; but Nephele rescued ht-r 2 children, 
 who rode away through the air upon the ram with 
 the golden fleece, the gift of Hermes, Between 
 Sigeum and the Chersonesus, Helle fell into the 
 sea which was called after her the Hellespont ; 
 but Phrixus arrived in safety in Colchis, the king- 
 dom of Aeeies, who gave him his daughter Chal- 
 ciope in marriage. Phrixus sacrificed the ram 
 which had carried him, to Zeus Phyxius or La- 
 phystius, and gave its fleece to Aectes, who fast- 
 
PHRIXUS. 
 
 ened it to an oak tree in the grove of Arcs. This 
 fleece was afterwards carried away by Jasun and 
 the Argonauts. [Jason.] By Chalciope Phrixus 
 became the father of Argus, Melas, Phroiitis, Cy- 
 tisonis, and Presbon. Plirixus either died of old 
 age in the kingdom of Aeetes, or was killed by 
 Aeetes in consequence of an oracle, or returned to 
 Orchomenus, in the country of the Min_\^ns. 
 
 Fhrixils (*pt|o5), a river in Argolis, which 
 flows into the Argolic gulf between Temejiium and 
 Lerna. 
 
 Phrygia Mater, a name frequently given to 
 Cybele, because she was especially worshipped in 
 Phrygia. 
 
 Phrygia (^pvyta ; *pu^, pi. ^pvyes^ Phryx, 
 Phryges), a country of Asia Minor, which was of 
 very different extent at different periods. Accord- 
 ing to the division of the provinces nnder the Ro- 
 man empire, Phr}-gia formed the E. part of the 
 province of Asia, and was bounded on the W. by 
 Mysia, Lydia, and Caria, on tiie S. by Lycia and 
 Pisidia, on the E. by Lycaonia (which is often 
 reckoned as a part of Plirygia) and Galatia (wliich 
 formerly belonged to Phrygia), and on the N. by 
 Bithynia. With reference to its physical geogra- 
 phy, it formed the W. part (as Cappadocia did the 
 E.) of the great central table-land of Asia Minor, 
 supported by the cliains of Olympus on the N. 
 and Taurus on tlie S., and breaking on the W. 
 into the ridges which separate the great valleys of 
 the Heumus, the Maeander, &c., and which fonn 
 the headlands of the W. coast. Tins table-land 
 itself was intersected by mountain-chains, and 
 watered by the upper courses and tributaries of the 
 rivers just mentioned in its W. part, and in its 
 N. part by those of the Rhvndacus and Sanga- 
 Rius. These parts of the country were very fer- 
 tile, especially in the valley of the Sangarius, but 
 in the S. and E. the streams which descend from 
 Taurus lose themselves in extensive salt marshes 
 and salt lakes, some of which are still famous, as 
 in ancient times, for their manufactures of salt. 
 The Phrygians were a distinct and remarkable 
 people, whose origin is one of the most difficult 
 problems of antiquity. They claimed a very high 
 antiquity ; and according to the amusing account 
 given by Herodotus of the absurd experiment of 
 Psammetichus, king of Egypt, on the first sponta- 
 neous speech of children, they were thought to 
 have been proved the most ancient of people. Else- 
 where, Herodotus mentions a Macedonian tradi- 
 tion, that the Phryges formerly dwelt in Mace- 
 donia, under the name of Briges ; and later writers 
 add, that they passed over into Asia Minor 100 
 years after the Trojan war. They are, however, 
 inentioned by Homer as already settled on the 
 banks of the Sangarius, where later writers tell 
 us of the powerful Phrygian kingdom of Gordius 
 and Midas. Although any near approach to cer- 
 tainty is hopeless, it would seem that they were a 
 branch of the great Thracian family, settled, in 
 times of unknown antiquity, in the N.W. of Asia 
 Minor, as far as the shores of the Hellespont and 
 Propontis, and perhaps of the Euxine, and that the 
 successive migrations of other Thracian peoples, as 
 the Thyni, Bithyni, Myeians, and Teucrians, drove 
 them further inland, till, from this cause, and per- 
 haps too bj' the conquests of the Phrygian kings 
 in the opposite direction, they reached the Halyfl 
 on the E. and the Taurus on the S. They were not, 
 however, entirely displaced by the Mysians and Teu- 
 
 PHRYNE. 573 
 
 crians from the country between the shores of the 
 Hellespont and Propontis and Mta. Ida and Olym- 
 pus, where they continued side by side with the 
 Greek colonies, and where their name was preserved 
 in that of the district under oil subsequent changes, 
 namely Phrygia Minor or Plirygia Hellespontus, 
 The kingdcm of Phrygia was conquered by Croe- 
 sus, and fonned part of the Persian, Macedonian, 
 and Syro-Grecian empires ; but, under the last, 
 the N.E. part, adjacent to Paphlagonia and the 
 Halys, was conquered by the Gauls, and formed 
 the W. part of Gaj-atia ; and a part W. of tliis, 
 containing the richest portion of the countiT, about 
 the Sangarius, was subjected by the kings of Bithy- 
 nia: this last portion was the object of a contest 
 between the kings of Bithynia and Pergamus, but 
 at last, by tlie decision of the Romans, it was 
 added, under the name of Phrygia Epictetus (4». 
 ^TTiKTT^Tos, 1. 6. tJie acquired Phri/</ia), to the king- 
 dom of Pergamus, to which the whole of Phrygia 
 was assigned by the Romans, after the overthrow 
 of Antiochus the Great in b. c. 190. With the 
 rest of the kingdom of Pergamus, Phrygia passed 
 to the Romans by the testament of Attalus III., 
 and thus became a part of the province of Asia, 
 B.C. 130. As to the distinctive names: the in- 
 land district usually understood by the name of 
 Phr}'gia, when it occurs alone, was also called 
 Great Phr}'gia or Phrygia Proper, in contradis- 
 tinction to the Lesser Phrygia or Phr^-gia on the 
 Hellespont ; and of this Great or Proper Phrygia, 
 the N. part was called, as just stated, Phrygia 
 Epictetus. and the S. part, adjacent to the Taurus, 
 was called, from its position, Phrygia Parorios 
 (4>. irap6pios). At the division of the provinces in 
 the 4th century, the last mentioned part, also 
 called Phrj'gia Pisidicua, was assigned to Pisidia ; 
 and the S.W. portion, about the Maeander, to 
 Caria : and the remainder was divided into Phrvgia 
 Salutaris, on the E., with Synnada for its capital, 
 and Phrygia Pacatiana on the W., extending N. 
 and S. from Bithynia to Pamphylia. — Phrygia 
 was rich in products of every kind. Its moun- 
 tains furnished gold and marble ; its valleys oil and 
 wine ; the less fertile hilis in the W. afforded pas- 
 ture for sheep, v/hose wool was highly celebrated ; 
 and even the marshes of the S.E, furnished abun- 
 dance of salt. — In connection with the early in- 
 tellectual culture of Greece, Phrygia is highly 
 important. The earliest Greek music, especially 
 that of the flute, was borrowed in part, through 
 the Asiatic colonies, from Phrygia, and one of the 
 three musical modes was called the Phrygian. 
 With this country also were closely associated the 
 orgies of Dionysus, and of Cybele, the Mother of 
 tiie Gods, the Phrygia Mater of the Roman poets. 
 After the Persian conquest, however, the Phry- 
 gians seem to have lost all intellectual activitv,and 
 they became proverbial among the Greeks and Ro- 
 mans for submissiveness and stupidity. — It should 
 be observed that the Roman poets constantly use 
 the epithet Phrygian as equivalent to Trojan. 
 
 Phryne (*pui/Tj), one of the most celebrated 
 Athenian hetairae, was a native of Thespiae in 
 Boeotia. Her beauty procured for^ her so much 
 wealth that she is said to have offered to rebuild 
 the walla of Thebes, after they had been destroyed 
 by Alexander, if s)ie might be allowed to put up 
 this inscription on the walls : — " Alexander de- 
 stroyed them, but Phryne, the hetaira, rebuilt 
 them." She had among her admirers many of the 
 
574 
 
 PPIRYNICIIUS. 
 
 most celebrated men of tlie age of Philip nnd 
 Alexander, and the beauty of her form ^ave use 
 to some of the greatest works of art. The most 
 celebrated picture of Apelles, his "■ Venus Ana- 
 dyoraene " [ArKLLE.s], is said to have been a 
 representation of Phryiie, who, at a public festival 
 at Eleusia, entered the sea with dishevelled hair. 
 The celebrated Cnidian Venus of Praxiteles, wlio 
 was one of her lovers, was taken from her. 
 
 Piiryniclius {^pvvixos). 1. An Athenian, and 
 one of the early tragic poets, is said to have been 
 the disciple of Theapis. He gained his first tnigic 
 victory in B.C. 511, 24 years after Thespis (53.5), 
 12 years after Choerihis (523), and 1 2 years Jaefore 
 Aeschylus (499) ; and his last in 476, on which oc- 
 casion Themistocles was his choragns^ and recorded 
 the event by an inscription. Phrynichus proljablj' 
 went, like other poets of the age, to tlie court of 
 Hiero, and there died. In all the accounts of the 
 rise and development of tragedy, the chief place 
 after Thespis is assigned to Phrynichus ; and the 
 improvements which he introduced in the internal 
 poetical character of the drama, entitle him to be 
 considered as the real inventor of tragedy. For 
 the light, ludicrous. Bacchanalian stories of Thes- 
 pis, he substituted regular and serious subjects, 
 taken either from the heroic age, or the heroic 
 deeds which illustrated the history of his own 
 time. In these he aimed, not so much to amuse 
 the audience as to move their passions ; and so 
 powerful was the effect of his tragedy on the cap- 
 ture of Miletus, that the audience burst into tears, 
 and fined the poet 1000 drachmae, because he had 
 exhibited the sufTcrings of a kindred people, and 
 even passed a law that no one sliould ever again 
 make use of tliat drama. To the light mimetic 
 chorus of Thespis he added the sublime music of 
 dithyrambic choruses, Aristophanes more than 
 once contrasts these ancient and beautiful melodies 
 with the involved refinements of later poets. 
 Piirynichus was the first poet who introduced 
 masks, representing female persons in the drama. 
 He also paid particular attention to the dances of 
 the chorus. la the drama of Phrynichus, how- 
 ever, the chorus still retained the principal place, 
 and it was reserved for Aeschylus and Sophocles 
 to bring the dialogue and action into their due 
 position. ^2. A distinguished comic poet of the Old 
 Comedy, was a contemporary of Eupolis, and flou- 
 rished B.C. 429.^3. A Greek sophist and gram- 
 marian, described by some as an Arabian, and by 
 others as a Bithynian, lived under M. Aurelius 
 and Commodus. His great work was entitled 
 '2o<pi<rTiK^ UapaaKevT} in 37 books, of which we 
 still possess a fragment, published by Bekker, in 
 his Anecdota Graeca, Berol. 1814, vol. i. He also 
 ■wrote a Lexicon of Attic words ('EKKoyi] prqixdriav 
 Ka\ ovofxaruiv 'ATTt/cw;'), which is extant : the best 
 edition is by Lobeck, Lips. 1830. 
 
 Phrynnis {"^pvuvis)^ or Phrynis (*piJwF), a 
 celebrated dithyrambic poet, of the time of the 
 Peloponnesian war, was a native of Mytilene, but 
 flourished at Athens. His innovations, effemi- 
 nacies, and frigidness, are repeatedly attacked by 
 the comic poets. Among the innovations which 
 lie is said to have made, was the addition of 2 
 strings to the heptachord. He was the first who 
 gained the victory in the musical contests esta- 
 blished by Pericles, in connection with the Pana- 
 thenaic festival, probably in B.C. 445, 
 Plithla. [Phthiotjs.J 
 
 PHYLAS. 
 
 Phthiotia {^OiajTis: ^diivr-ns)^ a district in the 
 S.E. of Thessaly, bounded on the S. by the Ma- 
 liac gulf, and on the E. by the Pagasaean gulf, and 
 inhabited by Achaeans. [Thehsai.ia.] Homer 
 calls it Phthia («3>9itj), and mentions a city of the 
 same name, which was celebrated as tlie residence 
 of AchilleH. Hence the poets call Achilles Pkthius 
 liero^ and his father Peleus Phihius rex. 
 
 Phthira (to ^dipa^ ^deipcov ^pos), a mountain 
 of Cnria, forming a part or a branch of Latnuis, in- 
 habited by a people called ^6ipi9. 
 
 Phthirophagi {^SeipScpayoi^ i. e. caters o/lice), 
 a Scythian people near the Caucasus, or, according 
 to some, beyond the river Ptha, in Sarmatia Asia- 
 tica. 
 
 Phya. [PlSISTRATL'S,] 
 
 Phycus {^vicuu':: Jias-Sem or Ras-cl-Kazat)^ a 
 promontory on the coast of Cyrenaica. a little \V, 
 of Apolloiiia and N.W. of Cyrene. It is the N.- 
 most headland of Libya E. of the Lesser Syrtis, 
 and the nearest point of this coast to that of 
 Europe, the distance from Phycus to Taenaruni, 
 the S. promontory of Peloponnesus, being 208 
 miles. There was a small town of the same name 
 on the headland. 
 
 Phylace (*uA.aKTi). 1. A small town of Thes- 
 saly in Phthiotis, S.K. of Eretria, and E. of Enipeus, 
 on the N. slope of Mt. Othrvs. It was the birth- 
 place of Protesilaus.— 2. A town of Epirus in 
 Molossia.— 3. A town in Ai'cadia near the sources 
 of the Alpheus, on the frontiers of Tegea and 
 Laconia. 
 
 Phyiacus (*iiAa/cos), son of Beion and Dio- 
 mede, and husband of Pfriclymene or Clymene, 
 the daughter of iVIinyas, by whom he became the 
 father of Iphidus and Alcimede. He was believed 
 to be the founder of the town of Phylace, in Thes- 
 saly. Either from his name or that of the town, 
 his descendants, Phylacus, Iphiclus, and Prote- 
 silaus, are called Fhylacidae. 
 
 Phylarchus {^vK.apxos), a Greek historical 
 writer, and a contemporary of Aratus, was probably 
 a native of Naucratis in Egypt, but spent the 
 greater part of his life at Athens. His great work 
 was a histoiy in 2iJ buoka, which embraced a 
 period of 52 years, from the expedition of Pyrrhus 
 into Peloponnesus, B.C. 272, to the death of CIqo- 
 menea, 220. Phylarchus is vehemently attacked 
 by Polybius, who charges him with falsifying 
 history through his partiality to Cleomenes,'and 
 his hatred against Aratus and the Achaeans. The 
 accusation is probably not unfounded, but it might 
 be retorted with equal justice upon Polybius, who 
 has fallen into the opposite error of exaggerating 
 the merits of Aratus and his party, and depre- 
 ciating Cleomenes. The style of Phylarchus ap- 
 pears to have been too oratorical and declamatory; 
 but it was at the same time lively and attractive. 
 The fragments of Phylarchus have been collected 
 by Lucht, Lips. 1836; by Briickner, Vralisl. lo3JJ; 
 and by Miiller, Fragm. Hislor. Grace. Paris, 1040. 
 
 Pliylas (^liAas). 1. King of the Dryopes, was 
 attacked and slain by Hercules, because he had 
 violated the sanctuaiy of Delphi. By his daughter 
 Midea, Ilerculea became the father of Antiochus. 
 — 2. Son of Antiochus, and grandson of Hercules 
 and Midea, was married to Deiphile, bj- whom he 
 had 2 sons, Hippotas and Thero. ^3. King of 
 Ephyra in Thesprotia, and the father of Polymele 
 and Astyoche, by the latter of whom Hercules 
 was the father of Tlepolemus. 
 
PHYLE. 
 
 Phyle (^v\-fi : ^v\a.(rios : Fili)^ n dcirnis in 
 Atticn, and a strongly fortified place, belonging to 
 the tribe OeneU, wna situated on the confines of 
 Boeotia, and on the S.W. slope of Mt. Parnes. It 
 is memorable as the place which Thrasybulus and 
 the Athenian patriots seized, soon after the end of 
 tlie Peloponnesian war, B.C. 404, and from which 
 they directed their operations against the 30 Ty- 
 rants at Athens. 
 
 Phyleus (OuAsus), son of Augeaa, was expelled 
 by his father from Ephyra, because he gave evi- 
 dence in favour of Hercules. [See p. 309, a.] 
 He then emigrated to Dulichium. By Ctimene or 
 Timandra he became the father of Meges, who is 
 hence called Phylldes. 
 
 Phyllis. [Demophon, No. 2.] 
 
 Phyllis (*uA\is), a district in Thrace S. of the 
 Sti-ynion, near Mt. Panaaeus. 
 
 Phyllus (*u\\oy: Petrino), a town of Thes- 
 saly in the district Thessaliotis, N. of Metropolis. 
 
 Physca {^v<TKa\ a town of Macedonia in the 
 district Eordaea. 
 
 Physcon. [Ptolemaus.] 
 
 Physcus (*if(rKos). 1. A city of the Ozolian 
 liocrians in N. Greece. — 2. (Puitchshin\ a town 
 on the S. coast of Caria, in the Rhodian territory, 
 with an excellent harbour, wliich was used as the 
 port of Mylasa, and was the landing-place for tra- 
 vellers coming from Rhodes.^ 3. (O'^orneA), an E. 
 tributary of the Tigris in Lower Assyria. The 
 town of Opis stood at its junction with the Tigris. 
 
 Phytaeum ( ^vraiov : ^vra'ios), a town in Aeto- 
 lia, S.E. of Thermum, on the hike Trichonis. 
 
 Piceni. [Picenom.] 
 
 Picentes. [Picknum.] 
 
 Picentia (Picentinus: Vicmza\ a town in the 
 S. of Campania at the head of the Sinus Paesta- 
 nus, and between Sulernum and the frontiers of 
 Lucania, the inhabitants of which were compelled 
 by the Romans, in consequence of tlieir revolt to 
 Hannibal, to abandon their town and live in the 
 neighbouring villages. Between the town and the 
 frontiers of Lucania, there was an ancient temple 
 of the Argive Juno, said to have been founded by 
 Jason, the Argonaut. — The name of Picentini was 
 not confined to the inhabitants of Picentia, but was 
 given to the inhabitants of the whole coast of the 
 Sinus Paestanus, from the promontory of Minerva 
 to the river Silarus. They were a portion of the 
 Sabine Picentes, who were transplanted by the 
 Romans to this part of Campania after the conquest 
 of Picenum, b. c. 268, at which time they founded 
 the town of PicentijL 
 
 Picentini. [Picentia.] 
 
 Picenum (Picentes sing. Picens, more rarely 
 Picentini and Piceni), a country in central Italy, 
 was a narrow strip of land along the N. coast of 
 the Adriatic, and was bounded on the N. by Um- 
 hria, (rum which it was separated by the river 
 Acsis on the W. by Umbria and the territory of 
 the Sabinefi, and on the S. by the territory of the 
 Marsi nnd Vestlni, from which it was separated by 
 a range of hills and by the river Matrinua. It is 
 said to have derived its name from the bird picus, 
 which directed the Sabine immigrants into the 
 land, or from a mythical leader Picus : some mo- 
 dern writers connect the name with the Greek 
 Treu/cTi, a pine-tree, on account of the pine-trees 
 growing in the country on the slopes of the Apen- 
 nines ; but none of thes9 etymologies can be re- 
 ceived. Picenum formed the 5tU region in the 
 
 PICTOR. 675 
 
 division of Italy made by Augustus. The country 
 wns traversed by a number of hills of moderata 
 height, eastern offshoots of the Apenninen, and 
 was drained by several small rivers flowing into tho 
 Adriatic through the valleys between these hills. 
 The country was npon the whole fertile, and was 
 especially celebrated for its apples ; but the chief 
 employment of the inhabitants was the feeding of 
 cattle and swine. — The Picentes, as already re- 
 marked, were Sabine immigrants; but the popu- 
 lation of the country appears to have been of a 
 mixed nature. The Umbrians were in possession 
 of the land, when it was conquered by the Sabine 
 Picentes, and some of the Umbrian population be- 
 came intermingled with their Sabine conquerors. 
 In addition to this the S. part of the country was 
 for a time in possession of the Liburuians, and 
 Ancona was occupied by Greeks from Syracuse. 
 In B.C. 299 the Picentes made a treat}' with the 
 Romans ; but having revolted in 26y, they were 
 defeated by the consul Sempronius Soph us in the 
 following year, and were obliged to submit to the 
 Roman supremacy. A portioTi of the people was 
 transplanted to tlie coast of the Sinus Paestanus, 
 where they founded the to^vn Picentia. [Picen- 
 tia.] Two or three years afterwards the Romans 
 sent colonies to Firmum and Castrum Novum in 
 Picenum, in order to secure their newly conquered 
 possession. The Picentes fought with the other 
 Socli against Rome in the Social or Maraic war 
 (90 — yO), and received the Roman fnmchise at 
 the close of it. 
 
 Picti, a people inhabiting the northern part of 
 Britain, appear to have been either a tribe of the 
 Caledonians, or the same people as the Caledo- 
 nians, though under another name. They were 
 called Picti by the Romans from their practice of 
 painting tlieir bodies. They are first mentioned by 
 the rhetorician Eumenius in an oration addressed 
 to Constantius Chlorus, a. d. 296 ; and after this 
 time their name frequently occurs in the Roman 
 writers, and often in connection with that of the 
 Scoti. In the next century we find them divided 
 into 2 tribes, the Dicfdedonae or Dicaledones, and 
 the Vectm'iones or Vecturones. At a still later 
 period their principal seat was in the N.E, of 
 Scotland. 
 
 Pictones, subsequently Pictavi, a powerful 
 people on the coast of Gallia Aquitanica, whose 
 territory extended N. as far as the Liger (ZoiVe), 
 and E, probably as far as the river Crfuse. Their 
 chief town was Limonum, subsequently Pictavi 
 {Poilicr:/). 
 
 Pictor, Fabjus. 1. C, painted the temple of 
 Salus, which the dictator C. Junius Brutus Bubul- 
 cns contracted for in his censorship, b c. 307, and 
 dedicated in his dictatorship, 302. This painting, 
 which must have been on the walls of the temple, 
 was probably a representation of the battle which 
 Bubulus had gained against the Samnites. This 
 is the earliest Roman painting of which we havo 
 any record. It was preserved till the reign of 
 Claudius, when the temple was destroyed by fire. 
 In consequence of this painting C. Fabius received 
 the surname of Pictor, which was borne by his 
 descendants. — 2. C, son of No. 1, consul 269.^ 
 3. N., (i. e. Numerius), also son of No. ], consul, 
 266.-4. Q., son of No. 2, was the most ancient 
 writer of Roman history in prose. He served in 
 the Gallic war, 225, nnd also in the 2nd Punic 
 war. liia histoiy, which was written in Greek, be- 
 
676 
 
 PICUMNUS. 
 
 gan with the arrival of Aeneas in Italy, and came 
 dnwn to his own time. Hence, Polj'biiis speaks of 
 him as one of the histoiians of the Gnd Punic war. 
 — 5. Q., praetor 189, and flamen Quirinalis. — 6. 
 Ser., ie said by Cicero to have been well skilled in 
 law, literature, and antiqiiit}'. IJe lived about 
 B.C. 1.50. He appears to be the same as the 
 Fabius Pictor wlio wrote a work De Jure Ponti- 
 Jlcio^ in several books. He probably wrote Annals 
 like-wise iu the Latin language, bince Cicero {de 
 Oral. ii. 12) speaks of a Latin annalist, Pictor, 
 whom he places after Cato, but before Piso; 
 which corresponds with the time at which Ser. 
 Pictor lived, but could not apply to Q. Pictor, 
 who lived in the time of the 2nd Punic war. 
 
 Picnmnua and PUumnus, 2 Roman divinities, 
 were regarded as 2 brothers, and as the beneficent 
 gods of matrimony in the rustic religion of the an- 
 cient Romans. A couch was prepared for them in 
 the house in which there was a newly-born child. 
 Piluranus was believed to ward off all sufferings 
 from the infant with his pilam^ with \\hich he 
 taught to pound the grain ; and Picumnus, who, 
 under the name of Sterquilinius, was believed to 
 have discovered the use of manure for the fields, 
 conferred upon the infant strength and prosperity. 
 Hence both were also looked upon as the gods of 
 pood deeds, and were identified with Castor and 
 Pollux, When Danae landed in ItJiIy, Picumnus 
 is said to have built with her the town of Ardca, 
 and to have become by her the father of Dnunus. 
 
 Picua (Iir/cos), a Latin prophetic divinity, is 
 described as a son of Satu.vnus or Sterculus, as the 
 husband of Canens, and the father of Faunus. In 
 some traditions he was called the first king of 
 Italy. He was a famous soothsayer and augur, and 
 as he made use in his prophetic art of a picus (a 
 wood-pecker), he himself was also called Picus. He 
 was represented in a rude and primitive manner as 
 a wooden pillar with a wood-pecker on the top of 
 it, but afterwards as a young man with a wood- 
 pecker on his head. The whole legend of Picus is 
 founded on the notion that the wood-pecker is a 
 prophetic bird, sacred to Mars. Pomona, it is said, 
 was beloved by him, and when Circe*'3 love for 
 him was not requited, she changed him into a wood- 
 pecker, who, however, retiined the prophetic 
 powers which he had formerly possessed as a man. 
 
 Plena (niepm : ntepes). L A narrow slip of 
 country on the S.K. coast of Macedmiia, extending 
 frnm the mouth of the Peneus in Thessaly to the 
 Haliacmon, and bounded on the W. by Mt. Olym- 
 pus and its offsiioots. A portion of these mounUiins 
 was called by the ancient writers Pierus, or the 
 Pierian mountain. The inhabitants of this country, 
 the Pieres, were a Thracian people, and are cele- 
 brated in the early history of Greek poetry and 
 muaic, since their country was one of the earliest 
 seats of the worship of the Muses, and Orpheus is 
 said to have been buried there. After the esta- 
 blishment of the Macedonian kingdom in Eraathia 
 in the 7th century b. c. Pieria was conquered by 
 the Macedonians, and the inhabitants were driven 
 out of the country. ^2. A district in Macedonia 
 E. of the Strymon near Mt. Pangaeum, where the 
 Pierians settled, who had been driven out of their 
 original abodes by the Macedonians, as already 
 related. They possessed in this district the forti- 
 fied towns of Phagres and Pergamus.^3. A dis- 
 trict on the N. coast of Syria, so called from the 
 mountain Pieria, a branch of the Amanus, a name 
 
 PINARIA. 
 given to it by the Macedonians after their con- 
 quest of the East. In this district was the city of 
 Seloucia, which is distinguished from other cities 
 of the same name, as Seleucia in Pieria. 
 
 Pierides (nt€p/5es). 1. A surname of the 
 Muses, which they derived from Pieria, near Mt. 
 Olympus, where they were first worshipped among 
 the Thracians. Some derived the name from an 
 ancient king Pienis, who is said to have emigrated 
 from Thrace into Boeotia, and to have established 
 their worship at Thespiae. Pieria also occurs in 
 the singular.— 2, The nine daughters of Pierus, 
 king of Emathia (Macedonia), whom he begot by 
 Euippe or Antiope, and to whom he gave the names 
 of the 9 Muses. They afterwards entered into a 
 contest with the Muses, and, being conquered, they 
 were metamorphosed into birds called Colymbas, 
 lyngx, Cencliris, Cissa, Chloris, Acalanthis, Neasa, 
 Pipn, and Dracontis. 
 
 Pienis (Iliepos). 1. Mythological. [Pierides.] 
 — 2. A mountain. [Pieria, No. I.] 
 
 Pietas, a personification of faithful attachment, 
 love, and veneration among the Romans. At first 
 she had only a small sanctuary at Rome, but in 
 B.C. 191 a larger one was built. She is repre- 
 sented on Roman coins, .is a matron throwing in- 
 cense upon an altar, and her attributes are a stork 
 and children. She is sometimes represented as a 
 female figure offering her breast to an aged parent. 
 
 Pietas Julia. [Pola.] 
 
 Pigres (ni7p7;s), of Ilidicarnassus, either the 
 brother or the son of the celebrated Artemisia, 
 queen of Caria. He is said to have been the au- 
 thor of the Margites. and the Batrachomyomachia. 
 
 Pilia, the wife of T. Pomponius Atticus, to 
 whom she was married on the 12th of February, 
 B.C. 56. In the summer of the following year, 
 she bore her husband a daughter, who subsequently 
 married Vipsanius Agrippa. 
 
 Pildms (riiAtL'pos), a town of Macedonia in 
 Chalcidice, at the head of the Singitic gulf. 
 
 Pilumnus. [Picumnus.] 
 
 Pimplea (ni,u7rAeia), a town in the Macedonian 
 province of Pieria, sacred to the Muses, who were 
 hence called Fimpltides. Horace {Curm. i. 26. 9) 
 uses the form Pimplea in the singidar, and not 
 Pimplcis. 
 
 Pinara (ri Tlivapa.; Uivapeus : Pinara or Mi- 
 nara, Ru.), an inland city of Lycia, some distance 
 W. of the river Xanthus, at the foot of Mt. Cragus. 
 Here Pandarus was w{trshipped as a hero. 
 
 Pinaria Gens, one of the most ancient patrician 
 gcntes at Rome, traced its origin to a time long 
 previous to the foundation of the city. The legend 
 related that when Hercules came into Italy he was 
 hospitably received on the spot, where Rome was 
 afterwards built, by the Potitii and the Piiiarii, 
 two of the most distinguished families in the coun- 
 try. The hero, in return, taught them the way in 
 which he was to be worshipped ; but as the Pi- 
 narii were not at hand when the sacrificial banquet 
 was ready, and did not come till the entrails of the 
 victim were eaten, Hercules, in anger, determined 
 that the Pinarii should in all future time be ex- 
 cluded from partaking of the entrails of the vic- 
 tims, and that in all matters relating to his worship 
 they should be inferior to the Potitii. These two 
 families continued to be the hereditary priests of 
 Hercules till the censorship of App. Claudius { b. c. 
 312), who purchased from the Potitii the know- 
 ledge of the sacred rites, and entnisted them to 
 
PINARIUS. 
 
 public slaves ; whereat the god was bo angrj', tliat 
 the whole Potitia gens, containing 12 families and 
 30 grown up men, perished within a year, or 
 according to other accounts within 30 days, and 
 Appius himself became blind. The Pinarii did 
 not share in the guilt of communicating the sacred 
 knowledge,, and therefore did not receive the same 
 punishment as the Potitii, but continued in exist- 
 ence to the latest times. It appears that the wor- 
 ship of Hercules by the Potitii and Pinarii was a 
 sacrum gentUiiium belonging to these gentes, and 
 that in the time of App. Claudius these sacra pri- 
 vaia were made sacra puhlica. The Pinarii were 
 divided into the families of Mamerei?ius, Naita^ 
 Posca, RuscOf and Searpus, but none of them ob- 
 tained sufficient importance to require a separate 
 notice. 
 
 Plnarius, L., the great-nephew of the dictator 
 C. Julius Caesar, being the grandson of Julia, 
 Caesar'^s eldest sister. In the will of the dictator, 
 Pinarius was named one of his heirs along with 
 his two other great-nephews, C. Octavius and L. 
 Pinarius, Octavius obtaining three-fourths of the 
 property, and the remaining fourth being divided 
 between Pinarius and Pedius. 
 
 Pinams (Vlivapos), a river of Cilicia, rising in 
 M. Amanus, and falling into the gulf of Issus near 
 Issua, between the mouth of the Pyramus and the 
 Syrian frontier. 
 
 Pindaras (UifSapos), the greatest lyric poet of 
 Greece, was born either at Thebes or at Cynosce- 
 phalae, a village in the territory of Thebes, about 
 B. c. 522. His family was one of the noblest in 
 Thebes, and seems also to have been celebrated for 
 its skill in music. The father or uncle of Pindar 
 was a flute-player, and Pindar at an early age re- 
 ceived instruction in the art from the flute-player 
 Scopelinus. But the youth soon gave indications 
 of a genius for poetry, which induced his father to 
 send him to Athens to receive more perfect instruc- 
 tion in the art. Later writers tell us that his future 
 glory as a poet was miraculously foreshadowed by a 
 Bwarm of bees which rested upon his lips while he 
 was asleep, and that this miracle 6rst led him to 
 compose poetry. At Athens Pindar became the 
 pupil of Lasus of Hermione, the founder of the 
 Athenian school of dithyrambic poetry. He re- 
 turned to Thebes before he completed his 20th 
 year, and is said to have received instruction there 
 from Myrtis and Corinna of Tanagra, two poet- 
 esses, who then enjoyed great celebrity in Boeotia. 
 With both these poetesses Pindar contended for 
 the prize in the musical contests at Thebes ; and 
 he is said to have been defeated five times by 
 Corinna. Pindar commenced his professional ca- 
 reer as a poet at an early age, and was soon em- 
 ployed by different states and princes in all parts 
 of the Hellenic world to compose for them choral 
 songs for special occasions. He received money 
 and presents for his works ; but he never degene- 
 rated into a common mercenary poet, and he con- 
 tinued to preserve to his latest days the respect of 
 all parts of Greece. He composed poems forHieron, 
 tyrant of Syracuse, Alexander, son of Amyntas, 
 king of Macedonia, Theron, tyrant of Agrigen- 
 tum, Arcesiiaus, king of Cyrene, as well as for 
 many free states and private persons. He was 
 courted especially by Alexander, king of Mace- 
 donia, and Hieron, tyrant of Syracuse ; and the 
 praises which he bestowed upon the former are 
 said to have been the chief reason which led liis 
 
 PINDARUS. 
 
 577 
 
 descendant, Alexander, the son of Philip, to spare 
 the house of the poet, when he destroyed the rest of 
 Thebes. Pindar^s stated residence was at Thebes, 
 though he frequently left home in order to wit- 
 ness the great public games, and to visit the stites 
 and distinguished men who courted his friendship 
 and employed his services. Thus about b. c. 47 3 he 
 visited the court of Hieron at Syracuse, where he 
 remained 4 years. He probably died in his UOth 
 year in 442. — The only poems of Pindar which 
 have come down to us entire are his Epinicia, or 
 triumphal odes. But these were but a small por- 
 tion of his works. Besides his triumphal odes he 
 wrote hymns to the gods, paeans, dithyrambs, odes 
 for processions {trpo<T65ia), songs of maidens (irap- 
 flei^eio), mimic dancing songs (yTropx'^MoTo), drink- 
 ing-songs (o-KiiAia), dirges (^p^x'ot), and encomia 
 {eyKUfxia), or panegyrics on princes. Of these we 
 have numerous fragments. Most of them are 
 mentioned in the well-known lines of Horace 
 {Car7n. iv. 2) : 
 
 " Seu per audaces nova dithyrarabos 
 Verba devolvit, numerisque fertur 
 
 Lege solutis : 
 Seu deos {hymns and paea7is) regesve (encomia) 
 
 canit, deorura 
 Sanguinem : . . . 
 Sive quos Elea domum reducit 
 Palma caelestes {the Epinicia) : . . . 
 Flebili sponsae juvenemve raptum 
 Plorat " {the dirges). 
 
 In all of these varieties Pindar equally excelled, as 
 we see from the numerous quotations made from 
 them by the ancient writers, though they are gene- 
 rally of too fragmentary a kind to allow us to form 
 a judgment respecting them. Our estimate of 
 Pindar as a poet must be formed almost exclusively 
 from his Epinicia^ which were composed in com- 
 memoration of some victory in the public games. 
 The Epinicia are divided into 4 books, celebrating 
 respectively the victories gained in the Olympian, 
 Pythian, Nemean, and Isthmian games. In order 
 to understand them properly we must bear in mind 
 the nature of the occasion for which they were com- 
 posed, and the object which the poet had in view. 
 A victory gained in one of the 4 great national 
 festivals conferred honour not only upon the con- 
 queror and his family, but abo upon the city to 
 which he belonged. It was accordingly celebrated 
 with great pomp and ceremony. Such a celebra- 
 tion began with a procession to a temple, where a 
 sacrifice was offered, and it ended with a banquet 
 and the joyous revelry, called by the Greeks comus 
 (kwjlios). For this celebration a poem was ex- 
 pressly composed, which was sung by a chorus. 
 The poems were sung either during the procession 
 to the temple or at the comus at the close of the 
 banquet. Those of Pindar's Epinician odes which 
 consist of strophes without epodes were sung during 
 the procession, but the majority of them appear to 
 have been sung at the comus. In these odes Pin- 
 dar rarely describes the victory itself, as the scene 
 was familiar to all the spectators, but he dwells 
 upon the glory of the victor, and celebrates chiefly 
 either his wealth {oXSoi) or his skill (ciperi^), — 
 his wealthy if he had gained the victory in the 
 chariot-race, since it was only the wealthy that 
 could contend for the prize in this contest; his 
 skilly if he had been exposed to peril in the con- 
 test. — The metres of Pindar are too extensive and 
 
578 
 
 PINDASUS. 
 
 difficult a subject to admit of explanation in the 
 present work. No two odes possess the same 
 metrical structure. The Doric rhythm chiefly pre- 
 vails, but he also makes frequent use of the Aeolian 
 and Lydian as well. The best editions of Pindar 
 are by Bockh, Lips. 1811 — 1821, 2 vols. 4to., and 
 by Dissen, of which there is a 2nd edition by 
 Schneidewin, Gotha, 1843, aeq. 
 
 Pindasus (IliVSao-os), a S. branch of M. Tem- 
 nus in Mysia, extending to the Elaitic Gulf, and 
 containing the sources of the river Cetius. 
 
 Pindus (UivSos). 1. A lofty range of moun- 
 tains in northern Greece, a portion of the great 
 back bone, which runs through the centre of Greece 
 from N. to S. The name of Pindus was confined 
 to that part of the chain which separates Thessaly 
 and Epirus ; and its most N.-Iy and also highest 
 part was called Lacmon."^2, One of the 4 towns 
 in Doris, near the sources of a small river of the 
 same name which flowed through Locris into the 
 Cephissus. 
 
 Pinna (Pinnensis: Civila di P&nna')^ the chief 
 town of the Vestini at the foot of the Apennines, 
 surrounded by beautiful meadows. 
 
 Pinnes, Pinneus, or Pineus, was the son of 
 Agron, king of Illyria, by his first wife, Triteuta. 
 At the death of Agron (b, c. 231), Pinnes, who was 
 then a child, was left in the guardianship of his 
 step-mother Teuta, whom Agron had married after 
 divorcing Triteuta. When Teuta was defeated by 
 the Romans, the care of Pinnes devolved upon 
 Demetrius of Pharos ; but when Demetrius in his 
 turn made war against the Romans and was de- 
 feated, Pinnes was placed upon the throne by the 
 Romans, but was compelled to pay tribute. 
 
 Pintuaria [TiLvrovapia : Teneriffe), one of the 
 Insulae Fortunatae {Canary Is.) off the W, 
 coast of Africa, also called Convallis, and, from 
 the perpetual snow on its peak, Nivaria. 
 
 Piraeeus or Piraeus (Xleipaievs : Porto Leone or 
 Porto DracoTie), the most important of the harbours 
 of Athens, was situated in the peninsula about 5 
 miles S.W. of Athens. This peninsula, which is 
 sometimes called by the general name of Piraeeus, 
 contained 3 harbours, Piraeeus proper on the W. 
 side, by far the largest of the 3, Zea on the E. side 
 separated from Piraeeus by a narrow isthmus, and 
 Munycliia {Pharnari) still further to the E. The 
 position of Piraeeus and of the Athenian har- 
 bours has been usually misunderstood. In conse- 
 quence of a statement in an ancient Scholiast, it 
 was generally supposed that the great harbour of 
 Piraeeus was divided into 3 smaller harbours, Zea 
 for corn-vessels, Aphrodisium for merchant -ships in 
 general, and CanilLarus for ships of war ; but this 
 division of the Piraeeus is now rejected by the 
 best topographers. Zea was a harbour totally dis- 
 tinct from the Piraeeus, as is stated above ; the N. 
 portion of the Piraeeus seems to have been used 
 ^y the merchant vessels, and the Cantharus, where 
 the ships of war were stationed, was on the S. side 
 of the harbour near the entrance. It was through 
 the suggestion of Themistocles that the Athenians 
 were induced to make use of the harbour of Pi- 
 raeeus. Before the Persian wars their principal 
 harbour was Phalerum, which was not situated in 
 the Piraean peninsula at all, but lay to the E. of 
 Munychia. [Phalerum.] At the entrance of 
 the harbour of Piraeeus there were 2 promontories, 
 the one on the right-hand called Alcimus {"AKia- 
 wos), on which was the tomb of Themistocles, and 
 
 PIRUSTAE. 
 
 the other on the left called Ettionea {^HcTiioveia), 
 on which the Four Hundred erected a fortress. 
 The entrance of the harbour, which was narrow 
 by nature, was rendered still narrower by two 
 mole-heads, to which a chain was attached to pre- 
 vent the ingress, of hostile ships. The town or 
 demus of Piraeeus was surrounded with strong 
 fortifications by Themistocles, and was connected 
 with Athens by means of the celebrated Long 
 Walls under the administration of Pericles, [See 
 p. 102, b.] The town possessed a considerable 
 population, and many public and private buildings. 
 The most important of its public buildings were : 
 the Agora Hippodamia, a temple of Zeus Soter, 
 a large stoa, a theatre, the Phreattys or tribunal 
 for the admirals, the arsenal, the docks, &c. 
 
 Pirene (Ueip-fiv-rj), a celebrated fountain at Co- 
 rinth, which, according to tradition, took its origin 
 from Pirene, a daughter of Oebalus, who here 
 melted away into tears through grief for the loss 
 of her son Cenchrias. At this fountain Bellerophon 
 is said to have caught the horse Pegasus. It 
 gushed forth from the rock in the Acrocorinthus, 
 was conveyed down the hill by subterraneous con- 
 duits, and fell into a marble basin, from which 
 the greater part of the town was supplied with 
 water. The fountain was celebrated for the purity 
 and salubrity of its water, and was so highly valued 
 that the poets frequently employed its name as 
 equivalent to that of Corinth itself. 
 
 Piresiae {Uetpeo-iai), probably the same as the 
 Iresiae of Livy, a town of Thessaly in the district 
 Thessaliotis, on the left bank of the Peneus. 
 
 Pirithous [Ueipidoos), son of Ixion or Zeus by 
 Dia, was king of the Lapithae in Thessaly, and 
 married to Hippodamia, by whom he became the 
 father of Polypoetes. When Pirithoiis was cele- 
 brating his marriage with Hippodamia, the intoxi- 
 cated Centaur Eurytion or Eurytus carried her off, 
 and this act occasioned the celebrated fight between 
 the Centaurs and Lapithae, in which the Centaurs 
 were defeated. Pirithoiis once invaded Attica, but 
 when Theseus came forth to oppose him, he con- 
 ceived a warm admiration for the Athenian king ; 
 and from this time a most intimate friendship 
 sprung up between the 2 heroes. Theseus was 
 present at the wedding of Pirithoiis, and assisted 
 him in his battle against the Centaurs. Hippo- 
 damia afterwards died, and each of the two friends 
 resolved to wed a daughter of Zeug. With the 
 assistance of Pirithous, Theseus carried off Helen 
 from Sparta, and placed her at Aethra under the care 
 of Phaedra. Pirithous was still more ambitious, 
 and resolved to carry off Persephone (Proserpina), 
 the wife of the king of the lower world. Theseus 
 wottld not desert his friend in the enterprise, 
 though he knew the risk which they ran. The 2 
 friends accordingly descended to the lower world, 
 but they were seized by Pluto and fastened to a 
 rock, where they both remained till Hercules 
 visited the lower world. Hercules delivered 
 Theseus, who had made the daring attempt only 
 to please his friend, but Pirithoiis remained for ever 
 in torment {amaiorem ireceniae Pirithoum coUibent 
 catenae^ Hor. Carm^ iii. 4. 80). Pirithoiis was 
 worshipped at Athens, along with Theseus, as a 
 hero. 
 
 Pirus (rietpos), Pierus (nfepos), or Achelous, 
 the chief river of Achaia, which falls into the gulf 
 of Patrae, near Olenus. 
 
 Pirustae, a people in Illyriaj exempted from 
 
taxes by the Romans, because they deserted Gen- 
 tius and passed over to the Romans. 
 
 Pisa (n^o-a: nio-oTTjs), the capital of Pisatis 
 (niffaris), the middle portion of the province of 
 Elis in Peloponnesus. [Elis.] In the most an- 
 cient times Pisatis formed an union of 8 states, of 
 
 and one of the suitors of Penelope. — 2. An Athe- 
 nian, of the demus of Achamae, lived in the time 
 of the Peloponnesian war, and was attacked by 
 the comic poets for his rapacity and cowardice. In 
 412 he comes before us as the chief ostensible 
 agent in effecting the revolution of the Four 
 
PISISTRATIDAE. 
 
 PISISTRATUS. 
 
 Pisidians, Nominally, the country wns considered spect to his advice, though he prosecuted his schemes 
 
 a part of Pamphylia, till the new sub-division of none the less diligently. When Pisistratus found 
 
 the empire under Constantine, when Piaidia was his plans sufficiently ripe for execution, he one 
 
 made a separate province. The country is still day made his appearance in the agora with his 
 
 inhabited by wild tribes, among whom travelling muies and his own person exhibiting recent wounds, 
 
 is dangerous ; and it is therefore little known, pretending that he had been nearly assassinated 
 
 Ancient writers say that it contained, amidst its by his enemies as he was riding into the countrj% 
 
 rugged mountains, some fertile valleys, where the An assembly of the people was forthwith called, 
 
 olive flourished ; and it also produced the gum in which one of his partisans proposed that a 
 
 etorax, some medicinal plants, and salt On the body-guard of 50 citizens, armed with clubs, should 
 
 S. slope of the Taurus, several rivers flowed through be granted to him. It was in vain that Solon 
 
 Pisidia and Pamphylia, into the Pamphylian gulf, opposed this ; the guard was given him. Through 
 
 the chief of which were the Cestrus and the Ca- the neglect or connivance of the people Pisistratus 
 
 tarrhactes ; and on the N. the mountain streams took this opportunity of raising a much larger 
 
 form some large salt lakes, namely, Ascania force, with which he seized the citadel, b. c. 560, 
 
 {Hoiran and Egerdir) S. of Antiochia, Caralius or thus becoming, what the Greeks called Tyrant of 
 
 Pusgusa {Bei SJieJir or Kereli) JS. E. of the former, Athens. Having secured to himself the substance 
 
 and Trogitis (^WA/tf) further to the S.E., in Isauria. of power, he made no further change in the con- 
 
PISISTRATUS. 
 
 a charge of murder, which however was not prose- 
 cuted. Athens was indebted to him for many 
 stately and useful buildings. Among these may 
 be mentioned a temple to the Pythian Apollo, and 
 a magniiicent temple to the Olympian Zeus, which 
 remained unfinished for several centuries, and was 
 ■at length completed by the emperor Hadrian. Be- 
 sides these, the Lyceum, a garden with stately 
 buildings a short distance from the city, was the 
 work of Pisistratus, as also the fountain of the 
 Nine Springs. Pisistratus also encouraged litera- 
 ture in various ways. It was apparently under 
 bis auspices that Thespis introduced at Athens his 
 rude form of tragedy (a. c. 535), and that dramatic 
 contests were made a regular part of the Attic 
 Dionysia. It is to Pisistratus that we owe the 
 first written text of the whole of the poems of 
 Homer, which, without his care, would most likely 
 now exist only in a few disjointed fragments. 
 [HoMERUs.] Pisistratus is also said to have been 
 the first person in Greece who collected a library, 
 to which he generously allowed tlie public access. 
 By his first wife Pisistratus had 2 sons, Hippias 
 and Hipparchus. By his 2nd wife, Tiraonassa, he 
 had also 2 sons, lophon and Thessalus, who are 
 xarely mentioned. He had also a bastard son, 
 Hegesistratus, whom he made tyrant of Sigeum, 
 after taking that town from the Mytilenaeans. 
 Pisistratus died at an advanced age in 527, and 
 was succeeded in the tyranny by his eldest son 
 Hippias: but Hippias and his brother Hipparchus 
 appear to have administered the affairs of the state 
 with so little outward distinction, that they are 
 irequently spoken of as though they had been joint 
 tyrants. They continued the government on the 
 same principles as their father. Thucydides (vi. 
 54,) speaks in terms of high commendation of the 
 virtue and intelligence with which their rule was 
 exercised till the death of Hipparchus. Hippar- 
 jchus inherited his father's literary tastes. Several 
 distinguished poets lived at Athens under the 
 patronage of Hipparchus, as, for example, Simo- 
 nides of Ceos, Anacreon of Teos, Lasus of Her- 
 mione, and Onomacritus. After the murder of 
 Hipparchus in 514, an account of which is given 
 under Harmodius, a great change ensued in the 
 character of the government. Under the influence 
 of revengeful feelings and fears for his own safety 
 Hippias now became a morose and suspicious 
 tyrant. He put to death great numbers of the 
 .citizens, and raised money by extraordinary imposts. 
 His old enemies the Alcmaeonidae, to whom Me- 
 gacles belonged, availed themselves of the growing 
 discontent of the citizens ; and after one or two 
 unsuccessful attempts they at length succeeded, 
 supported by a large force under Cleomenes, in 
 expelling the Pisistratidae from Attica. Hippias 
 and his connections retired to Sigeum, 510. The 
 family of the tyrants was condemned to perpetual 
 banishment, a sentence which was maintained even 
 in after-times, when decrees of amnesty were 
 passed. Hippias afterwards repaired to the court 
 of Darius, and looked forward to a restoration to 
 his country by the aid of the Persians. He ac- 
 companied the expedition sent under Datis and 
 Artaphernes, and pointed out to the Persians the 
 plain of Marathon, as the most suitable place for their 
 landing. He was now (490) of great age. Ac- 
 cordin<T to some accounts he fell in the battle of 
 Marathon ; according to others he died at Lemnos 
 on his return. Hippias was the only one of tlie 
 
 PISO. 
 
 581 
 
 legitimate sons of Pisistratus who had children ; 
 but none of them attained distinction. 
 
 Piso, Calpumius, the name of a distinguished 
 plebeian family. The name of Piso, like many 
 other Roman cognomens, is connected with agri- 
 culture, the noblest and most honourable pursuit 
 of the ancient Romans : it comes from the verb 
 pisere or pinsere^ and refers to the pounding or 
 grinding of com. — 1, Was taken prisoner at the 
 battle of Cannae, B.C. 216; was praetor urbanus 
 21 i, and afterwards commanded as propraetor in 
 Etruria, 210. Piso in his praetorship proposed to 
 the senate, that the Ludi ApoUinarea, which had 
 been exhibited for the first time in the preceding 
 year (212), should be repeated, and should be 
 celebrated in future annually. The senate passed 
 a decree to this effect. The establishment of these 
 games by their ancestor was commemorated on 
 coins by the Pisones in later times. ^ 2. C, son of 
 No. 1, was praetor 186, and received Further 
 Spain as his province. He returned to Rome in 
 184, and obtained a triumph for a victory he had 
 gained over the Lusitani and Celtiberi. He was 
 consul in 180, and died during his consulship. 
 
 Pisones with the agnomen Cuesomnus. 
 
 3. L., received the agnomen Caesoninus, because 
 he originally belonged to the Caesonia gens. He 
 was praetor in 154, and obtained the province 
 of Further Spain, but was defeated by the 
 Lusitani. He was consul in 148, and was sent 
 to conduct the war against Carthage ; he was 
 succeeded in the command in the following year 
 by Scipio.^4. L., son of No. 3, consul 112 with 
 M. Livius Drusus. In 107 he served as legatus 
 to the consul, L. Cassius Longinus, who was sent 
 into Graul to oppose the Cimbri and their allies, 
 and he fell together with the consul in the battle, 
 in which the Roman army was utterly defeated by 
 the Tigurini in the territory of the Allobroges, 
 This Piso was the grandfather of Caesar's father- 
 in-law, a circumstance to which Caesar himself 
 alludes in recording his own victory over the Tigu- 
 rini at a later time. (Caes. B. G. i. 7, 12.)— 5. L., 
 son of No. 4, never rose to any of the offices of 
 state, and is only known from the account given of 
 him by Cicero in his violent invective against his 
 son. He married the daughter of Calventius, 
 a native of Cisalpine Gaul, who came from 
 Piacentia and settled at Rome; and hence Cicero 
 calls his son in contempt a semi-Placentian. ^ 
 6. Ij., son of No. 5, was an unprincipled de- 
 bauchee and a cruel and corrupt magistrate. 
 He is first mentioned in 59^ when he was brought 
 to trial by P. Clodius for plundering a province, 
 of which he had the administration after his 
 praetorship, and he was only acquitted by throw- 
 i]ig himself at the feet of the judges. In the 
 same year Caesar married his daughter Cal- 
 purnia; and through his influence Piso obtained 
 the consulship for 58, having for his colleague A. 
 Gabinius, who was indebted for the honour to 
 Pompey. Both consuls supported Clodius in his 
 measures against Cicero, which resulted in the 
 banishment of the orator. The conduct of Piso in 
 support of Clodius produced that extreme resent- 
 ment in the mind of Cicero, which he displayed 
 against Piso on many subsequent occasions. At 
 the expiration of his consulship Piso went to his 
 province of Macedonia, where he remained during 
 2 years (57 and 56), plundering the province in the 
 
582 PISO. 
 
 most shameless manner. In the latter of these 
 years the senate resolved that a successor should be 
 appointed ; and in the debate in the senate which 
 led to his recall, Cicero attacked him in .the most 
 unmeasured tenns in an oration which has come 
 down to us (Z)e Provinciis Consularibus). Piso 
 on his return (55) complained in the senate of the 
 attack of Cicero, and justified the administration 
 of his province, whereupon Cicero reiterated his 
 charges in a speech which is likewise extant {In 
 Pisonem). Cicero, however, did not venture to 
 bring to trial the father in-law of Caesar. In 
 50 Piao was censor with Ap. Claudius Pulcher. 
 On the breaking out of the civil war (49) Piso 
 accompanied Pompey in his flight from the city ; 
 and althi^ugh he did not go with him across the 
 sea» he still kept aloof from Caesar. He subse- 
 quently returned to Rome, and remained neutral 
 during the remainder of the civil war. After 
 Caesar''s death (44) Piso at first opposed Antony, 
 tut is afterwards mentioned as one of his partisans, 
 ^7. li., son of No. 6, was consul 15, and afterwards 
 obtained the province of Pamphylia ; from thence 
 he was recalled by Augustus in 1 1, in order to make 
 war upon the Thrucians, who had attacked the 
 province of Macedonia. He was appointed by 
 Tiberius praefectus urbi. While redlining the 
 favour of the emperor, without condescending to 
 servility, he at the same time earned the good-will 
 of his fellow-citizens by the integrity and justice 
 with which he governed the city. He died in 
 A. D. 3*2, at the age of HO, and was honoured by a 
 decree of the senate, with a public funeral. It 
 was to this Piso and his "2 sons that Horace ad- 
 dressed his epistle on the Art of Poetry. 
 
 Flsones with tJie agnomen Frugi. 
 
 8. L., received from his integrity and conscien- 
 tiousness the surname of Frugi, which is perhaps 
 nearly equivalent to our " man of honour," He was 
 tribune of the plebs, 149, in which year he proposed 
 the first law for the punishment of extortion in the 
 provinces. He was consul in 133, and carried on 
 war against the slaves in Sicily. He was a staunch 
 supporter of the aristocratical party, and offered a 
 strong opposition to the measures of C. Gracchus. 
 Piso was censor, but it is uncertain in what year. 
 He wrote Annals, which contained the history of 
 Rome from the earliest period to the age in which 
 Piso himself lived. — 9. L., son of No. 8, served 
 with distinction under his father in Sicily in 133, 
 and died in Spain about 111, whither he had gone 
 as propraetor. — 10. L., son of No. 9, was a col- 
 league of Verres in the praetorship, 74, when he 
 thivarted many of the unrighteous schemes of the 
 latter. — U. C, son of No. 10, married TuUia, 
 the daughter of Cicero, in 63, but was betrothed to 
 her as early as 67. He was quaestor in 58, when 
 ha used every exertion to obtain the recall of his 
 father-in-law from banishment ; but he died in b7 
 before Cicero ""s return to Rome. He is frequently 
 mentioned by Cicero in terms of gratitude on ac- 
 count of the zeal which he had manifested in his 
 behalf during his banishment. 
 
 Pisones without an agnomen. 
 
 12. C, consul 67, belonged to the high aristo- 
 cratical party ; and in his consulship opposed with 
 the utmost vehemence the law of the tribune Ga- 
 binius, for giving Pompey the command of the 
 war against the pirates. In GQ and 65, Piso ad- 
 
 PISO. 
 
 ministered the province of Narbonese Gaul as pro- 
 consul, and while there suppressed an insurrection 
 of the A'Uobroges, In 63 he was accused of plun- 
 dering the province, and was defended by Cicero. 
 The latter charge was brought against Piso at the 
 instigation of Caesar; and Piso, in revenge, im- 
 plored Cicero, but without success, to accuse Caesar 
 as one of the conspirators of Catiline. -^ 13. M., 
 usually called M. Pupius Piso, because he was 
 adopted by M. Puplus, when the latter was an old 
 man. He retained, however, his family-name Piso, 
 just as Scipio, after his adoption by Metellus, was 
 called Metellus Scipio. [Metellus, No. 15. J Ou 
 the death of L. Cinna, in 84, Piso married his wife 
 Annia. In 83 he was appointed quaestor to the con- 
 sul L. Scipio; but he quickly deserted this party, and 
 went over to Sulla, who compelled him to divorce 
 his wife on account of her previous connection with 
 Cinna. After his praetorship, the year of which 
 is uncertain, he received the province of Spain 
 with the title of proconsul, and on his return to 
 pLome in 69, enjoyed the honour of a triumph. He 
 served in the Mithridatic war as a legatus of Pom- 
 pey. He was elected consul for 61 through the 
 influence of Pompey. In his consulship Piso gave 
 great offence to Cicero, by not asking the orator 
 first in the senate for his opinion, and by taking P. 
 Clodius under his protection after his violation of 
 the mysteries of the Bona Dea. Cicero revenged 
 himself on Piso, by preventing him from obtaining 
 the province of Syria, which had been promised 
 him. Piso, in his younger days, had so high a 
 reputation as an orator, that Cicero was taken to 
 him by his father, in order to receive instruction, 
 from him. He belonged to the Peripatetic school 
 in philosophy, in which he received instructions 
 from Staseas. — 14. Cn., a young noble who had 
 dissipated his fortune by his extravagance and 
 profligacy, and therefore joined Catiline in what is 
 usually called his first conspiracy {QQ)- [For de- 
 tails see p. 155, h.] The senate anxious to get 
 rid of Piso sent him into Nearer Spain as quaestor, 
 but with the rank and title of propraetor. His 
 exactions in the province soon made him so hateful 
 tn the inhabitants, that he was murdered by them. 
 It was, however, supposed by some that he was 
 murdered at the instigation of Pompey or of Cras- 
 6us.^l5. Cn., fought against Caesar in Africa 
 (46), and after the death of the dictator, joined 
 Brutus and Cassius. He was subsequently par- 
 doned, and retured to Rome ; but he disdained to 
 ask Augustus for any of the honours of the state, 
 and was, without solicitation, raised to the consul- 
 ship in 23. —16. Cn., son of No. 15, inherited all 
 the pride and haughtiness of his father. He was 
 consul B. c. 7, and was sent by Augustus as legate 
 into Spain, where he made himself hated by his 
 cruelty and avarice. Tiberius after his accession 
 was chiefly jealous of Germanicus, his brother^s 
 son ; and accordingly, when the eastern provinces 
 were assigned to Gei-manicus in a. d, 18, Tiberius 
 conferred upon Piso the command of Syria, in order 
 that the latter might do every thing in his power 
 to thwart and oppose Germanicus. Plancina, the 
 wife of Piso, was also urged on by Livia, the mo- 
 ther of the emperor, to vie with and annoy Agrip- 
 pina. Germanicus and Agrippina were thus ex- 
 posed to every species of insult and opposition from 
 Piso and Plancina ; and when Germanicus fell ill 
 in the autumn of 19, he believed that he had been 
 poisoned by them. Piso on his return to Rome 
 
PISTOR. 
 (20) was accused of murdering Germanicus ; the 
 matter was investigated by the senate ; but before 
 the investigation came to an end, Piso was found 
 one morning in his room with his throat cut, and 
 lis sword lying by his side. It was generally sup- 
 posed that, despairing of the emperor's protection, 
 he had put an end to his own life ; but others be- 
 lieved that Tiberius dreaded his revealing his 
 secrets, and accordingly caused him to be put to 
 death. The powerful influence of Livia secured 
 tlie acquittal of Plancina. — 17. C, the leader of 
 the well-known conspiracy against Nero in a. n. 
 65. Piso himself did not form the plot ; but as 
 soon as he had joined it, his great popularity 
 gained him many partizans. He possessed most 
 of the qualities which the Romans prized, high 
 birth, an eloquent address, liberality and affa- 
 bility ; and he also displayed a sufficient love of 
 magnificence and luxury to suit the taste of the 
 day, which would not have tolerated austerity of 
 manner or character. The conspiracy was disco- 
 vered by Milichus, a freedman of Flavins Scevinus, 
 one of the conspirators. Piso thereupon opened 
 his veins, and thus died. There is extant a poem 
 in 261 lines, containing a panegyric on a certain 
 Calpumius Piso, who is probably the same person 
 as the leader of the conspiracy against Nero. — 
 18. L., surnamed LiciniaJiixs, was the son of 
 M. LiciniuB Crassus Frugi, and was adopted by 
 one of the Pisones. On the accession of Galba to 
 the throne, he adopted as his son and successor 
 Piso Licinianus ; but the latter only enjoyed the 
 distinction 4 days, for Otho, who had hoped to 
 receive this honour, induced the praetorians to rise 
 against the emperor. Piso fled for refuge into the 
 temple of Vesta, but was dragged out by the sol- 
 diers, and despatched at the threshold of the 
 temple, A. d. 69. 
 
 Pistor, that is, the baker, a surname of Jupiter 
 at Rome, which is said to have arisen in the fol- 
 lowing manner. When the Gauls were besieging 
 Rome, the god suggested to the besieged the idea 
 of throwing loaves of bread among the enemies, to 
 make them believe that the Romans had plenty of 
 provisions, and thus caused them to give up the 
 siege. 
 
 Pistoria or Fistorium (Pistoriensis : Pistoia), 
 a small place in Etruria, on the road from Luca to 
 Florentia, rendered memorable by the defeat of 
 Catiline in its neighbourhood. 
 
 Pitana. [Sparta. ] 
 
 Pitane {TiLTo-vri : Sanderli), a seaport town of 
 Mysia, on the coast of the Elaitic gulf, at the 
 mouth of the Evenus or, according to some, of the 
 Caicus ; almost destroyed by an earthquake under 
 Titus. It was the birthplace of the Academic 
 philosopher Arcesilaus. 
 
 Pithecusa. [Aenaria.] 
 
 Pitho (Tleieoi), called Suada or Suadela by 
 the Romans, the personification of Persuasion. She 
 was worshipped as a divinity at Sicyon, where she 
 was honoured with a temple in the agora. Pitho 
 also occurs as a surname of Aphrodite, whose wor- 
 ship was said to have been introduced at Athens 
 by Theseus, when he united the country commu- 
 nities into towns. At Athens the statues of Pitho 
 and Aphrodite Pandemos stood close together ; 
 and at Megara the statue of Pitho stood in the 
 temple of Aphrodite ; so that the 2 divinities must 
 be conceived as closely connected, or the one, per- 
 haps, merely as an attribute of the other. 
 
 PITTHEUS. 
 
 £83 
 
 Pithon (nidtcv also nelOuv and UuBav). 1. Son 
 of Agenor, a Macedonian officer of Alexander the 
 Great He received from Alexander the govern- 
 ment of part of the Indian provinces, in which he 
 was confirmed after the king's death. In B.C. 316, 
 he received from Antigonus the satrapy of Babylon. 
 He afterwards fought with Demetrius against Pto- 
 lemy, and was slain at the battle of Gaza, 312.— 
 2. Son of Crateuas or Crateas, a Macedonian officer 
 of Alexander, who is frequently confounded with 
 the preceding. After Alexander's death he received 
 fromPerdiccas the satrapy of Media. He accompanied 
 Perdiccas on his expedition to Egypt, (321), but 
 he took part in the mutiny against Perdiccas, which 
 terminated in the death of the latter. Pithon ren- . 
 dered important service to Antigonus in his war 
 against Eumenes; but after the death of Eumenes, 
 he began to form schemes for his own aggrandise- 
 ment, and was accordingly put to death by Anti- 
 gonus, 316. 
 
 Pitmum (Pitinas, -atis). 1. {Piiino)^ a munici- 
 pium in the interior of Umbria on the river Pisau- 
 rus, whence its inhabitants are called in inscriptions 
 Pitinates Pisaurenses. The town also bore the 
 surname Mergens. ^ 2. A town in Picenum, on 
 the road from Castnim Novum to Prifernum, 
 
 Pittacus (IliTTa/ctis), one of those early culti- 
 vators of letters, who were designated as " the 
 Seven Wise Men of Greece,''*' was a native of 
 Mytilene in Lesbos, and was bom about b. c. 
 652. He was highly celebrated as a warrior, 
 a statesman, a philosopher, and a poet. He is 
 first mentioned, in public life, as an opponent of 
 the tyrants of Mytilene. In conjunction with 
 the brothers of Alcaeus, he overthrew and killed 
 the tyrant Melanchrus, b. c. 612. In 606, he 
 commanded the Mytilenaeans, in their war with 
 the Athenians for the possession of Sigeum, on the 
 coast of the Troad, and signalized himself by killing 
 in single combat Phrynon, the commander of the 
 Athenians. This feat Pittacus performed by en- 
 tangling his adversary in a net, and then despatch- 
 ing him with a trident and a dagger, exactly after 
 the fashion in which the gladiators called retiarii 
 long afterwards fought at Rome. This war was 
 terminated by the mediation of Periander, who 
 assigned the disputed territory to the Athenians ; 
 but the internal troubles of Mytilene still continued. 
 The supreme power was fiercely disputed between 
 a succession of tyrants, and the aristocratic party, 
 headed by Alcaeus and his brother Antimenidas; 
 and the latter were driven into exile. As the 
 exiles tried to effect their return by force of arms, 
 the popular party chose Pittacus as their ruler, 
 with absolute power, under the title of Aesymnetes 
 {al(Tv^v'f}TT}s), He held this office for 10 years 
 (589 — 579) and then voluntarily resigned it, having 
 by his administration restored order to the state, 
 and prepared it for the safe enjoyment of a repub- 
 lican form of government. He lived in great 
 honour at Mytilene for 10 years after the re- 
 signation of his government; and died in 569, at 
 an advanced age. Of the proverbial maxims of 
 practical wisdom, which were current under the 
 names of the seven wise men of Greece, two were 
 ascribed to Pittacus, namely, Xa\^-nhv daOKhv e/x- 
 fiivai^ and Katphv yi/wdi. 
 
 Pittheus (niTfleus), king of Troezene, was son 
 of Pelops and Dia, father of Aethra, and grand- 
 father and instructor of Theseus. When Theseus 
 , married Phaedra, Pittheus took Hippolytua into 
 
584 
 
 PITYIA. 
 
 his house. His tomb and the chair on which he 
 had sat in judgment were shown at Troezene down 
 to a late time. He is said to have taught the art 
 of speaking, and even to have written a book upon 
 it Aethra as his daughter is called Fittheis. 
 
 Pltyia (IIiTueio : prob. Shamelik\ a town men- 
 tioned by Homer, in the N. of Mysia, between 
 Parium and Priapus, evidently named from the 
 pine forests in its neighbourhood. 
 
 Pityonesus {XltTv6v7}(ros : Angldstn)^ an island 
 off the coast of Argolis. 
 
 Pityiis (Jlnvovs : prob. Pitzunda), a Greek 
 city, in Sarmatia Asiatica, on the N. E. coast of 
 the Euxine, 360 stadia N.W. of Dioscurlaa. In 
 the time of Strabo, it was a considerable city and 
 port. It was afterwards destroyed by the neigh- 
 bouring tribe of the Heniochi, but it was restored, 
 and long served as an important frontier fortress of 
 the Roman Empire. 
 
 Pityusa, Pityuasa (ITcruoiJo-a, IXiTuoDo-o-a, con- 
 tracted from TTiTvSeaffa fem. of irirvdeis), i. e. 
 abounding in pine-trees. 1. The ancient name of 
 Lampsacus, Salamis, and Chios. — 2. A small 
 island in the Argolic gulf. — 3. The name of 2 
 islands off the S. coast of Spain, W. of the Ba- 
 leares. The larger of them was called Ebusus 
 {Iviza), the smaller Ophiussa (Formentera) : the 
 latter was uninhabited. 
 
 Pixodarus (ni|ai5apos), prince or king of Caria, 
 was the youngest of the 3 sons of Hecatomnus, all 
 of whom successively held the sovereignty of Caria. 
 Pixodarus obtained possession of the throne by 
 the expulsion of his sister Ada, the widow and 
 successor of her brother Idrieus, and held it with- 
 out opposition for 5 years, B.C. 340 — 335, He 
 was succeeded by his son-in-law Orontobates. 
 
 Placentia (Placentinus : Fiacenza), a Roman 
 colony in Cisalpine Gaul, founded at the same time 
 as Cremona, B.C. 219. It was situated in the 
 territory of the Anamares, on the right bank of 
 the Po, not far from the mouth of the Trebia, and 
 on the road from Mediolanura to Parma. It was 
 taken and destroyed by the Gauls in 200, but was 
 soon rebuilt by the Romans, and became an im- 
 portant place. It continued to be a flourishing 
 town down to the time of the Goths. 
 
 Placia (nAa/ciTj, Ion. : U\aici7]v6s)^ an ancient 
 Pelasgian settlement, in Mysia, E. of Cyzicus, at 
 the foot of Mt. Olympus, seems to have been early 
 destroyed. 
 
 Placidia, Galla. [Gjlla.] 
 
 Placitus, Sex., the author of a short Latin 
 work, entitled De Medicina (or Medicamentis) ex 
 Animalibus^ consisting of 34 chapters, each of 
 which treats of some animal whose body was sup- 
 posed to possess certain medical properties. As 
 might be expected, it contains numerous absurdities, 
 and is of little or no value or interest. The date of 
 the author is uncertain, but he is supposed to have 
 lived in the 4th century after Christ. Tlie work 
 ia printed by Stephanus in the Medicae Artis Frin- 
 cipes^ Paris, fol. 1567, and elsewhere. 
 
 Placus (IIAaKos), a mountain of Mysia, above 
 the city of Thebe ; not in the neighbourhood of 
 PlaCw, as the resemblance of the names had led 
 some to suppose. 
 
 Planaria (prob. Canaria, Canary)^ one of the 
 islands in the Atlantic, called Forti;nat.-ve. 
 
 Planasia. 1. (Fia7iosa\ an island between 
 Corsica and the coast of Etruria, to which Augus- 
 tus banished his grandson Agrippa Postumus. — 
 
 PLANCUS. 
 
 2. An island off the S. coast of Gaul, E. of the 
 Stoechades. 
 
 Planciades, Pulgentius. [Fulgkntius.] 
 
 Plancina, Jlunatia, the wife of Cn. Piso, who 
 was appointed governor of Syria in A. d. 18. While 
 her husband used every effort to thwart Ger- 
 manicuB, she exerted herself equally to annoy and 
 insult Agrippina. She was encouraged in this 
 conduct by Livia, the mother of the emperor, who 
 saved her from condemnation by the senate when 
 she was accused along with her husband in 20. 
 [Piso, No. 16.] She was brought to trial again 
 in 33, a few years after the death of Livia; and 
 having no longer any hope of escape, she put an 
 end to her own life. 
 
 Plancius, Cn., first served in Africa under the 
 propraetor A. Torquatus, subsequently in b. c. 68 
 under the proconsul Q. Metellus in Crete, and next 
 in 62 as military tribune in the army of C. Anto- 
 nius in Macedonia. In 58 he was quaestor in 
 Macedonia under the propraetor L. Appuleius, and 
 here he showed great kindness to Cicero, when the 
 latter came to this province during his banishment. 
 He was tribune of the plebs in 56 ; and was 
 elected curule aedile with A, Plotius in 54. But 
 before Plancius and Plotius entered upon their 
 office they were accused by Juventius Laterensis, 
 and L. Cassius Longinus, of the crime of sodalitium^ 
 or the bribery of the tribes by means of illegal 
 associations, in accordance with the Lex Licinia, 
 which had been proposed by the consul Licinius 
 Crassus in the preceding year. Cicero defended 
 Plancius in an oration still extant, and obtained 
 his acquittal. Plancius espoused the Pompeian 
 party in the civil wars, and after Caesar had gained 
 the supremacy lived in exile in Corcyra. 
 
 Plancus, Munatius, the name of a distinguished 
 plebeian famil}--. The surname Plancus signified a 
 person having flat splay feet without any bend in 
 them. 1. L., was a friend of Julius Caesar, and 
 served under him both in the Gallic and the civil 
 wars. Caesar shortly before his death nominated 
 him to the government of Transalpine Gaul for 
 B. c. 44, with the exception of the Narbonese and 
 Belgic portions of the province, and also to the 
 consulship for 42, with I). Brutus as his colleague. 
 After Caesar's death Plancus hastened into Gaul, 
 and took possession of his province. Here he pre- 
 pared at first to support the senate against Antony; 
 but when Lepidus joined Antony, and their united 
 forces threatened to overwhelm Plancus, the latter 
 was persuaded by Asinius Pollio to follow his ex- 
 ample, and to imite with Antony and Lepidug. 
 Plancus during his government of Gaul founded 
 the colonies of Lugdunum and Raurica. He was 
 consul in 42 according to the arrangement made by 
 Caesar, and he subsequently followed Antony to 
 Asia, where he remained for some years, and go- 
 verned in succession the provinces of Asia and 
 Syria. He deserted Antony in 32 shortly before 
 the breaking out of the civil war between the latter 
 and Octavian. He was favourably received by 
 Octavian, and continued to reside at Rome during 
 the remainder of his life. It was on bis proposal 
 that Octavian received the title of Augustus in 27; 
 and the emperor conferred upon him the censorship 
 in 22 with Paulus Aemilius Lepidus. Both the 
 public and private life of Plancus was stained by 
 numerous vices. One of Horace's odes (Cann. 1. 7) 
 is addressed to him. ^2. T., surnamed Bursa, 
 brother of the former, was tribune of the plebs 
 
PLANUDES. 
 
 B. c. 52, when he supported the views of Pompey, 
 who was anxious to obtain the dictatorship. With 
 this object he did every thing in his power to in- 
 crease the confusion wiiich followed upon the death 
 of Clodius. At the close of the year, as soon as 
 his tribunate had expired, Plancus was accused by 
 Cicero of Vis and was condemned. After his con- 
 demnation Plancus went to Ravenna in Cisalpine 
 Oaul, where he was kindly received by Caesar. 
 Soon after the beginning of the civil war he was 
 restored to his civic rights by Caesar ; but he ap- 
 pears to have taken no part in the civil war. After 
 Caesar's death Plancus fought on Antony's side in 
 the campaign of Mutina. He was driven out of 
 PoUentia by Pontius Aquila, the legate of D. Brutus, 
 and in his flight broke his leg. ^ 3. Cn., brother 
 of the two preceding, praetor elect 44, was charged 
 by Caesar in that year with the assignment to his 
 soldiers of lands at Butbrotum in Epirus. As 
 Atticus possessed property in the neighbourhood, 
 Cicero commended to Plancus with much earnest- 
 ness the interests of his friend. He was praetor in 
 43 and was allowed by the senate to join his 
 brother Lucius [No. 1] in Transalpine Gaul — 4. 
 1. Plautius Plancus, brother of the 3 preceding, 
 was adopted by a L. Plautius, and therefore took 
 his praenomen as well as nomen, but retained his 
 original cognomen, as was the case with Metellus 
 Scipio [Metellus, No. 15], and Pupius Piso. 
 [Piso, No. 13.] Before his adoption his praeno- 
 men was Caius. He was included in the proscription 
 of the triumvirs, 43, with the consent of Ms brother 
 Lucius, and was put to death. 
 
 Planudes Uaximius, was one of the most 
 learned of the Constantinopolitan monks of the last 
 age of the Greek empire, and was greatly distin- 
 guished as a theologian, grammarian, and rheto- 
 rician; but his name is now chiefly interesting as 
 that of the compiler of the latest of those collections 
 of minor Greek poems, which were known by the 
 names of Garlands or Anthologies (2T€(pami, 'Av- 
 SoKoylaL). Planudes flourished at Constantinople 
 in the first half of the 14th century, under the 
 emperors Andronicus II. and III. Palaeologi. In 
 A. D. 1327 he was sent by Andronicus II. as am- 
 bassador to Venice. As the Anthology of Planudes 
 was not only the latest compiled, but was also that 
 which was recognised as The Greek Antliology, until 
 the discovery of the Anthology of Constantinus 
 Cephalas, this is chosen as the fittest place for an 
 account of the Literary History of ili£ Greek An- 
 tiiology. 1 . Materials. The various collections, to 
 which their compilers gave the name of Garlands 
 and Anthologies, were made up of short poems, 
 chiefly of an epigrammatic character, and in the 
 elegiac metre. The earliest examples of such poetry 
 were famished by the inscriptions on monuments, 
 such as those erected to commemorate heroic 
 deeds, the statues of distinguished men, especially 
 victors in the public games, sepulchral monuments, 
 and dedicatory oflerings in temples (oj/aS^^Ta); 
 to which may be added oracles and proverbial say- 
 ings. At an early period in the history of Greek 
 literature, poets of the highest fame cultivated this 
 species of composition, which received its most 
 perfect development from the hand of Simonides. 
 Thenceforth, as a set form of poetry, it became a 
 fit vehicle for the brief expression of thoughts and 
 sentiments on any subject ; until at last the form 
 came to be cultivated for its own sake, and the 
 iiterali of Alexandria and Byzantium deemed the 
 
 PLANUDES. 
 
 585 
 
 ability to make epigrams an essential part of the 
 character of a scholar. Hence the mere trifling, 
 the stupid jokes, and the wretched personalities, 
 which form so large a part of the epigrammatic 
 poetry contained in the Greek Anthology. — 2. The 
 Garland of MeUager. At a comparatively early 
 period in the history of Greek literature, various 
 persons collected epigrams of particular classes, 
 and with reference to their use as historical au- 
 thorities; but the first person who made such a 
 collection solely for its own sake, and to preserve 
 epigrams of all kinds, was Meleager, a cynic 
 philosopher of Gadara, in Palestine, about B. c. 60. 
 His collection contained epigrams by 46 poets, of 
 all ages of Greek poetry, up to the most ancient 
 lyric period. He entitled it Thx Garland (2Te- 
 ^avos), with reference to the common comparison 
 of small beautiful poems to flowers. The same idea 
 is kept up in the word Anthology (avdoKoyia), 
 which was adopted bythe next compiler as the 
 title of his work. The Garland of Meleager was 
 arranged in alphabetical order, according to the 
 initial letters of the first line of each epigram. — 3. 
 Tlie Anthology of Philip of TkessaloniccL, was com- 
 piled in the time of Trajan, avowedly in imitation 
 of the Garland of Meleager, and chiefly with the 
 view of adding to that collection the epigrams of 
 more recent writers. — i.Diogenianus,Straton,a7ui 
 Diogenes Latrtius. Shortly after Philip, in the 
 reign of Hadrian, the learned grammarian, Dioge- 
 nianus of Heraclea, compiled an Anthology, which 
 is entirely lost. It might have been well if the 
 same fate had befallen the very polluted collection 
 of his contemporary, Straton of Sardis. About the 
 same time Diogenes Laertius collected the epigrams 
 which are interspersed in his lives of the philoso- 
 phers, into a separate book. — B.AgaihiasScholasti- 
 cus, who lived in the time of Justinian, made a 
 collection entitled Kvk\os iniypafAfjuzTuv. It was 
 divided into 7 books, according to subjects. The 
 poems included in it were those of recent writers, 
 and chiefly those of Agathias himself and of his 
 contemporaries, such as Paulus Silentiarius and 
 Macedonius. — 6. Tlte Aniliology of Constantinus 
 Cephalas, or tJte Palatine Anthology. Constantinus 
 Cephalas appears to have lived about 4 centuries 
 after Agathias, and to have flourished in the 10th 
 century, under the emperor Constantinus Porphyro- 
 genitus. The labours of preceding compilers may 
 be viewed as merely supplementary to the Garland 
 of Meleager ; but the Anthology of Constantinus 
 Cephalas was an entirely new collection from the 
 preceding Anthologies and from original sources. 
 Nothing is known of Constantine himself. The 
 MS. of the Anthology was discovered by Salraasius 
 in 1606, in the library of the Electors Palatine at 
 Heidelberg. It was afterwards removed to the 
 Vatican, with the rest of the Palatine library 
 (1623), and has become celebrated under the 
 names of the Palatine AnOiologii and the Vatican 
 Codex oftlie Greek Anthology. This MS. was re- 
 stored to its old home at Heidelberg after the peace 
 of 1815. — 7. TlieAntliology of Planudes is arranged 
 in 7 books, each of which, except the Sth and 7th, 
 is divided into chapters according to subjects, and 
 these chapters are arranged in alphabetical order. 
 The contents of the books are as follows: — 1. 
 Chiefly iniS^iKTiKa, that is, displays of skill in 
 this species of poetry, in 91 chapters. 2. Jocular 
 or satiric (o-KciirTiKa), chaps. 53. 3. Sf;pulchral 
 {iwiTi/iSia), chaps. 32. 4. Inscriptions on statues 
 
586 PLATAEA. 
 
 of athletes and other works of art, descriptions of 
 places, &c. chaps. 33. 5. The Ecphrasis of Christo- 
 dorus, and epigrams on. statues of charioteers in 
 the Hippodrome at Constantinople. 6. Dedicatory 
 (di'tt^Tj^uaTiKii), chaps. 27. 7. Amatory (epwriKci). 
 Planudes did little more than abridge and re- 
 arrange the Anthology of Constantinua Cephalas. 
 Only a few epigrams are found in the Planudean 
 Anthology, which are not in the Palatine. — The 
 "best editions of the Greek Anthology are by 
 Brunck and Jacobs. Brunck''s edition, which ap- 
 peared under the title of Analecta Vetcrum Pop- 
 iarMmGraeco?-Mjn,Argentorati,1772 — 1776, 3 vols. 
 8vo, contains the whole of the Greek Anthologj"-, 
 besides some poems which are not properly in- 
 cluded under that title. Brunck adopted a new 
 arrangement : he discarded the books and chapters 
 of the early Anthology, placed together all the 
 epigrams of each poet, and arranged the poets 
 themselves in chronological order, placing those 
 epigrams, the authors of which were unknown, 
 under the separate head of aSeo-Trora. Jacobs' 
 edition is founded upon Bmnck's, but is much 
 superior, and ranks as tlie standard edition of the 
 Greek Anthology. It is in 13 vols. 8vo, namely, 
 4 vols, of the Text, one of Indices, and 3 of Com- 
 mentaries, divided into 8 parts, Lips. 1795 — 1814. 
 After the restoration of the MS. of the Palatine 
 Anthology to the University of Heidelberg, Jacobs 
 published a separate edition of the Palatine An- 
 thology, Lips. 1813— 1817, 3 vols. 
 
 Plataea, more commonly Plataeae (TTAaTaia, 
 IIAaTciiat : riAaraieus), an ancient city of Boeotia, 
 on the N. slope of Mt. Cithaeron, not far from the 
 sources of the Asopua, and on the frontiers of 
 Attica. It was said to have been founded by 
 Thehes; and its name was commonly derived from 
 Plataea, a daughter of Asopus. The town, though 
 not large, played an important part in Greek his- 
 tory, and experienced many striking vicissitudes 
 of fortune. At an early period the Plataeans 
 deserted the Boeotian confederacy and placed 
 themselves under the protection of Athens ; and 
 when the Persians invaded Attica, in b. c. 490, 
 they sent 1000 men to the assistance of the Athe- 
 nians, and had the honour of fighting on their side 
 at the battle of Marathon. Ten years afterwards 
 (480) their city was destroyed by the Persian 
 army under Xerxes at the instigation of the The- 
 bans; and the place was still in ruins in the fol- 
 lowing year (479), when the memorable battle 
 was fought in their territory, in which Mardonius 
 was defeated, and the independence of Greece 
 secured. In consequence of this victory, the terri- 
 tory of Plataea was declared inviolable, and Pau- 
 sanias and the other Greeks swore to guarantee its 
 independence. The sanctity of the city was still 
 
 fiuther secured by 
 
 ed as the place 
 
 to be celebrated in honour of those Greeks who had 
 fallen in the war. (See Diet, of Aniiq. art. Eleu- 
 tli^ria.) The Plataeans furtiier received from the 
 Greeks the large sura of 80 talents. Plataea now 
 enjoyed a prosperity of SO years ; but in the 3rd 
 year of the Peloponnesian war (4'2.9) the Thebans 
 persuaded the Spartans to atUck ihe town, and 
 after a siege of 2 years at length succeeded in ob- 
 
 PLATO. 
 
 Thebans in 374. It was once more restored under 
 the Macedonian supremacy, and continued in 
 existence till a very late period. Its walls were 
 rebuilt by Justinian. 
 
 j Platam-odes (nAora^wSTjs: Aja Kyriaki), a 
 
 ! promontory in the W. of Messenia. 
 
 ! Platana, -um, -us {UKarav-r], XIAarayoj/, YlXd- 
 ravos), a fortress in Phoenicia, in a narrow pass 
 between Lebanon and the sea, near the river Da- 
 muras or Tamyras {Damur). 
 
 Platea(nAaTea, also -tTa, -eiai, -aia),an island 
 on the coast of Cyrenaica, in N. Africa, the first 
 place taken possession of by the Greek colonists 
 under Battus. [Cyrenaica.] 
 
 Plato (Jl\a.rwv). 1. The comic poet, was a 
 nativeof Athens, contei 
 Phrynichus, Eupolis, and Pherecrates, and flou- 
 rished from B.C. 428 to 389. He ranked among 
 the very best poets of the Old Comedy. From the 
 expressions of the grammarians, and from the large 
 number of fragments which are preserved, it is 
 evident that his plays were only second in popu- 
 larity to those of Aristophanes. Purity of lan- 
 guage, refined sharpness of wit, and a combination 
 of the vigour of the Old Comedy with the greater 
 elegance of the Middle and the New, were his 
 chief characteristics. Suidas gives the titles of 30 
 of his dramas.— 2. The philosopher, was the son 
 of Ariston and Perictione or Potone, and was bom 
 at Athens either in B.C. 429 or 428. According 
 to others, he was bom in the neighbouring island 
 of Aegina. His paternal family boasted of being 
 descended from Codrus ; his maternal ancestors of 
 a relationship with Solon, Plato himself mentions 
 the relationship of Critias, his maternal uncle, with 
 Solon. Originally, we are told, he was named 
 after his grandfather Aristocles, but in consequence 
 of the fluency of his speech, or, as others have it, 
 the breadth of his chest, he acquired that name 
 under which alone we know him. One story made 
 him the son of Apollo ; another related .that bees 
 settled upon the lips of the sleeping child. He is 
 also said to have contended, when a youth, in the 
 Isthmian and other games, as well as to have 
 made attempts in epic, lyric, and dithyrambic 
 poetry, and not to have devoted himself to philo- 
 sophy till a later time, probably after Socrates had 
 drawn him within the magic circle of his influence. 
 Plato was instructed in grammar, music, and gym- 
 nastics by the most distinguished teachers of that 
 time. At an early age he had become acquainted, 
 through Cratylus, with the doctrines of Heraclitus, 
 and through other instructors with the philoso- 
 phical dogmas of the Eleatics and of Anaxagoras. 
 In his 20 th year he is said to have betaken him- 
 self to Socrates, and became one of his most ardent 
 admirers. After the death of Socrates (399) he 
 withdrew to Megara, where he probably composed 
 several of his dialogues, especially those of a dia- 
 lectical character. He next went to Gyrene through 
 friendship for the mathematician Theodorus ; and 
 is said to have visited afterwards Egypt, Sicily, 
 and the Greek cities in Lower Italy, through his 
 eagerness for knowledge. The more distant jour- 
 neys of Plato into the interior of Asia, to the 
 Hebrews, Babylonians, and Assyrians, to the Magi 
 and Persians, are mentioned only by writers on 
 
PLATO. 
 witnesses. But more doubt attaches to the story, 
 which relates that he was given up by the tyrant 
 to the Spartan ambassador Pollis, by him sold into 
 Aegina, and set at liberty by the Cyrenian Anni- 
 ceria. Plato is said to have visited Sicily when 
 40 years old, consequently in 3H9. After his 
 return he began to teach, partly in the gymnasium 
 of the Academy and its shady avenues, near the 
 city, between the exterior Ceramicus and the hill 
 Colonus Hippius, and partly in his garden, which 
 was situated at Colonus. He taught gratuitously, 
 and without doubt mainly in the form of lively 
 dialogue ; yet on the more difficult parts of his 
 doctrinal system he probably delivered also con- 
 nected lectures. The more narrow circle of his 
 disciples assembled themselves in his garden at 
 common simple meals, and it was probably to them 
 alone that the inscription said to have been set up 
 over the vestibule of the house, " let no one enter 
 who is unacquainted with geometry," had refer- 
 ence. From this house came forth his nephew 
 Speusippus, Xenocrates of Chalcedon, Aristotle, 
 Heraclides Ponticus, Hestiaeus of Perinthus, Phi- 
 lippus the Opuntian, and others, men from the most 
 different parts of Greece. To the wider circle of 
 those who, vidthout attaching themselves to the 
 more narrow community of the school, sought in- 
 struction and incitement from him, such distin- 
 guished men as Chabrias, Iphicrates, Tunotheus, 
 Phocion, Hyperides, Lycurgus, and Isocrates, are 
 said to have belonged. Whether Demosthenes 
 was of the number is doubtful. Even women are 
 said to have attached themselves to him as his 
 disciples. Plato's occupation as an instructor was 
 twice interrupted by his voyages to Sicily; first 
 when Dion, probably soon after the death of the 
 elder Dionysius, persuaded him to make the at- 
 tempt to win the younger Dionysius to philosophy ; 
 the 2nd time, a few years later (about 360), when 
 the wish of his Pythagorean friends, and the invi- 
 tation of Dionysius to reconcile the disputes which 
 had broken out between him and his step-uncle 
 Dion, brought him back to Syracuse. His efforts 
 were both times unsuccessful, and he owed his own 
 safety to nothing but the earnest intercession of 
 Archytas. That Plato cherished the hope of re- 
 alising through the conversion of Dionysius his 
 idea of a state in the rising city of Syracuse, was 
 a belief pretty generally spread in antiquity, and 
 which finds some confirmation in the expressions 
 of the philosopher himself, and of the 7th Platonic 
 letter, which, though spurious, is written with the 
 most evident acquaintance with the matters treated 
 of. With the exception of these 2 visits to Sicily, 
 Plato was occupied from the time when he opened 
 the school in the Academy in giving instruction 
 and in the composition of his works. He died in 
 the 82nd year of his age, B.C. 347. According to 
 some he died while writing, according to others at 
 a marriage feast. According to his last will his 
 garden remained the property of the school, and 
 passed, considerably increased by subsequent ad- 
 ditions, into the hands of the Neo-Platonists, who 
 kept as a festival his birth-day as well as that of 
 Socrates, Athenians and strangers honoured his 
 memory by monuments. Still he had no lack of 
 enemies and enviers. He was attacked by con- 
 temporary comic poets, as Theoporapus, Alexis, 
 Cratinus the younger, and others, by one-sided 
 Socratics, as Antisthenes, Diogenes, and the later 
 Megarics, and also by the Epicureans, Stoics, cer- 
 
 PLATO. 587 
 
 tain Peripatetics, and later writers eager for de- 
 traction. Thus even Antisthenes and Aristoxenus 
 charged him with sensuality, avarice, and syco- 
 phancy; and others with vanity, ambition, and 
 envy towards other Socratics, Protagoras, Epichar- 
 mus, and Philolaus. ^ The Writings of Plato. 
 These writings have come down to us complete, 
 and have always been admired as a model of the 
 union of artistic perfection with philosophical acute- 
 ness and depth. They are in the form of dialogue ; 
 but Plato was not the first writer who employed 
 this style of composition for philosophical instruc- 
 tion. Zeno the Eieatic had already written in 
 the form of question and answer. Alexamenus 
 the Teian and Sophron in the mimes had treated 
 ethical subjects in the form of dialogue, Xeno- 
 phon, Aeschines, Antisthenes, Euclides, and other 
 Socratics also had made use of the dialogical 
 form; but Plato has handled this form not only 
 with greater mastery than any one who preceded 
 him, but, in all probability, with the distinct 
 intention of keeping by this very means true to 
 the admonition of Socrates, not to communicate 
 instruction, but to lead to the spontaneous dis- 
 covery of it. The dialogues of Plato are closely 
 connected with one another, and various arrange- 
 ments of them have been proposed. Schleierma- 
 cher divides them into 3 series or classes. In the 
 1st he considers that the germs of dialectic and of 
 the doctrine of ideas begin to unfold themselves in 
 all the freshness of youthful inspiration ; in the 
 2nd those germs develop themselves further by 
 means of dialectic investigations respecting the 
 diiference between common and philosophical 
 acquaintance with things, respecting notion and 
 knowledge {S6^a and i-tn(rTT}fnj) ; in. the 3rd they 
 receive their completion by means of an objectively 
 scientific working out, with the separation of ethics 
 and physics. The 1st series embraces, according 
 to Schleiermacher, the Pltaedrus, Lysis^ Protagoras, 
 Laches, Qiarmides, Euthypltron, and Parmenides ; to 
 which may be added as an appendix the Apologia^ 
 Criio^ Ion, Hippias Minor, Hipparchus, Minos and 
 Alcibiades II. The 2nd series contains the Gorgias, 
 Tlieaeietus, Meno, Evihydemus, Cratylus, Sophisies, 
 PoliticuSy Symposium, Phaedo, and Philebus ; to 
 which may be added as an appendix the Theages, 
 Erasiae, Alcibiades /., Menexenus, Hippias Major, 
 and Clitoplton. The 3rd series comprises the Re- 
 pvhlic, Timaeus, Criiias^ and the Laws. This 
 arrangement is perhaps the best that has hitherto 
 been made of the dialogues, though open to ex- 
 ception in several particulars. The genuineness of 
 several of the dialogues has been questioned, but 
 for the most part on insufficient grounds. The 
 Epinomis, however, is probably to be assigned to a 
 disciple of Plato, the Minos and Hipparchus to a 
 Socratic. The '2nd Alcibiades was attributed by 
 ancient critics to Xenophon. The Ariterasiae and 
 CLitophon are probably of much later origin. The 
 Platonic letters were composed at different periods ; 
 the oldest of them, the 7th and 8th, probably by 
 disciples of Plato. The dialogues Demodocus, 
 Sisyphus, Eryccias, Axiochus, and those on justice 
 and virtue, were with good reason regarded by 
 ancient critics as spurious, and with them may bfe 
 associated the Hipparchits, TJieages, and the Defi- 
 nitions. The genuineness of the ist Alcibiades seems 
 doubtful. The smaller Hippias, the Ion, and the 
 Meneirenus, on the other hand, which are assailed 
 by many modern cities, may very well maintain 
 
58S 
 
 PLATO. 
 
 tbeir ground as occasional compositions of Plato.^ 
 The PMlosophy of Plato. The nature of this 
 ■work will allow only a few brief remarks upon this 
 subject. The attempt to combine poetry and phi- 
 losophy (the two fundamental tendencies of the 
 Greek mind), gives to the Platonic dialogues a 
 charm, which irresistibly attracts us, though we 
 may have but a deficient comprehension of their 
 subject-matter. Plato, like Socrates, was pene- 
 trated with the idea that wisdom is the attribute 
 of the Godhead ; that philosophy, springing from 
 the impulse to knov^ is the necessity of the intel- 
 lectual man, and the greatest of the blessings in 
 which he participates. When once we strive after 
 Wisdom with the intensity of a lover, she becomes 
 the ti"ue consecration and purification of the soul, 
 adapted to lead us from the night-like to the true 
 day. An approach to wisdom, however, presup- 
 poses an original communion with Being, truly so 
 called ; and this communion again presupposes the 
 divine nature or immortality of the soul, and the 
 impulse to become like the Eternal. This impulse 
 is the love which generates in Truth, and the de- 
 velopment of it is termed Dialectics. Out of the 
 philosophical impulse which is developed by Dia- 
 lectics not only correct knowledge, but also correct 
 action springs forth. Socrates' doctrine respecting 
 the unity of virtue, and that it consists in true, 
 vigorous, and practical knowledge, is intended to 
 be set forth in a preliminary manner in the Prota- 
 goras and the smaller dialogues attached to it. 
 They are designed, therefore, to introduce a foun- 
 dation for ethics, by the refutation of the common 
 views that were entertained of morals and of vir- 
 tue. For althoufrh not even the words ethics and 
 physics occur in Plato, and even dialectics are not 
 treated of as a distinct and separate province, yet 
 he must rightly be regarded as the originator of 
 the threefold division of philosophy, inasmuch as 
 he had before him the decided object to develop 
 the Socratic method into a scientific system of dia- 
 lectics, that should supply the grounds of our 
 knowledge as well as of our moral action (physics 
 and ethics), and therefore he separates the general 
 investigations on knowledge and understanding, at 
 least relatively, from those which refer to physics 
 and ethics. Accordingly, the Theaetetus, Sophistes, 
 Parmenides, and Cratylus, are principally dialecti- 
 cal ; the Protagoras, Gorgias, Politicus, Philebus, 
 and the Politics, principally ethical ; while the 
 Timaeus is exclusively physical. Plato's dialectics 
 and ethics, however, have been more successful 
 than his physics. — Plato's doctrine of ideas was 
 one of the most prominent parts of his system. 
 He maintained that the existence of things, cogni- 
 sable only by means of conception, is their true 
 essence, their idea. Hence he asserts that to 
 deny the reality of ideas is to destroy all scien- 
 tific' research. He departed from the original 
 meaning of the word idea (namely, that of form 
 or figure"), inasmuch as he understood by it the 
 unities (efoSes, iioydSes) which lie at the basis 
 of the visible, the changeable, and which can 
 only be reached by pure thinking. He included 
 under the expression idea every thing stable amidst 
 the changes of mere phenomena, all really existing 
 and unchangeable definitudes, by which the changes 
 of things and our knowledge of them are condi- 
 tioned, such as the ideas of genus and species, the 
 laws and ends of nature, as also the principles 
 of cognition, and of moral action, and the essences 
 
 PLAUTUS. 
 
 of individual, concrete, thinking souls. His system 
 of ethics was founded upon bis dialectics, as is 
 remarked above. Hence he asaertiid that not being 
 in a condition to grasp the idea of the good with 
 full distinctness, we are able to approximate to it 
 only so far as we elevate the power of thinking to 
 its original purity. — The best editions of the col- 
 lected works of Plato are by Bekker, Berol. 1816 
 — 1818, by Stallbaum, Gotha, 1827, seq., and by 
 Orelli and others, Turic. 1839. 
 
 Plautia Gens, a plebeian gens at Rome. The 
 name is also written Ploiius, just as we have both 
 Ctodius and Claudius. The gens was divided into 
 the families of Hi/psaeus, Proculus, SiivanuSy VennOy 
 Venox; and although several members of these 
 families obtained the consulship, none of them are 
 of sufficient importance to require a separate notice, 
 
 Plautianus, Fulvius, an African by birth, the 
 fellow-townsman of Septimius Severus. He served 
 as praefect of the praetorium under this emperor, 
 who loaded him with honours and wealth, and 
 virtually made over much of the imperial autho- 
 rity into his hands. Intoxicated by these dis- 
 tinctions, Plautianus indulged in the most despotic 
 tyranny, and perpetrated acts of cruelty almost 
 beyond belief. In a. d. 202 his daughter Plautilla 
 was married to Caracalla ; but having discovered 
 the dislike cherished by Caracalla towards both 
 his daughter and himself, and looking forward 
 with apprehension to the downfall which awaited 
 him upon the death of the sovereign, he fonned a 
 plot against the life both of Septimius and Cara- 
 calla. His treachery was discovered, and he was 
 immediately put to death, 203. His daughter 
 Plautilla was banished first to Sicily, and subse- 
 quently to Lipara, where she was treated with the 
 greatest harshness. After the murder of Geta, ia 
 212, Plautilla was put to death by order of her 
 husband. 
 
 Plautilla. [Plautianus.] 
 
 Plautius. 1. A., a man of consular rank, who 
 was sent by the emperor Claudius in a.d. 43 to 
 subdue Britain. He remained in Britain 4 years, 
 and subdued the S. part of the island. He ob- 
 tained an ovation on his return to Rome in 47. — 
 2. A Roman jurist, who lived about the time of 
 Vespasian, and is cited by subsequent jurists. 
 
 Plautus, the most celebrated comic poet of 
 Rome, was a native of Sarsina, a small village in 
 Umbria, He is usually called M. Accius Plautus, 
 but his real name, as an eminent modem scholar 
 has shown, was T. Maccius Plautus. The date of 
 his birth is uncertain, but it may be placed about 
 B. c. '254. He probably came to Rome at an early 
 age, since he displays such a perfect mastery of 
 the Latin language, and an acquaintance with 
 Greek literature, which he could hardly have ac- 
 quired in a provincial town. Whether he ever 
 obtained the Roman franchise is doubtful. When 
 he arrived at Rome he was in needy circumstances, 
 and was first employed in the service of the actors. 
 With the money he had saved in this inferior 
 station he left Rome and set up in business : but 
 his speculations failed ; he returned to Rome, and 
 his necessities obliged him to enter the service of 
 a baker, who employed him in turning a hand- 
 mill. While in this degrading occupation he wrote 
 3 plays, the sale of which to the managers of the 
 public games enabled him to quit his drudgery, 
 and begin his literary career. He was then pro- 
 bably about 30 years of age (224), and accordingly 
 
PLAUTUS. 
 commenced writing comedies a few years before 
 the breaking out of the 2nd Punic war. He con- 
 tinued his literary' occupation for about 40 years, 
 and died in 184, when he was 70 years of age. 
 His contemporaries at first were Livius Andronicus 
 and Naevius, afterwards Ennius and Caecilius : 
 Terence did not rise into notice till almost 20 years 
 after his death. During the long time that he 
 held possession of the stage, he was always a great 
 favourite of the people ; and he expressed a bold 
 consciousness of his own powers in the epitaph 
 which he wrote for his tomb, and which has come 
 down to us ; — 
 
 "Postquam est mortem aptus Plautus, comoedia 
 luget 
 Scena deserta, dein risus, Indus jocusque 
 £t numeri innumeri simul omnes coUacrumarunt.^^ 
 
 Plautus wrote a great number of comedies, and in 
 the last century of the republic there were 130 plays, 
 which bore his name. Most of these however were 
 not considered genuine by the best Roman critics. 
 There were several works written upon the sub- 
 ject ; and of these the most celebrated was the 
 treatise of Varro, entitled Quacsliones Plauiinae. 
 Varro limited the undoubted comedies of the poet 
 to 21, which were hence called the Fubulae Varro- 
 nianae. These Varronian comedies are the same 
 as those which have come down to our own time, 
 with the loss of one. ' At present we possess 
 only 20 comedies of Plautus ; but there were ori- 
 ginally 21 in the manuscripts, and the Vidulaiia, 
 which was the 21st, and which came last in the 
 collection, was torn off from the manuscript in the 
 middle ages. The titles of the 21 Varronian plays 
 axe: l.Amphitruo, 2, A&inaria. 3. AultUaria. 
 
 4, Captivi. 5. Curculio, 6. Casina. 7. CisieUaria. 
 
 5, Epidicus. 9. BaccJiides. 10. AfosteHariu, 11. 
 Menaechmi. 12. Miles. 13. Mercator. 14. Pseu- 
 dolus, 15. Poimulus. 16. Persa. 17. Rudens. 
 18. Stichtts. 19. Trinummus. 20. TruciUentus. 
 21. Vidularia. This is the order in which they 
 occur in the manuscripts, though probably not the 
 one in which they were originally arranged by 
 Varro. The present order is evidently alphabeti- 
 cal ; the initial letter of the title of each play is 
 alone regarded, and no attention is paid to those 
 which follow: hence we find Captivi, Curcidio, 
 Casina, CisieUaria : Mostellaria, Menaechmi, Miles, 
 Mercator : Pseudolus, Poenulus, Persa. The play 
 of the Bacckides forms the only exception to the 
 alphabetical order. It was probably placed after the 
 ^idicus by some copyist, because he had observed 
 that Plautus, in the Bacchides (ii. 2. 36), referred 
 to the JEpidicus as an earlier work. The names of 
 the comedies are either taken from some leading 
 character in the play, or from some circumstance 
 which occurs in it : those titles ending in aria are 
 adjectives, giving a general description of the play: 
 thus Asinaria is the " Ass-Comedy." The come- 
 dies of Plautus enjoyed unrivalled popularity among 
 the Romans, and continued to be represented down 
 to the time of Diocletian. The continued popu- 
 larity of Plautus through so many centuries was 
 owing, in a great measure, to his being a national 
 poet. Though he founds his plays upon Greek 
 models, the characters in them act, speak, and 
 joke like genuine Romans, and he thereby secured 
 the sympathy of his audience more completely than 
 Terence could ever have done. Whether Plautus 
 borrowed the plan of all his plays from Greek mo- 
 
 PLEIADES. 589 
 
 dels, it is impossible to say. The CisieUaria, Bac- 
 ckides, Poenulus, and Stichus, were taken from 
 Menander, the Casina and Rudem from Diphilus, 
 and the Mercator and the Trinummus from Phile- 
 mon, and many others were undoubtedly founded 
 upon Greek originals. But in all cases Plautus 
 allowed himself mucli greater liberty than Terence; 
 and in some instances he appears to have simply 
 taken the leading idea of the play from the Greek, 
 and to have filled it up in his own fashion. It ha» 
 been inferred from a well-knoivn line of Horace 
 (Epist. ii. 1. 58), " Plautus ad exemplar Siculi 
 properare Epicharmi," that Plautus took great 
 pains to imitate Epicharmus. But there is no 
 correspondence between any of the existing plays 
 of Plautus and the known titles of the comedies 
 of Epicharmus ; and the verb pi'operare probably 
 has reference only to the liveliness and energy of 
 Plautus's style, in which he bore a resemblance to 
 the Sicilian poet. It was, however, not only with 
 the common people that Plautus was a favourite ; 
 educated Romans read and admired his works 
 down to the latest times. Cicero (de Of. i. 29) 
 places his wit on a par with that of the old Attic 
 comedy, and St. Jerome used to console himself 
 with the perusal of the poet after spending many 
 nights in tears, on account of his past sins. The 
 favourable opinion which the ancients entertained 
 of the merits of Plautus has been confirmed by 
 the judgment of the best modern critics, and by 
 the fact that several of his plays have been imi- 
 tated by many of the best modern poets. Thus 
 the Amphiiruo has been imitated by Moliere and 
 Drydeu, the Aulularia by Moliere in his Avare, 
 the Moslellaria by Regnard, Addison, and others, 
 the Menaechmi by Shakspere in his Comedo/ of 
 Errors, the Trinummus by Lessing in his Schaiz, 
 and so with others. Horace (Z>e Arte Poiit. 270), 
 indeed, expresses a less favourable opinion of 
 Plautus ; but it must be recollected that the taste« 
 of Horace had been formed by a different school of 
 literature, and that he disliked the ancient poets 
 of his country. Moreover, it is probable that the 
 censure of Horace does not refer to the general 
 character of Plautus's poetry, but merely to his 
 inharmonious verses and to some of his jests. The 
 text of Plautus has come down to us in a very 
 corrupt state. It contains many lacunae and inter- 
 polations. Thus the Aulularia has lost its con- 
 clusion, the Bacchides its commencement, &c. Of 
 the present complete editions the best are hy Bothe, 
 Lips. 1834, 2 vols. 8vo., and by Weise, Quedlinb. 
 1837—1838, 2 vols. 8vo. ; but Ritschl's edition, 
 of which the 1st volume has only yet appeared 
 (Bonn, 1849), will far surpass all others. 
 
 Plavis (Piave), a river in Venetia in the N. of 
 Italy, which fell into the Sinus Tergestinus. 
 
 Pleiades (riAEiaSes or Ue\udSes), the Pleiads 
 are usually called the daughters of Altas and 
 Pleione, whence they bear the name of the Atlan- 
 tides. They were called Vergiliae bv the Romans.. 
 They were the sisters of the Hyades, and 7 in' 
 number, 6 of whom are described as visible, and 
 the 7th as invisible. Some call the 7th Sterope, 
 and relate that she became invisible from shame, 
 because she alone among her sisters had had inter- 
 course with a mortal man ; others call her Electra, 
 and make her disappear from the choir of her 
 sisters on account of her grief at tlie destruction of 
 the house of Dardanus. The Pleiades are said to 
 have made away with themselves from grief at the 
 
590 
 
 PLEMMYRIUM. 
 
 death of their sisters, the Hyadea, or at the fate of 
 their father Atlas, and were afterwards placed as 
 stars at the hack of Taurus, where they formed a 
 cluster resembling a bunch of grapes, whence they 
 were sometimes called $6Tpvs. According to an- 
 other story, the Pleiades were virgin companions 
 of Artemis, and, together with their mother Pleione, 
 were pursued by the hunter Orion in Boeotia ; 
 their prayer to be rescued from him was heard by 
 the gods, and they were metamorphosed into doves 
 (ireK^idSes)^ and placed among the stars. The 
 rising of the Pleiades in Italy was about the be- 
 ginning of May, and their setting about the begin- 
 ning of November. Their names are Electra, Maia, 
 Taygete, Alcyone, Celaeno, Sterope, and Merope. 
 
 Plemmyrium {U\efj.fj.vpiov : Punta di Gigante\ 
 I promontory on the S. coast of Sicily, immedi- 
 ately S. of Syracuse. 
 
 Fleidne {ILKiiiovri)^ a daughter of Oceanus, and 
 mother of the Pleiades by Atlas. [Atlas ; Plei- 
 ades ] 
 
 Pleumoxii, a small tribe in Gallia Belgica, sub- 
 ject to the Nervii. 
 
 Pleuratus (ITAfupaTos), king of lUyria, was 
 the son of Scerdilaidas. His name occurs as an 
 ally of the Romans in the 2nd Punic war, and in 
 their subsequent wars in Greece. 
 
 Pleuron (riAeupdJv: Tl\€vpwvios\ an ancient 
 city in Aetolia, and along with Calydon the most 
 important in the country, was situated at a little 
 distance from the coast, N.W. of the mouth of the 
 Evenus, and on the S. slope of Mt. Arac}'nthu8 or 
 Curius, It was originally inhabited by the Cu- 
 retes. This ancient city was abandoned by its 
 inhabitants, when Demetrius II. King of Ma- 
 cedon, laid waste the surrounding country, and a 
 new city was built under the same name to the 
 W. of the ancient one. The 2 cities are dis- 
 tinguished by geographers under the names of Old 
 pleuron and New Plenron respectively. 
 
 Plinius. 1. C. Plinius Secundus, the cele- 
 brated author of the Historia Naturalis^ and fre- 
 quently called Pliny the Elder, was bom a. d. 23, 
 either at Verona or Novum Comum (Como) in the 
 N. of Italy. But whichever was the place of his 
 birth, it is certain that his family belonged to 
 Novum Comum, since the estates of the elder Pliny 
 were situated there, the younger Pliny was born 
 there, and several inscriptions found in the neigh- 
 bourhood relate to various members of the family. 
 He came to Rome while still young, and being 
 descended from a family of wealth and distinction, 
 he had the means at his disposal for availing him- 
 self of the instruction of the best teachers to be 
 found in the imperial city. At the age of about 
 23 he went to Germany, where he served under 
 L. Pomponius Secundus, of whom he afterwards 
 wrote a memoir, and was appointed to the com- 
 mand of a troop of cavalry {praefecitis aloe). It 
 appears from notices of his own that he travelled 
 over most of the frontier of Germany, having visited 
 the Cauci, the sources of the Danube, &c. It was 
 in the intervals snatched from his military duties 
 that he composed his treatise de Jacidatione eques- 
 tn. At the same time be commenced a history of 
 the Germanic wars, which he afterwards completed 
 in 20 books. He returned to Rome with Pompo- 
 nius (52), and applied himself to the study of 
 jurisprudence. He practised for some time as a 
 pleader, but does not seem to have distinguished 
 himself very greatly in that capacity. The greater 
 
 PLINIUS. 
 
 part of the reign of Nero he spent in retirement, 
 chiefly, no doubt, at his native place. It may have 
 been with a view to the education of his nephew 
 that he composed the work entitled Studioms, an 
 extensive treatise in 3 books, occupying 6 volumes, 
 in which he marked out the course that should 
 be pursued in the training of a young orator, 
 from the cradle to the completion of his education 
 and his entrance into public life. During the 
 reign of Nero he wrote a grammatical work in 8 
 books, entitled Dvbius Sermo ; and towards the 
 close of the reign of this emperor he was appointed 
 procurator in Spain. He was here in 71, when his 
 brother-in-law died, leaving his son, the younger 
 Pliny, to the guardianship of his uncle, who, on 
 account of his absence, was obliged to entrust the 
 care of him to Virginius Rufus. Pliny returned to 
 Rome in the reign of Vespasian, shortly before 73, 
 when he adopted his nephew. He had known 
 Vespasian in the Germanic wars, and the emperor 
 received him into the number of his most intimate 
 friends. It was at this period of his life that he 
 wrote a continuation of the history of Aufidius 
 Bassus, in 31 hooks, carrying the narrative down 
 to his o\vn times. Of his manner of life at this 
 period an interesting account has been preserved 
 by his nephew (Episi. iii. 5). It was his practice 
 to begin to spend a portion of the night in study- 
 ing by candle-light, at the festival of the Vulcanalia 
 (towards the end of August), at first at a late hour 
 of the night, in winter at 1 or 2 o'clock in the 
 morning. Before it was light he betook himself 
 to the emperor Vespasian, and after executing such 
 commissions as he might be charged with, returned 
 home and devoted the time which he still had 
 remaining to study. After a slender meal he 
 would, in the summer-time, lie in the sunshine 
 while some one read to him, he himself making 
 notes and extracts. He never read anything with- 
 out making extracts in this way, for he used to say 
 that there was no book so bad but that some good 
 might be got out of it. He would then take a cold 
 bath, and after a slight repast sleep a very little, and 
 then pursue his studies till the time of the coena. 
 During this meal some book was read to, and com- 
 mented on by him. At table, as might be sup- 
 posed, he spent but a short time. Such was lus 
 mode of life when in the midst of the bustle and 
 confusion of the city. When in retirement in the 
 country, the time spent in the bath was nearly the 
 only interval not allotted to study, and that he 
 reduced to the narrowest limits ; for during all the 
 process of scraping and rubbing he had some book 
 read to him, or himself dictated. When on a jour- 
 ney he had a secretary by his side with a book 
 and tablets. By this incessant application, per- 
 severed in throughout life, he amassed an enor- 
 mous amount of materials, and at his death left 
 to his nephew 160 volumina of notes {eleciorum 
 commentarii)^ written extremely small on both 
 sides. With some reason might his nephew say 
 that, when compared with Pliny, those who had 
 spent their whole lives in literary pursuits seemed 
 as if they had spent them in nothing else than sleep 
 and idleness. From the materials which he had in 
 this way collected he compiled his celebrated His- 
 toria Naturalis, which he published about 77. The 
 details of Pliny's deatli are given in a letter of the 
 younger Pliny to Tacitus (Ep.Y\.l6). He perished 
 in the celebrated eruption of Vesuvius, which 
 overwhelmed Herculaneum and Pompeii, in 79« 
 
PLINIUS. 
 
 being 56 years of age. He was at the time sta- 
 tioned at Misenum in the command of the Roman 
 fleet; and it was his anxiety to examine more 
 closely the extraordinary phaenomenon, which led 
 him to sail to Stahiae, where he landed and pe- 
 rished. The only work of Pliny which has come 
 down to us is his Historia Naiuralis. By Natural 
 History the ancients understood more than modern 
 writers would usually include in the subject. It 
 embraced astronomy, meteorology, geography, 
 mineralogy, zoology, botany, — in short, every 
 thing that does not relate to the results of human 
 skill or the products of human faculties. Plinj--, 
 however, has not kept within even these extensive 
 limits. He has broken in upon the plan implied 
 by the title of the work, by considerable digres- 
 sions on human inventions and institutions (book 
 vii.), and on the history of the 6ne arts (xxxv. — 
 xxxvii.) Minor digressions on similar topics are 
 also interspersed in various parts of the work, the 
 arrangement of which in other respects exhibits 
 but little scientific discrimination. It comprises, 
 as Pliny says in the preface, 20,000 matters of 
 importance, drawn from about 2000 volumes. It 
 is divided into 37 books, the Ist of which consists 
 of a dedicatory epistle to Titus, followed by a 
 table of contents of the other books. When it is 
 remembered that this work was not the result of 
 the undistracted labour of a life, but written in 
 the hours of leisure secured from active pursuits, 
 and that too by the author of other extensive 
 works, it is, to say the least, a wonderful monu- 
 ment of human industry. It may easily be sup- 
 posed that Pliny, with his inordinate appetite for 
 accumulating knowledge out of books, was not the 
 man to produce a scientific work of any value. 
 He was not even an original observer. The mate- 
 rials which he worked up into his huge encyclo- 
 paedic compilation were almost all derived at 
 second-hand, though doubtless he has incorporated 
 the results of his own observation in a larger num- 
 ber of instances than those in which he indicates 
 such to be the case. Nor did he, as a compiler, 
 show either judgment or discrimination in the 
 selection of his materials, so that in his accounts 
 the true and the false are found intermixed. His 
 love of the marvellous, and his contempt for human 
 nature, lead him constantly to introduce what is 
 strange or wonderfiil, or adapted to illustrate the 
 wickedness of man, and the unsatisfactory arrange- 
 ments of Providence. His work is of course valu- 
 able to us from the vast number of subjects treated 
 of, with regard to many of which we have no other 
 sources of information. But what he tells us is 
 often unintelligible, from his retailing accounts of 
 things with which he was himself personally unac- 
 quainted, and of which he in consequence gives no 
 satisfactory idea to the reader. Though a writer 
 on zoology, botany, and mineralogy, he has no 
 pretensions to be called a naturalist. His com- 
 pilations exhibit scarcely a trace of scientific ar- 
 rangement ; and frequently it can be shown that 
 he does not give the true sense of the authors 
 whom he quotes and translates, giving not uncom- 
 monly wrong Latin names to the objects spoken of 
 by his Greek authorities. The best editions of 
 Pliny's Natural History, with a commentary, are 
 by Hardouin (Paris, 1685, 5 vols. 4to. ; 2nd edit. 
 1723, 3 vols, fol.), and by Panckoucke (Paris, 
 
 1829 1833, 20 vols.), with a French translation 
 
 and notes by Cuvier and other eminent scientific 
 
 PLINIUS. 591 
 
 and literary men of France. The most valuable 
 critical edition of the text of Pliny is by Sillig 
 (Lips. 1831— 1836, 5vok 12mo.).— 2. C. Pliniua 
 Caecilius Secundus, frequently called Pliny the 
 younger, was the son of C. Caecilius, and of Plinia, 
 the sister of the elder Piiny. He was bom at 
 Comura in a. d. 61 ; and having lost his father at 
 an early age, he was adopted by his uncle, as has 
 been mentioned above. His education was con- 
 ducted under the care of his uncle, his mother, and 
 his tutor, Virginius Rufus. From his youth he 
 was devoted to letters. In his I4th year he wrote 
 a Greek tragedy. He studied eloquence under 
 Quintilian. His acquirements finally gained him 
 the reputation of being one of the most learned 
 men of the age ; and his friend Tacitus, the histo- 
 rian, had the same honourable distinction. He 
 was also an orator. In his 19th year he began to 
 speak in the fonira, and he was frequently em- 
 ployed as an advocate before the court of the Cen- 
 tumviri and before the Roman senate. He filled 
 numerous offices in succession. While a young 
 man he served in Syria as tribunus militum, and 
 was there a hearer of the stoic Euphrates and of 
 Artemidorus. He was subsequently quaestor Cae- 
 aaris, praetor in or about 93, and consul 100, in 
 which year he wrote his Panegyricus, which is 
 addressed to Trajan. In 103 he was appointed 
 propraetor of the province Pontica, where he did 
 not stay quite 2 years. Among his other functions 
 he also discharged that of curator of the channel 
 and the banks of the Tiber. He was twice mar- 
 ried. His 2nd wife was Calpumia, the grand- 
 daughter of Calpumius Fabatus, and an accom- 
 plished woman: she was considerably younger 
 than her husband, who has recorded her kind 
 attentions to him. He had no children by either 
 wife bom alive. The life of Pliny is chiefly known 
 from his letters. So far as this evidence shows, he 
 was a kind and benevolent man, fond of literary 
 pursuits, and of building on and improving his 
 estates. He was rich, and he spent liberally. He 
 was a kind master to his slaves. His body was 
 feeble, and his health not good. Nothing is known 
 as to the time of his death. The extant works of 
 Pliny are his Panegyricus and the 10 books of his 
 Epistolae. The Panegyricus is a fulsome eulogium 
 on Trajan ; it is of small value for the information 
 which it contains about the author himself and his 
 times. Pliny collected his own letters, as appears 
 from the 1st letter of the 1st book, which looks 
 something like a preface to the whole collection. 
 It is not an improbable conjecture that he may 
 have written many of his letters with a view to 
 publication, or that when he was writing some of 
 them the idea of future publication was in his 
 mind. However, they form a very agreeable col- 
 lection, and make us acquainted with many in- 
 teresting facts in the life of Pliny and that of his 
 contemporaries. The letters from Pliny to Trajan 
 and the emperor's replies are the most valuable 
 part of the collection : they form the whole of the 
 10th book. The letter on the punishment of the 
 Christians (x. 97), and the emperor's answer (x. 
 98), have famished matter for much remark. The 
 fact of a person admitting himself to be a Christian 
 was sufficient for his condemnation ; and the 
 punishment appears to have been death. The 
 Christians, on their examination, admitted nothing 
 further than their practice of meeting on a fixed 
 day before it was light, and singing a hymn to 
 
592 
 
 PLINTHINE. 
 
 Christ, as God (qitasi Deo) ; their oath (whatever 
 Pliny may mean by sacramenium) was not to 
 bind them to any crime, but to avoid theft, rob- 
 bery, adultery, breach of faith, and denial of a 
 deposit. Two female slaves, who were said to be 
 deaconesses {rninistrae)^ were put to the torture by 
 Pliny, but nothing unfavourable to the Christians 
 could be got out of them : the governor could de- 
 tect nothing except a perverse and extravagant 
 superstition (superstilionem pravam et immodicam). 
 Hereupon he asked the emperor^'s advice, for the 
 contagion of the superstition was spreading ; yet 
 he thought that it might be stopped. The em- 
 peror in his reply approves of the governor's con- 
 duct, as explained in his letter, and observes that 
 DO general rule can be laid down. Persons sup- 
 posed to be Christians are not to be sought for: if 
 they are accused and the charge is proved, they 
 are to be punished ; but if a man denied the charge, 
 and could prove its falsity by offering his prayers 
 to the heathen gods {diis nostris), however sus- 
 pected he may have been, he shall be excused in 
 respect of his repentance. Charges of accusation 
 (libelli) without the name of the informant or ac- 
 cuser, were not to be received, as they had been : 
 it was a thing of the worst example, and unsuited 
 to the age. One of the best editions of the Epis- 
 tolae and Pajiegyricus is by Schaefer, Lips. 1805. 
 The best editions of the Epistolae are by Cortius 
 and Longolius, Amsterdam, 1734, and by Gierig, 
 Lips. 1800. 
 
 Plmthiue {UXivQivri)^ a city of Lower Egypt, 
 on the bay called from it Sinus PlintMnetes 
 {TlXivQtviir-qs k6\'vos)^ was the "W.-most city of 
 Egypt (according to its narrower limits) on the 
 frontier of Marmarica. It stood a little N. of 
 Taposiris (Abousir), 
 
 Plistarchus {Xlxda-rapxo^), king of Sparta, 
 was the son and successor of Leonidas, who was 
 killed at Thermopylae, B.C. 480. He reigned from 
 480 to 458, but being a mere child at the time of 
 his father's death, the regency was assumed by his 
 cousin Pausanias. It appears that the latter con- 
 tinued to administer affairs in the name of the 
 young king till his own death, about 467. 
 
 Plisthenes (nAeio-fleVTjs), son of Atreus, and 
 husband of Aerope or Eriphyle, by whom he be- 
 came the father of Agamemnon, Menelaus, and 
 Anaxibia ; but Homer makes the latter the children 
 of Atreus. See Agamemnon, Atreus. 
 
 Plistla {Prestia\ a village in Samniura in the 
 valley between M. Tifata and Taburnus. 
 
 Plistoanax or Plistonax (n\€i(rToai/a|, IIAet- 
 ffTtii/ol), king of Sparta, was the eldest son of the 
 Pausanias who conquered at Plataea, B.C. 479. 
 On the death of PHstarchus, in 458, without issue, 
 Plistoanax succeeded to the throne, being yet a 
 minor. He reigned from 458 to 408, In 445 he 
 invaded Attica ; but the premature withdrawal of 
 his army from the enemy's territoiy exposed him 
 to the suspicion of having been bribed by Pericles. 
 He was punished by a heavy fine, which he was 
 unable to pay, and was therefore obliged to leave 
 his country. He remained 19 years in exile, 
 taking up his abode near the temple of Zeus on 
 Mt, Lycaeus in Arcadia, and having half his house 
 ■within the sacred precincts that he might enjoy the 
 benefit of the sanctuary. During this period his 
 son Pausanias, a minor, reigned in his sti^ad. The 
 Spartans at length recalled him in 426, in obedi- 
 ence to the injunctions of the Delphic oracle. But 
 
 PLOTINUS. 
 
 he was accused of having tampered with the Py- 
 thian priestess to induce her to interpose for him, 
 and his alleged impiety in this matter was con- 
 tinually assigned by his enemies as the cause of 
 all Sparta''s misfortunes in the war; and therefore- 
 it wtis that he used all his influence to bring about 
 peace with Athens in 421. He was succeeded by 
 his son Pausanias. 
 
 Plistus (nA€((rT(Js : Xeropotamo), a small river 
 in Phocis, which rises in Mt. Parnassus, flows 
 past Delphi, where it receives the small stream 
 Castalia, and falls into the Crissaean gulf near 
 Cirrha. 
 
 Plotina, Pompeia, the wife of the emperor 
 Trajan, and a woman of extraordinary merit and 
 virtue. As she had no children, she persuaded 
 her husband to adopt Hadrian. She died in the 
 reign of Hadrian, who honoured her memory by 
 mourning for her 9 days, by building a temple in 
 her honour, and by composing hymns in her praise. 
 
 Flotinopolis (nxtuTiyoTroA.!?), a town in Thrace 
 on the road from Trajanopolis to Hadrianopolis, 
 founded by Trajan, and named in honour of his 
 wife Plotina. 
 
 Plotinus (nXuTrvos), the originator of the Neo- 
 Platonic system, was bom at Lycopolis in Egypt, 
 about A. D. 203. The details of his life have been 
 preserved by his disciple Porphyry in a biography 
 which has come down to us. From him we learn 
 that Plotinus began to study philosophy in his 
 28th year, and remained 11 years under the in- 
 struction of Ammonius Saccas. In his 39th 
 year he joined the expedition of the emperor Gor- 
 dian (242) against the Persians, in order to become 
 acquainted with the philosophy of the Persians 
 and Indians. After the death of Gordian he fled 
 to Antioch, and from thence to Rome (244). For 
 the first 10 years of his residence at Rome he gave 
 only oral instructions to a few friends; but he was 
 at length induced in 254 to commit his instructions 
 to writing. In this manner when, 10 years later 
 (264) Porphyry came to Rome and joined himself 
 to Plotinus, 21 books of very various contents had 
 been already composed by him. During the 6 
 years that Porphyry lived with Plotinus at Rome, 
 the latter, at the instigation of Amelius and Por- 
 phyry, wrote 23 books on the subjects which had 
 been discussed in their meetings, to which 9 books 
 were afterwards added. Of the 54 books of Plo- 
 tinus, Porphyry remarks, that the first 21 books 
 were of a lighter character, that only the 23 fol- 
 lowing were the production of the matured powers 
 of the author, and that the other 9, especially the 
 4 last, were evidently written with diminished 
 vigour. The correction of these 54 books was 
 committed by Plotinus himself to the care of Por- 
 phyry. On account of the weakness of his sight, 
 Plotinus never read them through a second time, 
 to say nothing of making corrections; intent simply 
 upon the matter, he was alike careless of ortho- 
 graphj', of the division of the syllables, and the 
 clearness of his handwriting. The 54 books was 
 divided by Porphyry into 6 Enneads^ or sets of 9 
 books. Plotinus was eloquent in his oral commu- 
 nications, and was said to be very clever in finding 
 the appropriate word, even if he failed in accuracy 
 on the whole. Besides this, the beauty of his 
 person was increased when discoursing ; his coun- 
 tenance was lighted up with genius, and covered 
 with small drops of perspiration. He lived on the 
 scantiest fare, and his hours of sleep were restricted 
 
PLOTIUS, 
 
 to the briefest time possible. He -ivas regarded 
 with admiration and respect not only by men of 
 science like the philosophers Amelius, Porphyry, 
 tiie physicians Paulinus, Eustochius, and Zethus 
 the Arab, but even by senators and other states- 
 men. He enjoyed the favour of the emperor Gal- 
 lienus, and the empress Salonina, and almost ob- 
 tained from them the rebuilding of two destroyed 
 towns in Campania, with the view of their being 
 governed according to the laws of Plato. He died 
 at Puteoli in 262. The philosophical system of 
 Piotinus is founded upon Plato's writings, with 
 the addition of various tenets drawn from the 
 Oriental philosophy and religion. He appears 
 however to avoid studiously all reference to the 
 OrieTital origin of his tenets ; he endeavours to find 
 them all under the veil of the Greek mythology, 
 and points out here the germ of his owii philoso- 
 phical and religious convictions. Piotinus is not 
 guilty of that commixture and falsification of the 
 Oriental mythology and mysticism, which is found 
 in lamblichus, Proclus, and others of the Neo- 
 Platonic school. The best edition of the Enneads 
 of Piotinus is by Kreuzer, Oxonii, 1835, 3 vols. 4to. 
 
 Plotius, whose full name was Marius Plotius 
 Sacerdos, a Latin grammarian, the author of Z>e 
 Metris Libei\ who probably lived in the 5th or 
 6th century of the Christian aera. His work is 
 published by Putschius in the Grammaticae Latinae 
 Auciores, Hannov. 1605, and by Gaisford in the 
 Scriptores Laiini Rei Metricae^ Oxon. 1837. 
 
 Plutarch.us {YlKovrapxos). 1. Tyrant of Eretria 
 in Euboea, whom the Athenians assisted in b. c. 
 354 against his rival, Callias of Chalcis. The 
 Athenian array was commanded by Phocion, who 
 defeated Callias at Tamynae ; but Phocion having 
 suspected Plutarclius of treachery, expelled him 
 from Eretria. — 2, The biographer and philosopher, 
 ■was born at Chaeronea in Boeotia. The year of 
 his birth is not known; but we learn from Plutarch 
 himself, that he was studying philosophy under 
 Ammonius at the time when Nero was making his 
 progress through Greece, in a. d. 66; from which 
 we may assume that he was a youth or a young 
 man at that time. He spent some time at Rome, 
 and in other parts of Italy; but he tells us that he 
 did not learn the Latin language in Italy, because 
 he was occupied with public commissions, and in 
 giving lectures on philosophy; and it was late in 
 life before he busied himself with Roman literature. 
 He was lecturing at Rome during the reign of 
 Domitian, but the statement of Suidas that Plutarch 
 was the preceptor of Trajan, ought to be rejected. 
 Plutarch spent the later years of his life at Chae- 
 ronea, where he discharged various magisterial 
 offices, and held a priesthood. The time of his 
 death is unknown. — The work which has immor- 
 talised Plutarch's name is his Parallel Lives {BCol 
 Uapd\\T]\oL) of 46 Greeks and Romans. The 46 
 Lives are arranged in pairs; each pair contains the 
 life of a Greek and a Roman, and is followed by a 
 comparison of the two men: in a few pairs the 
 comparison is omitted or lost. He seems to have 
 considered each pair of Lives and the Parallel as 
 making one book {BiSaIov). The 46 Lives ai'e the 
 following: — I.Theseus and Romulus; 2.Lycurgus 
 and Numa ; 3. Solon and Valerius Publicola ; 4. 
 Themistocles and Camillua ; 5. Pericles and Q. 
 Fabius Maximus ; 6. Alcibiades and Coriolanus ; 
 7. Timoleon and Aemilius Paulus ; 8. Pelopidas 
 and Marcellus ; 9, Aristides and Cato the Elder; 
 
 PLUTARCHUS. 
 
 593 
 
 10. Philopoemen and Flamininus; 1 1 . Pyrrhus and 
 Mariua ; 12. Lysander and Sulla ; 13. Cimon and 
 Lucullus ; 14. Nicias and Crassus ; 15. Eumenea 
 and Sertorius ; 16. Agesilaus and Pompeiua ; 17. 
 Alexander and Caesar; 18. Phocion and Cato the 
 Ynunger ; 19. Agis and Cleomenes, and Tiberius 
 and Caius Gracchi ; 20. Demosthenes and Cicero ; 
 21. Demetrius Poliorcetes and M. Antonius ; 22. 
 Dion and M. Junius Brutus. There are also 
 the Lives ofArtaxerxes Mnemon, Aratus, Galba, 
 and Otho, which are placed in the editions after 
 the 46 Lives. Perhaps no work of antiquity has 
 been so extensively read in modem times as Plu- 
 tarch's Lives. The reason of their popularity is 
 that Plutarch has rightly conceived the business of 
 a biographer: his biography is true portraiture. 
 Other biography is often a dull, tedious enumtration 
 of facts in the order of time, with perhaps a 
 summing up of character at the end. The reflections 
 of Plutarch are neither impertinent, nor trifling : 
 his sound good sense is always there : his honest 
 purpose is transparent : his love of humanity 
 warms the whole. His work is and will remain, 
 in spite of all the fault that can be found with it 
 by plodding collectors of facts, and small critics, 
 the book of those who can nobly think, and dare 
 and do. The best edition of the Lives Ja by Sin- 
 tenis, Lips. 1839—1846, 4 vols. 8vo. — Plutarch's 
 other writings, above 60 in number, are placed 
 under the general title oi Moralia or Ethical works, 
 though some of them are of an historical and anec- 
 dotical character, such as the essay on the malignity 
 {KaKoijdeia) of Herodotus, which neither requires 
 n or merits refutation, an d his Apoph th egmata, 
 many of which are of little value. Eleven of these 
 essays are generally classed among Plutarch's his- 
 torical works: among them, also, are his Roman 
 Questions or Inquiries, his Greek Questions, and 
 the Lives of the Ten Orators. But it is likely 
 enough that several of the essays which are in- 
 cluded in the Moralia of Plutarch, are not by him. 
 At any rate, some of them are not worth reading. 
 The best of the essays included among the Moralia 
 are of a different stamp. There is no philosophical 
 system in these essays: pure speculation was not 
 Plutarch's province. His beat writings are prac- 
 tical; and their merits consist in the soundness of 
 his views on the ordinary events of human life, 
 and in the benevolence of his temper. His '■* Mar- 
 riage Precepts" are a sample of his good sense, 
 and of his happiest expression. He rightly appre- 
 ciated the importance of a good education, and he 
 gives much sound advice on the bringing up of 
 children. The best edition of the Moralia is by 
 Wyttenbach : it consists of 6 volumes of text 
 (Oxon. 1795—1800), and 2 volumes of notes 
 (Oxon. 1810—1821). The best editions of all the 
 works of Plutarch are by Reiske, Lips. 1774 — 
 1782, 12 vols. 8vo., and by Hutten, 179I_]805, 
 14 vols. 8vo. — 3. The younger, was a son of the 
 last, and is supposed by some to have been the 
 author of several of the works which pass usually 
 for his father's, as e. g. ihe Apophihei;mata.—^. 
 An Athenian, son of Nestorius, presided with dis- 
 tinction over the Neo-Platonic school at Athens 
 in the early part of the 5th century, and was 
 surnamed the Great. He numbered among his 
 disciples Syrianus of Alexandria, who succeeded 
 him as head of the school, and Proclus of Lycia. 
 He wrote commentaries, which are lost, on the 
 " Timaeus " of Plato, and on Aristotle's treatise 
 
 Q Q 
 
501 
 
 PLUTO. 
 He died at an advanced age, 
 
 " On the Soul." 
 about A. D. 430. 
 
 Pluto or Plutoii(nAoi;Tuj|/), the giver of wealth, 
 at first a surname of Hades, the god of the lower 
 world, and afterwards used as the real name of the 
 god. In the latter sense it first occurs in Euripides. 
 An account of the god is given under Hades. 
 
 Plutus (nXouTos). sometimes called Pluton, the 
 personification of wealth, is described as a son of 
 lasion and Demeter. [Iasion.] Zeus is said to 
 have deprived liim of sight, that he might not be- 
 stow liis favours on righteoua men exclusively, but 
 that he might distribute his gifts blindly and 
 without any regard to merit. At Thebes there 
 Tvas a statue of Tyche or Fortune, at Athens one 
 of Irene or Peace, and at Thespiae one of Athena 
 Ern;ane ; and in each of these cases Plutus was 
 represented as the child of those divinities, sym- 
 bolically expressing the sources of wealth. He 
 seems to have been commonly represented as a boy 
 with a Cornucopia. 
 
 Pluvialia {UXovirdXa, Ptol. : prob. Ferro), 
 one of the islands in the Atlantic, called Fortu- 
 
 NATAE. 
 
 Pluvius, i. e. the sender of rain, a surname of 
 Jupiter among the Romans, to whom sacrifices 
 were offered during long protracted droughts. 
 
 Pnytag'oras {Tiwrayopa^). 1. Eldest son of 
 Evagoras, king of Salamis in Cyprus, was assassi- 
 nated along with his father, b. c. 374. — 2. King 
 of Salamis in Cyprus, probably succeeded NIcocles, 
 though we have no account of his accession, or his 
 relation to the previous raonarchs. He submitted 
 to Alexander in 332, and served with a fleet under 
 that monarch at the siege of Tyre. 
 
 Podalirius (IIoSaAefpios), son of Aesculapius 
 and Epione or Arsinoe, and brother of Machaon, 
 along with whom he led the Thessalians of Tricca 
 against Troy. He was, like his brother, skilled in 
 the medical art. On his return from Troy he was 
 cast by a storm on the coast of Syros in Caria, 
 where he is said to have settled.-' He was wor- 
 shipped as a hero on Mt. Dria. 
 
 Podarces ( no5ap(c7]s). 1. The original name of 
 Priam. [Priamus.] — 2. Son of Iphiclus and 
 grandson of Phylacus, was a younger brother of 
 Protesilaus, and led the Thessalians of Phylace 
 against Troy. 
 
 Podarge. [Habpyiae.] 
 
 Poeas (riotas), son of Phylacus or Thaumacus, 
 husband of Methone, and the father of Philoctetes, 
 who is hence called Poeantiades^ Poeaniius heros, 
 Poeaiitia proles, and Poeante satus. Poeas is men- 
 tioned among the Argonauts, and is said Xo have 
 killed with an arrow, Talaus, in Crete. Poeas set 
 fire to the pile on which Hercules burnt himself, 
 and was rewarded by the hero with his arrows. 
 [Hercules ; Philoctetes.] 
 
 Poemander {Xloiixav^pos\ son of Chaeresilaus 
 and Stratonice, was the husband of Tanagra, a 
 daughter of Aeolus or Aesopus, by whom he be- 
 came the father of Ephippus and Leucippus. He 
 was the reputed founder of the town of Tanngra in 
 Boeotia which was hence called PoeTmwcZna. When 
 Poemander had inadvertently killed his own son, 
 he was purified by Elephenor. 
 
 Poemaiienu3 {Uoiixavriv6s ; ethnic, the same : 
 prob. Maniijas), a fortified place in Mysin, S. of 
 Cyzicus, with a celebrated temple of Aesculapius. 
 
 Poena (IToii/^), a personification of ret'iliation, 
 sometimes mentioned as one being, and sometimes 
 
 POLEMON. 
 
 in the plural. The Poenae belonged to the train 
 of Dice, and are akin to the Erinnyes. 
 
 Poetovio. [Petovio.] 
 
 Pogon {Ilwy(»}v), the harbour of Troezen in 
 Argolis. 
 
 Pola (Pola), an ancient town in Istria, situated 
 on the W. coast, and near the promontory Polati- 
 cum, which was the most S.-ly point in the coun- 
 try. According to tradition Pola was founded by 
 the Colchians, who had been sent in pursuit of 
 Medea. It was subsequently a Roman colonj'-, 
 with the surname Pietas Julia, and became an im- 
 portant commercial town, being united by good 
 roads with Aquiieia and the principal towns of 
 Ili3'ria. Its importance in antiquity is attested by 
 its magnificent ruins, of which the principal are 
 those of an amphitheatre, of a triumphal arch 
 {Porta aurm)^ erected to L. Sergius by his wife 
 Salvia Postuma, and of several temples. 
 
 Polemon iJioKiy^wv). 1. I. King of Pontus and 
 the Bosporus, was the son of Zenon, the orator of 
 Laodicea. As a reward for the services rendered 
 by his father as well as himself he was appointed 
 by Antony in b. C. 39 to the government of a part of 
 Cilicia; and he subsequently obtained in exchange 
 the kingdom of Pontus. He accompanied Antony 
 in his expedition against the Parthians in 36. After 
 the battle of Actium he was able to make his peace 
 with Octavian, who confirmed him in his kingdom. 
 About the year 16 he was intrusted by Agrippa 
 with the charge of reducing the kingdom ol' Bos- 
 porus, of which he was made king after conquering 
 the country. His reign after this was long and 
 prosperous; he extended his dominions as far as 
 the river Tanais ; but having engaged in an expe- 
 dition against the barbarian tribe of the Aspurgians 
 he was not only defeated by them, but taken 
 prisoner, and put to death. By his *2nd wife Py- 
 thodoris, who succeeded him on the throne, he left 
 2 sons, Polemon XL, and Zenon, king of Armenia, 
 and 1 daughter who was married to Cotys king of 
 Thrace, — 2. II. Son of the preceding and of Py- 
 thodoris, was raised to the sovereignty of Pontus 
 and Bosporus by Caligula in a. d. 39. Bospoius 
 was afterwards taken from him by Claudius, who 
 assigned it to Mithridates, while he gave Polemon 
 a portion of Cilicia in its stead, 41. In 62 Pulumon 
 was induced by Nero to abdicate the throne, and 
 Pontus was reduced to the condition of a Roman 
 province. — 3. Of Athens, an eminent Platonic 
 philosopher, was the son of Philostratus, a man of 
 wealth and political distinction. In his youth, 
 Polemon was extremely profligate ; but one day, 
 when he was aboiit 30, on his bursting into the 
 school of Xenocrates, at the head of a band of 
 revellers, his attention was so arrested by the dis- 
 course which chanced to be upon temperance, that 
 he tore off his garland and remained an attentive 
 listener, and from that day he adopted an abste- 
 mious course of life, and continued to frequent the 
 school, of which, on the death of Xenocrates, he 
 became the head, b. c. 315. lie died in 2/3 at a 
 great age. Pie esteemed the object of philosophy 
 to be, to exercise men in things and deeds, not in 
 dialectic speculation. He placed the summum honum 
 in living according to the laws of nature. —4. Of 
 Athens by citizenship, but by birth either of Ilium, 
 or Samoa, or Sicyon, a Stoic philosopher and an 
 eminent geographer, surnamed Periegdcs {<i irepi- 
 ri77iTTjs), lived in the time of Ptolemy Epiphanes, at 
 the beginning of the 2nd century B.C. In philosophy 
 
POLEMONIUM. 
 
 he was a disciple of Panaetiiis. He made exten- 
 sive journeys through Greece, to collect materials 
 for his geographical works, in the course of which 
 he paid particular attention to the inscriptions on 
 votive offerings and on columns. As the collector 
 of these inscriptions, he was one of the earlier 
 contributors to the Greek Anthology. Athenaeus 
 and other writers make very numerous quotations 
 from his works. They were chiefly descriptions of 
 different parts of Greece ; some were on the paint- 
 ings preserved in various places, and several are 
 controversial, among which is one against Erato- 
 sthenes. —5. Antonius, a celebrated sophist and 
 rhetorician, flourished under Trajan, Hadrian, and 
 the first Antoninus, and was in high favour with 
 the 2 former emperors. He was born of a consular 
 family, at Laodicea, but spent the greater part of 
 his life at Smyrna. His most celebrated disciple 
 was Aristides. Among his imitators in subsequent 
 times was Gregory Nazianzen. His style of ora- 
 tory was imposing rather than pleasing ; and his 
 character was haughty and reserved. During the 
 latter part of his life he was so tortured by the 
 gout, that he resolved to put an end to his exist- 
 ence ; he had himself shut up in the tomb of his 
 ancestors at Laodicea, where he died of hunger, at 
 the age of Q5. The only extant work of Polemon 
 is the funeral orations for Cynaeginis and Callima- 
 chus, the generals who fell at Marathon, which are 
 supposed to be pronounced by their fathers. These 
 orations are edited by Orelli, Lips. 1819. — 6. The 
 author of a short Greek work on. Physiognomy, 
 which is still extant. He must have lived in or 
 before the 3rd century after Christ, as he ia men- 
 tioned by Origen, and from his style he cannot be 
 supposed to have lived much earlier than this time. 
 His work consists of 2 books: in the 1st, which 
 contains 23 chapters, after proving the utility of 
 physiognomy, he laj's down the general principles 
 of the science ; in the 2nd book, which consists of 
 27 chapters, he goes on to apply the principles he 
 had before laid down, and describes in a few words 
 the characters of the courageous man, the timid, 
 the impudent, the passionate, the talkative, &c. 
 The best edition of it is by Franz in his " Scrip- 
 tores Physiognoraoniae Veteres," Altenburg. 1780. 
 
 Polemouium {lioK^pL^vLov : noAe^ctJ^toy, and 
 TioK^^wvi^vs : Polemon\ a city on the coast of 
 Pontus in Asia Minor, built by King Polemon 
 (probably the 2nd), on the site of the older city 
 of Side, at the mouth of the river Sidenus {Po~ 
 leman C/iai), and at the bottom of a deep gulf, 
 with a good harbour. Jt was the capital of the 
 kingdom of Polemon, comprising the central part 
 of Wontus, E. of the Iris, which was hence called 
 Pontus Polemoniacus. 
 
 Folias (noAiav), l e. " the goddess protecting 
 the city," a surname of Athena at Athens, where 
 she was worshipped as the protecting divinity of 
 the acropolis. 
 
 Polichna {UoKixvn^ I*or. UoXixva : IloXix''^- 
 T7;y)i'i town:— L In the N-W. of Messenia, W. 
 of Andania. — 2. In the N.E. of Laconia. — 3. In 
 Chios. ^ 4. In Crete, whose territory bordered on 
 that of Cydonia. — 5. In Mysia, in the district 
 Troas, on the left bank of the Aesepus near its 
 source. 
 
 Polieus (noA-ieiJs), " the protector of the city," 
 a surname of Zeus, under which he had an altar 
 on the acropolis at Athens. 
 
 Poliorcetes, Demetrius. [Demktrius.] 
 
 POLLIO. 
 
 595 
 
 Polls (U6\is), a village of the Locri Opuntii, 
 subject to Hyle. 
 
 Polites (IIoAtTTis-), son of Priam and Hecuba, 
 and father of Priam the younger, was a valiant 
 warrior, but was slain by Pyrrhus. 
 
 Politorium, a town in the interior of Latium, 
 destroyed by Ancus Martins. 
 
 Poliiichus (XIoAioDxfs), i. e. " protecting the 
 city," occurs as a surname of several divinities, 
 such as Athena Chalcioecus at Sparta, and of 
 Athena at Athens. 
 
 Polla, Argentaria, the wife of the poet Lucan. 
 
 PoUentia (PoUentinus). 1. {Pohnza)^^ town 
 of the Statielli in Llguria at the confluence of tlie 
 Sturia and the Tanarus, and subsequently a Roman 
 raunicipium. It was celebrated for its wool. In 
 its neighbourhood Stiiicho gained a victory over 
 the Goths imder Alaric— 2. A town in Picenum, 
 probably identical with Urbs Salvia. — 3. {Pul~ 
 lenza)^ a Roman colony on the N.E. point of the 
 Balearis Major. 
 
 Pollio, AJmiug, was accused of treason {ma~ 
 jesias) towards the end of the reign of Tiberius, 
 but was not brought to trial. He was subsequently 
 one of Nero's intimate friends, but was accused of 
 taking part in Piso's conspiracy against that em- 
 peror in A. D. 63, and was in consequence banisiied. 
 
 Follio, C. Asmius, a distinguished orator, pnet 
 and historian of the Augustan age. He was burn 
 at Rome in B.C. 76, and became distinguished as 
 an orator at an early age. On the breaking out of 
 the civil war he joined Caesar, and in 49 he ac- 
 companied Curio to Africa. After the defeat and 
 death of Curio, he crossed over to Greece, and fought 
 on Caesar's side at the battle of Pharsalia (48). 
 He also accompanied Caesar in his campaigns 
 against the Pompeian party in Africa (46) and 
 Spain (45). He returned with Caesar to Rome, 
 but was shortly afterwards sent back to Spain, 
 with the command of tlie Further Province, in 
 order to prosecute the war against Sex. Pompej-. 
 He was in his province at the time of Caesar's 
 death (44). He took no part in the war between 
 Antony and the senate ; but when Antony was 
 joined by Lepidus and Octavian in 43, Pollio es- 
 poused their cause, and persuaded L. Plancus in 
 Gaul to follow his example. In the division of 
 the provinces among the triumvirs, Antony received 
 the Gauls. The administration of the Transpadane 
 Gaul was committed to Pollio by Antonj-, and he 
 had accordingly the difficult task of settling the 
 veterans in the lands which had been assigned to 
 them in this province. It was upon this occasion 
 that he saved the property of the poet Virgil at 
 Mautua from confiscation, whom he took under his 
 protection from his love of literature. In 40 Pollio 
 took an active part in effecting the reconciliation 
 between Octavian and Antony at Brundusium. In 
 the same year he was consul ; and it was during 
 his consulship that Virgil addressed to him his 
 4th Eclogue. In 39, Antony went to Greece, and 
 sent Pollio with a part of his army against the 
 Parthini, an Illyrian people. Pollio defeated the 
 Parthini and took the Dalmatian town of Salonae; 
 and in consequence of his success obtained the 
 honour of a triumph on the 25th of October in this 
 year. He gave his son Asinius Gallus the agnomen 
 of Saloninus after the town which he had taken. 
 It was during his Illyrian campaign that Virgil 
 addressed to him the 8th Eclogue. From this time 
 Pollio withdrew altogether from political life, and 
 
 o a 2 
 
505 POLLIO. 
 
 devoted himself to the study of literature. He still 
 continued however to exercise his oratorical powers, 
 and maintained his reputation for eloquence by his 
 speeches both in the senate and the courts of 
 justice. He died at his Tusculan villa, A. D. 4, in 
 the bOth yeaf of his ajre, preserving to the last the 
 full enjoyment of his health and of all his faculties. 
 — PoUio deserves a distinguished place in the 
 history of Roman literature, not so much on account 
 of his works, as of the encouragement which he 
 gave to literature. He was not only a patron of 
 Virgil, Horace (see Carm. ii. I), and other great 
 poets and writers, but he has the honour of having 
 been the first person to establish a public library 
 at Rome, upon which he expended the money he 
 had obtained in his Illyrian campaign. None of 
 PoUio's own works have come down to ns, but 
 they possessed sufficient merit to lead his contem- 
 piiraries and successors to class his name with those 
 of Cicero, Virgil and Sallust, as an orator, a poet 
 and an hl^tonan. It was however as an orator 
 tiiat he possessed the greatest reputation. Catullus 
 describes him in his youth {Carm. zii. 9) as "le- 
 porum disertus puer et facetiamm," and Horace 
 speaks of him in the full maturity of his powers 
 {Carm. ii. 1. VS) as '' Insigne maestis praesidiura 
 reis et consulenti, Pollio, curiae ;" and we have 
 also the more impartial testimony of Quintilian, the 
 two Senecas and the author of the Dialogue on 
 Orators to the greatness of his oratorical powers. 
 — Pollio wrote the history of the civil wars in 17 
 books. It commenced with the consulship of Me- 
 tellus and Afranius, B. c. 60, in which year the 
 first triumvirate was formed, and appears to have 
 come down, to the time when Augustus obtained 
 the undisputed supremacy of the Roman world. — 
 As a poet Pollio was best known for bis tragedies, 
 which are spoken of in high terms by Virgil and 
 Horace, but which probably did not possess any 
 great merit, as they .are hardly mentioned by sub- 
 sequent writers. The words of Virgil {Ed. iii. l!6), 
 '■ Pollio et ipse facit nova carmina," probably refer 
 to tragedies of a new kind, namely, such as were not 
 borrowed from the Greek, but contained subjects 
 entirely new, taken from Roman story. — PoUio 
 also enjoyed great reputation as a critic, but he is 
 cliiefly known in this capacity for the severe judg- 
 ment which he passed upon his great contempo- 
 raries. Thus he pointed nut many mistakes in the 
 speeches of Cicero, censured the Commentaries of 
 (Jaesar for their want of historical fidelity, and 
 found fault with Sallust for affectation in the use 
 of antiquated words and expressions. He also 
 complained of a certain Patavinity in Livy, re- 
 specting which some remarks are made in the life 
 of Livy. [p. 337, a.] Pollio had a son, C. Asinius 
 Galius Saloninus. [See p. 276.] Asinius Gallus 
 married Vipsania, the former wife of Tiberius, by 
 whom he had several children : namely, 1. AaJnius 
 Saloninus. 2. Asinius Gallus. 3. Asinius Pollio, 
 consul A. B. 23. 4. Asinius Agrippa, consul a. d. 
 25. 5. Asinius Celer. 
 
 Pollio, Vedius, a Roman eques and a friend of 
 Augustus, was by birth a freedman, and has ob- 
 tained a place in history on account of his riches 
 and his cruelty. He was accustomed to feed his 
 lampreys with human flesh, and whenever a slave 
 displeased him, tlie unfortunate wretch was forth- 
 with thrown into the pond as food fur the tish. On 
 one occasion Augustus was supping with him, when 
 a slave had the misfortune to break a crj'.stal 
 
 POLYAENUS. 
 goblet, and his master immediately ordered him to 
 be thrown to the fishes. The slave fell at the feet 
 of Augustus, praying for mercy ; and when the 
 emperor could not prevail upon Pollio to pardon 
 him, he dismissed the slave of his own accord, and 
 commanded all PoUio^'s crystal goblets to be broken 
 and the fish-pond to be filled up. PoUio died 
 B.C. 15, leaving a large part of his property to 
 Augustus. It was this Pollio, who built the cele- 
 brated villa of Pausilypum near Naples. 
 
 Pollux or Polydeuces. [Dioscurl] 
 
 Pollux, Julius ('IoijAios rioAySeuKT;?). 1. Of 
 Naucratis in Egypt, was a Greek sophist and 
 grammarian. He studied rhetoric at Athens under 
 the sophist Adrian, and afterwards opened a private 
 school in this city, where he gave instruction in 
 grammar and rhetoric. At a later time he was 
 appointed by the emperor Coramodus to the chair 
 of rhetoric at Athens. He died during the reign 
 of Commodus at the age of 58. "VVe may therefore 
 assign a. d. 183 as the year in which he flourished. 
 He seems to have been attacked by many of his 
 contemporaries on account of the inferior character 
 of his oratory, and especially by Lucian m his 
 'pT}r6pu}t/ SiSdaKaAos. Pollux was the author of 
 several works, all of which have perished, with 
 the exception of the Ormmasticon. This work is 
 divided into 10 books, each of which contains a 
 short dedication to the Caesar Commodus : it was 
 therefore published before a. d. 177, since Cora- 
 modus became Augustus in that j'ear. Each book 
 forms a separate treatise by itself, containing the 
 most important words relating to certain subjects, 
 with short explanations of the meanings of the 
 words. The alphabetical arrangement is not adopted, 
 but the words are given according to the subjects 
 treated of in each book. The best editions are by 
 Lederlin and Hemstershuis, Amsterdam, 1706; by 
 Dindorf, Lips. 1S24; and by Imm. Bekker, Berol. 
 1S46. — 2. A Byzantine writer, the author of a 
 Chronicon, which treats at some length of the 
 creation of the world, and is therefore entitled 
 'IiTTopia (pva-iicf). Like most other Byzantine his- 
 tories, it is an universal history, beginning with 
 the creation of the world and coming down to the 
 time of the writer. The two manuscripts from 
 which this work is published end with the reign 
 of Valens, but the Paris manuscript is said to come 
 down as low as the death of Romanus, a d. 963. 
 The best edition is by Hardt, Munich, 17.92. 
 
 Polus (rioiXos). 1. A sophist and rhetorician, a 
 native of Agrigentum. He was a disciple of Gor- 
 gias, and wrote a treatise on rhetoric, as well as 
 other works mentioned by Suidaa. He is intro- 
 duced by Plato as an interlocutor in the Gorgias. 
 — S. A celebrated tragic actor, tho son of Cliancles 
 of Sunium, and a disciple of Archias of Thuiii. It 
 is related of him, that at the age of 70, shortly be- 
 fore his death, he acted in 8 tragedies on 4 suc- 
 cessive days. 
 
 Polyaegos (TloXvaiyos : Poh/hos or Antime- 
 los), an uninhabited island in the Aegaean sea, 
 near Melos. 
 
 Polyaenus {Uokiiaivos). 1. Of Larapsafus, a 
 mathematician and a friend of Epicurus, adopted 
 the philosophical system of his friend, and, although 
 he had previously acquired great reputation as a 
 mathematician, he now maintained with Epicurus 
 the worthlfssness of geometry. ^2. Of Sardis, a 
 sophist, lived in the time of Julius Caesar. He is 
 the author of 4 epigrams in the Greek Anthology. 
 
POLYBIUS. 
 
 His full name was Julius Folyaenus.-^'Z, The Ma- 
 cedonian, the author of the work on Stratagems in 
 war {JS.Tpa.T-r]yi\fxa.Ta.), which is still extant, lived 
 about the middle of the 2nd centuiy of the Christian 
 aera. Suidas calls him a rhetorician, and we learn 
 from Polyaenus himself that he was accustomed to 
 plead causes before the emperor. He dedicated his 
 work to M. Aurelius and Venis, while they were 
 engaged in the Parthian war, about a. d. 163, at 
 which time, he says, he was too old to accompany 
 them in their campaigns. This work is divided 
 into 8 books, of which the first 6 contain an account 
 ■of the stratagems of the most celebrated Greek ge- 
 nerals, the 7th of those of barbarous or foreign 
 people, and the 8th of the Romans, and illustrious 
 women. Parts, however, of the 6th and 7th books 
 are lost, so that of the 900 stratagems which Po- 
 lyaenus described, only 833 have come down to us. 
 The work is written in a clear and pleasing style, 
 though somewhat tinged with the artificial rhetoric 
 of the age. It contains a vast number of anecdotes 
 respecting many of the most celebrated men in an- 
 tiquity ; but its value as an historical authority 
 is very much diminished by the little judgment 
 "which the author evidently possessed, and b}'^ our 
 ignorance of the sources from which he took his 
 statements. The best editions are by Maasvicius, 
 Leyden, 1690 ; by Mui'sinna, Berlin, 1756 ; and 
 by Cnray, Paris, 1809. 
 
 Polybius (riwAiifftos). L The historian, the 
 son of Lycortas, and a native of Megalopolis, in 
 -Arcadia, was bom about B.C. 204. His father 
 Lycortas was one of the most distinguished men of 
 the Achaean league ; and Polybius received the 
 advantages of his father's instruction in political 
 knowledge and th^ military art. He must also 
 have reaped great benefit from his intercourse with 
 Philopoemen, who was a friend of his father's, and 
 on whose death, in 1 82, Polybius carried the urn 
 in which his ashes were deposited. In the follow- 
 ing year Polybius was appointed one of the ambas- 
 sadors to Egypt, but he did not leave Greece, as the 
 intention of sending an embassy was abandoned. 
 From this time he probably began to take part in 
 public affairs, and he appears to have soon obtained 
 great influence among his countrymen. After the 
 conquest of Macedonia, in 168, the Roman com- 
 missioners, who were sent into the S. of Greece, 
 commanded, at the instigation of CalHcrates, that 
 1000 Achaeans should be carried to Rome, to 
 answer the charge of not having assisted the 
 Romans against Perseus. This number included 
 all the best and noblest part of the nation, and 
 among them was Polybius. They arrived in Italy 
 in B. c. 167, but, instead of being put upon their 
 trial, ihey were distributed among the Etruscan 
 towns. Polybius was more fortunate than the 
 rest of his countrymen. He had probably be- 
 come acquainted in Greece with Aemilius Paulus, 
 or his sons Fabius and Scipio, and the two young 
 men now obtained permission from the praetor for 
 Polybius to reside at Rome in the house of their 
 father Paulus. Scipio was then 18 years of age, 
 and soon became warmly attached to Polybius. 
 Scipio was accompanied by his friend in all his 
 military expeditions, and received much advantage 
 from his experience and knowledge. Polybius, 
 on the other hand, besides finding a liberal patron 
 and protector in Scipio, was able by his means to 
 obtain access to public documents, and to accumu- 
 late materials for hia great historical work. After 
 
 POLYBIUS. 
 
 597 
 
 remaining in Ital}' 17 years, Polybius returned to 
 Peloponnesus in 151, with the surviving Achaean 
 exiles, who were at length allowed by the senate 
 to revisit their native land. He did not. however, 
 remain long in Greece. He joined Scipio in his 
 campaign against Carthage, and was present at the 
 destruction of that city in 146. Immediately after- 
 wards he hurried to Greece, where the Achaeans 
 were waging a mad and hopeless war against the 
 Romans. He appears to have arrived in Greece 
 soon after the capture of Corinth ; and he exerted 
 all his influence to alleviate the misfortunes of his 
 countrymen, and to procure favourable terms for 
 them. His grateful fellow-countrymen acknow- 
 ledged the great services he had rendered them, 
 and statues were erected to his honour at Mega- 
 lopolis, Mantinea, Pallantium, Tegea, and other 
 places. Polybius seems now to have devoted him- 
 self to the composition of the great histoiical work, 
 for which he had long been collecting materials. 
 At what period of his life he made the JMurneys 
 into foreign countiies for the purpose of visiting the 
 places which he had to describe in his history, it is 
 impossible to determine. He tells us {iii. 59) 
 that he undertook long and dangerous journeys 
 into Africa, Spain, Gaul, and even as far as the 
 Atlantic, on account of the ignorance which pre- 
 vailed respecting those parts. Some of these 
 countries he visited while serving under Scipio, 
 who afforded him every facility for the prnsecutinn 
 of his design. At a later period of his life he 
 visited Egypt likewise. He probably accomp;mled 
 Scipio to Spain in 134, and was present at the fall 
 of Numantia, since Cicero states (arf Fam. v. 12) 
 that Polybius wrote a historj' of the Numnntine 
 war. He died at the age of 82, in consequ nee of 
 a fall from his horse, about 122. — The history of 
 Polybius consisted of 40 books. It began b. c. 
 220, where the history of Aratus left off, and 
 ended at 146, in which year Corinth was destroyed, 
 and the independence of Greece periiihed. It con- 
 sisted of 2 distinct parts, which wore probably 
 published at different times and after.wards united 
 into one work. The first part comprised a pt-riod 
 of 35 years, beginning with the 2nd Punic war, 
 and the Social war in Greece, and ending with 
 the conquest of Perseus and the downfal of the 
 Macedonian kingdom, in 168. This was in fact 
 the main portion of his work, and its great object 
 was to show how the Romans had in this brief 
 period of 53 years conquered the greater part of 
 the world ; but since the Greeks were ignorant for 
 the most part of tiie early history of Rome, he 
 gives a survey of Roman history from the taUin^ 
 of the city by the Gauls to tlie commencement of 
 the 2nd Punic war, in the first 2 books, which 
 thus form an introduction to the body of the work. 
 "With the fall of the Macedonian kingdom the su- 
 premacy of the Roman dominion was decided, and 
 nothing more remained for the other nations of the 
 world than to yield submission to the Romans. 
 The second part of the work, which formed a kind 
 of supplement to the former part, comprised the 
 period from the conquest of Perseus in 168, to the 
 fall of Corinth in 146. The history of the con- 
 quest of Greece set^ms to have been completed in 
 the 39th book ; and the 40th bonk probably con- 
 tained a chronological summary of the whole work. 
 The history of Polybius is one of the most valuable 
 works that has come down to us from antiquity. 
 He had a clear apprehension of the knowledge 
 
598 
 
 POLYBIUS. 
 
 ■which an historian must possess ; and his prepara- 
 tory studies were carried on with the greatest 
 energy and perseverance. Thus he not only col- 
 lected with accuracy and care an account of the 
 events that he intended to narrate, but he also 
 studied the history of the Roman constitution, and 
 made distant journeys to become acquainted with 
 the geography of the countries that he had to de- 
 scribe in his work. In addition to this, he had a 
 stronjT judgment and a striking love of truth, and, 
 from having himself taken an active part in poli- 
 tical life, he was able to judge of the motives and 
 actions of the great actors in history in a way that 
 no mere scholar or rhetorician could possibly do. 
 But the characteristic feature of his work, and the 
 one which distinguishes it from all other histories 
 which have come down to ua from antiquity, is its 
 didactic nature. He did not, like other historians, 
 write to afford amusement to his readers ; his ob- 
 ject was to teach by the past a knowledge of the 
 future, and to deduce from previous events lessons 
 of practical wisdom. Hence he calls his work 
 a Pragmatevi {irpayfiarda)^ and not a History 
 {IcTTopia). The value of history consisted, in his 
 opinion, in the instruction that might be obtained 
 from it. Thus the narrative of events became in 
 his view of secondary importance ; they formed 
 only the text of the political and moral discourses 
 which it was the province of the historian to de- 
 liver. Excellent, however, as these discourses are, 
 they materially detract from the merits of the his- 
 tory as a work of art ; their frequent occurrence 
 interrupts the continuity of the narrative, and de- 
 stroys, to a great extent, the interest of the reader 
 in the scenes which are described. Moreover he 
 frequently inserts long episodes, which have little 
 connection with the main subject of his work, be- 
 cause they have a didactic tendency. Thus we 
 iind that one whole book (the 6th) was devoted to 
 a history of the Roman constitution ; and the 34th 
 book seems to have been exclusively a treatise on 
 geography. The style of Polybius bears the im- 
 press of bis mind ; and, as instruction and not 
 anmsement was the great object for which he wrote, 
 he did not seek to please his readers by the choice 
 of his phrases or the composition of his sentences. 
 Hence the later Greek critics were severe in their 
 condemnation of his style. The greater part of 
 the history of Polybius has perished. We possess 
 the first 5 books entire, but of the rest we have 
 only fragments and extracts, some of which, how- 
 ever, are of considerable length, such as the ac- 
 count of the Roman army, which belonged to the 
 6th book. There have been discovered at different 
 limes 4 distinct collections of extracts from the lost 
 books. The first collection, discovered soon after 
 the revival of learning in a MS. brought from Corfu, 
 contained the greater part of the 6th book, and 
 portions of the following 11. In 1582 Ursinus 
 published at Antwerp a Snd collection of Extracts, 
 entitled Excerpta de Leguticyjiihus^ which were made 
 in the 10th century of the Christian era. In 1634, 
 Valesius published a 3rd collection of extracts from 
 Polybius, also taken from the Excerpta of Con- 
 stantinus, entitled Excerpta de ViHutibus et Vitiis. 
 The 4th collection of extracts was published at 
 Rome in 1827 by Angelo Mai, who discovered in the 
 Vatican library at Rome the section of the Excerpta 
 of Constantinus Porphyrogenitus, entitled Excerpta 
 de Senlmtiis. The best edition of Polybius with a 
 rnmmpntjirv la bv Schweiffhaeuser, Lips. 1789 — 
 
 POLYCARPUS. 
 
 1795, 8 vols. 8vo. The best edition of the text 
 alone is by Bekker (Berol, 1844, 2 vols. 8vo.), 
 who has added the Vatican fragments. Livy did 
 not use Polybius till he came to the 2nd Punic 
 war, but from that time he followed him very 
 closely. Cicero likewise chiefly followed Polybius 
 in the account which he gives of the Roman 
 constitution in his De Republica. The history 
 of Polybius was continued by Posidonius and 
 Strabo. [Posidonius ; Strabo.] Besides the 
 great historical work of which we have been speak- 
 ing, Polybius wrote, 2. The Life of PJdlopoemen 
 in 3 books. 3. A treatise on Tactics. 4. A His- 
 tniy of tlm Numaiiiine VFa?-. — 2. A freedman of 
 the emperor Augustus, read in the senate the will 
 of the emperor after his decease. -^3. A favourite 
 freedman of the emperor Claudius. He was the 
 companion of the studies of Claudius ; and on the 
 death of his brother, Seneca addressed to him a 
 Consolaiio,m which he bestows the highest praises 
 upon his literary attainments. Polybius was put 
 to death through the intrigues of Messalina, al- 
 though he had been one of her paramours. 
 
 Polybotes (IIoAuSwttjs), one of the giants who 
 fought against the gods, was pursued by Poseidon 
 across the sea as far as the island of Cos. There 
 Poseidon tore away a part of the island, which 
 was afterwards called Nisyrion, and throwing it 
 upon the giant buried him under it. 
 
 Polybotus {UoAvSoTos : Bulaioadin, Ru.), a 
 city of Great Phr}'gia, E. of Synnada. 
 
 P61ybus(n(JAu&os). I.King of Corinth, by whom 
 Oedipus was brought up. [Oedipus.] He was the 
 husband of Periboea or Merope. Pausanias makes 
 him king of Sicyon, and describes him as a son of 
 Hermes and Chthonophyle, and as the father of 
 Lysianassa, whom he gave in marriage to Talaus, 
 king of the Argives. — 2. A Greek physician, was 
 one of the pupils of Hippocrates, who was also his 
 son-in-law, and lived in the island of Cos, in the 
 4th century b. c. With his brothers-in-law, Thes- 
 salus and Dracon, Polybus was one of the founders 
 of the ancient medical sect of the Dogmatici. He 
 was sent abroad by Hippocrates, with his fellow- 
 pupils, during the time of the plague, to assist dif- 
 ferent cities with his medical skill, and he after- 
 wards remained in his native countrj'. He has been 
 supposed, both by ancient and modern critics, to 
 be the author of several treatises in the Hippocratic 
 collection. 
 
 Polycarpus {TiuXvKapTvos), one of the apos- 
 tolical fathers, was a native of Smyrna. The 
 date of his birth and of his martyrdom are uncer- 
 tain. He is said to have been a disciple of the 
 apostle John, and to have been consecrated by this 
 apostle bishop of the church at Smyrna, It has 
 been conjectured that he was the angel of the 
 church of Smyrna to whom Jesus Christ directed 
 the letter in the Apocalypse (ii. 8 — 11); and it is 
 certain that he was bishop of Smyrna at the time 
 when Ignatius of Antioch passed through that 
 city on his way to suffer death at Rome, some time 
 between 107 and 116. Ignatius seems to have 
 enjoyed much this intercourse with Polycarp, 
 whom he had known in former days, when they 
 were both hearers of the apostle John. The mar- 
 tyrdom of Polycarp occurred in the persecution 
 under the emperors Marcus Aurelius and Lucius 
 Verus. As he was led to death the proconsul 
 offered him his life, if he would revite Christ. 
 '■' Eighty and six years have I served him," was 
 
rOLYCLES. 
 
 the reply, " aud he never did me wrong : how then 
 can I revile my King and my Saviour?" "We 
 have remaining only one short pii^ce of Polycarp, 
 his Letter to Uie Philippians, which is published 
 along with Ignatius and the other apostolical 
 writers. [Ignatius.] 
 
 Polycles {U.o\vK\rjs)^ the name of 2 artists. 
 The elder Polycles was probably an Athenian, and 
 flourishttd about B.C. 370. He appears to have 
 been one of the artists of the later Athenian school, 
 who obtained great celebrity by the sensual charms 
 exhibited in tlieir works. One of his chief works 
 was a celebrated statue of an Hermaphrodite. 
 The younger Polycles is placed by Pliny in J 5,5, 
 and is said to have made a statue of Juno, which 
 W'as phiced in the portico of Octavia at Home, 
 when that portico was erected by Metellus Mace- 
 donicus. But since most of the works of art, with 
 whicii Metellus decorated his portico, were not the 
 original productions of living artists, but the works 
 of former masters, it has been conjectured that this 
 Polycles may be no other than the Athenian artist 
 already mentioned. 
 
 Polycletus (no\uK\6iros). 1. The Elder, of 
 Argos, probably by citizenship, and of Sicyon, 
 probably by birth, was one of the most celebrated 
 statuaries of the ancient world ; he was also a 
 sculptor, an architect, and an artist in toreutic. 
 He was the pupil of the great Argive statuary 
 Ageladas, under wliom he had Phidias and My- 
 ron for his fellow-disciples. He was somewhat 
 younger than Phidias, and about the same age as 
 Myron. He Hourished about b. c. 452 — 412. 
 Of his personal history we know nothing further. 
 As an artist, he stood at the head of the schools 
 of Argos and Sicyon, and approached more nearly 
 than any other to an equality with Phidias, the 
 great head of the Athenian school. The essential 
 ditference between these artists was that Phidias 
 was unsurpassed in making the images of the gods, 
 Poh'-cletus in those of men. One of the most 
 celebrated wnrks of Polycletus was his Dorypkorus 
 or Spear -bearer, a youthful figure, but with the 
 full proportions of a man. This was the statue 
 which became known by the name of Canon, be- 
 cause in it the artist had embodied a perfect repre- 
 sentation of the ideal of the human figure. Another 
 of his great works was his ivory and gold statue 
 of Hera in her temple between Argos and Mycenae. 
 This work was executed by the artist in his old 
 age, and was doubtless intended by him to rival 
 Pliidias's chrj'seleph amine statues of Athena and 
 "of Zeus, though it was surpassed by them in costli- 
 ness and size. The goddess was seated on a throne, 
 her head crowned with a garland, on which were 
 worked the Graces and the Hours, the one hand 
 holding the symbolical pomegranate, and the other 
 a sceptre, sunnounted by a cuckoo, a bird sacred 
 to Hera, on account of her having been once 
 changed into that form by Zeus. This statue re- 
 mained always the ideal model of Hera. In the 
 department of toreutic, the fame of Polycletus no 
 doubt rested chiefly on the golden ornaments of 
 his statue of Hera; but he also made small bronzes 
 {sigilla), and drinking-vessels (pkialae). As an 
 architect Polycletus obtained great celebrity by 
 the theatre, and the circular building (tholtis), 
 which he built in the sacred enclosure of Aescula- 
 pius at Epidaurus. — 2. The Younger, also a sta- 
 tuary of Argos, of whom very little is known, be- 
 cause his fame was eclipsed by that of his more 
 
 POLYDAMAS. 599 
 
 celebrated namesake, and, in part, contemporary. 
 The younger Polycletus may be placed about 400. 
 — 3. Of Larissa, a Greek historian, and one of the 
 numerous writers of the history of Alexander the 
 Great.^4. A favourite freedman of Nero, who 
 sent hira into Britain to inspect the state of the 
 island. 
 
 Polycrates (UohvKpdTrjs). 1. Of Samns, one 
 of the most fortunate, ambitious, and treacherous 
 of tlie Greek tyrants. With the assistance of his 
 brothers Pantagnotus and Syloson, he made himself 
 master of the island towards the latter end of the 
 reign of Cyrus. At first he shared the supreme 
 power with his brothers ; but he shortly afterwards 
 put Pantagnotus to death, and banished Syloson, 
 Having thus become sole despot, he raised a pow- 
 erful fleet, and extended his sway over several of 
 the neighbouring islands, and even conquered some 
 towns on the mainland. He had formi^d an alliance 
 with Amasis, king of Egypt, who, however, finally 
 renounced it through alarm at the amazing gond 
 fortune of Polycrates, which never met with 
 any check or disaster, and which therefore was 
 sure, sooner or later, to incur the env^' of the gods. 
 Such, at least, is the account of Herodotus, who 
 has narrated the story of the rupture between 
 Amasis and Polycrates in his most dramatic man- 
 ner. In a letter which Amasis wrote to Poij'-- 
 crates, the Egyptian monarch advised him to throw 
 away one of his most valuable possessions, in order 
 that he might thus inflict some injury upon him- 
 self. In accordance with this advice Polycrates 
 threw into the sea a seal-ring of extraordinary 
 beauty ; but in a few days it was found in the 
 belly of a fish, which had been presented to him 
 by a fisherman. In the reign of Cambj'-ses, the 
 Spartans and Corinthians sent a powerful force to 
 Samos, in order to depose the tyrant ; but their 
 expedition failed, and after besieging the city 40 
 days, they left the island. The power of Poly- 
 crates now became greater than ever. The great 
 works which Herodotus saw at Samos were pro- 
 bably executed by him. He lived in great pomp 
 and luxui-y, and, like others of the Greek tyrants, 
 was a patron of literature and the arts. The most 
 eminent artists and poets found a ready welcome 
 at his court ; and his friendship for Auacreon is 
 particularly celebrated. But in the midst of all 
 his prosperity he fell by the most ignominious fate, 
 Oroetes, the satrap of Sardis, had formed a deadly 
 hatred against Polycrates. By false pretences, tlie 
 satrap contrived to allure hira to the mainland, 
 where he was arrested soon after his arrival, and 
 crucified, 522.-2. An Athenian rhetorician and 
 sophist of some repute, a contemporary of Socrates 
 and Isocrates, taught first at Athens and afterwards 
 at Cyprus. He was the teacher of Zoilus. He 
 ^vrote, 1. An accusation of Socrates, which was a 
 declamation on the subject composed some years 
 after the death of the philosopher. 2. A defence 
 of Busiris. The oration of Isocrates, entitled Bu- 
 siris, is addressed to Polycrates, and points out the 
 faults which the latter had committed in his oration 
 on this subject. 3. An obscene poem, which he 
 published under the name of the poetess Piiihienis, 
 for the purpose of injuring her reputation. 
 
 Polydamas (TloKvH/j.a'i). 1. Son of Pantbous 
 and Phrontts, was a Trojan hero, a friend of 
 Hector, and brother of Euphorbus. — 2. Of Sco- 
 tussa in The.-saly, son of Nicias, conquereil in the 
 Pancratium lU the Olympic games, in 01. 93, b. c, 
 
600 
 
 POLYDECTES. 
 
 408. His size was immense, and tlie most mar- 
 vellous stories are related of his strength, how he 
 killed without arms a huge and fierce lion on Mt. 
 Olympus, how he stopped a chariot at full gallop, 
 (Sec. His reputation led the Persian king, Darius 
 Ochus, to invite him to his court, where he per- 
 formed similar feats. ^3. Of Pharsalus in Thes- 
 fialy, was entrusted by his fellow-citizens about 
 B. c. 375, with the supreme government of their 
 native town. He afterwards entered into a treaty 
 with Jason of Pherae. On the miu:der of Jason in 
 370, his brother Polyphron put to death Polydamas. 
 
 Polydectes {no\i}d4KT-ns). 1. King of the i^iland 
 of Seriphos, was son of Magnes, and brothu^r of 
 Dictys. He received kindly Danae and Perseus, 
 when the chest, in which they had been exposed 
 by Acrisius, floated to the island of Seriphos. His 
 story is related under Perseus. — 2. King of 
 Sparta, was the eldest son of Eunomus, the brother 
 of Lycurgus the lawgiver, and the father of Chari- 
 laii.s, who succeeded him. Herodotus, contrary to 
 the other authorities, makes Polydectes the father 
 of Eunomus. 
 
 Polydeuces (no\u5ei5KTjs), one of the Dioscuri, 
 and the twin-brother of Castor, called by the Ro- 
 mans Pollux. [Dioscuri,] 
 
 PolydSrus (noAuSajpos). 1. King of Thebes, 
 son of Cadmus and Hannonia, husband of Nycteis, 
 and father of Labdacus. — 2. The youngest among 
 the sons of Priam and Laotoe, was slain by Achilles. 
 This is the Homeric account ; but later traditions 
 m;ike him a son of Priam and Hecuba, and give a 
 different account of his death. One tradition re- 
 lates, that when Ilium was on the point of falling 
 into the h;uids of the Greeks, Priam entrusted Po- 
 lydtirus and a large sum of money to Polymestor 
 or Polymnestor, king of the Thracian Chersonesus. 
 After the destruction of Troy, Polymestor killed 
 Pnlydorus for the purpose of getting possession of 
 his treasures, and cast his body into the sea. His 
 body was afterwards washed upon the coast, where 
 it was found and recognised by his mother Hecuba, 
 who, together with other Trojan captives, took 
 vengeance upon Polymestor by killing his two 
 children, and putting out his eyes. Another tra- 
 dition stated that Pol3'dorus was entrusted to his 
 sister Iliona, who was married to Polymestor. She 
 broiit^ht him up as her own son, while she made 
 every one else believe that her own son Deiphilus 
 or Ufipylus was Polydorus. The Greeks, anxious 
 to destroy the race of Priam, promised to Polymes- 
 tor Elettra for his wife, and a large amount of gold, 
 if he would kill Polydorus. Polymestor was pre- 
 vailed upon, and he accordingly slew his own son. 
 Pi.Ivdorus, thereupon, persuaded his sister Iliona to 
 kill'Polymestor. ^3. King of Sparta, was the son 
 of Alcamenes and the father of Eurycrates, who suc- 
 ceeded him. He assisted in bringing the 1st Mes- 
 senian war to a conclusion, B. c. 724. He was 
 murdered by Polemarchus, a Spartan of high fa- 
 mily ; but his name was precious among his people 
 on account of his justice and kindness. Crotona 
 and the Epizephyrian Locri were founded in his 
 reinn. —4. Brother of Jason of Pherae, obtained 
 the supreme power along with his brother Poly- 
 phron, on the death of Jason in b. c. 370, but was 
 shortly afterwards assassinated by the latter. — 5. 
 A sculptor of Rhodes, one of the associates of 
 Agesander, in the execution of the celebrated 
 group of the Laocoon. [Agerander.] 
 
 Pfilyeuctus (HoAiicyKTOs), an Athenian orator 
 
 POLYPHEMUS. 
 
 of the deraus Sphettus, was a political friend of 
 Demosthenes, with whom he worked in resisting 
 the Macedonian partj^ 
 
 Polygnotus {TloKiryuwTos)^ one of the most ce- 
 lebrated Greek painters, was a native of the island 
 of Thasos, and was honoured with the citizenship 
 of Athens, on which account he is sometimes called 
 an Athenian. His father, Aglaophon, was his in- 
 structor in his art ; and he had a brother, named 
 Aristophon, who was also a painter. Polygnotus 
 lived on intimate terms with Cimon and his sister 
 Elpiuice ; and he probably came to Athens in b. c. 
 4()3, after the subjugation of Thasos by Cimbn. 
 He appears to have been at that time an artist of 
 some reputation, and he continued to exercise his 
 art almost down to the beginning of the Pelopon- 
 nesian war (431). The period of hia greatest 
 artistic activity at Athens seems to have been that 
 which elapsed from his removal to Athens (463) 
 to the death of Cimon (449), who employed him 
 in the pictorial decoration of the public buildidgs 
 with which he began to adorn the city, such as the 
 temple of Theseus, the Anaceum, and the Poecile. 
 He afterwards went to Delphi, when he was era- 
 ployed with other artists in decorating the build- 
 ings connected with the temple. He appears to 
 have returned to Athens about 435, where he ex- 
 ecuted a series of paintings in the Propylaea of the 
 Acropolis. The Propylaea were commenced in 
 437, and completed in 432. The subjects of the 
 pictures of Polygnotus were almost invariably taken 
 from Homer and the other poets of the epic cycle. 
 They appear to have been mostly painted on panels, 
 which were afterwards let into the walls where 
 they were to remain. 
 
 Polyhymnia. [Polymnia.] 
 
 Polyldus (UoXvidos). 1. Son of Coeranus, 
 grandson of Abas and great-grandson of Melampus. 
 He was, like his ancestor Melampus, a celebiated 
 soothsayer at Corinth, and is described as the father 
 of Euchenor, Astycratia, and Manto. When Alca- 
 thoushad murdered hisownsonCallipolisatMegara, 
 he was purified by Polyidus, who erected atMegara 
 a sanctuary to Dionysus, and a statue of the god. — 
 2. A dithyrambic poet of the most flourishing 
 period of the later Athenian dithyramb, and also 
 skilful as a painter, was contemporary with Philo- 
 xenus, Timotheus, and Telestes, about b. c. 400. 
 
 Polymestor or Polymnestor. [Polydorus.] 
 
 Polymnestus, or Polymnastus {Uo\v^v7)cttos), 
 the son of Meles of Colophon, was an epic, elegiac, 
 and lyric poet, and a musician. He flourishtd b.c. 
 675-644. He belongs to the school of Dorian 
 music, which flourished at this time at Sparta, 
 where he carried on the improvements of Thaletas. 
 The Attic comedians attacked his poems for their 
 erotic character. As an elegiac poet, he may be 
 regarded as the predecessor of his fellow-country- 
 man, Mimnermus. 
 
 Polymnia or Polyhymnia {Uo\{>iJ.via), daugh- 
 ter of Zeus, and one of the 9 Muses. She pre- 
 sided over lyric poetry, and was believed to have 
 invented the lyre. In works of art she was usually 
 represented in a pensive attitude. [Musae.] 
 
 Polynices {UoXvi/eUris), son of Oedipus and 
 Jocasta, and brother of Eteocles and Antigone. 
 His stoiy is given under Eteocles nnd Adrastus. 
 
 Polyphemus {UoXvfp'nf.i.os). 1. Smi of Po- 
 seidon, and the nj'mph Thonsa, was one of the Cy- 
 clopes in Sicily. [Cyclopes.] He is represented 
 as a gigantic monster, liaving only one eye in the 
 
POLYPHRON. 
 
 centre of his forehead, caring nought for the gods, 
 and devouring human flesh. He dwelt in a cave 
 near Mt. Aetna, and fed his flocks upon the moun- 
 tain. He fell in love with the nymph Galaten., but 
 as she rejected him for Acis, he destroyed the latter 
 by crushing him under a huge rock. When 
 Ulysses was driven upon Sicily, Polyphemus de- 
 voured some of his companions ; and Ulysses 
 ■would have shared the same fate, had he not put 
 out the eye of the monster, while he was asleep. 
 [Ulysses.] ^2. Son of Elatus or Poseidon and 
 Hippea, was one of the Lapithae at Larissa in 
 Thessaly. He was married to Laonome, a sister 
 of Hercules. He was also one of the Argonauts, 
 but being left behind by them in Mysia, he founded 
 Cios, and fell against the Chalybes. 
 
 Polyphrou {Uo\v(}>pccv), brother of Jason of 
 Pherae, succeeded to the supreme power with his 
 brother Polydorus on the death of Jason in b. c. 
 370. Shortly afterwards he murdered Polydorus. 
 He exercised his power with great cruelty, and was 
 murdered in his turn, 369, by his nephew Alex- 
 ander, who proved a still greater tyrant. 
 
 Polypoetes (UoXwroirris), son of Pirithous and 
 Hippodamia, was one of the Lapithae, and joined 
 the Greeks in ihe Trojan war. 
 
 Polyrrhenia or -lom {UoKv^^7)VLa : Xlo\vppi]- 
 vios)^ a town in Crete, whose territory embraced 
 the whole western comer of the island. It pos- 
 sessed a sanctuary of Dictynna, and is said to have 
 beeTi colonised by Achaeans and Lacedaemonians. 
 Polysperchon (HoXua-irdpxaj/), a Macedonian, 
 and a distinguished officer of Alexander the Great. 
 In B.. c. ii'2'6 he was appointed by Alexander 2nd 
 in command of the army of invalids and veterans, 
 which Craterus had to conduct home to Macedonia. 
 He afterwards served under Antipater in Europe, 
 and so great was the confidence which the latter 
 reposed in him, that Antipater on his death-bed 
 (iJ19) appointed Polysperchon to succeed him as 
 regent and guardian of the king, while he assigned 
 to his own son Casaander the subordinate station of 
 •Cliiliarch Polysperchon soon became involved in 
 war with Cassander, who was dissatisfied with this 
 arrangement. It was in the course of this war that 
 Polysperchon basely surrendered Phocion to the 
 Athenians, in the hope of securing the adherence 
 of Athens. Although Polysperchon was supported 
 by Olyiiipias, and possessed great influence with 
 the Macedonian soldiers, he proved no match for 
 Cassander, and was obliged to yield to him pos- 
 session of Macedonia about 316. For the next 
 few years Polysperchon is rarely mentioned, but in 
 310, he again assumed an important part by re- 
 viving the long-forgotten pretensions of Hercules, 
 the son of Alexander and Barsine to the throne of 
 Macedonia. Cassander marched against him, but 
 distrusting the fidelity of his own troops, he en- 
 tered into secret negotiations with Polysperchon, 
 and persuaded the latter, by promises and flatteries, 
 to murder Hercules. From this time he appears 
 to have served under Cassander j but the period of 
 his death is not mentioned. 
 
 PolytimetUS {IIu\vtIjj.t]Tos : Sogd or KoUk In 
 Bokhara)^ a considerable river of Sogdiana, which, 
 according to Strabo, vanished underground near 
 Maracanda (Samarkand), or, as Arrian says, was 
 lost in the sands of the steppes. 
 
 Polyitena (noAu^eV?]), daughter of Priam and 
 Hecuba, was beloved by Achilles. When tlie 
 Greeks, on their voyage home, were still lingering 
 
 POMPEII. 
 
 601 
 
 on the coast of Thrace, the shade of Achilles ap- 
 peared to them, demanding that Polyxena should 
 be sacrificed to him. Neoptolemus accordingly sa- 
 crificed her on the tomb of his father. It was re- 
 lated that Achilles had promised Priam to bring 
 about a peace with the Greeks, if the king would 
 give him his dauL,'liter Polyxena in marriage ; and 
 that when Achilles had gone to the temple of tlie 
 Thymbraean Apollo, for the purpose of negotiating 
 the marriage, he was treacherously killed by Pai'is. 
 Another tradition stated that Achilles and Po- 
 lyxena fell in love with each other when Hector's 
 body was delivered up to Priam ; and that Po- 
 lyxena fled to the Greeks ^.fter the death of 
 Achilles, and killed herself on the tomb of her 
 beloved with a sword. 
 
 Poljrxo (noAu|ci). 1. The nurse of queen 
 Hypsipyle in Lemnos, was celebrated as a pro- 
 phetess. ^2. An Argive woman, married to Tlepo- 
 lemus, son of Hercules, followed her husband to 
 Rhodes, where, according to some truditions, she 
 is said to have put to death the celebrated Helen. 
 [Helena.] 
 
 Polyzelus (UoKvC-nXos). 1. Brother of Hieron, 
 the tyrant of Syracuse. [Hieron.]— 2. Of Rhodes, 
 an historian, of uncertain date, wrote a history of 
 his native country. ^3. An Athenian comic poet, 
 belonging to the last period of the Old Comedy and 
 the beginning of the Middle. 
 
 Pomona, the Roman divinity of the fruit of 
 trees, hence called Pomnrum Fatrona. Her name 
 is evidently derived from Pomum. She is repre- 
 sented by the poets as beloved by several of the 
 rustic divinities, such as Silvanus, Picus, Vertum- 
 nus, and others. Her worship must originally have 
 been of considerable importance, since a special 
 priest, under the name oi jiamen Pomonalis, was 
 appointed to attend to her service. 
 
 Pompeia. 1. Daughter of Q. Pompeius Rufus, 
 son of the consul of b. c. 88, and of Cornelia, the 
 daughter of the dictator Sulla. She married C. 
 Caesar, subsequently the dictator, in 67, but was 
 divorced by him in 61, because she was suspected 
 of intriguing with Clodius, who stealthily intro- 
 duced himself into her husband's house while she 
 was celebrating the mysteries of the Bona D«a. — 
 2. Sister of Cn. Pompey, the triumvir, married C. 
 Memmius, who was killed In the war against Ser- 
 torius, in 75. •— 3. Daughter of the triumvir by his 
 third wife Mucia. She married Faustua Sulla, the 
 son of the dictator, who perished in the African 
 war, 46. She afterwards married L. Cornelius 
 Cinna, and her son by this marriage, Cn. Cinna 
 Magnus, entered into a conspiracy against Au- 
 gustus. As her brother Sextus survived her, she 
 must have died before 35.-4. Daughter of Sex. 
 Pompey, the son of the triumvir and of Scribonia. 
 At the peace of Misenum in 39 she was betrothed 
 to M. Marcellus, the son of Octavia, the sister of 
 Octavian, but was never married to him. She 
 accompanied her father in his flight to Asia, 36. — 
 5. Paulina. [Paulina.] 
 
 Pompeianus, Tib. Claudius, son of a Roman 
 knight originally from Antioch, rose to the highest 
 dignities under M. Aurelius. This emperor gave 
 him his daughter Lucilla in marriage. He lived to 
 the reign of Severiis. 
 
 Pompeii {Uoix-rr-iyioi^ Uo/nraia, Uofnrr}ta : Pom- 
 peianus), a city of Campania, was situated on the 
 coast, at the mouth of the river Sarnus, and at the 
 foot of Mt, Vesuvius ; but in consequence of the 
 
602 
 
 POMPEIOPOLIS. 
 
 physical changes which the surrounding country 
 has undergone, the ruins of Pompeii ai'e found at 
 present about 2 miles from the sea, Pompeii was 
 first in the hands of the Oscans, afterwards of the 
 Tyrrhenians, and finally became a Roman munici- 
 pium. It was partly destroyed by an earthquake 
 in A. D. 63, but was overwhelmed in 79, along with 
 Herculaneum and Stabiae, by the great eruption of 
 Mt. Vesuvius. The lava did not reach Pompeii, 
 but the town was covered with successive layers of 
 ashes and other volcanic matter, on which a soil 
 was gradually fonned. Thus a great pait of the 
 city has been preserved with its market-places, 
 theatres, baths, temples, and private houses ; and 
 the excavation of it in modern times has throvra 
 great light upon many points of antiquity, such as 
 the construction of Roman houses, and in general 
 all subjects connected with the private life of the 
 ancients. The first traces of the ancient city were 
 discovered in IGufl, rising above the ground ; but 
 it was not till 1721 that the excavations were 
 commenced. These have been continued with 
 various interruptions down to the present day ; and 
 now about half the city is exposed to view. It 
 was surrounded by walls, which were about 2 
 miles in circumference, surmounted at intervals by 
 towers, and containing 6 gates. 
 
 Pompeiopolis {Uofnrr}tovTro\is)y the name of 
 several cities founded or enlarged by Pompey. 
 1. (Tosh K'6pr'i\ an inland city of Cappadocia, 
 S.W. of Sinope, on the river Aranlas {GokIrmak\ 
 a W. tributary of the Halys. — 2. [Po-fiiPELON.] 
 
 — 3. [SOLOE.j 
 
 Pompeius. L Q. Pompeiua, said to have been 
 the son of a flute-player, was the first of the family, 
 who rose to dignity in the state. He was consul 
 in 141, when he carried on war against the Nu- 
 mantiues in Spain. Having been defeated by the 
 enemy in several engagements, he concluded a 
 peace with them ; but on the arrival of his succes- 
 sor in the command, he disowned the treaty, which 
 was declared invalid by the senate. He was censor 
 in 131 withQ.MetellusMacedonicus.^S. ft. Pom- 
 peiua Rufus, either son or grandson of the preced- 
 ing, was a zealous supporter of the aristocratical 
 party. He was tribune of the plebs, 100 ; praetor, 
 91 ; and consul, 88, with L. Sulla. When Sulla 
 set out for the East to conduct the war against 
 Mithridates, he left Italy in charge of Pompeins 
 Rufus, and assigned to him the array of Cn. Pom- 
 peius Sti-abo, who was still engaged in carrying on 
 war against the Marsi. Strabo, however, who was 
 unwilling to be deprived of the command, caused 
 Pompeius Rufus to be murdered by the soldiers. 
 Cicero mentions Pompeius Rufus among the ora- 
 tors whom he had heard in his youth. ^ 3. Q. 
 Pompeius Rufus, son of No. 2, married Sulla's 
 daughter, and was murdered by the party of Sul- 
 picius and Marius in the forum, during the consul- 
 ship of his father, 88. — 4. Q. Pompeius Rufua, 
 son of No. 3 and grandson of the dictator Sulla, 
 was tribune of the plebs ,52, when he distinguished 
 himself as the great partizan of the triumvir Pom- 
 pey, and assisted the latter in obtaining the sole 
 consulship. Rufus however on the expiration of 
 his ofiice was accused of Vis, was condemned, 
 and went into exile at Bauli in Campania. ^ 5. Q. 
 PompaiuB Rufus, praetor 6.'), was sent to Capua 
 to wntch o\'L'V Campania and Apulia during Cati- 
 line's coiispiracv. In 61 he obtained the province 
 of Afriua, with the title of proconsul. —O. Ses. 
 
 POMPEIUS. 
 
 Pompeiua, married Lucilia, a sister of the poet C. 
 Lucilius. — 7. Sex. Pompeius, elder son of No. 6, 
 never obtained any of the higher offices of the state, 
 but acquired great reputation as a man of learning, 
 and is praised by Cicero for his accurate knowledge 
 of jurisprudence, geometry, and the Stoic philoso- 
 ph3^ — 8. Ses. Pompeius, a descendant of No. 7, 
 consul A. D. 14, with Sex. Appuleius, in which year 
 the emperor Augustus died. He seems to have 
 been a patron of literature. Ovid addressed him 
 several letters during his exile ; and it was proba- 
 bly this same Sex. Pompeius, whom the writer 
 Valerius Maximus accompanied to Asia, and of 
 whom he speaks as hia Alexander. —9. Ca. Pom- 
 peius Strabo, younger son of No. G, and father of 
 the triumvir. He was quaestor in Sardinia 103, 
 praetor 94, and propraetor in Sicily in the follow- 
 ing year. He was consul 89, when he carried on war 
 with success against the allies, subduing the greater 
 number of the Italian people who were still in 
 arms. Towards the end of the year he brought 
 forward the law (lex Fompeia), which gave to all 
 the towns of the Transpadani the Jus Latii or 
 Latinitas. He continued in the S. of Italy as 
 proconsul in the following year (88), and when 
 Pompeius Rufus [No. 2.J was appointed to suc- 
 ceed him in the command of the army, Strabo 
 caused him to be assassinated by the troops. Next 
 year (87) the Marian party obtained the upper 
 hand. Strabo was summoned by the aristocratical 
 party to their assistance ; and though not active 
 in their cause, he marched to the relief of the city, 
 and fought a battle near the CoUine Gate with 
 Cinna and Sertorius. Shortly afterwards, he was 
 killed by lightning. His avarice and cruelty had 
 made him hated by the soldiers to such a degree, 
 that they tore his corpse from the bier and diagj^ed 
 it through the streets, Cicero describes him 
 (Brut 47) '* aa worthy of hatred on account of 
 his cruelty, avarice, and perfidy." He possessed 
 some reputation as an orator, and still more as a 
 general. He left behind him a considerable pro- 
 perty, especially in Picenum. —-10. Cn. Pompeius 
 Magnus, the Triumvir, son of No. 9, was born 
 on the 30th of September, B. c. 106, in the consul- 
 ship of Atilius Serranus and Servilius Caepio, and 
 was consequently a few months younger than 
 Cicero, who was bom on the 3d of January in 
 this year, and 6 years older than Caesar. Pie 
 fought under his father in, 89 against the Italians, 
 when he was only 17 years of age, and continued 
 with him till his death two years afterwards. For 
 the next few years the Marian party had pos- 
 session of Italy; and accordingly Pompey, who 
 adhered to the aristocratical party, was obliged to 
 keep in tiie back ground. But when it became 
 known in 84, that Sulla was on the point of re- 
 turning from Greece to Italy, Pompey hastened 
 into Picenum, where he raised an army of 3 le- 
 gions. Although only 23 years of age, Pompey 
 displayed great military abilities in opposing the 
 Marian generals by whom he was surrounded ', 
 and when he succeeded in joining Sulla in the 
 course of the year (83), he was saluted by the 
 latter with the title of Imperator. During the 
 remainder of the war in Italy Pompey distin- 
 guished -himself as one of the most successful of 
 Sulla's generals ; and when tlie war in Italy was 
 brimght to a close, Sulla sent Pompey against the 
 Marian party in Sicily and Africa. Pompey first 
 proceeded to Sicily, of which he easily made him- 
 
POMPEIUS. 
 
 self master (82) : here lie put Carbo to death. In 
 81 Ponipey crossed over to Africa, where he de- 
 feated Cn. Domitius Ahenobarbus and the Numi- 
 dian king Hiarbas, after a hard fought battle. On 
 his return to Rome, in the same year, he was re- 
 ceived with enthusiasm by the people, and was 
 greeted by Sulla with the surname of Magnus, a 
 name which he bore ever afterwards, and handed 
 down to his children. Pompey, however, not sa- 
 tisfied with this distinction, sued for a triumph, 
 which Sulla at first refused ; but at length over- 
 come by Poinpey's importunity, he allowed him to 
 have his own way. Accordingly Pompe}^ who 
 had not yet held any public office, and was still a 
 simple eques, entered Rome in triumph in Sep- 
 tember 81, and before he had completed his 2oth 
 year. Pompey continued faithful to the aristo- 
 cracy after Sulla's death (78), and supported the 
 consul Catulus in resisting the attempts of his col- 
 league Lepidus to repeal the laws of Sulla ; and when 
 Lepidus had recourse to arms in the following year 
 (77), Pompey took an active part in the war against 
 him, and succeeded in driving him out of Italy. — 
 The aristocracy, however, now began to fear the 
 young and successful general ; but since Sertorius 
 in Spain had fur the last three years successfully 
 opposed Metellus Pius, one of the ablest of Sulla's 
 generals, and it had become necessary to send the 
 latter some effectual assistance, the senate, with 
 considerable reluctance, determined to send Pompey 
 to Spain, with the title of proconsul, and with 
 equiil powers to Metellus. Ponipey remained in 
 Spain between 5 and 6 years (76 — 71); but 
 neither he nor Metellus was able to gain any de- 
 cisive advantage over Sertorius. But when Ser- 
 torius was treacherously murdered by his own of- 
 ficer Perperna, in 82, the war was speedily brought 
 to a close. Perperna was easily defeated by 
 Pompey in the first battle, and the whole of Spain 
 was subdued by the early part of the following 
 year (71). Pompey then returned to Italy at the 
 head of his army. In his march towards Rome he 
 fell in with the remains of the army of Spartacus, 
 which M. Crassus had previously defeated. Pom- 
 pey cut to pieces these fugitives, and therefoi'e 
 claimed for himself, in addition to all his other 
 exploits, the glory of finishing the Servile war. 
 Pompey was now a candidate for the consulship ; 
 and although he was ineligible by law, inasmuch 
 as he was absent from Rome, had not yet reached 
 the legal age, and had not held any of the lower 
 offices of the state, still his election was certain. 
 His military glory had charmed the people ; and 
 as it was known that the aristocracy looked upon 
 Pompey with jealousy, they ceased to regard him 
 as belonging to this party, and hoped to obtain, 
 tlirough him, a restoration of the rights and privi- 
 lerr(;s of which they had been deprived by Sulla. 
 Pompey was accordingly elected consul, along with 
 M. Crassus ; and on the 31st of December, 71, he 
 entered the city a second time in his triumphal 
 car, a simple eques. — In his consulship (70), 
 Pompey openly broke with the aristocracy, and 
 became the great popular hero. He proposed and 
 carried a law, restoring to the tribunes the power 
 of which they had been deprived by Sulla. Ho 
 also afforded his all-powerful aid to the Lex 
 Aurelia, proposed by tiie praetor L. Aurelius Cotta, 
 by which the judices were to be taken in future 
 from the senatus, equites, and tribuni aerarii, in- 
 stead of from the seiuitors exclusively, as Suila 
 
 POMPEIUS. 
 
 603 
 
 had ordained. In carrying both these measures 
 Pompey was strongly supported by Caesar, with 
 whom lie was thus brought into close connection, 
 — For the next two years (69 and 68) Pompey 
 remained in Rome. In 67 the tribune A. Gubinlus 
 brought forward a bill, proposing to confer upon 
 Pompey the command of the war against the 
 pirates with extraordinary powers. This bill was 
 opposed by the aristocracy with the utmost vehe- 
 mence, but was notwithstanding carried. The 
 pirates were at tiiis time masters of the Mediterra- 
 nean, and had not only plundered many cities on 
 the coasts of Greece and Asia, but had even made 
 descents upon Italy itself. As soon as Pompey 
 received the command, he began to make his pre- 
 parations for the war, and completed them by the 
 end of the winter. His plans were formed with 
 great skill and judgment, and were crowned with 
 complete success. In 40 days he cleared the 
 western sea of pirates, and restored communication 
 between Spain, Africa, and Italy, He tiien fol- 
 lowed the main body of the pirates to their strong- 
 holds on the coast of Cilicia ; and after defeating 
 their fleet, he induced a great part of them, by 
 promises of pardon, to surrender to him. Many of 
 these he settled at Soli, which was henceforward 
 called Pompeiopolis. The 2nd pait of the cam- 
 paign occupied only 49 days, and the whole war 
 was brought to a conclusion in the course of 3 
 months ; so that, to adopt the panegyric of Cicero 
 (pro Leg. Man. 12) " Pompey made his prepara- 
 tions for the war at the end of the winter, entered 
 upon it at the commencement of spring, and finished 
 it in the middle of the summer." Ponipey was 
 employed during the remainder of this year and 
 the beginning of the following in visiting the cities 
 of Cilicia and Pamphylia, and providing for the 
 government of the newly-conquered districts. — 
 During his absence from Rome, Pompey was ap- 
 pointed to succeed Lucullus in the command of the 
 war against Mithridates (66). The bill, conferring 
 upon him this command, was proposed by the 
 tribune C. Manilius, and was supported by Cicero, 
 in an oration which has come down to us {Pro 
 Luge Manilia). Like the Gabinian law, it was 
 opposed by the whole weight of the aristocracy, 
 but was carried triumphantly. The power of 
 Mithridates had been broken by*he previous vic- 
 tories of Lucullus, and it was only left to Ponipey 
 to bring the war to a conclusion. On the approach 
 of Pompey, Mithridates retreated towards Arnieniii, 
 but he was defeated by the Roman general ; and 
 as Tigranes now refused to receive him into liis 
 dominions, Mithridates resolved to plunge into the 
 heart of Colchis, and from thence make his way to 
 his own dominions in the Cimmerian Bosporus. 
 Pompey now turned his arms against Tigranes ; 
 but the Armenian king submitted to him without 
 a contest, and was allowed to conclude a peace 
 with the republic. In 65 Pompey set out in pur- 
 suit of Mithridates, but he met with much opposi- 
 tion from the Iberians and Albanians ; and after 
 advancing as far as the river Phasis {Faz), he re- 
 solved to leave these savage districts. He accord- 
 ingly retraced his steps, and spent the winter at 
 Pontus, which he reduced to the form of a Ro- 
 man province. In 64 he marched into Syria, de- 
 posed the king Anliochus Asiaticus, and made 
 that country also a Roman province. In 63 he 
 advanced further south, in order to establish the 
 Roman supremacy in Phoenicia, Coele-Syria, and 
 
GO-4 POMPEIUS. 
 
 Palestine. The Jews refused to submit to him, 
 and shut the gates of Jerusalem against him ; and 
 it was not till after a siege of 3 months that the 
 city was taken. Pompey entered the Holy of 
 Holies, the first time that any human being, except 
 the high-priest, had dared to penetrate into this 
 sacred spot. It was during the war in Palestine 
 that Pompey received intelligence of the death 
 of Mithridates. [Mithridates VI.] Pompey 
 spent the next winter in Pontiis; and after settling 
 the affairs of Asia, he returned to Italy in 62. He 
 disbanded his army almost immediately after land- 
 ing at Brundisium, and thus calmed the apprehen- 
 sions of many, who feared that, at the head of his 
 victorious troops, he would seize upon the supreme 
 power. He did not, however, return to Rome till 
 the following year (61), and he entered the city in 
 triumph on the 30th of September. He had just 
 completed his 45th year, and this was the third 
 time that he had enjoyed the honour of a triumph. 
 With this triumph the first and most glorious part 
 of Pompey's life may be said to have ended. 
 Hitherto his life had been an almost uninterrupted 
 fiuccession of military glory. But now he was 
 called upon to play a prominent part in the civil 
 commotions of the commonwealth, a part for which 
 neither his natural talents nor his previous habits 
 had in tlie least fitted him. It would seem, that 
 on his return to Rome, Pompey hardly knew what 
 part to take in the politics of the city. He had 
 been appointed to the command against the pirates 
 and Mithridates in opposition to the aristocracy, 
 and they still regarded him with jealousy and 
 distrust. At the same time he was not disposed 
 to unite himself to the popular party, which had 
 risen into importance during his absence in the 
 East, and over which Caesar possessed unbounded 
 influence. The object, however, which engaged 
 the immediate attention of Pompey was to obtain 
 from the senate a ratification for all his acts in 
 Asia, and an assignment of lands which he had 
 promised to his veterans. The senate, however, 
 glad of an opportunity to put an afiront upon a 
 man whom they both feared and hated, resolutely 
 refused to sanction his measures in Asia. This 
 was the un wisest thing the senate could have done. 
 If they had known their real interests, they would 
 have sought to%in Pompey over to their side, as 
 a counterpoise to the growing and more dangerous 
 influence of Caesar. But their short-sighted policy 
 tlirew Pompey into Caesar's arms, and thus sealed 
 the downfal of their party. Caesar promised to 
 obtain for Pompey the ratification of his acts ; and 
 Pompey, on his part, agreed to support Caesar in 
 all his measures. That they might be more sure 
 of carrying their plans into execution, Caesar pre- 
 vailed upon Pompey to become reconciled to Cras- 
 sus, with whom he was at variance, but who, by 
 his immense wealth, had great influence at Rome. 
 The 3 agreed to assist one another against their 
 mutual enemies ; and thus was first formed the first 
 triumvirate. — This union of the 3 most powerful 
 men at Rome crushed the aristocracy for the time. 
 Supported by Pompey and Crassus, Caesar was 
 able in his consulship (59) to carry all his mea- 
 sures. Pompey's acts in Asia were ratified ; and 
 Caesar's agrarian law, which divided the rich 
 Campanian land among the poorer citizens, enabled 
 Pcmi-ny to fulfil the promises he had made to his 
 vetoians. In order to cement their union more 
 closely, Caesar gave to Pompey his daiijiiiter Julia 
 
 POMPEIUS. 
 
 in marriage. Next year (5u) Caesar went to his 
 province in Gaul, but Pompey remained in 
 Rome. While Caesar was gaining glory and in- 
 fluence in Gaul, Pompey was gradually losing the 
 confidence of all parties at Rome. The senate 
 hated and feared him ; the people had deserted 
 him for their favourite Clodius ; and he had no 
 other resource left but to strengthen his connection 
 with Caesar. Thus lie came to be regarded as the 
 second man in the state, and was obliged to aban- 
 don the proud position which he had occupied for so 
 many years. According to an arrangement made 
 with Caesar, Pompey and Crassus were consuls for 
 a second time in 55. Pompey received as his pro- 
 vinces the two Spains, Crassus obtained Syria, 
 while Caesar's government was prolonged for 5 
 years more, namely from the 1st of January, 53, 
 to the end of the year 49. At the end of his con- 
 sulship Pompey did not go in person to hib pro- 
 vinces, but sent his legates, L. Afranius and M. 
 Petreius to govern the Spains, while he himself 
 remained in the neighbourhood of the chj. His 
 object now was to obtain the dictatorship, and to 
 make himself the undisputed master of the Roman 
 world, Caesar's increasing power and influence 
 had at length made it clear to Pompey that a 
 struggle must take place between them, sooner or 
 later. The death of his wife Julia, in 54, to whom 
 he was tenderly attached, broke one link which 
 still connected him with Caesar ; and the fall of 
 Crassus in the following year (53), in the Par- 
 thian expedition, removed the only person who 
 had the least chance of contesting the supremacy 
 with them. In order to obtain the dictatorship, 
 Pompey secretly encouraged the civil discord with 
 which the state was torn asunder ; and such 
 frightful scenes of anarchy followed the death of 
 Clodius at the beginning of 52, that the senate 
 had now no alternative but calling in the assistance 
 of Pompey, who was accordingly made sole consul 
 in 52, and succeeded in restoring order to the state. 
 Soon afterwards Pompey became reconciled to the 
 aristocracy, and was now regarded as their ac- 
 knowledged head. The history of the civil war 
 which followed is related in the life of Caesar, 
 It is only necessary to mention here, that after the 
 battle of Pharsalia (48) Pompey sailed to Egypt, 
 where he hoped to meet with a favourable recep- 
 tion, since he had been the means of restoring to 
 his kingdom the father of the young Egyptian 
 monarch. The ministers of the latter, however, 
 dreading Caesar's anger if they received Pompey, 
 and likewise Pompey's resentment if they forbade 
 him to land, resolved to release themselves from 
 their difficulties by putting him to death. They 
 accordingly sent out a small boat, took Pompey on 
 board, and rowed for the shore. His wife and 
 friends watched him from the ship, anxious to see 
 in what manner he would he received by the king, 
 who was standing on the edge of the sea with his 
 troops ; but just as the boat reached the shore, nnd 
 Pompey was in the act of rising from his seat, in 
 order to step on land, he was stabbed in the back 
 by Septimius, who had formerly been one of his 
 centurions, and was now in the service of the 
 Egyptian monarch. Pompey was killed on the 
 29th of September, B. c. 48, and had just completed 
 his 58th year. His head was cut ofl', and his 
 bod}', which was tlirown out naked on the shore, 
 was buried by his freedman Philippus, who had 
 accompanied him from the ship. The head was 
 
POMPEIUS. 
 "brought to Caesar when he arrived in Egypt soon 
 afterwards, but he turned away from the sight, 
 shed tears at the melancholy death of his rival, and 
 put his murderers to death. Pompey's untimely 
 death excites pity ; but no one. who has well 
 studied the state of parties at th6 close of the 
 Roman commonwealth, can regret his fall. There 
 is abundant evidence to prove, that had Pompey's 
 party gained the mastery, a proscription far more 
 terrible than Sulla's would have taken place, 
 and Italy and the provinces been divided as booty 
 among a few profligate and unprincipled nobles. 
 From such horrors the victory of Caesar saved the 
 Roman world. Pompey was married 5 times. 
 The names of his wives were 1. Antistia. 2. 
 Aemilia. 3. Mucia. 4. Julia. 5. Cornelia.^ 
 11. Cn. Pompeius Magnus, elder son of the 
 triumvir by his third wife Mucia. In the civil 
 war in 48, he commanded a squadron of the fleet 
 in the Adriatic Sea, After his father's death, at 
 Pharsaiia, he crossed over to Africa, and after re- 
 maining there a short time, he sailed to Spain in 
 47. In Spain he was joined by his brother Sextus 
 and others of his party, who had fled from Africa 
 after their defeat at Thapsus. Here the 2 brothers 
 collected a powerful army, but were defeated by 
 Ciiesar himself at the battle of Munda, fought on 
 the 17th of March, 4S. Cneius escaped from the 
 field of battle, but was shortly afterwards taken 
 prisoner, and put to death. ^12. Sex. Pompema 
 Magnxis. younger son of the triumvir by his third 
 wife Mucia, was horn 75. After the battle of 
 Pharsaiia he accompanied his father to Egypt, and 
 saw him murdered before his eyes. After the 
 battle of Muuda and the death of his brother, 
 Sextus lived for a time in concealment in the 
 country of the Lacetani, between the Iberus and 
 the Pyrenees ; but when Caesar quitted Spain, he 
 collected a body of troops, and emerged from his 
 lurking-place. In the civil wars, which followed 
 Caesar's death, the power of Sextus increased. He 
 obtained a large fleet, became master of the sea, 
 and eventually took possession of Sicily. Hh fleet 
 enabled him to stop all the supplies of com which 
 were brought to Rome from Egypt and the eastern 
 provinces ; and such scarcity began to prevail in 
 the city, that the triumvirs were compelled by the 
 popular discontent to make peace with Pompey. 
 This peace was concluded at Misenum in 39, but 
 the war was renewed in the following year. Oc- 
 tavian made great efforts to collect a large and 
 powerful fleet, which he placed under the command 
 of Agrippa. In 36 Pompey's fleet was defeated off 
 Naulochus, with great loss. Pompey himself fled 
 from Sicily to Lesbos and fi'om Lesbos to Asia. 
 Here he was taken prisoner by a body of Antony's 
 troops, and carried to Miletus, where he was put 
 to death (35), probably by command of Antony, 
 though the latter sought to throw the responsibility 
 of the deed upon his officers. 
 
 P(mipeius Festus. [Festus.] 
 
 Pompeiua Trogus. [Justinus.] 
 
 Pompelon {Pamplo?ia), which name is equiva- 
 lent to Pompeiopolis, so called by the sons of Pom- 
 pey, was the chief town of the Vascones in His- 
 pania Tarraconensis, on the road from Asturica to 
 Burdigala. 
 
 Pomponia. 1. Sister of T. Pomponiua Atticus, 
 was married to Q. Cicero, the brother of the orator, 
 B. c. 68. The marriage proved an extremely un- 
 happy one. Q. Cicero, after leading a miserable 
 
 POMPTINUS. 
 
 605 
 
 life with his wife for almost 24 years, at length 
 divorced her at the end of 45, or in the beginning 
 of the following year. ^2. Daughter of T. Pom- 
 ponius Atticus, She is also called Caecilia, be- 
 cause her father was adopted by Q. Caecilius, and 
 likewise Attica. She was born in 51, and she 
 was still quite young when she was married to 
 M. Vipsanius Agrippa, Her daughter Vipsania 
 Agrippina married Tiberius, the successor of Au- 
 gustus. 
 
 Pomponiana. [Stoechades.] 
 
 Pomponiaa, Sextus, a distinguished Roman 
 jurist, who lived under Antoninius Pius and M. 
 Aurelius. Some modern writers think that there 
 were 2 jurists of this name. The works of Pom- 
 ponius are frequently cited in the Digest. 
 
 Pompomus Atticus. [Atticus.J 
 
 Pomponius Bououieusis, the most celebrated 
 writer of Fabulae Atellanae, was a native of Bo- 
 nonia {Bologna) in northern Ital}'', as his simiame 
 shows, and flourislied b. c. 91. 
 
 Pomponius Mela. [Mela.] 
 
 Pomptinae Paludes {UovTivai \ifivai: Palit- 
 de Pontine^ in English the Pontine Marshes)^ the 
 name of a low marshy plain on the coast of Latium 
 between Circeii and Terracina, said to have been 
 so called after an ancient town Pontia, which dis- 
 appeared at an early period. The plain is about 
 24 miles long, and from 8 to 10 miles in breadth. 
 The marshes are formed chiefly by the rivers 
 Nymphaeus, Ufens, and Amaaenus, and some 
 other small streams, which, instead of finding their 
 way into the sea, spread over this plain. Hence the 
 plain i-3 turned into a vast number of marshes, the 
 miasmas arising from which are exceedingly un- 
 healthy in the summer. At an enrly period, how- 
 ever, they appear not to have existed at all, or at 
 any rate to have been confined to a narrow dis- 
 trict. We are told that originally there were 23 
 towns situated in this plain ; and in b. c. 432 
 the Pompiinus Ager is mentioned as yielding a 
 large quantity of com. Even as late as 312, the 
 greater part of the plain must still have been free 
 from the marshes, since the censor Appius Clau- 
 dius conducted the celebrated Via Appia in that 
 year through the plain, which must then have been 
 sufficiently strong to bear the weight of this road. 
 In the course of a centiury and a half after this, the 
 marshes had spread to a great extent ; and accord- 
 ingly attempts were made to drain them by the 
 consul Cethegus in 160, by Julius Caesar and by 
 Augustus. It is usually said that Ausustiis caused 
 a navigable canal to be dug along side of tlie Via 
 Appia from Forum Appii to the grove of Feronia, 
 in order to carry off a portion of the waters of the 
 marshes : but this canal must have been dug be- 
 fore the time of Augustus, since Horace embarked 
 upon it on his celebrated journey from Rome to 
 Brundisium in 37, at which time Octavian, as he 
 was then called, could not have undertalten any 
 of his public works. Subsequently the marshes 
 again spread over the whole plain, and the Via 
 Appia entirely disappeared ; and it was not until 
 the pontificate of Pius VI. that any serious attempt 
 was made to drain them. The works were com- 
 menced in 1778, and the greater part of the 
 marshes was drained ; but the plain is still un- 
 healthy in the great heats of the summer. 
 
 C. Pomptinus, was praetor b.c. 63, when he 
 was employed by Cicero in apprehending the am- 
 bassadors of the AUobroges. He afterwards ob- 
 
606 PONS. 
 
 tained the province of Gallia Narhonensig, and in 
 61 defeated the AUobroges, who had invaded the 
 province. He triumphed in 54, after suing in vain 
 for this honour for some years. 
 
 Pons, a common name for stations on the 
 Roman roads at the passage of rivers, some of 
 ■which stations on the more important roads grew 
 into villages or towns. L P. Aeni (P/'iinzere), in 
 Vindelicia, at the passage of the Jnn, was a for- 
 tress with a Roman garrison. — 2. P. Anreoli 
 {Pontirolo)^ in Gallia Transpadana on the road 
 from Bergnmum to Mediolanum, derived its name 
 from one of the 30 Tyrants, who was defeated and 
 slain by Claudius in this place. ^3. P. Campa- 
 nua, in Campania between Sinuessa and Urbana 
 on the Savo.— Respecting the bridges of Rome, 
 see Roma. 
 
 Pontia (Ponza)^ a rocky island off the coast of 
 Latiura opposite Formiae, which was taken by the 
 Romans from the Volscians, and colonised, b. c. 
 313. Under the Romans it was used as a place 
 of banishment for state criminals. There is a 
 group of smaller islands round Pontia, which are 
 sometimes called Insulae Pontiae. 
 
 Poatinus (Uovt'ivos)^ a river and mountain in 
 Argolis near Lerna, with a sanctuary of Athena 
 Saitis. 
 
 C. Fontius, son of Hereimius Pontius, the 
 general of the Samnites in B. c. 321, defeated the 
 Roman army under the two consuls T. Veturius 
 Calvinus and Sp. Postumius Albinus in one of the 
 mountain passes in the neighbourhood of Caudiura. 
 The survivors, who were completely at the mercy 
 of the Samnites, were dismissed unhurt by Pon- 
 tius. They had to surrender their arms, and to 
 pass under the yoke ; and as the price of their 
 deliverance, the consuls and the other commanders 
 swore, in the name of the republic, to a humiliating 
 peace. The Roman state however refused to ratify 
 the treaty. Nearly 30 years afterwards, Pontius 
 was defeated by Q. Fabius Gurges (292), was 
 taken prisoner, and was put to death after the 
 triumph of the consul. 
 
 Pontius Aquila. [Aquila.] 
 
 Pontius Pilatus, was the sixtli procurator of 
 Judaea, and the successor of Valerius Gratus. He 
 held the office for 1 years in the reign of Tiberius, 
 from A. D. 26 to 36, and it was during his govern- 
 ment that Christ taught, suffered, and died. By 
 liis tyrannical conduct he excited an insurrection 
 at Jerusalem, and at a later period commotions in 
 Samaria also, which were not put down without 
 the loss of life. The Samaritans complained of 
 his conduct to Vitelliiis, the governor of Syria, 
 who deprived him of his office, and sent him to 
 PLome to answer before the emperor the accu- 
 sations that were brought against him. Eusebius 
 states that Pilatus put an end to his own life at 
 the commencement of the reign of Caligula, worn 
 out by the many misfortunes he had experienced. 
 The early Christian writers refer frequently to an 
 official report, made by Pilatus to the emperor 
 Tiberius, of the condemnation and death of Christ. 
 It is very doubtful whether this document was 
 genuine ; and it is certain that the acts of Pilate, 
 as they are called, which are extant in Greek, as 
 well as his two Latin letters to the emperor, are 
 the productions of a later age. 
 
 Pontius Telesiuus. 1. A Samnite, and com- 
 mander of a Samnite army, with which he fought 
 ngainst Sulla. He was defeated by Sulla in a 
 
 PONTUS. 
 
 hard-fought battle near the Colline gate, B. c. 83. 
 He fell in the fight ; his head was cut off, and 
 carried under the walls of Praeneste, to let the 
 younger Marius know that his last hope of succour 
 was gone. ^ 2. Brother of the preceding, was 
 shut up in Praeneste with the j'ounger Marius, 
 when his brother was defeated by Sulla. After 
 the death of the elder Pontius, Marius and Tele- 
 sinus, finding it impossible to escape from Prae- 
 neste, resolved to die by one another's hands. Te- 
 lesinus fell first, and Marius put an end to his own 
 life, or was slain by his slave. 
 
 Pontus (6 ndvTos)^ the N.E.-most district of 
 Asia Minor, along the coast of the Juixine, E. of 
 the river Halys, having originally no specific name, 
 was spoken of as the country eV uSi/to)^ on the Pon- 
 tus {Euxinus\ and hence acquired the name of Pon- 
 tus, which is first found inXenophon's Analjods. 
 The term, however, was used very indefinitely, un- 
 til the settlement of the boundaries of the country 
 as a Roman province. Originally it was regarded as 
 a part of Cappadocia ; but its parts were best 
 known by the names of the different tribes who 
 dwelt along the coast, and of whom some account 
 is given by Xenophon, in the Anabasis, We 
 learn from the legends of the Argonauts, who are 
 represented as visiting this coast, and the Amazons, 
 whose abodes are placed about the river Ther- 
 modon, E. of the Iris, as well as from other poetical 
 allusions, that the Greeks had some knowledge of 
 these S.E. shores of the Euxine at a veiy early 
 period. A great accession to such knowledge was 
 made by the information gained by Xenophon and 
 his comrades, when they passed through the coun- 
 try in their famous retreat : and long afterwards 
 the Romans became well acquainted with it by 
 means of the Mithridatic war, and Pompey's sub- 
 sequent expedition through Pontus into the coun- 
 tries at the foot of the Caucasus. The name first 
 acquired a political rather than a territorial im- 
 portance, through the foundation of a new kingdom 
 in it, about the beginning of the 4th century b, c, 
 by Ariobarzanes I. The history of the gradual 
 growth of this kingdom until, under Mithridates VL, 
 it threatened the Roman empire in Asia, is given 
 under the names of its kings, of whom the follow- 
 ing is the list : — (]) Ariobahzanes I., exact 
 date unknown: (2) Mithridates L, to b. c. 
 363 : (3) Ariobarzanes II., 363—337 : (4) 
 Mithridates II., 337—302 : (5) Mithri- 
 dates III., 302—266 : (6) Ariobarzanes III., 
 266—240.? (7) Mithridates IV., 240— 190. ? 
 (8) Pharnaces I., 190—156? (9) Mithri- 
 dates V. EUERGETES,I56 — 120 ? (lO)MlTHRI- 
 
 dates VI. EuFATOR, 120—63: (II) Phar- 
 naces II., 63—47. After the death of Pharnaces, 
 the reduced kingdom retained a nominal existence 
 under his son Darius, who was made king by 
 Antony in b. c. 39, but was soon deposed ; and 
 under Polemon I. and Polemon IT., till about 
 A. D. 62, when the country was constituted bv 
 Nero a Roman province. Of this province the 
 W. boundary was the river Halys, which divided 
 it from Paphlagonia ; the furthest E. limit was the 
 Phasis, which separated it from Colchis ; but others 
 carry it only as far as Trapezua, and others to an 
 Intel-mediate point, at the river Acampsis : on the 
 S. it was divided from Galatia, Cappadocia, and 
 Armenia Minor by the great chain of the Parya- 
 dres and by its branches. It was divided into the 
 3 districts of Pontus Galaticus, in the W., bor- 
 
PONTUS. 
 
 dering on Galatia, P. Polemoniacus in the centre, 
 so called from its capital Polemonium, and P. 
 Cappadocius in the E. borderin;; on Cappadocia 
 (Amienia Minor). In tlie new division of the 
 provinces under Constantino, these 3 districts were 
 reduced to 2, Helenopontns in the W., so called 
 in honour of the emperor's mother, Helena, and 
 Pontus Polemoniacus in the E. The country 
 "was also divided into smaller districts, named from 
 the to^vns they surrounded and tlie tribes who 
 peopled them. Pontus was a mountainous coun- 
 try; wild and barren in the E., where the great 
 chains approach the Euxine ; but in the W. watered 
 by the great rivers Halys and Iris and their 
 tributaries, the valleys of which, as well as the 
 land along the coast, are extreme!}'- fertile. Be- 
 sides com and olives, it was famous for its fruit 
 trees, and some of the best of our common fruits 
 are said to have been brought to Europe from this 
 quarter; for example, the cherry (see Cerasxts). 
 The sides of the mountains were covered with fine 
 timber, and their lower slopes with box and other 
 shrubs. The E. part was ricb in minerals, and 
 contained the celebrated iron mines of the Cha- 
 LYBES. Pontus was peopled by numerous tribes, 
 belonging probably to very different races, though 
 the Semitic (Syro-Arabian) race appears to have 
 been the prevailing one, and hence the inhabitants 
 ■were included under the general name of Leuco- 
 SYRi. Thechief of these peoples are spoken of in 
 separate articles. 
 
 Pontus Euxinus, or simply Pontus {6 USvtos^ 
 n.6vTos Elj^itvos: Th HovriKhy iriXayos^ Mare 
 Enxinura : the Black Sea, Turk. Kara Deniz^ Grk. 
 Maurethalassa^ Russ. Tclteriago Mai'e or Czame- 
 Alorcy all names of the same meaning, and sup- 
 posed to have originated from the terror with which 
 it was at first regarded by the Turkish mariners, 
 as the first wide expanse of sea with which they 
 became acquainted), the great inland sea enclosed 
 by Asia Minor on the S-, Colchis on the E., Sar- 
 matia on the N., and Dacia and Thracia on the 
 AV., and having no other outlet than the narrow 
 Bosporus Thracids in its S.W. comer. It lies 
 between 28° and 41° 30' E. long., and between 
 41° and 46° 40' N- lat, its lengtb being about 
 700 miles, and its breadth varying from 400 to 
 160. Its surface contains more than 180,000 
 square miles. It receives the drainage of an im- 
 mense extent of countiy in Europe and in Asia ; 
 but much the greater portion of its waters flows 
 from the former continent by the following rivers : 
 the Ister or Dannbius {Damibe\ whose basin con- 
 tains the greater part of central Europe ; the Tyras 
 or Damaster {Dniester), Hypanis or Bogus {Boug), 
 Borysthenes (Dnieper), and Tanais {Don), which 
 drain the immense plains of S. Russia, and flow 
 into the N. side of the Euxine, the last of them 
 (i. e. the Tanais) through the Palus Maeotis [Sea 
 of Azov). The space thus drained is calculated at 
 above 860,000 square miles, or nearly l-5th of 
 the whole suiface of Europe. In Asia, the basin 
 of the Euxine contains, first, the triangular piece 
 of Sarmatia Asiatica between the Tanai's on the 
 N., the Caucasus on the S., and on the E. the 
 Hippici M., -which form the watershed dividing 
 the tributaries of the Euxine from those of the 
 Caspian ; the waters of this space flow into the 
 Tanais and the Palus Maeotis, and the largest of 
 them is the Hypanis or Vardanes (Kuban), which 
 comes down to the Palus Maeotis and the Euxine 
 
 PORCIA. 
 
 607 
 
 at their junction, and divides its waters between 
 them : next we have the narrow strip of land be- 
 tween the Caucasus and the N.E. coast of the sea ; 
 then on the E,, Colchis, hemmed in between the 
 Caucasus and Moschici M., and watered by the 
 Phasis ; and lastly, on the S., the whole of that 
 part of Asia Minor which lies between the Parya- 
 dres and Antitaurus on the E. and S.E., the Taurus 
 on the S., and the highlands of Phrygia on the W., 
 the chief rivers of this portion being the Iris 
 {Ye-shil TrmaJc), the Halys [Kizil Irmak), and the 
 Sangarius (Sakariyeh). The whole of the Asiatic 
 basin of the Euxine is estimated at 100,000 square 
 miles. As might be expected from this vast influx 
 of fresh water, the water is much less salt than 
 that of the Ocean. The waters which the Euxine 
 receives from the rivers that flow directly into it, 
 and also from the Palus Maeotis (Sea of Azov) 
 through the Bosporus Cimmerius (Straits of Kaffa 
 or Yenikaleh), find their exit at the S.W. comer, 
 through the Bospoms Thracius (Channel of Con. 
 staniinople), into the Propontis [Sea of Afarmara), 
 and thence in a constant rapid current through the 
 Hellespontus (Straits of GallipoH or Dardanelles) 
 into the Aegeum Mare (Archipelago'). — The Argo- 
 nautic and other legends show tliat the Greeks had 
 some acquaintance with this sea at a very early 
 period. It is said that they at first called it 
 "Alei/os- (inhospitable)^ from the savage character of 
 the peoples on its coast, and from the supposed 
 terrors of its navigation, and that afterwards, on 
 their favourite principle of euphemism (i. e. abstain- 
 ing from words of evil omen) they changed its 
 name to Ets^epos, Ion. Eij^€ivo^, hospitable. The 
 Greeks of Asia Minor, especially the people of 
 Miletus, foimded many colonies and commercial 
 emporiums on its shores, and as early ps the Per- 
 sian wars we find Athens carrying oti a regular 
 trade with these settlements in the corn grown in 
 the great plains on its N. side (the Uh-aine) and 
 in the Chersonesus Taurica [Crimea), which have 
 ever since supplied W. Europe with large quan- 
 tities of grain. The history of the settlements 
 themselves will be found under their several names. 
 The Romans bad a pretty accm-ate knowledge of 
 the sea. An account of its coasts exists in Greek, 
 entitled " Periplus Maris Euxini," ascribed to 
 Arrian, who lived in the leign of Hadrian. [AaRi- 
 
 ANUS-J 
 
 Popillius Laenas. [Laenas.] 
 
 Poplicola. [PUBLICOLA.] 
 
 Poppaea Sabina. [Sabina.] 
 
 Poppaeus Sabinus. [Sabinhs.] 
 
 Populonia, or -ium (Populoniensis: Popnio- 
 nia), an ancient town of Etruria, situated on a 
 lofty hill, sinking abmptly to the sea, and forming 
 a peninsula. According to one tradition it was 
 founded by the Corsicans ; but accordinfj to an- 
 other it was a colony from Volaterrae, or was taken 
 from the Corsicans by the VolateiTani. It was not 
 one of the 12 Etmscan cities, nnd was never a 
 place of political importance ; but it carried on an 
 extensive commerce, and was the principal seaport 
 of Etruria. It was destroyed by Sulla in the civil 
 wars, and was in rains in the time of Straho. 
 There are still remains of the walls of the ancient 
 Populonia, showing that the city wag only about 
 1^ mile in circumference. 
 
 Porcia. 1. Sister of Cato Uticensis, married 
 L. Domitius Ahenobarbus, consul b. c. 54, who 
 was slain in the battle of Pharsalia. She died in 
 
608 P0RC1U3. 
 
 46. ^ 2. Daughter of Cato Uticensia by his first 
 wife Atilia. She was nmrned first to M. Bibulus, 
 consul 59^ to whom she bore three children. Bibu- 
 lus died in -IG ; and in 45 she married M. Brutus, 
 the assassin of JuUus Caesar. She inherited all 
 her father's republican principles, and likewise 
 his courage and firmness of will. She induced her 
 husband on the night before the 15th of March to 
 disclose to her the conspiracy against Caesar's life, 
 and she is reported to have wounded herself in the 
 thigh in order to show that she had a courageous 
 soul and could be trustt-d with the secret. She 
 put an end to her own life after the death of 
 Biutus in 42. The common .tale was, that her 
 friends, suspecting her design, had taken all wea- 
 pons out of her way, and that she therefore de- 
 stro3'ed herself by swallowing liVe coals. The 
 real fact may have been that she suffocated herself 
 by the vapour of a charcoal fire, which we know 
 ■was a frequent means of self-destruction among the 
 Romans. 
 
 Porcius Cato. [Cato.] 
 
 Porcius I'estus. [Festus.] 
 
 Porcius Latro. [Latro.] 
 
 Porcius Licinus. [Licinus.] 
 
 Porphyrio, Pompomus, the most valuable 
 among the ancient commentators on Horace. He 
 lived after Festua and Aero. 
 
 Porphyriou (riop^ypiwf ), one of the giants who 
 fought against the gods. When he attempted to 
 offer violence to Hera, or to throw the island of 
 Delos against the gods, Zeus hurled a thunder- 
 bolt at him, and Hercules completed his destinic- 
 tion with his arrows. 
 
 Porphyris {Tlop<pupis)^ an earlier name of the 
 island of Nisyuus. 
 
 Porphyrias {Viopcpvpios), usually called Por- 
 phyry, the celebrated antagonist of Christianity, 
 was a Greek philosopher of the Neo- Platonic 
 school. He was born A. D. 233 either in Batanea 
 in Palestine or at Tyre, His original name was 
 Malckus^ the Greek form of the Syrophoenician 
 Mdech^ a word which signified king. The name 
 Porphyiius (in allusion to the usual colour of 
 royal robes) was subsequently devised for him by 
 his preceptor Longinus. After studying under 
 Origen at Caesarea, and under Apollonius and 
 Longinus at Athens, he settled at Rome in his 
 30th year, and there became a diligent disciple of 
 Plotinus. He soon gained the confidence of Plo- 
 tinua, and was entrusted by the latter with the 
 difficult and delicate duty of correcting and ar- 
 rancing his writings. [Plotinus.] After re- 
 maining in Rome 6 years, Porphyry fell into an 
 unsettled state of mind, and began to entertain 
 the idea of suicide, in order to get free from the 
 shackles of the flt^sh ; but on the advice of Plo- 
 tinus he took a voyage to Sicily, where he resided 
 for some time. It was during his residence in 
 Sicily that he wrote his treatise against the Chris- 
 tiun religion, in 15 books. Of the remainder of 
 his life we know very little. He returned to 
 Rome, where he continued to teach until his death, 
 which took place about 305 or 306. Late in life 
 he married Marcella, the widow of one of his 
 friends, and the mother of 7 children, with the 
 view, as he avowed, of superintending their educa- 
 tion. As a writer Porphyry deserves consider- 
 able praise. His style is tolerably clear, and not 
 unfrequently exhibits both imagination and vigour. 
 His learning was most extensive. A great degree 
 
 PORSENA. 
 
 of critical and philosophical acumen was not to be 
 expected in one so ardently attached to the en- 
 thusiastic and somewhat fanatical system of Plo- 
 tinus. His attempt to prove the identity of the 
 Platonic and Aristotelic systems would alone be 
 sufficient to show this. Nevertheless, his ac- 
 quaintance with the authors whom he quotes was 
 manifestly far from superficial. His most cele- 
 brated work was his treatise against the Christian 
 religion ; but of its nature and merits we ai-e not 
 able to judge, as it has not come down to us. It 
 was publicly destroyed by order of the emperor 
 Theodosius. The attack was sufficiently vigorous 
 to call forth replies from above 30 different antago- 
 nists, the most distinguished of whom were Me- 
 thodms, Apollinaris, and Eusebius. A large 
 number however of his works has come down to us ; 
 of which his Life of Pythagoras and Life of Plo- 
 tinus are some of the best known. 
 
 Porphyrius, Publiiius Optatianus, a Roman 
 poet, who lived in the age of Constantine the 
 Great. He wrote a Panegyric upon Constantine ; 
 3 Idyllia, namely, 1. Ara Pythia^ 2. Syrinx^ 
 3. Organon, with the lines so arranged as to repre- 
 sent the form of these objects ; and 5 Epigrams. 
 
 Porsena* or Porsenna, Lars, king of the 
 Etruscan town of Clusium, marched against Rome 
 at the head of a vast army, in order to restore 
 Tarquinius Superbus to the throne. He took pos- 
 session of the hill Janiculum, and would have 
 entered the city by the bridge which connected 
 Rome with the Janiculum, had it not been for the 
 superhuman prowess of Horatius Codes, who kept 
 the whole Etruscan army at bay, while his 
 comrades broke down the bridge behind him. 
 [CocLES.] The Etruscans proceeded to lay siege 
 to the city, which soon began to suffer from famine. 
 Thereupon a young Roman, named C. Mucins, re- 
 solved to deliver his country by murdering the 
 invading king. He accordingly went over to the 
 Etruscan camp, but ignorant of the person of Por- 
 sena, killed the royal secretary instead. Seized, 
 and threatened with torture, he thrust his right 
 hand into the fire on the altar, and there let it 
 bum, to show how little he heeded pain. Asto- 
 nished at his courage, the king bade hira depart 
 in peace ; and Scaevola, as he was henceforward 
 called, told him, out of gratitude, to make peace 
 with Rome, since 300 noble youths had sworn to 
 take the life of the king, and he was the first upon 
 whom the lot had fallen. Porsena thereupon 
 made peace with the Romans, and withdrew his 
 troops from the Janiculum after receiving 20 hos- 
 tages from the Romans. Such was the tale by 
 which Roman vanity concealed one of the earliest 
 and greatest disasters of the city. .The real fact 
 is, that Rome was completely conquered by Por- 
 sena. This is expressly stated by Tacitus {Hist. 
 iii. 72.), and is confirmed by other writers. Piiny 
 tells us that so thorough was the subjection of the 
 Romans that they were expressly prohibited from 
 using iron for any other purpose but agricultiue. 
 The Romans, however, did not long remain sub- 
 ject to the Etruscans. After the conquest of Rome, 
 Aruns, the son of Porsena, proceeded to attack 
 Aricia, but was defeated before the city by the 
 united forces of the Latin cities, assisted by the 
 Greeks of Cumae. The Etruscans appear, in con- 
 
 * The quantity of the penultimate is doubtful. It is 
 ehort in Horace and Martial, but long in Virgil. 
 
PORTHAON. 
 
 sequence, to have been confined to their own 
 territory on the right bank of the Tiber, and the 
 Romans to have availed themselves of the oppor- 
 tunity to recover their independence. 
 
 PortKaon {UopQdojv), son of Agenor and Epi- 
 caste, was king of Pleuron and Calydon in Aetolia, 
 and married to Euryte, by whom he became the 
 father of Oeneus, Agnus, Alcathous, Melas, Leu- 
 copeus, and Sterope. 
 
 Porthmns (n^^fl^oy), a harbour in Euboea, be- 
 longing to Eretria, opposite the coast of Attica. 
 
 Portunus or Portumnns, the protecting genius 
 of harbours among the Romans. He was invoked 
 to grant a happy return from a voyage. Hence a 
 temple was erected to him at the port of the Tiber, 
 from whence the road descended to the port of 
 Ostia. At his temple an annual festival, the Por- 
 tunalia, was celebrated on the I7th of August. 
 When the Romans became familiar with Greek 
 mythology, Portunus was identified with the Greek 
 Palaemon. [Palaemon.] 
 
 Poms (IIwpos-). 1. King of the Indian pro- 
 vinces E. of the river Hydaspes, offered a for- 
 midable resistance to Alexander, when the latter 
 attempted to cross this river, b. c. 327. The battle 
 which he fought with Alexander was one of the 
 most severely contested which occurred during the 
 whole of Alexander's campaigns. Poms displayed 
 great personal courage in the battle ; and when 
 brought before the conqueror, he proudly demanded 
 to be treated in a manner worthy of a king. This 
 magnanimity at once conciliated the favour of 
 Alexander, who not only restored to him his do- 
 minions, but increased them by large accessions of 
 territory. From this time Porus became firmly 
 attached to his generous conqueror, whom he ac- 
 companied to the Hyphasis. In 321 Porus was 
 treacherously put to death by Eudemus, who 
 commanded the Macedonian troops in the adjacent 
 province. We are told that Porus was a man of 
 gigantic stature — not less than five cubits in 
 height ; and his personal strength and prowess in 
 war were not less conspicuous than his valour.— 
 2. Another Indian monarch who, at the time of 
 Alexander's expedition, ruled over the district 
 termed Gandaria, E. of the river Hydraotes. His 
 dominions were subdued by Hephaestion, and an- 
 nexed to those of the preceding Porus, who was 
 his kinsman. 
 
 Poseidon (noo-eiS&yi^), called Neptunus by the 
 Romans, was the god of the Mediterranean sea- 
 His name seems to be connected with TrtJroy, 
 irdvTos and '!rorafj,6?, according to which he is the 
 god of the fluid element. He was a son of Cronos 
 and Rhea (whence he is called Crontus and by 
 Latin poets Saiztrnius). He was accordingly a 
 brother of Zeus, Hades, Hera, Hestia and Demeter, 
 and it was determined by lot that he should rule 
 over the sea. Like his brothers and sisters, he 
 was, after his birth, swallowed by his father Cto- 
 nos, but thrown up again. According to others, 
 he was concealed by Riiea, after his birth, among 
 a flock of lambs, and his mother pretended to have 
 given birth to a young horse, which she gave to 
 Cronos to devour. In the Homeric poems Po- 
 seidon is described as equal to Zeus in dignity, 
 hut less powerful. He resents the attempts of 
 Zeus to intimidate him ; he even threatens his 
 mightier brother, and once conspired with Hera 
 and Athena to put him into chains; but on other 
 occasions we find him submissive to Zeus. The 
 
 POSEIDON. 
 
 609 
 
 palace of Poseidon was in the depth of the sea 
 near Aegae in Euboea, where he kept his horses 
 with brazen hoofs and golden manes. With these 
 horses he rides in a chariot over the waves of the 
 sea, which become smooth as he approaches, and 
 the monsters of the deep recognise him and play 
 aronnd his chariot. Generally he yoked his horses 
 to his chariot himself, but sometimes he was as- 
 sisted by Amphitrite, Although he generally 
 dwelt in the sea, still he also appears in Olympus 
 in the assembly of the gods. — Poseidon in con- 
 junction with Apollo is said to have built the 
 walls of Troy for Laomedon, whence Troy is called 
 IS^eptunia Pergama. Laomedon refused to give 
 these gods the reward which had been stipulated, 
 and even dismissed them with threats, Poseidon 
 in consequence sent a marine monster, which was 
 on the point of devouring Laomedon's daughter, 
 when it was killed by Hercules ; and he continued 
 to bear an implacable hatred against the Trojan . 
 He sided with the Greeks in the war against 
 Troy, sometimes witnessing the contest as a spec- 
 tator from the heights of Thrace, and sometimes 
 interfering in person, assuming the appearance of a 
 mortal hero and encouraging the Greeks, while 
 Zeus favoured the Trojans. In the Odyssey, Po- 
 seidon appears hostile to Ulysses, whom he pre- 
 vents from returning home in consequence of his 
 having blinded Polyphemus, a son of Poseidon by 
 the nymph Thoosa. — Being the ruler of the sea 
 (the Mediterranean), he is described as gathering 
 clouds and calling forth storms, but at the same time 
 he has it in his power to grant a successful voyage 
 and save those who are in danger ; and all other 
 marine divinities are subject to him. As the sea 
 surrounds and holds the earth, he himself is de- 
 scribed as the god who holds the earth (^aiTjoxo?), 
 and who has it in his power to shake the earth 
 ( ^j/offi'x^^*', KivTjT^p yas). — He was further re- 
 garded as the creator of the horse. It is said that 
 when Poseidon and Athena disputed as to which 
 of them should give the name to the capital of 
 Attica, the gods decided, that it should receive its 
 name from the deity who should bestow upon man 
 the most useful gift. Poseidon then created the 
 horse, and Athena called forth the olive tree, in 
 consequence of which the honour was conferred 
 upon the goddess. According to others, however, 
 Poseidon did not create the horse in Attica, but 
 in Thessaly, where he also gave the famous horses 
 to Peleus. Poseidon was accordingly believed to 
 have taught men tlie art of managing horses by 
 the bridle, and to have been the originator and 
 protector of horse races. Hence he was also repre- 
 sented on horseback, or riding in a chariot drawn 
 by two or four horses, and is designated by the 
 epithets '/ttttios-, ^kttuos^ or 'linrios &va^. He even 
 metamorphosed himself into a horse, for the pur- 
 pose of deceiving Demeter. — The symbol of Po- 
 seidon's power was the trident, or a spear with 
 three points, with which he used to shatter rocks, 
 to call forth or subdue storms, to shake the earth, 
 and the like. — Herodotus states, that the name and 
 worship of Poseidon were brought into Greece froni 
 Libya; but he was probably a divinity of Pe- 
 lasgian origin, and originally a personification of 
 the fertilising power of water, from which the 
 transition to regarding him as the god of the sea 
 was not difficult. — Tlie following legends respecting 
 PoseidcMi deserve to be mentioned. In conjunction 
 with Zeus he fought against Cronos and the Titans ; 
 
610 
 
 POSIDIPPUS. 
 
 and in the contest with the Giants he pursued 
 Polybotes across the sea aa far as Cos, and there 
 killed him by throwing the island upon him. He 
 further crushed the Centaurs when they were pur- 
 sued by Hercules, under a mountain in Ijeucosia, 
 the island of the Sirens. He sued togetiier with 
 Zeus for the hand of Thetis; but he withdrew 
 when Themis prophesied that the son of Thetis 
 would be greater than his father. When Ares 
 had been caught in the wonderful net by He- 
 phaestus, the latter set him free at the request of 
 Poseidon ; but the latter god afterwards brought 
 a charge against Area before the Areopagus, for 
 having killed his son Halirrhothius. At the re- 
 quest of Minos, king of Crete, Poseidon caused a 
 bull to rise from the sea, which the king promised 
 to sacrifice; but wiien Minos treacherously con- 
 cealed the animal among a herd of oxen, the god 
 punished Minos by causing his daughter Pasiphae 
 to fall in love with the bull. — Poseidon was married 
 to Araphitrite, by whom he had three cliildren, 
 Triton, Rhode, and Benthesicyme ; but he had 
 also a vast number of children by other divinities 
 and mortal women. His worship extended over 
 all Greece and southern Italy, but he was more 
 especially revered in Peloponnesus and in the 
 Ionic towns on the coast. The sacrifices offered 
 to him generally consisted of black and white 
 bulls ; but wild boars and rams were also sacrificed 
 to him. Horse and chariot races were held in his 
 honour on the Corinthian isthmus. The Panionia, 
 or the festival of all the lonians near Mycale, was 
 celebrated in honour of Poseidon. In works of 
 art, Poseidon may be easily recognised by his at- 
 tributes, the dolphin, the horse, or the trident, and 
 he was frequently represented in groups along with 
 Amphitrite, Tritons, Nereids, dolphins, the Dios- 
 curi, Palaemon, Pegasus, Bellerophontes, Thalaasa, 
 Ino, and Galene. His figure does not present the 
 majestic calm which characterises his brother 
 Zeus ; but as the state of the sea is varying, so 
 also is the god represented sometimes in violent 
 agitation, and sometimes in a state of repose. The 
 Roman god Neptunus is spoken of in a separate 
 article. 
 
 Posidippus (noo-efSiTTTTos, TlocriSnnros). "L An 
 Athenian comic poet of the New Comedy, was a 
 native of Cassandrea in Macedonia. He was 
 reckoned one of the 6 most celebrated poets of the 
 New Comedy. In time, he was the last of all 
 the poets of the New Comedy. He began to ex- 
 hibit dramas in the third year after the death of 
 Menander, that is, in b. c. 289. —2. An epigram- 
 matic poet, who was probably a different person 
 from the comic poet, though he seems to have lived 
 about the same time. His epigrams formed a part 
 of the Garland of Meleager, and 22 of them are 
 preserved in the Greek Anthology. 
 
 Posidiiun (rioo'etSioi'), the name of several pro- 
 montories sacred to Poseidon. 1. {Fuvta delta 
 Licosa), in Lucania, opposite the island Leucosia, 
 the S. point of the gulf of Paestum. ^3. In 
 Epirus, opposite the N.E. point of Corcyra. ^3. 
 (6'. Stavros)^ in Thessaly, forming the W. point of 
 the Siims Pagasaeus, perhaps the same as the pro- 
 montory which Livy (xxxi. 46.) calls Zelaslum.— 
 4. (C. IJelene), the S.W. point of Chios. — 6. On 
 the W. coast of Caria, between Miletus and the 
 lassius Sinus, with a town of the same name upon 
 it. — 6. On the W. coast of Arabia, with an altar 
 dedicated to Poseidon by Ariston, whom Ptolemy 
 
 POSTUMUS. 
 
 had sent to explore the Arabian gulf. ^7. {Pos- 
 scf/a), a seaport town in Syria in the district Cas^ 
 siotis. 
 
 Posidonia. [Paestum.] 
 
 PosTdonium (Xloff^iZdiviov : C. Possidhi or Kas- 
 sandhrea), a promontory on the W. coast of the 
 peninsula Pallene in Macedonia, not far from 
 Mende. 
 
 Posidoniua (IlotretSwi'fos), a distinguished Stoic 
 philosopher, was a native of Apamea in Syria. 
 The date of his birth is not known with any ex- 
 actness, but it may be placed about b. c. I'do. He 
 studied at Atiieng under Panaetius, after whose 
 death (112) Posidonius set out on his travels. 
 After visiting most of the countries on the coast of 
 the Mediterranean, he fixed his abode at Rhodes, 
 where he became the president of the Stoic school. 
 He also took a prominent part in the political 
 affairs of Rhodes, and was sent as ambassador to 
 Rome in 86. Cicero, when he visited Rhodes, 
 received instruction from Posidonius. Pompey 
 also had a great admiration for Posidonius, and 
 visited him twice, in 67 and 62. To the occasion 
 of his first visit probably belongs tlie story that 
 Posidonius, to prevent the disappointment of his 
 distinguished visitor, though severely afflicted with 
 the gout, had a long discourse on the topic that 
 pain is not an evil. In 51 Posidonius removed to 
 Rome, and appears to have died soon after at the 
 age of 84. Posidonius was a man of extensive 
 and varied acquirements in almost all departments 
 of human knowledge. Cicero thought so highly 
 of his powers, that he requested him to write an 
 account of his consulship. As a physical investi- 
 gator he was greatly superior to the Stoics gene- 
 rally, attaching himself in this respect rather to 
 Aristotle- His geographical and historical know- 
 ledge was very extensive. He culti\'ated astro- 
 nomy with considerable diligence. He also 
 constructed a planetary machine, or revolving 
 sphere, to exhibit the daily motions of the sun, 
 moon and planets. His calculation of the circum- 
 ference of the earth differed widely from that of 
 Eratosthenes. He made it only 100,000 stadia, 
 and his measurement was pretty generally adopted. 
 None of the writings of Posidonius has come down 
 to us entire. His fragments are collected by 
 Bake, Lugd. Bat. 1810. 
 
 Postnmia Castra (Salado), a fortress in Hiepa- 
 nia Baetica, on a hill near the river Salsum 
 {Salado). 
 
 Postnnua Gens, patrician, was one of the most 
 ancient patrician gentes at Rome. Its members fre- 
 quently held the highest offices of the state, from 
 the banishment of the kings to the downfall of the 
 republic. The most distinguished family in the 
 gens was that of Albus or Albinus ; but we 
 also find at the commencement of the republic 
 families of the names of Megdlus and Tubcrtus. 
 
 Postiimus, whose full name was M. Cassiamis 
 Latiniits PoshtmuSj stands 2nd in the list of the 
 so-called 30 Tyrants. Being nominated by Vale- 
 rian governor of Gaul, he assumed the title of 
 emperor in a. d. 258, while Valerian was prose- 
 cuting his campaign against the Persians. Postu- 
 mus maintained a strong and just government, and 
 preserved Gaul from the devastation of the war- 
 like tribes upon the eastern border. After reign- 
 ing ni^arly 10 years, he was slain by his soldiers 
 in 267, and Laclianus proclaimed emperor in hia 
 stead. 
 
POSTVERTA. 
 
 Postverta or Postvorta, properly a sumnme of 
 Camieiita, describing her as turning backward and 
 looking at the past, which she revealed to poets 
 and other mortals. In like manner the prophetic 
 power, with which she looked into the future, is 
 indicated by the surnames Anievoria^ Frojsa (i. e. 
 jProversa)^ and Porrima. Poets, however, have 
 personified these attributes of Carmenta, and thus 
 describe them as the companions of the goddess. 
 
 Potami, or Potamns (TToTa^of, XloTafj.6s : XIoto.- 
 fxios: Keratia\ a demiis in the S. of Attica, be- 
 longing to the tribe Leontis, where the tomb of 
 Ion w;i3 shown. 
 
 PotSmon (rioTa/iwi'). 1. A rhetorician of My- 
 tilene, lived in the time of Tiberius Caesar, whose 
 favour he enjoyed. — 2. A philosopher of Alex- 
 ander, who is said to have introduced at Rome an 
 eclectic sect of philosophy. He appears to have 
 lived at Rome a little before the time of Plotinus, 
 jind to have entrusted hia children to the guardian- 
 ship of the latter. 
 
 Potentia (Potentinus). 1. A town of Picenum 
 on the river Flosis, between Ancona and CastcUura 
 Finnanum, was made a Roman colony in b. c. lOtJ. 
 — 2. {Polenza)^ a town of Lucania on the Via 
 Popiiia, E. of Forum Popilii. 
 
 Pothinus, an eunuch, the guardian of the young 
 king Ptolemy, recommended the assassination of 
 Ponipey, when the latter fled to Egypt, b. c. 48. 
 I'othinus plotted against Caesar when he came to 
 Alexandria shortly afterwai'ds, and was put to 
 death by Caesar's order. 
 
 Potidaea (norfSoia: noTiSaiaTTjs : Pindka)^ a 
 town in Macedonia on the narrow isthmus of the 
 peninsula Pallene, was a strongly fortified place 
 and one of considerable importance. It was a 
 colony of the Corinthians, and must have been 
 founded before the Persian wars, though the time 
 of its foundation is not recorded. It afterwards 
 became tributary to Athens, and its revolt from the 
 hUtor city in b. c. 432 was one of the immediate 
 causes of the Peloponnesian war. It was taken by 
 the Athenians in 429 after a siege of more than 
 2 years, its inhabitants expelled, and their place 
 supplied by Athenian colonists. In 356 it was 
 taken by Philip, who destroyed the city and gave 
 its territory to the Olynthians. Cassander, how- 
 ever, built a new city on the same site, to which 
 he gave the name of Cassandrea (Kaccraj'Speia: 
 Katrtra^/Speus), and which he peopled with the re- 
 mains of the old population and with the inhabitants 
 of Olynthus and the surrounding towns, so that it 
 soon became the most flourishing city in all Mace- 
 donia. It was taken and plundered by the Hmis, 
 but was restored by Justinian. 
 
 Potidania, a fortress in the N.E. of Aetolia, 
 near the frontiers of Locris. 
 
 Potltii. [PiNARiA Gens.] _ 
 
 Potitus, the name of an ancient and celebrated 
 family of the Valeria Gens. This family disap- 
 pears about the time of the Samnite wars ; but the 
 name was revived at a later period by the Valeria 
 tens, as a praenoraen : thus we find mention of a 
 Potitus Valerius Messala, who was consul suffectus 
 inB.c. 29. 
 
 Potniae {TLoTviai-. UoTV.evs)^^ sranli town in 
 Eoeotia on the Asopua, 10 stadia S. of Thebes, on 
 the road to Piataea. The adjective Potviades (sing. 
 Potnias) is an epithet frequently given to the 
 mares which tore to death Glaucus of Potuiae. 
 [Glat/cus, No. 1.] 
 
 •PRATINAS. 
 
 611 
 
 Praaapa. [Phkaata.] 
 
 Practius (npaKTios: Borgas or Mush:ikoi-Su\ 
 a river of the Troad, rising in M. Ida, and flowing 
 into the Hellespont, N. of Abydus. 
 
 Praeneste (Praenestinus: PQleslrma\ one of 
 the most ancient towns of Latium, was situated on 
 a steep and lofty hill, about 20 miles S.E. of Rome, 
 with which it was connected by a road, called Via 
 Praenestina. It was probably a Pelasgic city, but 
 it claimed a Greek origin, and was said to have 
 been founded by Telegonus, the son of Ulysses. 
 It was strongly fortified by nature and by art, and 
 frequently resisted the attacks of the Romans. 
 Together with the otlier Latin towns, it became 
 subject to Rome, and was at a later period made a 
 Roman colony. It was here that the younger 
 Marius took refuge, and was for a considerable time 
 besieged by Sulla's troops. Praeneste possessed a 
 very celebrated and ancient temple of Fortuna, 
 with an oracle, which is often mentioned under the 
 name of Praenestinae sortes. It also had a temple 
 of Juno. In consequence of its loftj-- situation Prae- 
 neste was a cool and healthy residence in the 
 great heats of summer {frigidum Praeneste^ Hor. 
 Carm. iii. 4. 22), and was therefore much fre- 
 quented at that season bj' the wealthy Romans. 
 The remains of the ancient walls and some other 
 antiquities are still to be seen at Palestrina, 
 
 Praesus (npctTo-os : npaftrios), an inland town 
 in the E. of Crete, belonging to the Eteocretes, 
 which was destroyed by the neighbouring town of 
 Hierapytna. 
 
 Praetoria Augusta. [Augusta, No. 4.] 
 
 Pras (npSs, gen. Tipa.VT6s : IIpavTej), a to\vn of 
 Thessaly, in the W. of the district Phthiotis, on 
 the N.E. slope of Mt. Narthacius. 
 
 Prasiae (Jipaaiai : Upaa-ievs). 1. Or Praaia 
 (Upaa-la), a town of the Elenthero-lacones, on the 
 E. coast of Laconia, was taken and destroyed by 
 the Athenians in the 2nd year of the Pelopon- 
 nesian war. — 3. (I^rassa)^ a dcmus in Atticfi, S. 
 of Stiria, belonging to the tribe Pandionis, with a 
 temple of Apollo. 
 
 Prasias Lacus (Xlpaatas \iyi.vrw Tukino)^ a 
 lake in Thrace between the Strymon and Nestns, 
 and near the Stryinonic gulf with silver mines in 
 the neighbourhood. 
 
 Prasii, Praesii, and Parrhasii (Tlpao-ioi : San- 
 scrit, Prachinas, i. e. people of tJie E. countrj/)^ a 
 great and powerful people of India on the Ganges, 
 governed at the time of Seleucus I. by king 
 Sandrocottus. Their capital city was Pali- 
 bothra (Patna) ; and the extent of the kingdom 
 seems to have embraced the whole valley of the 
 upper Ganges, at least as far down as that city. 
 At a later time the monarchy declined, so that in 
 Ptolemy we only find the name as that of the 
 inhabitants of a small district, called Prasiaca 
 {lipaa-iaKT]) about the rivftr Soa. 
 
 Prasodis Mare {UpacrdJB7)s ^dKaa-a-a or k6\- 
 iros), the S.W. part of the Indian Ocean, about 
 the promontory Prasuhi. 
 
 Prasum {Upda-ov aicpatTTjpiop ; C. Delgado\ a 
 promontory on the E. coast of Africa in 10^^ S. 
 lat, appears to have been the S.-most point to 
 which tlie ancient knowledge of this coast ex- 
 tended. 
 
 Pratmas {Tlparivas\ one of the early tragic 
 poets at Athens, whose combined eftbrts brought 
 the art to its perfection, was a native of Phlius 
 and was therefore by birth a Dorian. It is not 
 
612 
 
 PRAXAGORAS. 
 
 stated at what time he went to Athens ; but he vi^as 
 older than Choerilus and younger than Aeschylus, 
 ■with both of whom he competed for the prize, 
 about B. c. 500. The step in the progress of the 
 art, which was ascribed to Pratinas, was the sepfi- 
 ration of the satyric from the tragic drama. His 
 plays were much esteemed. Pmtinas also ranked 
 high among tlie lyric, as well as the dramatic 
 poets of his age. He may perhaps be considered 
 to have shared with his contemporary Lasus the 
 honour of founding the Athenian school of dithy- 
 rambic poetry. 
 
 Praxagoras {Upa^aySpas), a celebrated phy- 
 sician, was a native of the island of Cos, and lived 
 in the 4th century b. c. He belonged to the medi- 
 cal sect of the Bograatici, and was celebrated for 
 his knowledge of medical science in general, and 
 especially for his attainments in anatomy and phy- 
 siology. 
 
 Praxias (Upa^ias), an Athenian sculptor of 
 the age of Phidias, but of the more archaic school 
 of Calamis, commenced the execution of the sUitues 
 in the pediments of the great temple of Apollo at 
 Delphi, but died while he was still engaged upon 
 the work. His date may be placed about B.C. 
 448, and onwards. 
 
 Praxidice (npa|i5iK7/), i. e. the goddess who 
 carries out the objects of justice, or watches that 
 justice is done to men. When Menelaus arrived 
 in Laconia. on liis return from Troy, he set up a 
 statue" of Pi-axidice near Gytheum, not far from 
 the spot where Paris, in carrying off Helen, had 
 founded a sanctuary of Aphrodite Migonitis. Near 
 Haliartus, in Boeotia, we meet with the worship 
 of Praxidicae, in the plurals they were here called 
 daughters of Oxyges, and their names were Al.il- 
 comenia, Thelxiuoea, and Aulis. In the Orphic 
 poets Praxidice seems to be a surname of Perse- 
 phone. 
 
 Praxilla (Upd^iWa), of Sicyon, a lyric poetess, 
 ■who flourished about b. c. 450. and was one of the 
 9 poetesses who were distinguished as the Lyric 
 Muses. Her scolia were among the most cele- 
 brated compositions of that species. She belonged 
 to the Dorian school of lyric poetry, but there were 
 also traces of Aeolic influence in her rhythms, and 
 even in her dialect. 
 
 Praxiplianes (Upa^t(j)dv7}^), a Peripatetic philo- 
 sopher, a native either of Mytilene or of Rhodes, 
 was a pupil of Theophrastus, and lived about b. c. 
 32'2. Epicunis is said to have been one of his 
 pupils. Praxiphanes paid especial attention to 
 grammatical studies, and is hence named along 
 with Aristotle as the founder and creator of the 
 science of grammar. 
 
 Praxiteles (npa|iTc'A7jj), one of the most dis- 
 tinguished artists of ancient Greece, was both a 
 statuary in bronze and a sculptor in marble. We 
 know nothing of his personal history, except that 
 he was a citizen, if not a native, of Athens, and 
 that his career as an artist was intimately con- 
 nected with that city. He probably flourished 
 about b, c. 364 and onwards. Praxiteles stands, 
 ■with Seopas, at the head of the later Attic school, 
 flo called in contradistinction to the earlier Attic 
 school of Phidias. Without attempting those sub- 
 lime impersonations of divine majesty, in which 
 Phidias had been so inimitably successful, Praxi- 
 teles was unsurpassed in the exhibition of the 
 softer beauties of the human form, especially in the 
 female figure. The most celebrated work of Pra- 
 
 PRIAMUS. 
 
 xiteles was his marble statue of Aphrodite (Venus), 
 which was distinguished from other statues of the 
 goddess by the name of the Cnidians, who pur- 
 chased it. It was always esteemed the most per- 
 fectly beautiful of the statues of the goddess. 
 Many made the voyage to Cnidus expressly to be- 
 hold it. So highly did the Cnidians themselves 
 esteem their treasure, tliat when King Nicomedes 
 offered them, as the price of it, to pay oflf the whole 
 of their heavy public debt, they preferred to en- 
 dure any suffering rather than part with the work 
 which gave their city its chief renown. It was 
 afterwards carried to Constantinople, where it 
 perished by fire in the reign of Justinian. Praxi- 
 teles modelled it from a favourite courtezan named 
 Phryne, of whom also he made more than one por- 
 trait statue. Another of the celebrated works of 
 Praxiteles was his statue of Eros. It was pre- 
 served at Thespiae, where it was dedicated by 
 Phryne ; and an interesting story is told of the 
 manner in which she became possessed of it. 
 Praxiteles had promised to give Phryne whichever 
 of his works she might choose, but he was unwil- 
 ling to tell her which of them, in his own opinion, 
 was the best. To discover this, she sent a slave 
 to tell Praxiteles that a fire had broken out in his 
 house, and that most of his works had already 
 perished. On hearing this message, tbe artist 
 rushed out, exclaiming that all his toil was lost, if 
 the Are had touched his Satyr or his Eros. Upon 
 this Phryne confessed the stratagem, and chose the 
 Eros. This statue "was removed to Rome by 
 Caligula, restored to Thespiae by Claudius, and 
 carried back by Nero to Rome, where it stood in 
 Pliny's time in the schools of Octavia, and it finally 
 perished in the conflagration of that building in 
 the reign of Titus. Praxiteles had 2 sons, -who 
 were also distinguished sculptors, Tiraarchus and 
 Cephisodotus. 
 
 Praxithea (Upa^id4a), daughter of Phrasimus 
 and Diogenla, was the wife of Erechtheus, and 
 mother of Ceerops, Pandorus, Metion, Omens, 
 Procris, Creusa, Chthonia, and Orithyia. 
 
 Preciani, a people in GalUa Aquitanica at the 
 foot of the Pyrenees. 
 
 Prelius Lacus {Lago di Castiglione\ a lake in 
 Etruria near the coast, near the N. end of which 
 was a small island. 
 
 Prepesintlius [Tip^TTe<Tiv6os\ one of the smaller 
 Cyclades, between Oliaros and Siphnos. 
 
 Priamides, that is. a son of Priam, by which 
 name Hector, Paris, Helenus, Deiphobus, and the 
 other sons of Priam, are frequently called. 
 
 Priamus {Tlpiapios\ the famous king of Troy, at 
 the time of the Trojan war. He was a son of 
 Laomedon and Strymo or Placia. His original 
 name is said to have been Podarces, i.e. "the 
 swift- footed," which was changed into Priamus, 
 " the ransomed " (from 7rpia/xoi), because he was 
 the only surviving son of Laomedon and was ran- 
 somed by his sister Hesione, after he had fallen 
 into the hands of Hercules. He is said to have 
 been first married to Arisbe, the daughter of 
 Merops, by wiiom he became the father of Aesa- 
 cu8 ; but afterwards he gave up Arisbe to Hyrta- 
 cus, and married Hecuba, by whom he had the 
 following children : Hector, Alexander or Paris, 
 Deiphobus, Helenus, Pammon, Polites, Antiphus, 
 Hipponous, Polydorus, Troilus, Creusa, Laodice, 
 Polyxena, and Cassandra. By other women he 
 had a great many children besides. According to 
 
PRIANSUS. 
 
 the Homeric tradition, he was the father of oO 
 sons, 19 of whom were children of Hecuba, to 
 whom others add an eqnal number of daughters. 
 In the earlier part of his reign, Priam is said to 
 have supported the Phrygians in their war against 
 the Amazons. "When the Greeks landed on the 
 Trojan coast Priam was already advanced in years, 
 and took no active part in the war. Once only 
 did he venture upon the field of battle, to conclude 
 the agreement respecting the single combat be- 
 tween Paris and Menelaus. After the death of 
 Hector, Priam, accompanied by Hermes, went to 
 the tent of Achilles to ransom his son's body for bu- 
 rial and obtJirued it. His death is not mentioned 
 by Homer, but is related by later poets. When 
 the Greeks entered Troy, the aged king put on his 
 armour, and was on the point of rushing against 
 the enemy, but he was prevailed on by Hecuba to 
 take refuge with herself and her daughters, as a 
 suppliant at the altar of 2eus. While he was 
 tarrying in the temple, his son Polites, pursued 
 by Pyrrhus, rushed into the sacred spot, and ex- 
 pired at the feet of his father, whereupon Priam, 
 overcome with indignation, hurled his spear with 
 feeble hand against Pyrrhus, but was forthwith 
 killed by the latter. — Virgil mentions {Aen.y. 
 3()4) another Priam, a son af Polites, and a 
 grandson of king Priam. 
 
 Priansus (Jtpiavffo^ i Tfpidvffios, Upiavaievs)^ 
 a town in Crete on the S. coast, S. of Lyctus, 
 confounded by Strabo with Praesua. 
 
 Priapus (Il/)Ki7ros),son of Dionysus and Aphro- 
 dite. It is said that Aphrodite, who was in love 
 with Dionysus, went to meet the god on his return 
 from India, but soon abandoned him, and proceeded 
 to Lampsacus on the Hellespont, to give birth to the 
 child of the god. Hera, who was dissatisfied witli 
 her conduct, caused her to give birth to a child of 
 extreme ugliness, who was named Priapus. The 
 earliest Greek poets, such as Homer and Hesiod, do 
 not mention this divinity ; and it was only in later 
 times that he was honoured with divine worship. 
 He was worshipped more especially at Lampsacus 
 on the Hellespont, whence he is sometimes called 
 Hellespoiitiacus, He was regarded as the pro- 
 moter of fertility both in vegetation and in all ajii- 
 mals connected with an agricultural life ; and in 
 this capjicity he was worshipped as the protector of 
 flocks of sheep and goats, of bees, of the vine, of 
 all garden produce, and even of fishing. Like 
 other divinities presiding over agricultural pursuits, 
 he was believed to be possessed of prophetic 
 powers, and is sometimes mentioned in the plural. 
 As Priapus had many attributes in common with 
 other gods of fertility, the Orphics identified him 
 with their m3'stic Dionysus, Hermes. Helios, &c. 
 The Attic legends connect Priapus with such sen- 
 sual and licentious beings as Conisalus, Orthanes, 
 and Tychon. In like manner he was confounded 
 by the Italians with Mutunus or Muttunus, the 
 personification of the fructifying power in nature. 
 The sacrifices offered to him consisted of the first- 
 fruits of gardens, vineyards, and fields, of milk, 
 honey, cakes, rams, asses, and fishes. He was re- 
 presented in carved images, mostly in the form of 
 hermae, carrying fruit in his garment, and either 
 a sickle or cornucopia in his hand. The hermae 
 of Priapus in Italy, like those of other nistic divi- 
 nities were usually painted red, whence the god 
 is called rultcr or Tubicundus. 
 
 Priapus (XIplaTros, Ion. nptijTros ; \lpia.-m]v6s : 
 
 PKISCIANUS. 613 
 
 Karahua^ Ru.), a city of Mysia, on the Propontis, 
 E. of Parium, with a small but excellent harbour. 
 It was a colony of the Milesians, and a chief seat 
 of the worship of Phiapus. The surrounding dis- 
 trict was called Friapis {Upiairls) and Friapene 
 (TlpiaTr-qp-i\). 
 
 Priene (Jlpirivri'. Hpi-qv^m^ Jlpi-fjvios: Prieneus, 
 pi. Prienenses : ^ajJWKM, Ru.), one of the 12 Ionian 
 cities on the coast of Asia Minor, stood in the 
 N.W. comer of Cnria, at the S. foot of M. Mycale, 
 and o!i the N. side of the Sinus Latinicus. Its 
 fomidation was ascribed mythically to the Neleid 
 AepytHS, in conjunction with Cadmeans, from 
 whom it was also called KdSfx-f], It stood originally 
 on the seashore, and had 2 harboms and a small 
 fleet, but the change in the coast by the alluvial 
 deposits of the Maeander left it some distance in- 
 land. It was of much religious importance in con- 
 nection with the Panionian festival on M. Mycale, 
 at which the people of Priene took precedence in 
 virtue of their being the sirpposed descendants of 
 those of Helice in Greece Proper. The city was 
 also celebrated as the birthplace of Bias. 
 
 Prifemum, a town of the Vestini on the E. 
 coast of central Italy. 
 
 Primus, M. AntonJua, a native of Toloaa in 
 Gaul, was condemned of forgery {fulsum) in the 
 reign of Nero, wa* expelled the senate of which he 
 was a member, and was banished from the city. 
 After the death of Nero (Glt)^ he was restored to 
 his foiTuer rank by Galba, and appointed to tlie 
 command of the 7tli legion^ whrcb was stationed 
 in Pajinonia^ He was one &f the first gene- 
 rals in Europe who declared in favour of Ves- 
 pasian ; and he rendered him the most important 
 services. In conjunction with the governors of 
 Moesia and Pannonia, he invaded Italy, gained a 
 decisive victory over the Vitellian army at Bedri- 
 acum, and took Cremona, whic'h he allowed his 
 soldiers to pillage and destroy. He afterwards 
 forced his way into Rome, notwithstanding the ob- 
 stinate resistance of the Vitellian troops, and had 
 the government of the city till the arrival of Mu- 
 cianus from Syria. [Muciancts, No, 2.] We 
 learn from Martial, who was a friend of Antonius 
 Primus, that he was alive at the accession of 
 Trajan. 
 
 PriscmmiSv a Pt.oman grammarian, surnamed 
 Caesai-iensis^ either because he was bom at Caesarea, 
 or educated there. He flourished about a. d. 450, 
 and taught grammar at Constantinople. He was cele- 
 brated for the extent and depth of his grammatical 
 knowledge, of which he has left the evidence in his 
 work on the subject..entntled Commentariorum gi'am- 
 maiicorum Libn XVIJI.^ addressed to his friend 
 and patron,, the consul Julitmus. Other titles are, 
 however,.frequently given to it. The first 16 books 
 treat upon the eight parts of speech recognised by 
 the ancient grammarians, letters, syllables, &c. 
 The last 2 books are on syntax. This treatise 
 soon became the standard work on Latin grammar, 
 and in the epitome of Rabanus Maurus obtained 
 an extensive circulation. The other works of 
 Priscianus still extant are: — 1. A grammatical 
 catechism on 12 lines of the Aeneid, manifestly 
 intended as a school book. 2. A treatise on 
 accents. 3. A treatise on the symbols used to de- 
 note numbers and weights, and on coins and num- 
 bers. 4. On the metres of Terence. 5. A trans- 
 lation of the Upoyufivaffixara {Pra^ixercitammta) 
 of Hermogenes. 6. On the declensions of nouns. 
 
614 
 
 PRISCIANUS. 
 
 7. A poem on the emperor Anastasius in 312 
 hexameters, with a preface in 22 iambic lines. 
 H. A piece Dc I'ouderibns et JMensuiis^ in verse. 
 -*i. An Epitome phccenomenoji^ or Ue Sideribus, in 
 verse, 10. A free translation of the Penegesis of 
 Dionysius in 1427 lines, manifestly made for the 
 instruction of youth. 11. A couple of epigrams. 
 The best edition of Priscianus i.s by Krehl, Lips. 
 1819—20, 2 vols. 8vo. 
 
 Priscianus, Theodorus, a physician, and a 
 pnpil of Vindicianus, lived in the 4tli century after 
 Christ. He is supposed to have lived at the court 
 of Constantinople, and to have attained the dignity 
 of Archiater. He is the author of a Latin work, 
 entitled, Renim I\fedicarum Lihri Qiiaiuor^ pub- 
 lished in 1532, both at Strasburg and at Basel. 
 
 Priscus {ITpicrKos), a Bj'zantine historian, was 
 a native of Paniam in 'i'hracf, and was one of the 
 ambassadors sent by Theodosius the Younger to 
 Attila, A. D. 445. He died about 471. Priscus 
 ■wrote an account of his embassy to Attila, 
 enriched hy digressions on the life and reign of 
 that king. The work was in 8 books, but only 
 fragments of it have con]2 down to us. Priscus 
 was an excellent and trustworthy historian, and his 
 style was remarkably elegant and pure. The frag- 
 ments are published with those of Dexippus and 
 others, by Bekker and Niebiihr, in the Bonn Col- 
 lection of the Byzantines, 1829, 8vo. 
 
 Priscus, Helvidius, son-in-law of Thrasea Pae- 
 tus, and, like him, distinguished by his love of 
 virtue, philosophy, and liberty. He was quaestor 
 in Achaia during the reign of Nero, and tribune of 
 the plebs a, d. 5Q. Wheu Thrasea was put to 
 death by Nero {QQ)^ Priscus was banished from 
 Italy. He was reculled to Rome by Galba (6B) ; 
 but in consequence of his freedom of speech and 
 love of independence, he was again banished by 
 Vespasian, and was shortly afterwards put to 
 death by order of this emperor. His life was 
 written by Herennins Senecio at the request of his 
 widow Fannia ; and the tyrant Domitian, in con- 
 sequence of this work, subsequently put Senecio to 
 death, and sent Fannia into exile. Priscus left a 
 son, Helvidius, who was put to death by Domitian. 
 
 Priscus, Servilius. The Prisci were an an- 
 cient family of the Servilia gens, and filled the 
 highest offices of the state during tlie early years 
 of the republic. They also bore the agnomen of 
 Structus, which is always appended to their name 
 in the Fasti, till it was supplanted by that of Fide- 
 nas, which was first obtained by Q. Servilius Pris- 
 cus Structus, who took Fidenae in his dictatorship, 
 ij. c. 43.5, and which was also borne by his de- 
 scendants. 
 
 Priscus, Tarquinius. [Tarquinius.] 
 
 Privernum (^Privemas, -atis: Fiperno), an an- 
 cient town of Latium on the river Amasenus, be- 
 longed to the Volscians. It was conquered by the 
 Romans at an early period, and was subsequently 
 made a colony. 
 
 Proaeresius (Upoaip4<rios\ a teacher of rhe- 
 toric was a native of Armenia, and was born about 
 A. D. 27t). He first studied at Antioch under 
 Uipian, and afterwards at Athens under Julianus. 
 He became at a later time the chief teacher of 
 rhetoric at Athens, and enjoyed a very high repu- 
 tation. He died 368, in his 92nd year. 
 
 Probalintlius {UpoSaKivdos : UpoSaXhios), a 
 demus in Attica, S. of Marathon, belonging to the 
 tribe Pandionis. 
 
 PROCLUS. 
 
 Probatia (UpoSaTia)^ a river of Boeotia, which, 
 after passing through the territory of Trachin, and 
 receiving its tributary the Hercyna, flowed into 
 the lake Copais. 
 
 Probus, Aemilius. [Nepos, Cornelius.] 
 
 Probus, M. Aurelius, Roman emperor a. d. 
 276* — 282, was a native of Sirmium in Pannonia, 
 and rose to distinction by his military abilities. 
 He was appointed by the emperor Tacitus governor 
 of the whole East, and, upon the death of that sove- 
 reign, the purple was forced upon his acceptance 
 by the armies of Syria. The downfall of Fiorianus 
 speedily removed his only rival [Florianus], and 
 he was enthusiastically hailed by the united voice 
 of the senate, the people, and the legions. The 
 reign of Probua presents a series of the most bril- 
 liant achievements. He defeated the barbarians 
 on the frontiers of Gaul and Illyricum, and in 
 other parts of the Roman empire, and put down 
 the rebellions of Saturninus at Alexandria, and of 
 Proculus and Bonosus in Gaul. But, after crush- 
 ing all external and internal foes, he was killed at 
 Siiinium by his own soldiers, who had risen in 
 mutiny against him, because he had employed 
 them in laborious public works. Probus was as 
 just and virtuous as he was warlike, and is de- 
 servedly regarded .as one of the greatest and best 
 of the Roman emperors. * 
 
 Probus, Valerius. 1. Of Berytus, a Roman 
 grammarian, who lived in the time of Nero. To 
 this Probus Ave may assign those annotations 
 on Terence, from which fragments are quoted in 
 the Scholia on the dramatist.^2. A Roman gram- 
 marian, flourished some years before A. Gellius, and 
 therefore about the beginning of the 2nd century. 
 He was the author of commentaries on Virgil, and 
 possessed a copy of a portion at least of the 
 Georgics, which had been corrected by the hand of 
 the poet himself. These are the commentaries so 
 frequently cited by Servius ; but the ScJwlia in 
 Bncolica et Geor.gica^ now extant, under the name 
 of Probus, belong to a much later period. This 
 Probus was probably the author of the life of Per- 
 slus, commonly ascribed to Suetonius. — There is 
 extant a work upon grammar, in 2 books, entitled 
 M. Vcilerii ProJd Gianumitivae InstUuiioiies ; but 
 this work was probably not written bj' either of 
 the preceding grammarians. It is published in the 
 collections of Putschius, Hannov. 1605, and of 
 Lindemann, Lips. 1831. 
 
 Procas, one of the fiibulous kings of Alba Longa, 
 succeeded Aventinus, and reigned 23 years : he was 
 the father of Numitor and Amulius, 
 
 Prochyta {Procida)^ an island off the coast of 
 Campania near the promontory Misenum, is said 
 to have been torn away by an earthquake either 
 from this promontory or from the neighbouring 
 island of Pithecusa or Aenaria. 
 
 Procles (ITpo/c^f/s), one of the twin sons of 
 Aristodemus. For details see Eurysthenes. 
 
 Proclus (ITpd/cAos), sumamed Diadockua (Aid- 
 doxos)^ the successor, from his being regarded as the 
 genuine successor of Plato in doctrine, was one of the 
 most celebrated teachers of the Neoplatonic school. 
 He was born at Byzantium a. d. 412, but was 
 brought up <at Xanthus in Lycia, to which city his 
 parents belonged, and which Proclns himself re- 
 garded as his native place. He studied at Alexan- 
 dria under Olympiodnrus, and afterwards at Athens 
 under Plutarchus and Syrianiis. At an early age 
 his philosophical atttiinmfnts attracted the atten- 
 
PROCLUS. 
 
 tion and admiration of his contemporaries. He had 
 written his commentarj' on the Timaeus of Plato, 
 aa well as many other treatises by his 28th year. 
 On the death of Syrianus Proclus succeeded hira 
 in his school, and inherited from him the house in 
 which he resided and taught. Marinus in his 
 life of Proclus records, with intense admiration, the 
 perfection to which his master attained in all vir- 
 tues. The highest of these virtues were, in the 
 estimation of Marinus, those of a purifyinjj and 
 ascetic kind. From animal food he almost totally 
 abstnined ; fasts and vigils he observed with scru- 
 pulous exactitude. The reverence with which he 
 honoured the sun and moon would seem to have 
 been unbounded. He celebrated all the impor- 
 tant religious festivals of every nation, himself 
 composing hymns in honour not only of Grecian 
 deities, but of those of other nations also. Nor 
 were departed heroes and philosophers excepted 
 from this religious veneration ; and he even per- 
 formed sacred rites in honour of the departed 
 spirits of the entire human race. It was of coursu 
 not surprising that such a man should be favoured 
 witli various apparitions and miraculous interposi- 
 tions of the gods. He used to tell how a god had 
 once appeared and proclaimed to him the glory of 
 the city. But tlie still higher grade of what, in 
 tlie language of the scliool, was termed the theurgic 
 virtue, he attained by his profound meditations on 
 the oracles, and the Orphic and Chaldaic mysteries, 
 into the profound secrets of whieh he was initiated 
 by Asclepigenia, the daughter of Plutarchus, who 
 alone was in complete possession of the theurgic 
 knowledge and discipline, which had descended to 
 her from the great Nestorius. He profited so much 
 by her instructions, aa to be able, according to 
 Marinus, to call down rain in a time of drought, to 
 stop an earthquake, and to procure the immediate 
 intervention of Aesculapius to cure the daughter of 
 his friend Archiadas. Proclus died a. d. 485. 
 During the last 5 years of his life he had become 
 superannuated, his strength having been exhausted 
 by his fastings and other ascetic practices. As a 
 philosopher Proclus enjoyed the highest celebrity 
 among his contemporaries and successors ; but his 
 philosophical system is characterised by vagueness, 
 mysticism, and want of good sense. He professed 
 that his design was not to bring forward views of 
 his o^vn, but simply to expound Plato, in doing 
 which he proceeded on the idea that everything 
 in Plato must be brought into accordance with the 
 mystical theology of Orplieus. He wrote a sepa- 
 rate work on the coincidence of the doctrines of 
 Orpheus, Pythagoras, and Plato. It was in much 
 tiie same spirit that he attempted to blend together 
 the logical method of Aristotle and the fanciful 
 speculations of Neoplatonic mysticism. Several of 
 the works of Produs are still ex ant The most 
 imnortant of them consist of Commentaries on 
 Plato, a treatise on various theological and philo- 
 sophical subjects. There is no complete edition of 
 Proclus. The edition of Cousin (Paris, 6 vols. 
 Uvo. 18"20 — 1827} contains the following treatises 
 of Proclus : — On Providence and Fate ; On Ten 
 Doubts about Providence ; On the Nature of 
 Evil ; a Comroentaiy on the Alcibiades, and a 
 Commentary on the Parmenides. The other prin- 
 cipal works of Proclus are:— On the Theology of 
 Plato, in 6 books ; Theological Elements ; a Com- 
 mentary on the Timaeus of Plato ; five Hymns of 
 an Orphic character. Several of these have been 
 
 PROCOPIUS. 
 
 615 
 
 translated into English by Thomas Taylor. Pro- 
 clus was also a distinguished mathematician and 
 grammarian. His Commentaries on the first book 
 of Euclid, and on the Works and Days of Hesiod 
 are still extant. 
 
 Procne {Tlp6KVT])j daughter of king Pandion of 
 Athens, and wife of Tereus. Her story is given 
 under Tbreus. 
 
 Proconnesus {UpoKSvvrjffos, or TlpoiK6vv'q(Tos 
 i. e. Fawn-island, Marmora)^ an island of the Pro- 
 pontis which takes from it its modem name {Seaoj 
 Alarmara) ofT the N. coast of Mysia, N.W. of the 
 peninsula of Cyzicus or DoHonis. The latter was 
 also called Proconnesus from Tfp6^ {fawn) because 
 it was a favourite resort of deer in the fawning 
 season, whence it was also called Elaphonnesus 
 ('E\a(p(Ji'i'Tj(ros, i. e. deer-ibland) \ and the two were 
 distinguished by the names of Old and New Pro- 
 connesus. The island was celebrated for its marble ; 
 and hence its modem name. It was the native 
 place of the poet Aristeas. 
 
 Procopius (TipoKSTTios). 1. A native of Cilicia, 
 and a relative of the emperor Julian, served with 
 distinction under Constantius II. and Ju4ian. 
 Having incurred tlie suspicions of Jovian and of 
 his successor Valens, Procopius remained in con- 
 cealment for about 2 years ; but in a.t>, 3C5 he 
 was proclaimed emperor at Constantinople, while 
 Valens was staying at Caesarea in Ca])padocia. 
 Both parties prepared for war. In the following 
 year (JJO'6) the forces of Procopius were defeated 
 in 2 great biittles. Procopius himself was taken 
 prisoner, and put to death by order of Valens. — 
 2. An eminent Byzantine historian, was born at 
 Caesarea in Palestine about a. ij. 500. He went 
 to Constantinople when still a j'oung man, and 
 there obtained so mucli disthiction as an advocate 
 and a professor of eloquence, that he attracted the 
 attention of Bclisarius, who appointed him his 
 secretary in 527, In this capacity Procopius ac- 
 companied the great hei'o on his different wars in 
 Asia, Africa, and Italy, being frequently em- 
 ployed in state business of importance, or in con- 
 ducting military exp edition Si. Procopius returned 
 with Belisarius to Constantinople a little before 
 542. His eminent talents were appreciated by 
 the emperor Justinian, who conferred upon hira the 
 title of illustris, made him a senator, and in 562 
 created him prefect of ConstaMinople. Procopius 
 died about the same time as Justinian, 6^6. 
 As an historian Procopius deserves great praise. 
 His style is good, formed upon classic models, 
 often elegant, and generally full of vigour. His 
 work^ are: — 1. Hisiorirs ('lo-Topiof), in 8 books ; 
 viz. 2 On tJte Persian Tla?-, containing the period 
 from 40o — 553, and treating more fully of the au- 
 thor's own times ; 2 On the M'ar with tlte Vandals, 
 395 — 545 ; 4 On the Gothic War, or properly 
 speaking, only 3 books, the 4th (8tli) being a sort 
 of supplement containing various matters, and going 
 dowMi'to the beginning of 553. It was continued 
 by Agathias till 559. The work is extremely in- 
 teresting ; the descriptions of the habits, &c. of 
 the barbarians are faithful and done in a masterly 
 style. — 2. On ilie. Pvhlic Buildings erected by 
 Justinian (KTitr/iara), in C books. A work equally 
 interesting and valuable in its kind, though appa- 
 rently too much seasoned with flattery of the em- 
 peror. — 3. Anecdota ('AveKSora), a collection of 
 anecdotes, some of them witty and pleasant, but 
 others most indecent, reflecting upon Justinian, the 
 
 II R 4 
 
tJ16 
 
 PROCRIS. 
 
 empress Theodora, Belisarius, and other eminent 
 persons. It is a complete Ckronique Scandaleuse of 
 the court of Constantinople, from 540 till 562. — 
 4. Oratioiies, probably extracts from the " History," 
 ■which is rather overstocked with harangues and 
 speeches. The best edition of the collected works 
 of Procopius is by Dindorf, Bonn, 3 vols. 8vo. 
 1833—1838. 
 
 Procris (Ilpd/cpts), daughter of Erechtheus and 
 wife of Cephalus. For details see Cephalus. 
 
 Procmstea (npoicpou'o-T^s), that is, "the 
 Stretcher," a surname of the famous robber Po- 
 lyperaon or Damastes. He used to tie all travel- 
 lers who fell into his hands upon a bed : if they 
 were shorter than the bed, he stretched their limbs 
 till they were of the same length ; if they were 
 longer than the bed, he made them of the same 
 size by cutting off some of their limbs. He was 
 slain by Theseus, on the Cephissus in Attica, The 
 bi^d of Procrustes is used proverbially even at the 
 present day. 
 
 C. Proculeias, a Roman eques, one of the 
 friends of Augustus, was sent by the latter, after 
 the victory at Actiura, to Antony and Cleopatra. 
 It is of this Proculeius that Horace speaks {Cann. 
 ji. 2). He is said to have divided his property 
 with his brothers (perhaps cousins) Caepio and 
 Murena. who had lost their property in the civil 
 wars. Proculeius put an end to his life by taking 
 gypsum, when suffering from a disease in the 
 stomach. 
 
 Prociilus, the jurist, was the contempwary of 
 the jurist Nerva the younger, who was probably 
 the father of the emperor Nerva. The fact that 
 Proculus gave his name to the school or sect {Pro- 
 culiam or Procideiaiii, as the name is also written), 
 which was opposed to that of the Sabhiiani, shows 
 that he was a jurist of note. Proculus is often 
 cited, and there are 37 extracts from him in the 
 Digest from his 8 books of Epistolae. He appears 
 to have written notes on Labeo. Some writers 
 suppose that Proculus is the Licinius Proculus, 
 who was Praefectus Praetorio under -Gtho. 
 
 Proctiltis, Julius, a Roman senator, is said in 
 the legend of Romulus to have informed the sorrow- 
 ing Roman people, after the strange departure of 
 their king from the w-orld, that Romulus had de- 
 scended from heaven and appeared to him, bidding 
 liim tell the people to honour him in future as a 
 god under the name of Quirinus. 
 
 Prodicus (Jip6ZiKos), the celebrated sophist, 
 was a native of luUa in the island of 'Ceos. He 
 lived in the time of the Peloponnesian war and 
 subsequently ; but the date cannot be determined 
 either of his birth or of his death. Prodicus came 
 frequently to Athens on the public husiness of his 
 native city. He was brought forward in the 
 Clouds and the Birds of Aristophanes, which be- 
 long respectively to B.C. 423 iind 414. Prodicus 
 is mentioned as one of the teachers of Isocrates, 
 and he was alive at the time of the death of So- 
 crates (39S). Suidas relates that Prodicus was 
 put \o death by the Athenians as a corrupter of 
 the youth, but this statement sounds very sus- 
 picious. He is mentioned both by Plato and 
 Xenophon with more respect than the other so- 
 phists. Like Protagoras and others he travelled 
 through Greece, delivering lectures for money, 
 and in this way he amassed a large fortune. 
 He paid especial attention to the correct use of 
 words. We have the substance of one of his lec- 
 
 PROETUS. 
 
 tures preserved by Xenophon in the well-known 
 fable, called "The Choice of Hercules." When 
 Hercules, as he entered upon manhood, was upon 
 the point of choosing between virtue and vice, 
 there appeared to him two women, the one of 
 dignified beauty, ad.omed with purity, modesty, 
 and discretion, the other of a voluptuous form, and 
 meretricious look and dress. The latter promised 
 to lead him by the shortest road, without any toil, 
 to the enjoyment of every pleasure. The other, 
 while she reminded him of his ancestors and his 
 noble nature, did not conceal from him that the 
 gods have granted nothing really beautiful and 
 good without toil and labour. The former sought 
 to deter him from the path of virtue by urging its 
 difficulties ; the latter impressed, upon him the 
 emptiness of pleasiu-e, and the honour and happi- 
 ness flowing from a life of virtue. Thereupon 
 Hercules decided in favour of virtue. 
 
 Proema {Tlp6epva)^ a town of Thessaly in the 
 W. part of the district Phthiotis, on the W. slope 
 of M. Narthacius, and near the sources of the 
 Apidanus. 
 
 Proetides. [ Proet us. ] 
 
 Proetus (npoTros), son of Abaa and Ocalea, 
 and twin-brother of Acrisius. In the dispute be- 
 tween the 2 brothers for the kingdom of Argos, 
 Proetus was expelled, whereupon he fled to lobates 
 in Lycia, and married Antea or Stheneboea, the 
 daughter of the latter. With the assistance of 
 lobates, Proetus was restored to his kingdom, and 
 took Tiryns, which was now fortified by the Cy- 
 clopes. Acrisius then shared his kingdom with 
 his brother, surrendering to him Tiryns, Midea 
 and the coast of Argolis. By his wife, Proetus 
 became the father of -3 daughters, Lysippe, Iphi- 
 noe, and Iphianassa, who are often mentioned 
 under the general name of Proetides. When 
 these daughters arrived at the age of maturity, 
 they were stricken with madness, the cause of 
 which is differently related. Some say that it 
 was a punishment inflicted upon them by Dio- 
 nysus, because they had despised his worship ; 
 others relate that they were driven mad by Hera, 
 because they presumed to consider themselves more 
 handsome than the goddess, or because they had 
 stolen some of the gold of her statue. The frenzy 
 spread to the other women of Argos ; till at length 
 Proetus agreed to divide his kingdom between 
 Melampus and his brother Bias, upon the former 
 promising that he would cm:e the women of their 
 madness. Melampus then chose the most robust 
 among the young men, gave chase to the mad 
 women, amid, shouting and dancing, and drove 
 them as far as Sicyon. Dit-ring this pursuit, Iphi- 
 noc died, but the 2 otlier daughters were cured 
 by Melampus by means of purifications, and were 
 then married to Melampus and Bias. The place 
 where the cure was effected upon his daughters is 
 not the same in all traditions, some mentioning 
 the well Anigros, others the fountain Clitor ia 
 Arcadia, or Lusi in Arcadia. Besides these daugh- 
 ters, Proetus had a son, Megapenthes. When 
 Bellerophon came to Proetus to be purified of a 
 murder which he had committed, the wife of Proe- 
 tus fell in love with him ; but, as Bellerophon 
 declined her advances, she charged him before 
 Proetus with having made improper proposals to 
 her. Proetus then sent Bellerophon to lobates in 
 Lycia, with a letter desiring the latter to murder 
 Bellerophon. [BELLEKortioN.] — According to 
 
PROMETHEUS. 
 
 Ovid {Met. V. 238) Acrisius was expelled from his 
 kingdom by Proetus ; andPerseiis, the grandson of 
 Acrisius, avenged his grandfather by turning Proe- 
 tus into stone by means of the head of Medusa. 
 
 Prometlieus {Jlpofx-qOevs), son of the Titan 
 lapetus and Clymene, and Jarother of Atlas, Me- 
 noetius, and Epimetheuff. Hifl name signifies 
 " forethought," as that of his brother Epimetheus 
 denotes "afterthought." Once in the reign of 
 Zeus, when gods and men were disputing with 
 one another at Mecone (afterwards Sicyon), Pro- 
 metheus, with a view of deceiving Zeus, cut up a 
 bull and divided it into two parts: lie wrapped up 
 the best parts and the intestines in the skin, and 
 at the top he placed the stomach, which is one of 
 the worst parts, while the second heap consisted 
 of the bones covered with fat. When Zeus pointed 
 out to him how badly he had made the division, 
 Prometheus desired him to choose, but Zeus, in his 
 anger, and seeing through the stratagem of Pro- 
 metheus, chose the heap of bones covered with the 
 fat. The father of the gods avenged himself by 
 withholding fire from mortals, but Prometheus 
 stole it in a hollow tube (vapOr)^, ferula). Zeus 
 thereupon chained Prometheus to a pillar, where 
 an eagle consumed in the daytime his liver, which 
 was restored in each succeeding night. Prome- 
 theus was thus exposed to perpetual torture ; but 
 Hercules killed tlie eagle and delivered the suf- 
 ferer, with the consent of Zeus, who in this way had 
 an opportunity of allowing his son to gain immortal 
 fame. Further in order to punish men Zeus gave 
 Pandora as a present to Epimetheus, in conse- 
 quence of which diseases and sufferings of every 
 kind befell mortals. [For details, see Pandora.] 
 This is an outline of the legend about Prometheus, 
 as contained in the poems of Hesiod. — Aeschylus, 
 in his trilogy Prometlieus, added various new fea- 
 tures to this legend. Although Prometheus be- 
 longed to the Titans, he is nevertheless represented 
 by Aeschylus as having assisted Zeus against the 
 Titans. But when Zeus wanted to extirpate the 
 whole race of man, whose place he proposed to 
 fill by an entirely new race of beings, Prometheus 
 prevented the execution of the scheme, and saved 
 mankind from destruction. Prometheus further 
 deprived them of their knowledge of the future, 
 and gave them hope instead. He taught them 
 the use of fire, made them acquainted with ar- 
 cliitecture, astronomy, mathematics, writing, the 
 treatment of domestic animals, navigation, medi- 
 cine, the art of prophecy, working in metal, and 
 all the other arts. But, as he had actod in all 
 these things contrary to tlie will of Zeus, the latter 
 ordered Hephaestus to chain him to a rock in 
 Scvthia, which was dune in the presence of 
 Cratos and Bia, two ministers of Zeus. Prome- 
 theus, however, still continued to defy Zeus, and 
 declared that it was the decree of fate, by which 
 Zeus was destined to be dethroned by his own son. 
 As Prometheus steadfastly refused to give any 
 explanation of this decree, Zeus hurled him into 
 Tartarus, togetlier with the rock to which he was 
 chained. Alter the lapse of a long time, Prome- 
 theus returned to the upper world, to endure a fresh 
 course of suffering, for he was now fastened to Mt. 
 Caucasus, and his liver devoured by an eagle, as re- 
 lated in the Hesiodic legend. This state of suffering 
 was to last until stime other god, of his own accord, 
 should take his place, and descend into Tartarus 
 for him. This came to pass when Chiron, who 
 
 PROPERTIUS. 
 
 617 
 
 had been incurably wounded by an arrow of Her- 
 cules, desired to go into Hades ; and Zeus allowed 
 him to supply the place of Prometheus. Accord- 
 ing to others, however, Zeus himself delivered 
 Prometheus, when the Titan was at length pre- 
 vailed upon to reveal to Zeus the decree of fate, 
 which was that, if he should become by Thetis 
 the father of a son, that son should deprive him of 
 the sovereignty. There was also a legend, which 
 related that Prometheus had created man out of 
 earth and water, either at the very beginning of 
 the human race, or after the flood of Beucalion, 
 when Zeus is said to have ordered him and Athena 
 to make men out of the mud, and the winds to 
 breathe life into them. Prometheus is said to 
 have given to men a portion of all the qualities 
 possessed by the other animals (Hor. Carm. i. 
 16. 13). The kind of earth out of which Pro- 
 metheus formed men was shown in later times 
 near Panopeus in Phocis. — In the legend of 
 Prometheus, he often appears in connection with 
 Athena. Thus he is said to have been punished 
 on Mt. Caucasus for the criminal love he eriter- 
 tained for her : and he is further said, with her 
 assistance, to have ascended into heaven, and there 
 secretly to have lighted his torch at the chariot of 
 Helios, in order to bring down the fire to man. 
 At Athens Prometheus had a sanctuary in the 
 Academy, from whence a torch-race took place in 
 honour of him. 
 
 Promona (Upoifi6va: Petrovacz on Mt. Fro- 
 mina)^ a mountain fortress in the interior of Dal- 
 mati;u 
 
 Pronapides {Tlpova.iri^f]s\ an Athenian, is said 
 to have been the teacher of Homer. He is enume- 
 rated among those who used the Pelasgic letters, 
 before the introduction of the Phoenician, and is 
 characterised as a graceful composer of song. 
 
 Fronax {Tlpwva^)^ son of Talaus and Lysi- 
 mache, brother of Adrastus and Eriphyle, and 
 father of Lycurgus and Amphithea. According 
 to some traditions the Nemean games were insti- 
 tuted in honour of Pronax. 
 
 Pl'Oniii {Vlp6vvoi: Upovvatos)^ a town on the 
 E. coast of Cephallenia, and one of the 4 towns of 
 the island. 
 
 Pronomus {Xlp6uop.os\ of Thebes, son of Oeni- 
 adas, was one of the most distinguished auletic 
 musicians of Greece at the time of the Pelopon- 
 nesian war. He was the instructor of Alcibiades 
 in flute- playing. He invented a new sort of flute, 
 the compass of which was such, that melodies 
 could be played upon it in all the 3 modes of 
 music, the Dorian, the Phrygian, and the Lydian, 
 for each of which, before this invention, a separate 
 flute had been necessary. 
 
 Fronous (Il/jd^oor), son of Phegeus, and brother 
 of Agenor, in conjunction with wliom he slew 
 Alcmaeon. [For details, see Agenor and Alc- 
 
 MAKON.] 
 
 Fronuba, a surname of Juno among the Ro- 
 mans, describing her as the deity presiding over 
 marriage. 
 
 Fropertiua, Sex. Aurelius, the Roman poet, 
 was probably born about B.C. 51. He tells us 
 that he was a native of Umbria, where it borders 
 on Etruria, but nowhere mentions the exact spot. 
 He was not descended from a family of any dis- 
 tinction (ii, 24. 37), and he was deprived of his 
 paternal estate by an agrarian division, probably 
 , that in 36, after the Sicilian war. At the time 
 
618 
 
 PROPHTHASIA. 
 
 of this misfortune he had not yet assumed the 
 toga viHlis^ and was therefore under 16 years 
 of age. He had already lost his father, who, it 
 has iieen conjectured, was one of the victims sacri- 
 ficed after the taking of Pernsia; but this notion 
 does not rest on any satisfactory grounds. We 
 have no account of Propertius''s education ; but 
 from one of his elegies (iv. 1) it would seem that 
 he was destined to be an advocate, but abandoned 
 the profession for that of poetry. The history of 
 his life, so far as it is known to us, is the history 
 of his amours, nor can it be said how much of this 
 is fiction. He began to write poetry at a very 
 early nge, and the merit of his productions soon 
 attracted the attention and patronage of Maecenas. 
 This was most probably shortly after the death of 
 Antony in 30, when Propertins was about 21. 
 It was probably in 32 or 31, that Propertius first 
 became acquainted with his Cynthia. She was a 
 native of Tibur, and her real name was Hostia. 
 As Propertius (iii. 20. R) alludes to her doctus 
 avus^ it is probable that she was a grand-daughter 
 of Hostius, who wrote a poem on the Histric war. 
 [HosTius.] She seems to have inherited a con- 
 siderable portion of tlie family talent, and was 
 herself a poetess, besides being skilled in music, 
 dancing, and needlework. It appears that Pro- 
 pertius subsequentl}' married, probably after Cyn- 
 thia's death, and left legitimate issue, since the 
 younger Pliny twice mentions Passienus Paulas 
 as descended from him. This must have been 
 through the female line. The year of Propeilius's 
 death la altogether unknown. — Propertius resided 
 on the Esquiline, near the gardens of Maecenas. 
 He seems to have cultivated the friendship of his 
 brother poets, as Poiiticus, Bassos, Ovid, and 
 others. He mentions Viryil (ii. 3-t. 63) in a way 
 that shows he had heard parts of the Aeneid pri- 
 vately recited. But though he belonged to the 
 circle of Maecenas, he never once mentions Horace. 
 He is equally silent about Tiimllns. His not men- 
 tioning Ovid is best explained by the difference 
 in their ages ; for Ovid alludes more than once to 
 Propertius, and with evident affection.- — ^As an 
 elegiac poet, a high rank must be awarded to 
 Propertius, and among the ancients it was a dis- 
 puted point whether the preff rence should be given 
 to him or to Tibullus. To the modern reader, how- 
 ever, the elegies of Propertius are not nearly so 
 attractive as those of Tibullus. Tliis arises partly 
 from their obscurity, but in a great measure also 
 from a certain want of nature in them. The fault 
 of Propertius was too pedantic an imitation of the 
 Greeks. His whole ambition was to become the 
 Roman Callimachus (iv. 1. 63), whom, as well as 
 Philetas and other of the Greek elegiac poets, he 
 made his model. He abounds with obscure Greek 
 myths, as well as Greek forms of expression, and 
 the same pedantry infects even his versification. 
 Tibullus generally, and Ovid almost invariably, 
 close their pentameter with a word contained in an 
 iambic foot ; Propertius, especially in his first book, 
 frerjuently ends with a word of 3, 4, or even 5 
 syllables. The best editions of Propertius are by 
 Burmann, Utrecht, 17B0; by Kuinoel, Leipzig, 
 lfi04; by Lachmann, Leipzig, IHIG ; and by 
 Hertzberg, Halle, 1844, 1845. 
 
 Propbtliasia {UpoipBao-'ia : prob. Pcshawarun^ 
 Ru.), the N.-most city of Drangiana, on the borders 
 of Asia, was probably the place where Philotas 
 was put to death. 
 
 PROTAGORAS. 
 
 Propontis (^ XlpovovTis : Sea of Marmara), sa 
 called from its position with reference to the Pontus 
 (Euxinua), and thus more fully described as r] rrph 
 Tov n6vrov TOO Ev^eiyov ^tiAaaca, and *' Vesti- 
 bulura Ponti," is the small aea which united the 
 Euxine and the Aegean [Pontus Eqxinu.s] and 
 divides Europe (Thracia) from Asia (Mysia and 
 Bithynia). It is of an irregular oval shape, running 
 out on the E. into 2 deep gulfs, the Sinus Astace- 
 nus {G. of Ismid) and the Sinus Cianus {G. of 
 Modonia), and containing several islands. It re- 
 ceived the waters of the Rhyndacus and other 
 rivers of E. Mysia and W. Bithynia, flowing from 
 M. Ida and Olympus; and several important Greek 
 cities stood on its shores, the chief of which were 
 BvzANTiUM'and Heraclea Perinthus on the 
 N., and Cyzicus on the S. Its length is calculated 
 by Herodotus at 1400 stadia (140 geog. miles) and 
 its greatest breadth at 300 stadia (SO g. m.) which 
 is very near the truth. 
 
 Proschium. [Pylene.] 
 
 Proserpina. [ P ersephone. ] 
 
 Prospalta (ra nprfo-TraAra : npOfTTraArios), a 
 demus in the S. of Attica, belonging to the ti'ibe 
 Acamantis. 
 
 Prosper, a celebrated ecclesiastical writer, was 
 a native of Aquitania, and flourished during the 
 first half of the 5th century. He distinguished 
 himself by his numerous writings in defence of 
 the doctrines of Augustin against the attacks of 
 the Semipelagians. Many of his theological works 
 are extant; and there are also 2 Chronicles bear- 
 ing his name : — 1. Chronicon Consulare^ extending 
 from A. D. 379, the date at which the chronicle of Je- 
 rome ends, down to 455, the events being arranged 
 according to the years of the Roman consuls. We 
 find short notices with regard to the Roman em- 
 perors, the Roman bishops, and political occur- 
 rences in general, but the troubles of the Church 
 are especially dwelt upon, and above all the Pe- 
 lagian heresy. 2. Chronicon Impcriale, compre- 
 hended within the same limits as the preceding 
 (379 — 455), but the computations proceed accord- 
 ing to the years of the Roman emperors, and not 
 according to the consuls. While it agrees with 
 the Chronicon Consulare in its general plan, it 
 differs from it in many particulars, especially in 
 the very brief allusions to the Pelagian contro- 
 versy, and in the slight, almost disrespectful notices 
 of Augustine. The 2nd of these Chronicles was 
 probably not written by Prosper of Aquitania, and 
 is assigned by most critics to Prosper Tiro, who, 
 it is imagined, flourished in the 6th century. 
 There are likewise several poems, which have 
 come down to us under the name of Prosper. The 
 best edition of Prosper's works is the Benedictine, 
 Pari8,^1711. 
 
 Prosynma (YlpScv/.tva : Ilpo(rufi.vaios\ an an- 
 cient town of Argolis, with a temple of Hera, N. 
 of Argos. 
 
 Prota (ripaJTa; Proie), an island in the Pro- 
 pontis near Chalcedon. 
 
 Protagoras {TlpcoTaySpas)^ a celebrated sophist, 
 was born at Abdera, in Thrace, probably about 
 B. c. 480, and died about 411, at the age of nearly 
 70 years. It is said that Protagoras was once a 
 poor porter, and that the skill with which he had 
 fastened together, and poised upon his shoulders, 
 a large bundle of wood, attracted the attention of 
 DemocrituB, who conceived a liking for him, took 
 him under his care, and instructed him in phi- 
 
PROTESILAUS. 
 
 3o3ophy. This well-known story, however, appears 
 to have arisen out of the statement of Aristotle, 
 that Protagoi-as invented a sort of porter's knot 
 for the more convenient carrying of burdens. In 
 addition to which, Protagoras was about 20 years 
 older than DemocrituB. Protagoras was the first 
 who called hiinself a sophist, and taught for pa}-- ; 
 and he practised his profession for the space of 
 40 years. He must have come to Athens before 
 B. c. 44.5, since he drew up a code of laws for the 
 Tliurians, who left Athens for the first time in 
 that year. Whether he accompanied the colonists 
 to Timrii, we are not informed ; but at the time 
 of the plague (430) we' find him again in Athens. 
 Between his first and second visit to Athens, he 
 had spent some time in Sicily, where he had ac- 
 quired great fame ; and he brought with him to 
 Athens many admirers out of other Greek cities 
 through which he had passed. His instructions 
 were so highly valued that he sometimes received 
 100 minae from a pupil ; and Plato says that Pro- 
 tagoras made more money than Phidias and 10 
 other sculptors. In 411 he was accused of im- 
 piety by Pythodorus, one of tlie Four Hundred. 
 His impeachment was founded on his book on the 
 gods, which began with the statement: "Re- 
 specting the gods, I am unable to know whether 
 they exist or do not exist." The impeachment 
 was followed by his banisliment, or, as others 
 affirm, only by the burning of his book. Pro- 
 tagoras wrote a large number of works, of which 
 the most important were entitled Truth ('AA^fleia), 
 and On tite Gods (Tlepi &€wv). The first con- 
 tained the theory refuted by Plato in the Theae- 
 tetus. Plato gives a vivid picture of the teaching 
 of Protagoras in the dialogue that hears his name. 
 Protagoras was especially celebrated for liis skill 
 in the rhetorical art By way of practice in the 
 art he was accustomed to make his pupils discuss 
 Theses {communes loci) ; an exercise which is also 
 recommended by Cicero. Pie also directed his 
 attention to language, and endeavoured to explain 
 difficult passages in the poets. 
 
 PrbtesilauB (Il/jairea-t A aos), son of Iphiclus and 
 Astyoche, belonged to Phylace in Thessaly. He 
 is called Phylaciits and Fhi/lacides, either from his 
 native place, or from his being a grandson of Phy- 
 lacue. He led the warriors of several Thessalian 
 places against Troy, and was the first of all the 
 Greeks who was killed by the Trojans, being the 
 first who leaped from the ships upon the Trojan 
 coast. According to the common tradition he was 
 slain by Hector. Protesilaus is most celebrated 
 in ancient story for the strong affection existing 
 between him and his wife Laodamia, the daughter 
 of Acastus. [For details see LAonAMiA.] His 
 tomb was shown near Eleus, in the Thracian 
 Chersonesus, where a magnificent temple was 
 erected to him. There was a belief that nymphs 
 had planted elm-trees around his grave, vi'hich died 
 away when they had grown sufficiently high to see 
 Troy, and tliat fresh shoots then sprang from the 
 roots. There was also a sanctuary of Protesilaus 
 at Phylace, at which funeral games were celebrated. 
 
 Proteus (npwTeus), the prophetic old man of 
 the sea, is described in the earliest legends as a 
 subject of Poseidon, whose flocks (the seals) he 
 tended. According to Homer he resided in the 
 island of Pharos, at the distance of one day's 
 journey from the river Aegyptus (Nile) ; whereas 
 Virgil places his residence in the island of Car- 
 
 PROTOOENIA. 
 
 619 
 
 pathos, between Crete and Rhodes. At midday 
 Proteus rose from the sea, and slept in the shadow 
 of the rocks of the coast, with the monsters of the 
 deep lying around him. Any one wishing to learn 
 from him the future, was obliged to catch hold of 
 him at that time : as soon as he was seized, lie 
 assumed every possible shape, in order to escape 
 the necessity of prophesying, but whenever he saw 
 that his endeavours were of no avail, he resumed 
 his usual form, and told the truth. After finishing 
 his prophecy he returned into the sea. Homer 
 ascribes to him a daughter Idothea. — Anotlier set 
 of traditions describes Proteus as a son of Poseidon, 
 and as a king of Egypt, who had two sons, Tele- 
 gonua and Polygonus or Tmolus. His Egyptian 
 name is said to have been Cetes, for which the 
 Greeks substituted that of Proteus. His wife is 
 called Psamathe or Torone, and, besides the above 
 mentioned sons, Theoclymenus and Theonoe are 
 likewise called his children. He is said to have 
 hospitably received Dionysus during his wanderings. 
 Hermes brought to him Helena after her abduction, 
 or, according to others, Proteus himself took her 
 from Paris, gave to the lover a phantom, and re- 
 stored the true Helen to Menelaus after his return 
 from Troy. 
 
 Protogenes (n/xuTo-ye'i/ijs), a celebrated Greek 
 painter. He was a native of Caunus, in Caria, a-city 
 subject to the Rhodians, and flourished b. c. 332 
 — 300. He resided at Rhodes almost entirely ; 
 the only other city of Greece which he is said to 
 have visited is Athens, where he executed one of 
 his great works in the Propylaea. Up to his .50tli 
 year he is said to have lived in poverty and in 
 comparative obscurity, supporting himself by paint- 
 ing ships, wliich at tliat period used to be deco- 
 rated witli elaborate pictorial devices. His fame 
 had, however, reached the ears of Apelles, who, 
 upon visiting Rhodes, made it his first business to 
 seek out Protegenes. As the surest way of making 
 the merits of Protogenes known to his fellow- 
 citizens, Apelles offered him, for his finished works 
 the enormous sura of .50 talents apiece^ and thus 
 led the Rhodians to understand what an artist they 
 had among them. Protogenes was distinguished by 
 the care with which he wrought up his pictures. 
 His masterpiece was the picture of lalysus, the 
 tutelary hero of Rhodes, on which he is said to 
 have spent 7 years, or even, according to another 
 statement, 11; and to have painted it 4 times over. 
 This picture was so highly prized even in the 
 artist's lifetime that when Demetrius Poliorcetes 
 was using every effort to subdue Rhodes, lie re- 
 frained from attacking the city at its most vul- 
 nerable point, lest he should injure this picture, 
 which had been placed in that quarter. There is 
 a celebrated story about this picture, relating to the 
 accidental production of one of the most effective 
 parts of it, the foam at the mouth of a tired hound. 
 The artist, it is said, dissatisfied with his repeated 
 attempts to produce the desired effect, at last, in 
 his vexation, dashed the sponge, with which he 
 had repeatedly effaced his work, against the faulty 
 place ; and the sponge charged as it was by re- 
 peated use with the necessary colours, left a mark 
 in which the painter recognised the very foam 
 which his art had failed to produce. 
 
 Protogenia {Tipa^royiv^a.)^ daughter of Deu- 
 calion and Pyrrha, and wife of Locrus ; but Zeus 
 carried her off, and became by her the father of 
 Opus. 
 
6^0 
 
 PROXENUS. 
 
 Proxenus (npo^ei^os)^ a Boeotian, was a disciple 
 of GorgiJis, and a friend of Xenophon. Being con- 
 nected by the ties of hospitality with the younger 
 Cyrus, the latter engaged him in his service. He 
 was seized by Tiasaphernes and put to death, with 
 the other Greek generals. It was at the invitation 
 of Proxenus that Xenophon was induced to enter 
 the service of Cynis. 
 
 Prudentius, Aurelius Clemens, the earliest of 
 the Christian poets of any celebrity, was a native 
 of Spain, and was bom a. d. 348. After practising 
 as an advocate, and discharging the duties of a 
 civil and criminal judge in 2 important cities, he 
 received from the emperor Theodosius, orHonorius, 
 a high military appointment at court ; but as he 
 advanced in years, he became sensible of the 
 emptiness of worldly honour, and earnest in the 
 exercises of religion. His poems are composed in 
 a great variety of metres, but possess little merit 
 either in expression or in substance. The Latinity 
 is impure, abounding both in words altogether 
 barbarous, and in classical words employed in a 
 barbarous sense ; and the author is totally ignorant 
 or regardless of the common laws of prosody. The 
 best editions of Prudentius are by Arevalus, Rom. 
 178H and 17B9, 2 vols. 4to. and by Obbarius, Tu- 
 bing. 1845, Svo. 
 
 Friisa or Prusiaa {Upodara : Tlpova-ievs), L P. 
 ad Olympum (IT. ij inl T(? 'OKufLiraj : JJrttsa)^ a 
 great city of Bithj'nia, on the N. side of M. Olym- 
 pus, 15 Roman miles from Cius and 25 from Nicaea, 
 was built by Prusias king of Bithynia, or, according 
 to some, by Hannibal. ^ 2. Some writers distin- 
 guish from this a smaller city, called P. adHypium 
 or Hyppimn {trphs rtp 'Tinri^ troTafx^^ Ptol.; sub 
 Hypio monte, Plin,), which stood N.W. of the 
 former, and was originally called Cierus (Kitpos) 
 and belonged to the territory of Heraclea, but was 
 conquered by Prusias, who named it after himself. 
 It stood N.W. of the former. Perhaps it is only 
 another name for Cius. 
 
 Priisias (npoutrias). 1. 1.Kingof Bithynia from 
 about B. c. 228 to 180, though the date neither of 
 his accession nor of his death is exactly known. 
 He was the son of Zielas, whom he succeeded. 
 He appears to have been a monarch of vigour and 
 abilit}'-, and raised his kingdom of Bithynia to a 
 much higher pitch of power and prosperity than it 
 had previously attained. It was at his court that 
 Hannibal took refuge ; and when the Romans de- 
 manded the surrender of the Carthaginian general, 
 the king basely gave his consent, and Hannibal 
 only escaped falling into the hands of his enemies 
 by a voluntary death. — 2. II. King of Bithyiiia, 
 son and successor of the preceding, reigned from 
 about 180 to 149. He courted assiduously the 
 alliance of the Romans. He carried on war with 
 Attains, king of Pergamus, with whom, however, 
 he was compelled by the Romans to conclude peace 
 in 154. He was slain in 149 by order of his 
 son Nicomedes, as is related in the life of the 
 latter. [Nicomedes II.] Prusias is described to 
 us as a man in whom personal deformity was com- 
 bined with a character the most vicious and de- 
 graded. His passion for the chase is attested by 
 the epithet of the " Huntsman" {Kvvriy6s). 
 
 Prymnesla or Prymnesus (Upvixu7}(xia, Tlpv- 
 f^v7}(T6s, Tlpv/xPTja-fTos: Seid-el-Gkazi, Ru.), a city in 
 the N. of Phrygia, which appears, from its coins, 
 to have been a chief seat of the worship of Midas 
 as a hero. 
 
 PSELLUS. 
 
 Prytanis (npvrai'is\ king of Sparta, of the 
 Proclid line, was the son of Eurypon, and 4th king 
 of that race. 
 
 Psamathus {"^afiaOovSy -ovptos ; "VafifxaOovv- 
 rios, ^^af>i.fj.a6ov(Tio5), a seaport town in Laconia 
 near the promontory Taenarum. 
 
 Psammenitus {'Vafxfi-nviTus), king of Egypt, 
 succeeded his father Amasis in B. c. 52(), and 
 reigned only 6 months. He was conquered by 
 Cambyses in 525, and his country made a province 
 of the Persian empire. His life was spared by 
 Cambyses, but as he was detected shortly after- 
 wards in endeavouring to excite a revolt among the 
 Egyptians, he was compelled to put an end to his 
 life by drinking bull's blood. 
 
 Psanunis (H'ajU/its), king of Egypt, succeeded 
 his father Necho, and reigned from B. c. 601 to 
 595. He carried on war against Ethiopia, and 
 died immediately after his return from the latter 
 country. He was succeeded by his son Apries. 
 
 Psammitichus or Psammetichus C^a/xfxlTixos 
 or "VannTiTixos), the Greek form of the Egyptian 
 PsAMETiK, a king of Egypt, and founder of the 
 Saitic dynasty, reigned from b. c. 671 to 617. 
 He was original!}' one of the 12 kings, who ob- 
 tained an independent sovereignty in the confusion 
 which followed the death of Setho. Having been 
 driven into banishment by the other kings, he 
 took refuge in the marshes : but shortly afterwards 
 witli the aid of some Ionian and Carian pirates, he 
 conquered the other kings, and became sole ruler 
 of Egypt. He provided a settlement for his Greek 
 mercenaries on the Pelusiac or eastern branch of 
 the Nile, a little below Bubastis, and he appears 
 to have mainly relied upon them for the mainte- 
 nance of his power. In order to facilitate inter- 
 course between the Greeks and his other subjects, 
 he ordered a number of Egyptian children to live 
 with them, that they might learn the Greek lan- 
 guage ; and from them sprung the class of inter- 
 preters. The employment of foreign mercenaries 
 by Psammitichus gave great offence to the military 
 caste in Egypt ; and being indignant at other 
 treatment which they received from him, they 
 emigrated in a body of 240,000 men, into Ethiopia, 
 where settlements were assigned to them by the 
 Ethiopian king. It must, therefore, have been 
 chiefly with his Ionian and Carian troops that 
 Psammitichus carried on his wars against Syria 
 and Phoenicia. He laid siege to the city of 
 Azotus (the Ashod of Scripture) for 29 years, till 
 he took it. As Psammitichus had displeased a 
 large portion of his subjects by the introduction of 
 foreigners, he seems to have paid especial court to 
 the priesthood. He built the southern propylaea 
 of the temple of Hephaestus at Memphis, and a 
 splendid aula, with a portico round it, for the habi- 
 tation of Apis, in front of the temple. 
 
 Pselcis {VeKKis ; Dahhe^ or Dekkeh, Ru.), the 
 chief city in the Dodecaschoenus, that is, the N. 
 part of Aethiopia, which was adjacent to Egypt, to 
 which it was regarded by the Romans as belonging. 
 The city stood on the W. bank of the Nile, be- 
 tween Syene and Tachompso, the latter of which 
 was 30 far eclipsed by Pselcis as to acquire the 
 name of Con traps elcis. Under the later empire, 
 Pselcis was garrisoned by a body of German 
 liorsemen. 
 
 Paellus C^eWo?). 1. Micliael Paellus, the 
 elder, of ATidros, flourished in tlie 9th century 
 after Christ. He was a learned man, and an eager 
 
PSOPHIS. 
 student of the Alexandrian philosophy. He was 
 probably the author of some of the works which 
 are ascribed to the younger Psellus. — 2. Michael 
 Constantius Fsellus, the younger, a far more 
 celebrated person, flourished in the 1 1 th century of 
 our era. He was born at Constantinople 1020, 
 and lived at least till 1105. He taught philosophy, 
 rhetoric, and dialectics, at Constiintinople, wliere 
 he stood forth as almost, the last upholder of the 
 falling cause of learning. The emperors honoured 
 him with the title of Prince of the Philosophers. 
 His works are both in prose and poetry, on a vast 
 variety of subjects, and distinguished by an elo- 
 quence and taste which are worthy of a better 
 period. They are too numerous to be mentioned 
 in this place. 
 
 Psophis (To)0is : '¥tii<fiiSios : Khan of Ti-ipo- 
 tamo)^ a town in the N. W. of Arcadia, on the 
 river Erymanthus, is said to have been originally 
 called Phegia. It sided with the Aetolians 
 against tlie Achaeans, but was taken B.C. 219 by 
 Philip, king of Macedonia, who was then in al- 
 liance witii the Achaeans. 
 
 Psyche (yvxh)t ^* the soul," occurs in the later 
 times of antiquitj', as a personification of the human 
 soul. Psyche was the youngest of the 3 daughters 
 of a king, and excited by her beauty the jealousy 
 and envy of Venus. In order to avenge herself, 
 the goddess ordered Cupid or Amor to inspire 
 Psyche with a love for the most contemptible of all 
 men : but Cupid was so stricken with her beauty 
 that he himself fell in love with her. He accord- 
 ingly conveyed her to a ciiarniing spot, where un- 
 seen and unknown he visited her every night, and 
 left her as soon as the day began to dawn. Psyche 
 might have continued to enjoy this state of happi- 
 ness, if she had attended to the advice of her lover, 
 who told her never to give way to her curiosit}-, or 
 to inquire who he was. But her jealous sisters 
 made her believe that in the dai'kness of night she 
 was embracing some hideous monster, and accord- 
 ingly once, while Cupid was asleep, she drew near 
 to hira with a lamp, and, to her amazement, beheld 
 the most handsome and lovely of the gods. In her 
 excitement of joy and fear, a drop of hot oil fell 
 from her lamp upon his shoulder. This awoke 
 Cupid, who censured her for her mistrust, and es- 
 caped. Psyche's happiness was now gone, and 
 after attempting in vain to throw herself into a 
 river, she wandered about from temple to temple, 
 inquiring after her lover, and at length came to the 
 palace of Venus. There her real sufferings began, 
 for Venus retained her, treated her as a slave, and 
 imposed upon her the hardest and most humiliating 
 labours. Psyche would have perished under the 
 weight of her sufferings, had not Cupid, who still 
 loved her in secret, invisibl}^ comforted and assisted 
 her in her toils. With his aid she at last suc- 
 ceeded in overcoming the jealousy and hatred of 
 Venus : she became immortal, and was united to 
 him for ever. It is not difficult to recognise in this 
 lovely story the idea of which it is merely the 
 mythical embodiment ; for Psyche is evidently the 
 human soul, which is purified by passions and mis- 
 fortunes, and is thus prepared for the enjoyment of 
 true and pure happiness. In works of art Psyche 
 is represented as a maiden with the wings of a 
 butterfly, along with Cupid in the different situa- 
 tions described in the allegory. 
 
 Psychium ('J'i'x'"'')i ^ '""" °" 'he S. coast of 
 Crete. 
 
 PTOLEMAEUS. 621 
 
 Psylli ('¥v\KoC), a Libyan people, the earliest 
 known inhabitants of the district of N. Africa 
 called Cyrenaica. 
 
 Psyra (to "Vvpi : Wipios : Ipsara), a small island 
 of the Aegean Sea, 40 stadia (4 geog. miles) iu 
 circuit, lying 50 stadia (5 geog. miles) W. off the 
 N.W. point of Chios. It had a city of the same 
 name. 
 
 Psyttalea. [Salamis.] 
 
 Pteleos (riTcAe'ais), a small lake in Mysia, near 
 Ophrynium on the coast of the Hellespont. 
 
 Pteleum (IItcA Edi/ : UTeXi6.rr\s, IlTfAeouo-ios). 
 1. (Ftelia), an ancient seaport town of Thessaly in 
 the district Phthiotis, at the S. W. extremity of 
 the Siims Pagasaeus, was destroyed by the Ro- 
 mans. — 2. A town in Elis Triphylia, said to have 
 been a colony from the preceding. ^3. A fortress 
 of Ionia, on the coast of Asia Minor, belonging to 
 Erythrae. 
 
 Ptolemaeus (XlroKeiJiaios) usually called Pto- 
 lemy. I. Min&r Uistm-ical persons, 1. Nephew of 
 Antigonus, king of Asia. He carried on war in 
 Greece on behalf of Antigonus, but in 310 he 
 abandoned the cause of his uncle and concluded a 
 treaty with Cassander and Ptolemy the son of 
 Lagus. He soon gave offence to the Egyptian king, 
 and was in consequence compelled to put an end 
 to his life by poison, B. c. 309.-2. Son of Lysi- 
 machus, king of Thrace. He was the eldest of the 
 3 sons of that monarch by his last wife Arsinoe, 
 and the only one who escaped falling into the 
 hands of Ptolemy Ceraumis. —3. Son of Pyrrhus, 
 king of Epirus, by his wife Antigone, the step- 
 daughter of Ptolemy Lagi. When only 15 years 
 of age he was left by his father in charge of his 
 hereditary dominions, when Pyrrhus himself set 
 out on his expedition to Italy, 280. At a later 
 time he fought under his father in Greece, and was 
 slain in the course of PjTrhus's campaign in the 
 Peloponnesus, 272.— 4. SumamedPHiLADELPHUs, 
 son of M. Antony, the Triumvir, by Cleopatra. 
 After the death of Antony, 30, his life was spared 
 by Augustus, at the intercession of Juba and 
 Cleopatra, and he was brought up by Octavia with 
 her own children. 
 
 II. Kings of Egypt. 
 
 I. Sumamed Soter, the Preserver, but more com- 
 monly known as the son of Lagus, reigned B. c. 
 323 — 285. His father Lagus was a Macedonian 
 of ignoble birth, but his mother Arsinoe had been 
 a concubine of Philip of Macedon, on which ac- 
 count it seems to have been generally believed that 
 Ptolemy was m reality the oflfspring of that mo- 
 narch. Ptolemy is mentioned among the friends 
 of the young Alexander before the death of Philip. 
 He accompanied Alexander throughout his cam- 
 paigns in Asia, and was always treated by the 
 king with the greatest favour. On the division of 
 the empire which followed Alexander's death 
 (323), Ptolemy obtained the government of Egypt. 
 In 321 his dominions were invaded by Perdiccas, 
 the regent; but the assassination of Perdiccas by his 
 mutinous soldiers soon delivered Ptolemy from this 
 danger. In the following year Ptolemy enlarged 
 his dominions by seizing upon the important 
 satrapy of Phoenicia and Coele-Syria. It was pro- 
 bably during this expedition that he made himself 
 master of Jerusalem, by attacking the city on the 
 Sabbath day. A few years afterwards (316) 
 Ptolemy entered into an alliance with Cassander 
 
622 PTOLEMAKUS. 
 
 and Lysimachus against Antigonus, whose growing 
 power had excited their common apprehensions. 
 In the war which followed, Antigonus conquered 
 Coele-Syria and Phoenicia (315, 314); but Pto- 
 lemy recovered these provinces by the defeat of 
 Demetrius, the son of Antigonus, in 312. In 311 
 hostilities were suspended by a general peace. 
 This peace, however, was of short duration, and 
 Ptolemy appears to have been the first to recom- 
 mence the war. He crossed over to Greece, where 
 he announced himself as the liberator of the Greeks, 
 but he effected little. In 306 Ptolemy was de- 
 feated by Demetrius in a great sea-fight olF Sala- 
 mis in Cyprus, In consequence of this defeat, 
 Ptolemy lost the important island of Cyprus, wliich 
 had previously been subject to hira. Antigonus 
 was so much elated by this victory as to assume 
 the title of king, an example wliich Ptnlem}', not- 
 withstanding his defeat, immediately followed. 
 Antigonus and Demetrius followed up their success 
 by the invasion of Egypt, hut were compelled to 
 return to Syria without effecting any thing. Next 
 year (305) Ptolemy rendered the most important 
 assistance to the Rhodians, who were besieged by 
 Demetrius ; and when Demetrius was at length 
 compelled to raise the siege (304), the Rhodians 
 paid divine honours to the Egyptian monarch as 
 their saviour and preserver (SojT'^p), a title which 
 appears to have been now bestowed upon Ptolemy 
 for the first time. Ptolemy took comparatively 
 little part in the contest, which led to the decisive 
 battle of Ipsus, in which Antigonus was defeated 
 and slain (301). The latter years of Ptolemy's 
 reign appear to have been devoted almost entirely 
 to the arts of peace, and to promoting the internal 
 prosperity of his dominions. In 285 Ptolemy ab- 
 dicated in favour of his youngest son Ptolemj' 
 Philadelphus, the child of his latest and most be- 
 loved wife, Berenice, excluding from the throne 
 his two eldest sons Ptolemy Ceraunus and Melea- 
 ger, the offspring of Eurydice. The elder Ptolemy 
 survived this event 2 years, and died in 283. His 
 reign is variously estimated at 38 or 40 years, 
 according as we include or not these 2 yeiirs which 
 followed his abdication. — The character of Pto- 
 lemy has been generally represented in a very 
 favourable light by historians, and there is no 
 doubt that if we compare hira with his contem- 
 porary and rival potentates he appears to deserve 
 the praises bestowed upon his mildness and mode- 
 ration. But it is only with this important qualifi- 
 cation that they can be admitted: for there are 
 many evidences, that he did not shrink from any 
 measure that he deemed requisite in order to carry 
 out the objects of his ambition. But aa a ruler 
 Ptolemy certainly deserves the highest praise. By 
 his able and vigorous administration he laid the 
 foundations of the wealth and prosperity which 
 Eiiypt enjoyed for a long period. Under his fos- 
 tering care Alexandria quickly rose to the place 
 designed fur it by its founder, that of the greatest 
 commercial city of the world. Not less eminent 
 were the services rendered by Ptolemy to the ad- 
 vancement of literature and science. In this de- 
 partment indeed it is not always easy to distinguish 
 the portion of credit due to the father from that of 
 his son: but it seems certain that to the elder 
 monarch belongs the merit of having originated 
 those literary institutions whicli assumed a more 
 definite and reguhir form, as well as a mnre pro- 
 minent place, under his successor. Such appears 
 
 PTOLEMAEUS. 
 
 to have been the case with the two most celebrated 
 of all, the Library and the Museum of Alexandria. 
 The first suggestion of these important foundations 
 is ascribed by some writers to Demetrius of Pha- 
 lerus, who spent all the latter years of his life at 
 the court of Ptolemy. But many other men of 
 literarj' eminence were also gathered around the 
 Egyptian king: among whom may be especially 
 noticed the great geometer Euclid, the philosophers 
 Stilpo of Megara, Theodonis of Cyrene, and Dio- 
 dorus surnamed Cronus ; as well as the elegiac 
 poet Philetas of Cos, and the grammarian Zenodo- 
 tus. To the two last we are told Ptolemy confided 
 the literary education of his sou Philadelphus. 
 Many anecdotes sufficiently attest the free inter- 
 course which subsisted between the king and the 
 men of letters by whom he was surrounded, and 
 prove that the easy familiarity of his manners cor- 
 responded with his simple and unostentatious 
 liabits of life. We also find him maintaining a 
 correspondence with Menander, whom he in vain 
 endeavoiu'cd to attract to his court, and sending 
 overtures probably of a similar nature to Theo- 
 phrastus. Nor were the fine arts neglected : the 
 rival painters Antiphilus and Apelles both exer- 
 cised their talents at Alexandria, where some of 
 their most celebrated pictures were produced. — 
 Ptolemy was himself an author: he composed a 
 history of the wars of Alexander, which is fre- 
 quently cited by later writers, and is one of the 
 chief authorities which Arrian made the ground- 
 work of his own history. —II. Philadelphus 
 (B. c. 285—247), the son of Ptolemy I. by 
 his wife Berenice, was bom in the island of 
 Cos, 309. His long reign was marked by few 
 events of a striking character. He was engaged in 
 war with his half-brother Magas, who had go- 
 verned Cyrene as viceroy imder Ptolemy Soter, 
 but on the death of that monarch not only asserted 
 his independence, but even attempted to invade 
 Egypt. Magas was supported by Antlochus II., 
 king of Syria ; and the war was at length terminated 
 by a treaty, which left Magas in uudiaputed pos- 
 session of tlie Cyrenaica, while his infant dauglitcr 
 Berenice was betrothed to Ptoleni}-, the son of 
 Philadelphus. Ptolemy also concluded a treaty 
 with the Romans. He was frequently engaged in 
 hostilities with Syria, which were terminated to- 
 wards the close of his reign by a treaty of peace, 
 by which Ptolemy gave his daughter Berenice in 
 marriage to Antiochus II. Ptolemy's chief care, 
 houever, was directed to the internal administra- 
 tion of his kingdom, and to the patronage of lite- 
 rature and science. The institutions of which the 
 foundations had been laid by his father quickly 
 rose under his fostering care to the highest pros- 
 perity. The Museum of Alexandria became the 
 resort and abode of all the most distinguished men 
 of letters of the day, and in the library attached to 
 it were accumulated all the treasures of ancient 
 learning. Among the other illustrious names 
 which adorned the reign of Ptolemy, may be men- 
 tioned those of the poets Philetas and Theocritus, 
 the philosophers Hegesias and Theodorus, tlie 
 mathematician Euclid, and the astronomers Timo- 
 charis, Aristiirchus of Samos, and Aratua. Nor 
 was his patrouHge confined to the ordinary cycle of 
 Hellenic literature. By his interest in natural 
 history he gave a stiinulus to the pursuit of that 
 science, which gave birth to many important works, 
 while he himself formed collections of rare animals 
 
PTOLEMAEUS. 
 
 within the precincts of the royal palace. It was 
 during his reign also, and perhaps at his desire, 
 that Manetho gave to the world in a Greek form 
 the historical records of the Egyptians ; and ac- 
 cording to a well-known tradition, it was by his 
 express command that the Holy Scriptures of the 
 Jews were translated into Greek. The new cities 
 or colonies founded by Philadelphus in diiferent 
 parts of his dominions were extremely numerous. 
 On the Red Sea alone we find at least two bearing 
 the name of Arsinoe, one called after another of 
 his sisters Philotera, and two cities named in 
 honour of his mother Berenice. The same names 
 occur also in Cilicia and Syria : and in the latter 
 country he founded the important fortress of Pto- 
 leraais in Palestine. All authorities concur in 
 attesting the great power and wealth, to which 
 the Egyptian monarchy was raised under Phila- 
 delphus. He posse.'ised at the close of his reign a 
 standing army of 200,000 foot, and 40,000 horse, 
 besides war-chariots and elephants ; a fleet of 
 1500 ships ; and a sum of 740,000 talents in his 
 treasury ; while he derived from Egypt alone an 
 annual revenue of 14,800 talents. His dominions 
 comprised, besides Egypt itself, and portions of 
 Ethiopia, Arabia, and Libya, the important pro- 
 vinces of Phoenicia and Coole-Syria, togetiier with 
 Cyprus, Lycia, Caria, and the Cyclades : and 
 during a great part at least of his reign, Cilicia 
 and Pamphylia also. Before his death Cyrene 
 ■was reunited to the monarchy by the marriage of 
 his son Ptolemy with Berenice, the daughter of 
 Magas. The private life and relations of Phila- 
 delphus do not exhibit his character in as favour- 
 able a light as we might have inferred from the 
 splendour of his administration. He put to death 
 2 of his brotliers ; and he banished his first wife 
 Arsinoe, the daughter of Lysimachus, to Coptos in 
 Upper Egypt on a charge of conspiracy. After 
 her removal Ptolemy married his own sister Ar- 
 sinoe, the widow of Lysimachus ; a flagrant vio- 
 lation of the religious notions of the Greeks, but 
 which was frequently imitated by his successors. 
 He evinced his aifection for Arsinoe, not only by 
 bestowing her name upon many of his newly- 
 founded colonies, but by assuming himself the sur- 
 name of Philadelphus, a title which some writers 
 referred in derision to his unnatural treatment of 
 his 2 brothers. By this 2nd marriage Ptolemy 
 had no issue : but his first wife had borne him 
 2 sons — Ptolemy, who succeeded him on the 
 throne, and Lysimachus ; and a daughter, Berenice, 
 ■whose marriage to Antiochus IL, king of Syria, 
 has been already mentioned. — III. Euergetea 
 (B.C. 247 — 222), eldest son and successor of 
 Pjiiladelphus. Shortly after his accession he in- 
 vaded Syria, in order to avenge the death of his 
 sister Berenice. [Berenice, No. 2.] He met 
 ■with the most striking success. He advanced as 
 far as Babylon and Susa, and after reducing all 
 Mesopotamia, Babylonia, and Susiana, received 
 the submission of all the upper provinces of Asia 
 as far as the confines of Bactria and India. From 
 this career of conquest he was recalled by the news 
 of seditions in Egypt, and returned to that country, 
 carrying with him an immense bootj', comprising, 
 among other objects, all the statues of the Egyptian 
 deities which had been carried off by Cambyses to 
 Babvlon or Persia. These he restored to their 
 respective temples, an act by which he earned the 
 greatest popularity with liis native Egyptian sub- 
 
 PTOLEMAEUS. 
 
 623 
 
 jpcts, who bestowed on iiini in consequence the 
 title of Euergetes (the Benefactor), by which he is 
 generally known. While tlie iu-ms of the kin" 
 himself were thus successful in the East, his fleets 
 reduced the maritime provinces of Asia, including 
 Cilicia, Pamphylia, and Ionia, as far as the Hel- 
 lespont, together with Lysimachia and otljer im- 
 portant places on the coast of Thrace which con- 
 tinued for a long period subject to the Egyptian 
 rule. Concerning the events which followed the 
 return of Euergetes to his own dominions (pro- 
 bably in 243) we are almost wholly in the dark ; 
 hut it appears that the greater part of the eastern 
 provinces speedily fell again into the hands of 
 Seleucus, while Ptolemy retained possession of the 
 maritime regions and a great part of Syria itself. 
 He soon obtained a valuable ally in the person of 
 Autiochus Hierax, tlie younger brother of Seleucus, 
 whom he supported in his wars against his elder 
 brother. We find Euergetes maintaining the same 
 friendly relations as his father with Rome. During 
 the latter years of his reign he subdued the Ethi- 
 opian tribes on his southern frontier, and advanced 
 as far as Adide, a port on the Red Sea, where he 
 established an emporium, and set up an inscription 
 commemorating the e-xploits of his reign. To a 
 copy of this, accidentally preserved to us by an 
 Egyptian monk, Cosnias Indicopleustes, we are 
 indebted for much of the scanty information we 
 possess concerning his reign. Ptolemy Euergetes 
 is scarcely less celebrated than his father for his 
 patronage of literature and science : he added so 
 largely to the library at Alexandria that he lias 
 been sometimes erroneously deemed its founder. 
 Eratosthenes, Apollonius Rhodius, and Aristo- 
 phanes, the granjmai'ian, flourished at Alexandria 
 during liis reign, — sufficient to prove that the 
 literature and learning of the Alexandrian school 
 still retained their former eminence. By his wife 
 Berenice, who survived him, Euergetes left three 
 children: I.Ptolemy, his successor; 2. Magas ; 
 and 3. Arsinoe, afterwards married to her brotlier 
 
 Ptolemy Philopator. — IV. Philopator (u. c. 222 
 
 205), eldest son and successor of Euergetes. He 
 was vei-j' far from inheriting the virtues or abilities 
 of his father : and his reign was the commence- 
 ment of the decline of the Egyptian kingdom, 
 which had been raised to such a height of power 
 and prosperity by his three predecessors. Its first 
 beginning was stained with crimes of the darkest 
 kind. He put to death his mother, Berenice, and 
 his brother, Magas, and liis uncle Lysimachus, the 
 brotiier of Euergetes. He then gave himself np 
 without restraint to a life of indolence and luxurj-, 
 while he abandoned to his minister Sosihius tlie 
 care of all political affairs. The latter seems to 
 have been as incapable as his master: and the 
 kingdom was allowed to fall into a state of the 
 utmost disorder, of which Antiochus the Great, 
 king of Syria, was not slow to avail himself. In 
 the first 2 campaigns (21,9,218), Antiochus con- 
 quered the greater part of Coele-Syria and Pales- 
 tme, but in the 3rd year of the war (217), he was 
 completely defeated by Ptolemy in person at the 
 decisive battle of Raphia, and was glad to conclude 
 a peace with the Egyptian monarch. On his return 
 from his Syrian expedition, Ptolemy gave himself 
 up more and more tu every species of vice and 
 debauchery. His mistress Agathoclea, and her 
 brother Agathocles, divided with Sosibius the 
 patronage and distribution of all places of honour 
 
6-24 
 
 PTOLEMAEUS. 
 
 or profit. Towards the close of his reign Ptolemy 
 put to death his wife Arsinoe. His debaucheries 
 shortened his life. He died in 205, leaving only 
 one son, a child of 5 years old. We find Ptolemy 
 following up the policy of his predecessors, by cul- 
 tivating the friendship of the Romans, to whom 
 he furnished large supplies of com during their 
 struggle with Carthage. Plunged as he was in 
 vice and debaucliery, Philopator appears to have 
 still inherited something of the love of letters for 
 which his predece.ssoi"s were so conspicuous. We 
 find him associating on familiar terms with phi- 
 losophers and men of letters, and especially patron- 
 ising tlie distinguished grammarian Aristarchus. 
 • — V. Epiphanes (b. c. 205 — 181), son and suc- 
 cessor of Ptolemy IV. He was a child of 
 5 years old at the death of his father, 205. 
 Philip king of Macedonia and Antiochus III. 
 of Syria, determined to take advantage of the 
 minority of Ptolemy, and entered into a league to 
 divide his dominions between them. In pursuance 
 of this arrangement Antiochus conquered Coele- 
 Syria, while Philip reduced the Cyclades and the 
 cities in Thrace which had still remained subject 
 to Egypt. In this emergency the Egyptian mini- 
 sters had recourse to the powerful intervention of 
 tlie Romans, who commanded both monarchs to 
 refrain from further hostilities, and restore all the 
 conquered cities. In order to evade this demfind 
 without openly opposing the power of Rome, Anti- 
 ochus concluded a treaty with Egypt, by which it 
 "was agreed that the young king should marry 
 Cleopatra, the daughter of Antiochus, and receive 
 back the Syrian provinces as her dower. This 
 treaty took place in 199, but the marriage was not 
 actually solemnised until 6 years after. The admi- 
 nistration of Egypt was placed in the hands of 
 Ariatoraenes, a man who was every way worthy of 
 the charge. As early, however, as 196 the young 
 king was declared of full age, and the ceremony of 
 his Anacleteria, or coronation, was solemnised with 
 great magnificence. It was on this occasion that 
 the decree was issued which has been preserved 
 to us in the celebrated inscription known as the 
 Rosetta stone, a monument of great interest in 
 regard to the internal history of Egypt under 
 the Ptolemies, independent of its importance as 
 having afforded the key to the discovery of hiero- 
 glyphics. In 193 the marriage of Ptolemy with 
 the Syrian princess Cleopatra was solemnised at 
 Raphia. Ptolemy, however, refused to assist his 
 father-in-law in the war against the Romans, which 
 was at this time on the eve of breaking out, and he 
 continued steadfast in his alliance with Rome. But 
 he derived no advantage from the treaty which 
 concluded it, and Antiochus still retained posses- 
 sion of Coele-Syria and Phoenicia. As long as 
 Ptolemy continued under the guidance and influ- 
 ence of Aristomenes, his administration was equi- 
 table and popular. Gradually, however, he became 
 estranged from his able and virtuous minister, and 
 threw himself more and more into the power of 
 flatterers and vicious companions, until at length 
 he was induced to rid himself of Aristomenes, who 
 was compelled to take poison. Towards the close 
 of his reign Ptolemy conceived the project of re- 
 covering Coele-Syria from Seleucus, the successor 
 of Antiochus, and had assembled a large mercenary 
 lorce for that purpose: but having, by an un- 
 guarded expression, excited the apprehensions of 
 some of his friends, he was cut off by poison in the 
 
 PTOLEMAEUS. 
 24th year of his reign and the 29th of his age, 
 181. He left 2 sons, both named Ptolemy, who 
 subsequently ascended the throne, under the names 
 of Ptolemy Philometor and Euergetes II. and a 
 daughter, who bore her mother's name of Cleopatra. 
 His reign was marked by the rapid decline of the 
 Egyptian monarchy, for the provinces and cities 
 wrested from it during his minority by Antiochus 
 and Philip were never recovered, and at his death 
 Cyprus and the Cyrena'ica were almost the only 
 foreign possessions still attached to the crown of 
 Egypt.— VI. Philometor (b. c. 181—146), eldest 
 son and successor of Ptolemy V. He was a child 
 at the death of his father in 101, and the regency 
 was assumed during his minority by his mother 
 Cleopatra, who, by her able administration, main- 
 tained the kingdom in a state of tranquillity. But 
 after her death, in 173, the chief power fell into the 
 hands of Eulaeus and Lenaeus, ministers as cor- 
 rupt as they were incapable ; who had the rashness 
 to engage in war with Antiochus Epiphanes, king 
 of Syria, in the vain hope of recovering the pro- 
 vinces of Coele-Syria and Phoenicia. But their 
 army was totally defeated by Antiochus, near Pe- 
 lusium, and Antiochus was able to advance with- 
 out opposition as far as Memphis, 170. The 
 young king liimself fell into his hands, but was 
 treated with kindness and distinction, as Antiochus 
 hoped by his means to make himself the master of 
 Egypt. On learning the captivity of his brother, 
 the younger Ptolemy, who was then at Alexandria 
 with his sister Cleopatra, assumed the title of king, 
 under the name of Euergetes II., and prepared to 
 defend the capital to the utmost Antiochus here- 
 upon laid siege to Alexandria ; but he was upable 
 to take the city, and withdrew into Syria, after 
 establishing Philometor as king at Memphis, but 
 retaining in his hands the frontier fortress of Pelu- 
 sium. This last circumstance, together with the 
 ravages committed by the Syrian troops, awakened 
 Philometor, who had hitherto been a mere puppet 
 in the hands of the Syrian king, to a sense of his 
 true position, and he hastened to make overtures 
 of peace to his brother and sister at Alexandria. 
 It was agreed that the two brothers should reign 
 together, and that Philometor should marry his 
 sister Cleopatra. But this arrangement did not 
 suit the views of Antiochus, who immediately re- 
 newed hostilities. The two brothers were unable 
 to offer any eft'ectual opposition, and he had ad- 
 vanced a second time to the walls of Alexandria, 
 when he was met by a Roman embassy, headed by 
 M. Popillius Laenas, who haughtily commanded 
 him instantly to desist from hostilities. Antiochus 
 did not venture to disobey, and withdrew to his 
 own dominions, 168. Dissensions soon broke out 
 between the 2 brothers, and Euergetes expelled 
 Philometor from Alexandria. Hereupon Philo- 
 metor repaired in person to Rome, l(i4, where he 
 was received by the senate with the utmost honour, 
 and deputies were appointed to reinstate him in 
 the sovereign power. This they effected with little 
 opposition ; but they settled that Euergetes should 
 obtain Cyrene as a separate kingdom. Euergetes, 
 however, shortly afterwai'ds laid claim to Cyprus as 
 well, in which he was supported by the Romans ; but 
 Philometor refused to surrender the island to him, 
 and in the war which ensued, Euergetes was taken 
 prisoner by his brother, who not only spared his 
 life, but sent him back to Cyrene on condition that 
 he should thenceforth content himself with thatking- 
 
PTOLEMAEUS. 
 
 dom. The attention of Pliilometor appears to hfive 
 been, from this time, principally directed to the side 
 of Syria, Demetrius Soter hiiving sought during 
 the dissensions between the two brothers to make 
 himself master of Cyprus, Ptolemy now supported 
 the usurper Alexander Balas, to whom he gave his 
 daughter Cleopatra in marriage, 150. But wlien 
 Ptolemy advanced with an army to the assistance of 
 his son-in-law, Ammonius, the favourite and mini- 
 ster of Alexander, formed a plot against the life of 
 Ptolemy ; whereupon the latter took away his 
 daughter Cleopatra from her faithless husband, and 
 bestowed her hand on Demetrius Nicator, the 
 son of Soter, whose cause he now espoused. In 
 conjunction with Demetrius, Ptolemy carried on 
 war against Alexander, whom he defeated in a 
 decisive battle ; but he died a few days afterwards 
 iu consequence of an injury which he had re- 
 ceived from a fall from his horse in this battle, 146. 
 He had reigned 35 years from the period of his first 
 accession, and 18 from his restoration by the Ro- 
 mans. Philometor is praised for the mildness and 
 humanity of his disposition. Polybius even tells us 
 that not a single citizen of Alexandria was put to 
 death by hira for any political or private offence. 
 On the whole, if not one of the greatest, he was at 
 least one of the best of the race of the Ptolemies. 
 He left three children: 1. A son, Ptolemy, who 
 was proclaimed king after his father's death, under 
 the name Ptolemy Eupator, but was put to death 
 almost immediately after hy his inicle Euergetes. 
 
 2. A daughter, Cleopatra, married first to Alexander 
 Balas, then to Dentetrius II. king of Syria; and 
 
 3. Another daughter, also named Cleopatra, who 
 "was afterwards married to her uncle Ptolemy 
 Euergetes. ^ VII. Euergetes II. or Pliyscon 
 (^ucTKwj/), that is Big-Bdly^ reigned b. c. 146 — 
 117. His history down to the death of his bro- 
 ther has been already given. In order to secure 
 undisputed possession of the throne, he married his 
 sister Cleopatra, the widow of his brother Philo- 
 metor, and put to death his nephew Ptolemy, who 
 had been proclaimed king under the surname of 
 Eupator. A reign thus commenced in blood was 
 continued in a similar spirit. Many of the leading 
 citizens of Alexandria, who had taken part against 
 him on the death of his brother, were put to death, 
 while the populace were given up to the cruelties of 
 his mercenary troops, and the streets of the cit}' were 
 repeatedly deluged with blood. Tliousands of the 
 inhabitants fled from the scene of such horrors, and 
 the population of Alexandria was so greatly thinned 
 that the king found himself compelled to invite 
 foreign settlers from all quarters to re-people his 
 deserted capital. At the same time that he thus 
 incurred the hatred of his subjects by his cruelties, 
 he rendered himself an object of their aversion and 
 contempt by abandoning himself to the most de- 
 grading vices. In consequence of these, he had be- 
 come bloated and deformed in person, and enor- 
 mously corpulent, whence the Alexandrians gave him 
 the nickname of Physcon, by which appellation he 
 is more usually known. His union with Cleopatra 
 was not of long duration. He became enamoured 
 of his niece Cleopatra (the offspring of his wife by 
 her former marriage with Philometor), and he did 
 not hesitate to divorce the mother, and receive her 
 daughter instead, as his wife and queen. By this 
 proceeding he alienated still more the minds of his 
 Greek subjects ; and his vices and cnielties at 
 length produced an insurrection at Alexandria, 
 
 PTOLEMAEUS. 
 
 625 
 
 Thereupon he fled to Cyprus, and the Alexan- 
 drians declared his sister Cleopatra queen (130), 
 Enriiged at this, Ptolemy put to death Mem- 
 phitis, his son by Cleopatra, and sent his head and 
 hands to his unhappy mother. But Cleopatra 
 having been shortly afterwards expelled from Alex- 
 andria in her turn, Ptolemy found himself unex- 
 pectedly reinstated on the throne (127). His 
 sister Cleopatra fled to the court of her elder sister 
 Cleopatra, the wife of Demetrius II., king of 
 Syria, who espoused the cause of the fugitive. 
 Ptolemy, in revenge, set up against him a pre- 
 tender named Zabinas or Zebina, who assumed the 
 title of Alexander II. But the usurper behaved 
 with such haughtiness to Ptolemy, that the latter 
 suddenly changed his policy, became reconciled to 
 his sister Cleopatra, whom he permitted to return 
 to Egypt, and gave his daughter Tryphaena in 
 marriage to Antiochus Grypus, the son of Deme- 
 trius. Ptolemy died after reigning 29 years from 
 the death of his brother Philometor ; but he him- 
 self reckoned the years of his reign from the datt? 
 of his first assumption of the regal title in 170. 
 Although the character of Ptolemy Physcon was 
 stained by the most infamous vices, and by the 
 most sanguinary cruelty, he still retained that love 
 of letters which appears to have been hereditary in 
 the whole race of the Ptolemies. He had in his 
 youth been a pupil of Aristarchus, and not only 
 courted the society of learned men, but was him- 
 self the author of a work called 'Tirofxp-fjuaTa^ or- 
 memoirs, which extended to 24 books. He left 
 two sons ; Ptolemy, afterwards known as Soter II., 
 and Alexander, both of whom subsequently as- 
 cended the throne of Egypt; and 3 daughters : 1, 
 Cleopatra, married to her brother Ptolemy Soter ; , 
 2. Tryphaena, the wife of Antiochus Grypus, king 
 of Syria ; and 3. Selene, who was unmarried at 
 her father's death. To his natural son Ptolemy, 
 sumamed Apion, he bequeathed by his will the 
 separate kingdom of Cyrene. ^VIII., Soter XL, 
 and also PMlometor, but more commonly called 
 Latbyrus or Lathurus (Addovpos\ reigned b. c. 
 117—107, and also 89—81. Although he was of 
 full age at the time of his father's death (117), he 
 was obliged to reign jointly with his mother,. 
 Cleopatra, who had been appointed by the wi41 of " 
 her late husband to succeed hira on the throne^ 
 She was indeed desirous of associating with herself 
 her younger son, Ptolemy Alexander; but since- 
 Lathyrus was popular with the Alexandrians, she 
 was obliged to give way, and sent Alexander to 
 Cyprus. After declaring Lathyrus king, slie com- 
 pelled him to repudiate his sister Cleopatra, of 
 whose influence she was jealous, and to marry his 
 younger sister Selene in her stead. After reigning 
 10 years jointly with his mother, he was expelled 
 from Alexandria by an insurrection of the people 
 which she had excited against hira (107). Hia 
 brother Alexander now assumed the sovereignty of 
 Egypt, in conjunction with his mother, while 
 Lathyrus was able to establish himself in the pos- 
 session of Cyprus. Cleopatra indeed attempted to, 
 dispossess him of that island also, but without suc- 
 cess, and Ptolemy held it as an independent king- 
 dom for the ] 8 years during which Cleopatra and 
 Alexander reigned in Egypt. After the death of 
 Cleopatra and the expulsion of Alexander in 89, 
 Ptolemy Lathyrus was recalled by the Alexan- 
 drians, and established anew on the throne of 
 Egypt, which he occupied thenceforth without in- 
 
626 
 
 PTOLEMAEUS. 
 
 terruption till his death in Bl. The most impor- 
 tant event of this period was the revolt of Thebes, 
 in Upptr Egypt, which was still powerful enough 
 to hold out for nearly 3 years against the irms of 
 Ptolemy, but at the end of that time was taken 
 aud reduced to the state of ruin in which it lias 
 eyer since remained. Lathyrus reigned in all 35^ 
 years; 10 in conjunction with his mother (117 — 
 107), 18 in Cyprus (107—89), and 7^ as sole 
 ruler of Egypt. He left only one daughter Bere- 
 nice, called also Cleopatra, who succeeded him on 
 the throno: and 2 sons, both named Ptolemy, 
 who, though illegitimate, became severally kings of 
 Egypt and Cj^prus.— IX. Alexander I., youngest 
 fion of Ptolemy VIL, reigned conjointly with his 
 mother Cleopatra from the expulsion of his brother 
 Lathyrus, b. c. 107 to 90. In this year he assas- 
 sinated his mother ; but he had not reigned alone 
 a year, when he was compelled by a general sedi- 
 tion of the populace and military to quit Alexan- 
 dria. He, however, raised fresh troops, but was 
 totally defeated in a sea-fight by the rebels; where- 
 upon Lathyrus was recalled by the Alexandrians to 
 Egypt, as has been already related. Alexander 
 DOW attempted to make himself master of Cyprus, 
 and invaded that island, but was defeated and 
 slain. He left a son, Alexander, who afl!erwards 
 ascended the throne of Egypt.— X. Alexander II., 
 son of the preceding, was at Rome at the death of 
 Ptolemy Lathyrus in 81. . Sulla, who was then 
 dictator, nominated the young Alexander (who 
 had obtained a high place in his favour) king of 
 Egypt, and sent him to take possession of the 
 ■crown. It was, however, agreed, in defetence to 
 the claims of Cleopatra Berenice, the daughter of 
 Lathyrus, whom the Alexandrians had already 
 placed on the throne, that Alexander should marry 
 her, and admit her to share the sovereign power. 
 He complied with the letter of this treaty 'by mar- 
 rying Cleopatra, but only 19 days afterwards 
 caused her to be assassinated. The Alexandrians, 
 thereupon, rose against their new monarch^ and put 
 him to death. —XL Dionysus, but more com- 
 monly known bj' the appellation of Auletes, the 
 flute-player, was an illegitimate son of Ptolemy 
 Lathyrus. When the assassination of Berenice 
 and the death of Alexander IL had completed the 
 extinction of the legitimate race of the Lagidae, 
 Ptolemy was proclaimed king by the Alexan- 
 drians, B. c. 80. He was anxious to obtain from 
 the Roman senate their ratification of his title to 
 the crown, but ifc was not till the consulship of 
 Caesar (59) that he was able to purchase hy vast 
 bribes the desired privilege. He had expended 
 immense sums in the pursuit of this object, which 
 he was compelled to raise by the imposition of fresh 
 taxes, and the discontent thus excited combining 
 •with the contempt entertained for his dharacter, 
 led to his expulsion by the Alexandrians, in 58. 
 Thereupon he proceeded in person to Rome to pro- 
 cure from the senate his restoration. His first re- 
 ception was proraisiiig ; and he procured a decree 
 from the senate, commanding his restoration, and 
 entrusting the charge of effecting it to P.'Lentulus 
 Spinther, then proconsul of Cilicia. Meanwhile, 
 the Alexandrians sent an embassy of 100 of their 
 leading citizens to plead their cause With the 
 Roman senate ; but Ptolemy had the aiidacity to 
 cause the deputies, on their arrival in Italy, to be 
 waylaid, and the greater part of them murdered. 
 The indignation excited at Rome by this proceed- 
 
 PTOLEMAEUS. 
 
 ing produced a reaction : the tribunes took up 
 the matter against the nobility ; and an oracle 
 was produced from the Sibylline books, forbid- 
 ding the restoration of the king by an armed 
 force. The intrigues and disputes thus raised were 
 protracted throughout the year 56, and at length 
 Ptolemy, despairing of a favourable result, quitted 
 Rome in disgust, and withdrew to Ephesiis. But 
 in 65^ A. Gabinius, who was proconsul in Syria, 
 was induced, by the influence of Pompey, aided by 
 the enormous bribe of 10,000 talents from Ptolemj- 
 himself, to undertake his restoration. The Alex- 
 andrians had in the meantime placed on the throne 
 of Egypt, Berenice, the eldest daughter of Ptolemy, 
 who had married Archelaus, the son of the general 
 of Mithridates, and they opposed Gabinius with an 
 army on the confines of the kingdom. They were, 
 liowever, defeated in 3 successive battles, Archelaus 
 was slain, and Ptolemy once more established on the 
 throne, 55. One of his first acts was to put to death 
 his daughter Berenice, and many of the leading citi- 
 zens of Alexandria. He survived his restoration only 
 3^ years, during which time he was supported b}'' a 
 large body of Roman soldiers who had been left be- 
 hind by Gabinius for his protection. He died in 51, 
 after a reign of 29 years from the date of his first 
 accession. He left 2 sons, both named Ptolemy, and 
 2 daughters, Cleopatra and Arsinoe.— XII. Eldest 
 son of the preceding. By his father's will the 
 sovereign power was left to himself and his sister 
 Cleopatra jointly, and this arrangement was carried 
 into effect without opposition, 51. Auletes had 
 also referred the execution of his will to the Roman 
 senate, and the latter accepted the office, confirmed 
 its provisions and bestowed on Pompey the title of 
 guardian of the young king. But the approach of 
 the civil war prevented thera from taking any ac- 
 tive part in the administration of affairs, whicli fell 
 into the hands of an eunuch named Pothinus. It 
 was not long before dissensions broke out between 
 the latter and Cleopatra, which ended in the ex- 
 pulsion of the princess, after she had reigned in 
 conjunction with her brother about 3 years, 48. 
 Hereupon she took refuge in Syria, and assembled 
 an array, with which she invaded Egypt. The 
 yoimg king, accompanied by his guardians, met 
 her at Pelusium, and it was while the two armies 
 were here encamped opposite to one another, that 
 Pompey landed in Egypt, to throw himself as a 
 suppliant on the protection of Ptolemy; but he 
 was assassinated by the orders of Pothinus, 
 before he could obtain an interview with the king 
 himself. Shortly after, Caesar arrived in Egypt, 
 and took upon himself to settle the dispute be- 
 tween Ptolemy and his sister. But as Cleopatra^'s 
 charms gained for her the support of Caesar, Pothi- 
 nus determined to excite an insurrection against 
 Caesar. Hence arose what is usually called the 
 Alexandrian war. Ptolemy, who was at first in 
 Caesar's hands, managed to escape, and put him- 
 self at the head of the insurgents, but he was de- 
 feated by Caesar, and was drowned in an attempt 
 to escape by the river (47).^ XIII. Youngest 
 sou of Ptolemy Auletes, was declared king by 
 Caesar in conjunction with Cleopatra, after the 
 death of his elder brother Ptolemy XIL, 47 : and 
 although he was a mere boy, it was decreed that 
 he should marry his sister, with whom he was thus 
 to share the power. Both his marriage and regal 
 title were, of course, purely nominal ; and m 43 
 Cleopatra put him to death. 
 
sr X uiJiLivi Ari u o. 
 
 I'iUl.ll.MAll.Ut). 
 
 tiLV 
 
 III. Kings of oilier Countries, 
 
 1. Surnamed Alorites, that is, of Alorus, regent, 
 or, according to some authors, king of Macedonia. 
 He obtained the supreme power by the assassina- 
 tion of Alexander II., the eldest son of Amyntas, 
 B. c. 367, but was, in his turn, assassinated hy 
 Perdiccas III., 364. ^3. Surnamed Apion, king 
 of Cyrene (117 — ^Q) was an illegitimate son of 
 Ptolemy Physcon, king of Egypt, who left him by 
 his will the kingdom of the Cyrenaica. At his death 
 in QQ, Apion bequeathed his kingdom by las will to 
 the Roman people. The senate, however, refused to 
 accept the legacy, and declared the cities of the 
 Cyrena'ica free. They were not reduced to the 
 condition of a province till near 30 years after- 
 wards.— 3. Surnamed Ceraimus, king of Mace- 
 donia, was the son of Ptolemy I. king of Egypt, 
 by his 2nd wife Eurydice. When his father in 
 285 set aside the claim of Ceraunus to the throne, 
 and appointed his younger son, Ptolemy Phila- 
 delphus, his successor, Ceraunus repaired to the 
 court of Lysimachus. After Lysimachus had pe- 
 rished in battle against Seleucus (281) Ptolemy 
 Ceraunus was received by the latter in the most 
 friendly manner ; but shortly afterwards ('280} he 
 basely assassinated Seleucus, and took possession 
 of the Macedonian throne. After reigning a few 
 months he was defeated in battle by the Gauls, 
 taken prisoner and put to death. ^4. Tetrarch of 
 Chalcis in Syria, the son of Mennaeus. He appears 
 to have held the cities of Heliopolis and Chalcis as 
 well as the mountain district of Ituraea, from 
 whence he was in the habit of infesting Damascus 
 and the more wealthy parts of Coele-Syria with 
 predatory incursions. He reigned from about 70 
 to 40, when he was succeeded by his son Lysanias. 
 ^ 5. King of Cyprus, was the younger brother of 
 Ptolemy Auletea, king of Egypt, being like him an 
 illegitimate son of Ptolemy Lathy rus. He was 
 acknowledged as king of Cyprus at the same time 
 that his brother Auletes obtained possession of 
 the throne of Egypt, 80. He had offended P. 
 Clodius, by neglecting to ransom him when he had 
 fallen into the hands of the Cilician pirates ; and 
 accordingly Clodius, when he became tribune (58), 
 brought forward a law to deprive Ptolemy of his 
 kingdom, and reduce Cyprus to a Roman province. 
 Cato, who had to carry into execution this nefarious 
 decree, sent to Ptolemy, advising him to submit, and 
 offering him his personal safety, with the office of 
 high-priest at Paphos, and a liberal maintenance. 
 But the unhappy king refused these offers, and put 
 an end to his own life, 57. — 6. King of Epinis, 
 was the 2nd son of Alexander IL, king of Epirus, 
 and Olympias, and grandson of the great Pyrrhus. 
 He succeeded to the throne on the death of his 
 elder brother, Pyrrhus 11., but reigned only a very 
 short time. The date of his reign cannot be fixed 
 with certainty, but as he was contemporary with 
 Demetrius II. king of Macedonia, it maybe placed 
 between 239—229.-7. King of Mauretama, 
 was the son and successor of Juba II. By his 
 mother Cleopatra he was descended from the kings 
 of Egypt, whose name he bore. The period of his 
 accession cannot be determined with certainty, but 
 ■we know that he was on the throne in a. d. 18. 
 He continued to reign without interruption till 
 A. D. 40, when he was summoned to Rome by 
 Caligula, and shortly after put to death, his great 
 riches having excited the cupidity of the emperor. 
 
 IV. Literary. 
 
 1. Claudius Ptolemaeus, a celebrated mathe- 
 matician, astronomer, and geographer. Of Ptolemy 
 himself we know absolutely nothing but his date. 
 He certainly observed in a. d. 139, at Alexandria; 
 and since he survived Antoninus he was alive 
 A. D. 161. His writings are as follows: — 
 1. Me^aAi) tvvra^is t^s 'Atrrpofo^uias, usually- 
 known by its Arabic name of Almagest. Since 
 the TetrabiLlus^ the work on astrology, was also 
 entitled avvra^is., the Arabs to distinguish the 
 two, probably called the greater work fieya.\7]^ 
 and afterwards {x^yiari] : the title Almagest is a 
 compound of this last adjective and the Arabic 
 article. The Almagest is divided into 13 books. 
 It treats of the relations of the earth and heaven ; 
 the effect of position upon the earth ; the theory of 
 the sun and moon, without which that of the stars 
 cannot be undertaken ; the sphere of the fixed 
 stars, and those of the five stars called planets. The 
 7th and 8th books are the most interesting to the 
 modern astronomer as they contain a catalogue of 
 the stars. This catalogue gives the longitudes and 
 latitudes of 1022 stars, described by their positions 
 in the constellations. It seems that this catalogue 
 is in the main really that of Hipparchus, altered to 
 Ptolemy's own time by assuming the value of the 
 precession of the equinoxes given by Hipparchus 
 as the least which could be ; some changes having 
 also been made by Ptolemy's own observations. 
 Indeed the whole work of Ptolemy appears to have 
 been based upon the observations of Hipparchus, 
 whom he constantly cites as his authority. The 
 best edition of the Almagest is by Halma, Paris, 
 1813, 1816, "2 vols. 4to. There are also 2 other 
 volumes by Halma (1819 — 1820), which contain 
 some of the other writings of Ptolemy. — 2. Tsrpd- 
 SiSkos (TvuTa^is, generally called Tetralnblofi, or 
 Quadripariitum de Apotelesmatibus ei Judiciis As- 
 trorum. With this goes another small work, called 
 Kapirhsj or Frucius Librorum Suoinim, often called 
 Centiloquium^ from its containing a hundred apho- 
 risms. Both of these works are astrological, and 
 it has been doubted by some whether they be 
 genuine. But the doubt merely arises from the 
 feeling that the contents are unworthy of Ptolemy. 
 — 3. Kaj'tljj/ BaffiAeoi;/, a catalogue of Assyrian, 
 Persian, Greek, and Roman sovereigns, with the 
 length of their reigns, several times referred to by 
 Syncellus. — 4. "tatreis h.TrXavu}V acrripwi' Kal (two,- 
 70*7^ 4iriffT]/j.a(T€iuv^ Dg Appareniiis ei Sigiiifica- 
 tionibus inerrantium, an annual list of sidereal phae- 
 nomena. — 5, 6. De Analemmate and FlanispJiae- 
 rium. These works are obtained from the Arabic. 
 The Anahmma is a collection of graphical processes 
 for facilitating the construction of sun-dials. The 
 Planispltere is a description of the stereographic 
 projection, in which the eye is at the pole of the 
 circle on which the sphere is projected. — 7. ITepi 
 biToQiaeuiv rwv Trkavufihtav, De Planetaruin Hy- 
 pothesibus. This is a brief statement of the priu- 
 cipal hypotheses employed in the Almagest for the 
 explanation of the heavenly motions. — 8. 'Apfxo' 
 yiKwv $L§Kla 7'., a treatise on the theory of the 
 musical scale. — 9. Xlepl KpiTr}piov koI Tjx^f^opiKou 
 De Jicdicandi Facultate et Animi Frincipatu, a 
 metaphysical work, attributed to Ptolemy.— 10. 
 T€uypatt>iK^ 'T(/)^77]ffts, in 8 books, the great geo- 
 graphical work of Ptolemy. This work was the 
 last attempt made by the ancients to form a com- 
 
 s s 2 
 
62S 
 
 PTOLEMAIS. 
 
 plete geographical system ; it was accepted as tlie 
 text-book of the science ; and it maintained that 
 position during the middle ages, and until the 
 15th centur}-, when the rapid progress of maritime 
 discovery caused it to be superseded. It contains, 
 liowevei", very little information respecting the ob- 
 jects of interest connected with the different coun- 
 tries and places ; for with the exception of the 
 introductory matter in the first book, and the latter 
 part of the work, it is a mere catalogue of the 
 names of places, with their longitudes and latitudes, 
 and with a few incidental references to objects of 
 interest. The latitudes of Ptolemy are tolerably cor- 
 rect ; but his longitudes are very wide of the truth, 
 his length of the known world, from east to west, 
 being much too great It is well worthy, however, 
 of remark in passing, that the modern world owes 
 much to this error ; for it tended to encourage that 
 belief in the practicability of a western passage to 
 the Indies, which occasioned the discovery of 
 America by Columbus. The 1st book is introduc- 
 tory. The next 6^ books (ii — vii. 4) are occupied 
 with the description of the known world, beginning 
 "with the West of Europe, the description of which 
 is contained in book ii. ; next comes the East of 
 Europe, in book iii. ; then Africa, in book iv. ; 
 then Western or Lesser Asia, in book v. ; then 
 the Greater Asia, in book vi. ; then India, the 
 Chersonesus Aurea, Serica, the Sinae, and Tapro- 
 bane, in book vii. cc. 1 — 4. The form in which 
 the description is given is that of lists of places 
 with their longitudes and latitudes, arranged under 
 the heads, first, of the three continents, and then 
 of the several countries and tribes. Prefixed to 
 each section is a brief general description of the 
 boundaries and divisions of the part about to be 
 described ; and remarks of a miscellaneous charac- 
 ter are interspersed among the lists, to which, how- 
 ever, they bear but a small proportion. The re- 
 maining part of the 7th, and the whole of the 8th 
 book, are occupied with a description of a set of 
 maps of the known world. These maps are still 
 extant. The best edition of the Geographia of 
 Ptolemy is by Petrus Bertius, Lugd. Bat. 1619, 
 fol. ; reprinted Antwerp, 1624, fol, — 2. Of Mega- 
 lopolis, the son of Agesarchus, wrote a history of 
 king Ptolemy IV. Philopator. — 3. An Egyptian 
 priest, of Mendes, who wrote on the ancient his- 
 tory of Egypt. He probably lived under the first 
 Roman emperors. — 4. Sumamed ChemnuB, a 
 grammarian of Alexandria, flourished under Trajan 
 and Hadrian. An epitome of one of his works is 
 preserved by Photius. 
 
 Ptolemais {XiroX^iiats : XlroK^fJiofiTr]s and IIto- 
 X^fxa^vs). 1. Also called Ace ('Akt], a corruption 
 of the native name Acco, 0. T. : Arab. Akha^ Fr. 
 St. Jean (TAcre^ Eiig. Acre\ a celebrated city on 
 the coast of Phoenicia, S. of Tyre, and N. of M. 
 Carmel, lies at the bottom of a bay surrounded by 
 mountains, in a position marked out by nature as 
 a key of the passage between Coele-Syria and 
 Palestine. It is one of the oldest cities of Phoe- 
 nicia, being mentioned in the Book of Judges (i. 
 31). Under the Persians, it was made the head- 
 ijuarters of the expeditions against Egypt ; but it 
 ■was not till the decline of Tyre that it acquired its 
 great importance as a military and commercial city. 
 The Ptolemy who enlarged and strengthened it, 
 and from whom it obtained its Greek name, is 
 supposed to have been Ptolemy I. the son of Lagus. 
 After the change of its name, its citadel continued 
 
 PTJBLICOLA. 
 
 to be called Ace. Under the Romans, it was n 
 colony, and belonged to Galilee. To recount its 
 great celebrity in medieval and modern history 
 does not fall witiiin the province of this work.^S. 
 (At or near £'Ma7^?i7w), a small town of Middle 
 Egypt, in the Nomos Arsinoites, between Arsinoe 
 andHeracleopolis the Great. — 3. P. Hermii (IT. 7/ 
 'Ep/iciou, IlToAejUauc^ it6\ls\ Mcnskieh^ Ru.), n 
 city of Upper Egypt, on the W. bank of the Nile, 
 below Abj'dos, was a place of great importance 
 under the Ptolemies, who enlarged and adorned it,, 
 and made it a purely Greek city, exempt from al! 
 peculiarly Egyptian laws and customs. —4. P. 
 Theron, or Epitheras (11. @ripwu, t) iirl ^Tjpas), ;t 
 port on the Red Sea, on the coast of the Troglo- 
 dj'tae, an emporium for the trade with India antf 
 Arabia; but chiefly remarkable in the history of 
 mathematical geography, inasmuch as, the sun 
 having been observed to be directly over it 45 
 days before and after the summer solstice, the 
 place was taken as one of the fixed points for de- 
 termining the length of a degree of a great circle 
 on the earth's surface.— 5. {Tolme'iia^ or Tulometa^ 
 Ru.), on the N.W. coast of Cyrenaica, one of the 
 5 great cities of tlie Libyan Pentapolis, was at first 
 only the port of Barca, which lay 100 stadia (10' 
 geog. miles) inland, hut which was so entirely 
 eclipsed by Ptolemais that, under the Romans, 
 even the name of Barca was transferred to the 
 latter city. From which of the Ptolemies it took 
 its name, we are not informed. Its magnificence 
 is attested by its splendid ruins, which are now 
 partly covered by the aea. They are 4 miles in 
 circumference, and contain the remains of several 
 temples, 3 theatres, and an aqueduct. 
 
 Ptoon {XirCiov : Palea and Strittzina)^ a moun- 
 tain in Boeotia, an offshoot of Helicon, which 
 extends from the S. E. side of the lake Copais- 
 S.-wards to the coast. 
 
 Publicola, or PopHciila, or Poplicola, a Ro- 
 man cognomen, signified "one who courts the* 
 people " (from popubis and colo), and thus '^ a 
 friend of the people." The form Poplicula or 
 Poplicola was the more ancient, but Puhlicola was 
 the one usually employed by the Romans in later 
 times. 
 
 Publicola, Gellius. 1. L., consul with Cn. 
 Lentulus Clodianus, b. c. 72. Both consuls carried: 
 on war against Spartacus, but were defeated by 
 the latter. In 70, Gellius was censor, .and in 67 
 and 66 he served as one of Pompey's legates in 
 the war against the pirates. He belonged to the 
 aristocratical party. In 63 he warmly supported 
 Cicero in the suppression of the Catilinariun con- 
 spiracy. In 59 he opposed the agrarian law of 
 Caesar, and in 57 he spoke in favour of Cicero's 
 recall from exile. He was alive in ^b^ when 
 Cicero delivered his speech against Piso, but he 
 probably died soon afterwards. He was married 
 twice. He must have reached a great age, since 
 he is mentioned as the contubemalis of C. Papirius 
 Carbo, who was consul in 120. — 2. L,, son of the 
 preceding by his first wife. He espoused the re- 
 publican party after Caesar's death (44), and went 
 with M. Brutus to Asia. After plotting against 
 the lives of both Brutus and Cassius, he deserted 
 to the triumvirs, Octavian and Antony. He was 
 rewarded for his treachery by the consulship in 
 36. In the war between Octavian and Antony, 
 he espoused the side of the latter, and commanded 
 the right wing of Antony's fleet at the battle of 
 
PUBLICOLA. 
 
 Actium. — 3. Brother probjibly of No, 1, is called 
 :Btep-son of L. Marcius Philippus, consul 91, and 
 brother of L. Marcius Philippus, consul 5(j. Ac- 
 cording to Cicero's account he was a profligate and 
 n spendthrift, and having dissipated his property, 
 -united himself to P. Clodius. 
 
 Publicola, P. Valerius, took an active part in 
 -expelling the Tarquins from the city, and "was 
 tlierenpon elected consul with Brutus (b. c. 509). 
 lie secured the liberties of the people by proposing 
 several laws, one of the most important of which 
 was that every citizen who was condemned by a 
 magistrate should have the right of appeal to the 
 people. He also ordered the lictors to lower the 
 fasces before tlie people, as an acknowledgment 
 ■that their power was superior to that of the con- 
 finis. Hence he became so great a favourite with 
 the people, that he received the surname of Puh- 
 licola. He was consul 3 times again, namely in 
 ^08, 507 and 504. He died in 503. He waa 
 buried at the public expense, and the matrons 
 mourned for him 10 months, as they had done 
 for Brutus. — The descendants of Publicola bore 
 the same name, and several of them held the 
 iiii;hest offices of state during the early years of 
 -the republic. 
 
 Publilia, the 2nd wife of M. TuUius Cicero, 
 whom he married, b. c. 46. As Cicero was then 
 ■60 years of age, and Publilia quite young, the 
 marriage occasioned great scandal. It appears 
 that Cicero was at tlie time in great pecuniary 
 ■embarrassments ; and after the divorce of Terentia, 
 he was anxious to contract a new marriage for 
 the purpose of obtaining money to pay Iiis debts. 
 Publilia had a large fortune, which had been left 
 to Cicero in trust for her. The marriage proved 
 4in unhappy one, as might have been expected ; 
 Jind Cicero divorced her in 45. 
 
 Publilius Philo. [Philo.] 
 
 Publilius, Volero, tribune of the plebs, b, c. 
 472, and again 471, effected an important change 
 in the Roman constitution. In virtue of the 
 laws which he proposed, the tribunes of the plebs 
 and the aediles were elected by the comitia 
 tributa, instead of by the comitia centuriiita, as 
 had previously been the case, and the tribes ob- 
 tained the power of deliberating and determining 
 in all matters affecting the whole nation, and not 
 such only as concerned the plebs. Some said that 
 the number of the tribunes was now for the first 
 time raised to 5, having been only 2 previously. 
 
 Publiiis Syrus. [Syhur.] 
 
 Pucinum {Jloviavov), a fortress in Istria in the 
 N. of Italv, on the road from Aquileia to Pola, 
 was situated on a steep rock, which produced wine, 
 mentioned by Pliny under the name of Vinum 
 PiLcinum. 
 
 Pudacitia (A(5ws), a personification of modesty, 
 was vvorshipped both in Greece and at Rome. At 
 Athens an altar was dedicated to her. At Rome 
 two sanctuaries were dedicated to her, one under 
 the name of Pudicitia patricia^ and the other under 
 that of Pudicitia plebeia. The former was in the 
 fonim Boarium near the temple of Hercules. 
 When the patrician Virginia was driven from this 
 sanctuary by the other patrician women, because 
 she had married the plebeian consul L. Volumnius, 
 she built a separate sanctuary to Pudicitia plebeia 
 in the Vicus Longus. 
 
 Pulcher, Claudius. [Claudius.] 
 Julchena, eldest daughter of the emperor Ar- 
 
 PUTEOLI. 
 
 629 
 
 cadius, was born a. d. 399. In 414, when she 
 was only 15 years of age, she became the guar- 
 dian of her brother Theodosius, and was de- 
 clared Augusta or empress. She had the virtual 
 government in her hands during the whole lifetime 
 of her brother, who died in 450. On his death 
 she remained at the head of affairs, and shortly 
 afterwards she married Marcian, with whom she 
 continued to reign in common till her death in 
 453. Pulcheria was a woman of ability, and was 
 celebrated for her piety, and her public and private 
 virtues. 
 
 Pulchrum Promoatorium {Ka\hv aicpaiT-qpiov), 
 a promontory on the N. coast of the Carthaginian 
 territory in N. Africa, where the elder Scipio 
 Africanus landed ; probably identical with the 
 
 ApOLLINIS PnOMONTORlUM. 
 
 Pullus, L. Junius, consul b. c. 249, in the first 
 Punic war. His fleet was destroyed by a storm, 
 on account, it was said, of his neglecting the 
 auspices. In despair he put an end to his own life. 
 
 Pupienus Maximus, "M.. Clodius, was elected 
 emperor with Balbinus, in a. d. 238 when the 
 senate received intelligence of the death of the two 
 Gordians in Aftica ; but the new emperors were 
 slain by the soldiers at Rome in the same year. 
 
 Pupius, a Roman dramatist, whose composi- 
 tions are characterised by Horace, as the " lacry- 
 raosa poemata Pupi." 
 
 Piira {Uovpa: prob. Bunpur), the capital of 
 Gedrosia, in the interior of the country, on the 
 borders of Cannanla. 
 
 Purpurariae Insulae (prob. the Madeira 
 group), a group of islands in the Atlantic Ocean, 
 off the N. W. coast of Africa, which are supposed 
 to have derived their name from the purple muscle*3 
 which abound on the opposite coast of Africa 
 (Gaetulia). The islands of Plera (*'Hpo) and 
 Autolala (Auro\a\a), mentioned by Ptolemy, ap- 
 pear to belong to the group. 
 
 Purpureo, L. Eurius, praetor B.C. 200, obtained 
 Cisalpuie Gaul as his province, and gained a bril- 
 liant victory over the Gauls, who had laid siege to 
 Cremona. He was consul 196, when he defeated 
 the Boii. 
 
 Puteolanum, a country-house of Cicero near 
 Puteoli, where he wrote his Qnaestiones Aca- 
 demicae, and where the emperor Hadrian was 
 buried. 
 
 Puteolanus Sinus (Baj/ of Naples), a bay of 
 the sea on the coast of Campania between the 
 promontory Misenum and the promontory of Mi- 
 nerva, which was originally called Cumanus, but 
 afterwards Puteolanus from the town Puteoli. 
 The N. W. conicr of it was separated by a dike 8 
 stadia in length from the rest of the bay, thus 
 forming the Lucrinus Lacus. 
 
 Puteoli ( Putenlanus : PozztioU), originally 
 named Dicaearchia (Ancaiap^'a) h^tKaiapx^ia : 
 Aucaiapx^'^s, Aumiapxeirvs, -x'^ttjs), a celebrated 
 seaport town of Campania, situated on a promon- 
 tory on the E. side of the Puteolanus Sinus, and a 
 little to the E. of Cumae, was founded by the 
 Greeks of Cumae, B.C. 521, under the name of 
 Dicaearchia. In the 2nd Punic war it was fortified 
 by the Romans, who changed its name into that 
 of Puteoli, either from its numerous wells or from 
 the stench arising from the mineral springs in its 
 neighbourhood. The town was indebted for its 
 importance to its excellent harbour, which was 
 protected by an extensive mole formed from the 
 
630 PUTPUT. 
 
 celebrated reddish earth of the neighbouring hills. 
 This earth, called Pozzolana, when mixed with 
 chalk, forms an excellent cement, which in course 
 of time becomes as hard in water as stone. The 
 raole was built on arches like a bridge, and 17 of 
 the piers are still visible projecting above the 
 water. To this mole Caligula attached a floating 
 bridge, which extended as far as Baiae, a distance 
 of 2 miles. PiUeoli was the chief emporium for 
 the commerce with Alexandria and with the greater 
 part of Spain. The town was colonised by the 
 Romans in b. c. 194, and also anew by Augustus, 
 Nero, and Vespasian. It was destroyed by Alaric 
 in A.D. 410, by Gensericin 455,and alsobyTotilas 
 in 545, but was on each occasion speedily rebuilt. 
 There are still many ruins of the ancient town at 
 the modem Pozzuoli. Of these the most im- 
 portant are the remains of the temple of Serapis, 
 of the amphitheatre, and of the mole already de- 
 scribed. 
 
 Putput (prob. Hamamet), a seaport town of 
 Africa Propria (Zeugitana) on the gulf of Neapolis 
 (G. of Hamamet). Its name is evidently Phoe- 
 nician. 
 
 Pydna {VlvSua : TluSva7os : Kitron), a town of 
 Macedonia in the district Pieria, was situated at 
 a small distance "W. of the Thermaic gulf, on which 
 it had a harbour. It was originally a Greek 
 colony, but it was subdued by the Macedonian 
 kings, from whom, however, it frequently revolted. 
 Towards the end of the Peloponnesian war it was 
 taken after a long siege by Archelaus, and its 
 inhabitants removed 20 stadia inland ; but at a 
 later period we still find the town situated on the 
 coast. ' It again revolted from the Macedonians, 
 and was subdued by Philip, who enlarged and 
 fortified the place. It was here that Olj'mpias 
 sustained a long siege against Cassander, B. c. 317 
 — 316. It is especially memorable on account of 
 the victory gained under its walls by Aemilius 
 Paulus over Perseus, the last king of Macedonia, 
 168. Under the Romans it was also called Citrum 
 or Citi-us. 
 
 Pygela or Phygela (TTiryeXa, 4>vy€\a), a small 
 town of Ionia, on the coast of Lydia, with a tem- 
 ple of Artemis Munychia. Tradition ascribed its 
 foundation to Agamemnon, on his return from Troy, 
 
 Pygmaei {TluyfxOLoi^ i. e. men of the heiyht of a 
 TTvyfiTj, i.e. 13^ inches), a fabulous people, first 
 mentioned by Homer (//. iii. 5), as dwelling on 
 the shores of Ocean, and attacked by cranes in 
 spring time. The fable is repeated by numerous 
 writers, in various forms, especially as to the 
 locality. Some placing them in Aethiopia, others 
 in India, and others in the extreme N. of the 
 earth. The story is referred to by Ovid and 
 Juvenal, and forms the subject of several works 
 of art, 
 
 Pygmalion (UvyfiaKiaip). 1. King of Cyprus 
 and father of Metharme. He is said to have fallen 
 in love with the ivory image of a maiden which he 
 himself had made, and therefore to have prayed to 
 Aphrodite to breathe life into it. When the re- 
 quest was granted, Pygmalion married the maiden, 
 and became by her the father of Paplms. -— 2. Son 
 of Belus and brother of Dido, who murdered Si- 
 chaena, Dido's husband. For details see Dido. 
 
 Pylades (Uu\d5rjs). 1. Son of Strophius and 
 Anaxibia, a sister of Agamemnon. His father 
 was khig of Phocis ; and after the death of Aga- 
 memnon, Orestes was secretly carried to his father's 
 
 PYLOS. 
 
 court. Here Pylades contracted that friendship 
 with Orestes, which became proverbial. He as- 
 sisted Orestes in murdering his mother Clytaem- 
 nestni, and also accompanied him to the Tauric 
 Chersonesus ; and he eventually married his sister 
 Electra, by whom he became the father of Hel- 
 lanicus, Medon, and Strophius. For details see 
 Okeptes. — 2. a pantomime dancer in the reign 
 of Augustus, spoken of under Bathyllus. 
 
 Pylae {Uvkat, Gates). 1. A general name for 
 any narrow pass, such as Thermopylae, Pylae 
 Albaniae, Caspiae, &c. (See the several specific 
 names).— 2, Two small islands at the entrance 
 into the Arabicus Sinus (Red Sea) from the Ery- 
 thraean Sea. 
 
 Pylaemeuea (UuXaiix^i/Tjs), appears to have 
 been the name of many kings of Paphlagonia, so 
 as to have become a kind of hereditary appellation, 
 like that of Ptolemy in Egypt, and Arsaces in 
 Parthia. We have, however, very little definite 
 information concerning them. 
 
 Pylas (IlyAas), son of Cteson, and king of Me- 
 gara, who, after slaying Bias, his own father's 
 brother, founded the town of Pylos in Pelopon- 
 nesus, and gave Megara to Pandion who had. 
 married his daug^iter Pylia, and accordingly was 
 his son-in-law. 
 
 Pylene {UvK-fjvr}), an ancient town of Aetolia 
 on the S. slope of Mt. Aracynthus, on whose site 
 Proschiiun was subsequently built. 
 
 Pylos (UuXos), the name of 3 towns on the W. 
 coast of Peloponnesus. 1. In Elis, at the foot of 
 Mt. ScoIIis, and about 70 or 30 stadia from the 
 city of Elis on the road to Olympla, near the con- 
 fluence of the Ladon and the Peneus. It is said 
 to have been founded by Pylon or Phylas of Me- 
 gara, to have been destroyed by Hercules, and to 
 have been afterwards rebuilt by the Eleans.^2. 
 In Triphylia, about 30 stadia from the coast, on 
 the river Mamaus, W. of the mountain Minthe, 
 and N. of Lepreum. — 3. In the S. W. of Mes- 
 senia, was situated at the foot of Mt. Aegaleos on 
 a promontory at the N. entrance of the basin, now 
 called the Bay of N'avarino^ the largest and safest 
 harbour in all Greece. This harbour was fronted 
 and protected by the small island of Sphacteria 
 {Sphagia)^ which stretched along the coast about 
 1^ mile, leaving only 2 narrow entrances at each 
 end. In the 2nd Messenian war the inhabitants 
 of Pylos offered a long and brave resistance to the 
 Spartans ; but after the capture of Ira, they were 
 obliged to quit their native country with the rest 
 of the Messenians. Pylos now remained in ruins, 
 but again became memorable in the Peloponnesian 
 war, when the Athenians under Demosthenes 
 built a fort on the promontory Coryphasium a little 
 S. of the ancient city, and just within the N. en- 
 trance to the harbour (B.C. 425). The attempts 
 of the Spartans to dislodge the Athenians proved 
 unavailing ; and the capture by Cleon of th-e 
 Spartans, who had landed in the island of Sphac- 
 teria, was one of the most important events in the 
 whole war. — There has been much controversy, 
 which of these 3 places was the Pylos founded by 
 Neleus, and governed by Nestor and his descend- 
 ants. The town in Elis has little or no claim to 
 the honour, and the choice lies between the towns 
 in Triphylia and Messenia. The ancients usually 
 decided in favour of the Messenian Pylos ; but 
 most modem critics support the claims of the Tri- 
 phylian city. 
 
PYRAMIA 
 
 Fyramia (to; Uvpdfiia), a town of Argolis, in 
 the district Thyreatis, where Danaus is said to 
 have landed, 
 
 Pyramon. [Cyclopes.] 
 
 Pyramua. [Thisbe.] 
 
 Pyramus {Uupa/xos : Jihan), one of the largest 
 rivers of Asia Minor, rises in the Anti-Taurus 
 range, near Arabissus in Cataonia (the S. E. part 
 of Cappadocia), and after running S. E., first 
 underground, and then as a navigable river, breaks 
 through the Taurus chain by a deep and narrow 
 ravine, and then flows S. W. through Cilicin, in a 
 deep and rapid stream, about I stadium (fiOG feet) 
 in width, and falls into the sea near Mallua. Its 
 ancient name is said to have been Leucosyrua, 
 from the Leucosyri, who dwelt on its banks. 
 
 Pyreae or Pyrenaei Montes {Uvp-fjvT), ra Uu- 
 pTjvaia opTj : Pyrenees)^ a range of mountains, 
 extending from the Atlantic to the Mediterranean, 
 and forming the boundary between Gaul and 
 Spain. The length of these mountains is about 
 270 miles in a straight line ; their breadth varies 
 from about 40 miles to 20 ; their greatest height 
 is between 1 1,000 and 12,000 feet. The Romans 
 first became acquainted with these mountains by 
 their campaigns against the Carthaginians in Spain 
 in the 2nd Punic war. Their name however had 
 travelled E.-ward at a much earlier period, since 
 Herodotus (ii. 33) speaks of a city Pyrene belong- 
 ing to the Celts, near which the Ister rises. The 
 aTiuent writers usually derived the name from TrOp, 
 *' nre," and then, according to a common practice, 
 invented a story to explain the false etymolog}'-, 
 relating that a great fire once raged upon the 
 mountains. The name, however, is probably con- 
 nected with the Ce\i\cByrin or Br^n, "a mountain." 
 The continuation of the mouutains along the Mare 
 Cantabricum was called Saltus Vasconura, and still 
 further W. Mons Vindius or Vinuius. The Ro- 
 mans were acquainted with only 3 passes over the 
 Pyrenees, the one on the "W. near Carasae {Garis) 
 not far from the Mare Cantabricum, the one in 
 the middle leading from Caesaraugusta to Bene- 
 hamum {Bareges)^ and the one on the E., which 
 was most frequently used, near the coast of the 
 Mediterranean by Juncaria {Junquera), 
 
 Pyrenes Promontorium, or Prom. Veneris 
 (C Creus), the S.E. extremity of the Pyrenees in 
 Spain, on the frontiers of Gaul, derived its 2nd 
 name from a temple of Venus on the promontory. 
 
 Pyrgi. 1. (nu/J70i or Iliip^or: HvpyiTTjs)^ the 
 most S.-ly town of Triphylia in Elis, near the 
 Messenian frontier, said to have been founded by 
 the Minyae.^2. (Pyrgensis: Santa Severa), an 
 ancient Pelasgic town on the coast of Etruria, was 
 used as the port of Caere or Agylla, and was a 
 place of considerable importance as a commercial 
 emporium. It was at an early period the head- 
 quarters of the Tyrrhenian pirates. It possessed a 
 very wealthy temple of Ilithyia, which Dionysius 
 of Syracuse plundered in b. c. 384. Pyrgi is men- 
 tioned at a later time as a Roman colony, but lost 
 its importance imder the Roman dominion. There 
 are still remains at Sta Severa of the ancient poly- 
 gonal walls of Pyrgi. 
 
 Pyrgoteles (JlvpyoTi\T]s\ one of the most 
 celebrated gem-engravers of ancient Greece, was a 
 contemporary of Alexander the Great, who placed 
 hira on a level with Apelles and Lysippus, by 
 naming him as the only artist who was permitted 
 to engrave seal-ringa for the king. 
 
 PYRRHO. 
 
 631 
 
 Pyricus, a Greek painter, who probably lived 
 soon after the time of Alexander the Great. He 
 devoted himself entirely to the production of small 
 pictures of low and mean subjects. 
 
 PyripMegetlion (Uupi(p\€y46wv)^ that is, 
 flaming with fire, the name of one of the rivers in 
 the lower world. 
 
 Pyromaclius, the name of 2 artists. The name 
 occurs in 4 different forms, namely, Phyromachus, 
 Phylomaclms^ Philomachus, and Pyromaclius. — 
 1. An Athenian sculptor, who executed the bas- 
 reliefs on the frieze of the temple of Athena Polias, 
 about B. c. 4 1 5. The true form of his name appears 
 to have beenPhyromachus.— 2. An artist who flou- 
 rished B. c. 295 — 240, is mentioned by Pliny 
 (xxxiv. 8. s. 19) as one of those statuaries who 
 represented the battles of Attalus and Eumenes 
 against the Gauls. Of these battles the most cele- 
 brated was that which obtained for Attalus I. the 
 title of king, about 241. It is supposed by the 
 best writers on ancient art that the celebrated 
 statue of a dying combatant, popularly called the 
 Dying Gladiator, is a copy from one of the bronze 
 statues in the works mentioned by Pliny. It is 
 evidently the statue of a Celt. 
 
 Pyrrha (riu^^a: Tivpfiaios). 1. A town on the 
 W. coast of the island of Lesbos, on the inner part 
 of the deep bay named after it, and consequently 
 on the narrowest part of the island. ^2. A town 
 and promontory of Phthiotis in Thessaly, on the 
 Pagasaean gulf and near the frontiers of Magnesia. 
 Off this promontory there were 2 small islands, 
 named Pyrrha and Deucalion.^3. A small Ionic 
 town in Caria on the N. side of the Sinus Latmicus 
 and 50 stadia from the mouth of the Maeander. 
 
 Pyrrhi Castra (Jiv^pov x^P^D^a fortified place 
 in the N. of Laconica, where Pyrrhus probablj' en- 
 camped in his invasion of the country in b. c. 272. 
 
 Pyrrhichus (nufJ^ixo^)-. a town of the Eleuthe- 
 ro-Iacones in the S.W. of Laconica. 
 
 Pyrrlio (Uv^h(i}v)^ the founder of the Sceptical 
 or Pyrrhonian school of philosophy, was a native of 
 Elis in Peloponnesus. He is said to have been poor, 
 and to have followed, at first, the profession of a 
 painter. He is then said to have been attracted 
 to philosophy' by the books of Democritus, to have 
 attended the lectures of Brj'son, a disciple of 
 Stilpon, to have attached himself closely to Anax- 
 archus, and with him to have joined the expedition 
 of Alexander the Great. During the greater part 
 of his life he lived in retirement, and endeavoured 
 to render himself independent of all external cir- 
 cumstances. His disciple Timon extolled with 
 admiration his divine repose of soul, and his indif- 
 ference to pleasure or pain. So highl}-- was he 
 valued by his fellow-citizens that they made him 
 their high priest, and erected a monument to him 
 after his death. The Athenians conferred upon 
 him the rights of citizenship. We know little 
 respecting the principles of his sceptical philosophy ; 
 and the ridiculous tales told about him by Diogenes 
 Laertius are probably the invention of his enemies. 
 He asserted that certain knowledge on any subject 
 was imattainable ; and that the great object of 
 man ought to be to lead a virtuous life. Pyrrho 
 wrote no works, except a poem addressed to Alex- 
 ander, which was rewarded by the latter in a royal 
 manner. His philosophical sj'^stem was first re- 
 duced to writing by his disciple Timon. He 
 reached the age of 90 years,but we have no mention 
 of the year either of his birth or of his death. 
 
 S s 4 
 
G32 PYRUHUS. 
 
 Pyrrlius (nupjos). 1. Mythological [Neo- 
 PTOLEMUS.]. — 2. I. King of Epirus, son of 
 Aeacide-s and Plithia, was boni B.C. 313. His 
 ancestors cbiimed descent from Pyrrlius, the son 
 of Acitilles, who was said to have settled in Epi- 
 rus after the Trojan war, and to have become the 
 founder of the race of Moiossian kings. On the 
 deposition of his father by the EpiVots [Aea- 
 ciDE.s], Pyrrhus, who was then a child of only- 
 two years old, was saved from destruction by the 
 faithful adherents of the king, who carried him to 
 Glaucias, the king of the Taulantians, an Illyrian 
 people. Glaucias took the child under his "care, 
 and brought him up with his own children. He 
 not only refused to surrender Pyrrhus to Cassander, 
 but about 10 years afterwards he marched into 
 Epirus at the head of an army, and placed Pyrrhus 
 on the throne, leaving him, however, under the 
 care of guardians, as he was then only 12 years of 
 age. In the course of 4 or 5 years, however, Cas- 
 sander, who had regained his supremacy in Greece, 
 prevailed upon the Epirots to expel their yoiinT 
 king, Pyrrhus, who was still only 17 years of 
 age, joined Demetrius, who had married his sister 
 Deidauia, accompanied h'lui to Asia, and was 
 present at the battle of Ipsua, 301, in which he 
 gained great renown for his valour. Antigonus 
 fell in the battle, and Demetrius became a fugitive; 
 but Pyrrluis did not desert his brother-in-law in 
 his misfortunes, and shortly afterwards went for him 
 as a hostage into Egypt. Hero he v/as fortunate 
 enough to win the favour of Berenic, the wife of 
 Ptolemy, and received hi marriage Antigone, her 
 daughter by her first husband. Ptolemy now 
 supplied liim with a fleet and forces, with which 
 he reuimed to Epims. Neoptolemus, who had 
 reigned from the time that Pyrrhus had been 
 driveii from the kingdom, agreed to sliare the 
 sovereignty with Pj'-rrhus. But such an arrange- 
 ment could not last long ; and Pyrrhus anticipated 
 his own destruction by putting his rival to death. 
 This appears to have happened in 295, in which 
 year Pyrrhus is said to have begun to reign. He 
 was now 2o years old, and he soon became one of 
 the most popular princes of his time. His daring 
 coiu-age made him a favourite with his troops, and 
 his affability and generosity secured the love of his 
 people. He seems at an early age to have taken 
 Alexander as his model, and to have been fired 
 with the ambition of imitating his exploits and 
 treading in his footsteps. His e5'es were first di- 
 rected to the conquest of Macedonia. By assisting 
 Alexander, the son of Cassander, against his brother 
 Antipater, he obtained possession of the whole of 
 the Macedonian dominions on the western side of 
 Greece. But the Macedonian throne itself fell 
 into the hands of Demetrius, greatly to the disap- 
 pointment of Pyrrhus, The two fonner friends now 
 became the most deadly enemies, and open war 
 broke out between them in 291. After the war had 
 been earned on with great vigour and various vi- 
 cissitudes for 4 years, Pyrrhus joined the coalition 
 formed in 287 by Seleucus, Ptolemy, and Lysima- 
 chus against Demetrius, Lysimaciiusand Pyrrhus 
 invaded Macedonia ; Demetrius was deserted by his 
 troops, and obliged to fly in disguise ; and the king- 
 dom was divided between Lysimachus and Pyrrhus. 
 But the latter did not long retain his portion ; the 
 Macedonians preferred the rule of their old general 
 Lysimachus ,' and Pyrrhus v/as accordingly driven 
 out of the country after a reign of 7 montb3 (206). 
 
 PYRRHUS. 
 For the next {nw years Pyrrhus reigned quietly in 
 I'^pirus without embarking in any new enterprize. 
 But a life of inactivity was insupportable to him ; 
 and accordingly lie readily accepted the invitation 
 of the Taren tines to assist them in their war 
 against the Romans. He crossed over to Italy 
 early in 200, in the 30th vear of his age. He took 
 with him 20,000 foot, 3000 horse, 2000 archers, 
 500 slingcrs, and either 50 or 20 elephants, having 
 previously sent Milo, one of his generals, with a 
 detachment of 3000 men. As soon as he arrived 
 at Tarentum, he began to make vigorous prepa- 
 rations for carrying on the war ; and as the giddy 
 and licentious inhabitants of Tarentum complained 
 of the severit}' of his discipline, he forthwith treated 
 them as their master rather than as their all}--, 
 shut up the theatre and all other public places, 
 and compelled their young men to seiwc in his 
 ranks. In the 1st campaign (280) the Roman consul 
 M. Valerius Laevinns was defeated by Pj'rrhus 
 near Hemclea, on the bank of the river Siris. 
 The battle was long and bravely contested, and it 
 was not till Pyrrhus brought forward his elephants, 
 which bore down everj' thing before them, that 
 the Romans took to flight. The loss of Pyrrhus, 
 though inferior to that of the Romans, was still 
 very considerable. A largo proportion of his 
 officers and best troops had fallen ; and he said, as 
 he viewed the field of battle, " Another such. 
 victor}', and I must return to Epirus alone." He 
 therefore availed himself of bis success to send his 
 minister Cineas to Rome with proposals of peace, 
 while he himself marched slowly towards the city. 
 His proposals, however, were rejected by the 
 senate. He accordingly continued his march, 
 ravaging the Roman territory as he went along. 
 He advanced within 24 miles of Rome ; but as he 
 found it impossible to compel the Romans to accept 
 the peace, he retraced his steps and withdrew 
 into winter-quarters to Tarentum. As soon as the 
 annies were quartered for the winter, the Romans 
 sent an embassy to Pyrrhus, to endeavour to obtain 
 the ransom of the Roman prisoners. The ambas- 
 sadors were received by Pyrrhus in the most dis- 
 tinguished manner ; and his interviews with C. Fa- 
 bricius, who was at the head of the embassy, fonn one 
 of the most celebrated stories in Roman history. 
 [Fabricius.] In the 2nd campaign (279) Pyrrhus 
 gained another victory near Asculum over the 
 Romans, who were commanded by the consuls 
 P. Decius Mus and P. Sulpicius Saverrio. The 
 battle, however, was followed by no decisive 
 results, and the brunt of it had again fallen, as in 
 the previous year, almost exclusively on the Greek 
 troops of the king. He was therefore unwilling to 
 hazard his surviving Greeks by another campaign 
 with the Romans, and accordingly he lent a ready 
 ear to the invitations of the Greeks in Sicily, who 
 
 begged him to come to their assistance ; 
 
 nst the 
 
 Carthaginians. The Romans were likewise anxious 
 to get rid of so formidable an opponent that they 
 might complete the subjugation of southern Italy 
 without further interniption. When both parties 
 had the same wishes, it was not difficult to find a 
 fair pretext for bringing the war to a conclusion. 
 This was afforded at the beginning of the following 
 year (278), by one of the servants of Pyrrhus de- 
 serting to the Romans and proposing to the consuls 
 to poison his master. The consuls Fabricius and 
 Aemilius sent back the deserter to the king, stating 
 that they abhorred a victory gained by treason. 
 
PYRKHUS. 
 
 Thereupon Pyrrhus, to show his gi-atitude, sent 
 Cineas to Rome with all the Roman prisoners 
 ■without ransom and without conditions ; and the 
 Romans granted him a truce, though not a 
 formal peace, as he had not consented to evacuate 
 Italy. Pyrrhus now crossed over into Sicily, 
 where he remained upwards of 2 years, from 
 the middle of 478 to the latter end of 476. At 
 first he met with brilliant success, defeated the 
 Carthaginians and took Eryx ; but having failed 
 in an attempt upon Lilybaeum, he lost his popu- 
 larity with the Greeks, who began to foi-m cabals 
 and plots against him. This led to retaliation on 
 the part of Pyrrhus, and to acts which were deemed 
 both cruel and tyrannical by the Greeks. His 
 position in Sicily at length became so uncomfortable 
 and dangerous, that he soon became anxious to aban- 
 don the island. Accordingly, when his Italian allies 
 again begged him to come to their assistance, he 
 gladly complied with their request. Pyrrhus re- 
 turned to Italy in the autumn of 276. In the fol- 
 lowing year ('275) the war was brought to a close. 
 Pyrrhus was defeated with great loss near Bene- 
 ventum by the Roman consul Curius Dentatus, and 
 ■was obliged to leave Italy. He brought back with 
 him to Epirus only 8000 foot and 500 horse, and 
 had not money to maintain even these without 
 undertaking new wars. Accordingly, in 273, he 
 invaded Macedonia, of which Antigonus Gonatas, 
 the son of Demetrius, was then king. His only 
 object at first seems to have been plunder ; but 
 his success far exceeded his expectations. Anti- 
 gonus was deserted by his own troops, and Pyrrhus 
 thus became king of Macedonia a second time. 
 But scarcely had he obtained possession of the 
 kingdom before his restless spirit drove him into 
 new enterprises. On the invitation of Gleonymus 
 lie turned his arras against Sparta, but was repulsed 
 in an attack upon this city. From Sparta he marched 
 towards Argos in order to support Aristeas, one of 
 the leading citizens at Argos, against his rival 
 ■ Aristippus, whose cause was espoused by Antigonus. 
 In the night-time Aristeas admitted Pyrrhus into 
 the city ; but the alarm having been given, the 
 ■citadel and all the strong places were seized by 
 the Argives of the opposite faction. On the dawn 
 of day Pyrrhus saw that it would be necessary for 
 him to retreat ; and as he was fighting his way out 
 of the city, an Argive woman hurled down from the 
 house-top, a ponderous tile, which struck Pyrrhus on 
 the back of his neck. He fell from his horse stunned 
 with the blow, and being recognised by some of 
 the soldiers of Antigonus, was quickly despatched. 
 His head was cut off and carried to Antigonus, 
 who turned away from the sight, and ordered 
 the body to be interred with becoming honours. 
 Pyrrhus perished in 272, in the 46 th year of his 
 age, and in the 23rd of his reign. He was the 
 greatest warrior and one of the best princes of his 
 time. With his daring courage, his military skill, 
 and his kingly bearing, he might have become the 
 most powerful monarch of his day, if he had 
 steadily pursued the immediate object before him. 
 But he never rested satisfied with any acquisition, 
 and was ever grasping at some fresh object : hence 
 Antigonus compared him to a gambler, who made 
 many good throws with the dice, but was unable 
 to make the proper use of the game. Pyrrhus was 
 regarded in subsequent times as one of the greatest 
 generals that had ever lived. Hannibal said that 
 of all generals Pyrrhus was the first, Scipio the 
 
 PYTHAGORAS. 
 
 633 
 
 second, and himself the tliird ; or, according to 
 another version of the story, Alexander was the 
 first, Pyrrhus the second, and himself the third. 
 Pyrrhus wrote a work on the ait of war, which 
 was read in the time of Cicero ; and his com- 
 mentaries are quoted both by Dionysius and 
 Plutarch. Pyrrhus married 4 wives. 1. Antigone, 
 the daughter of Berenice. 2. A daughter of Au- 
 doleon, king of the Paeonians. 3. Bircenna, a 
 daughter of Bardylis, king of the Illyrians. 4. La- 
 nassa, a daughter of Agathocles of Syracuse. His 
 children were: — 1. Ptolemy, born 295; killed 
 in battle, 27'2, 2. Alexander, who succeeded his 
 father as king of Epirus. 3. Helenus. 4. Ne- 
 reis, who married Gelon of Syracuse. 5. Olym- 
 pias, who married her own brother Alexander. 
 6. Deidamia or Laodamia. — *3. II. King of Epi- 
 rus, son of Alexander II. and Olympias, and 
 grandson of Pyrrhus I. was a child at the time of 
 his father's death (between 262 and 258). During 
 his minority the kingdom was governed by his 
 mother Olympias. According to one account 
 Olympias survived Pyrrhus, who died soon after 
 he had grown up to manhood ; according to another 
 account Olympias had poisoned a maiden to whom 
 Pyrrhus was attached, and was herself poisoned 
 by him in revenge. 
 
 Pythagoras (nvday6pas), 1. A celebrated 
 Greek philosopher, was a native of Samoa, and the 
 son of Mnesarchus, who was either a merchant, 
 or, according to others, an engraver of signets. 
 The date of his birth is uncertain ; but all autho- 
 rities agree that he flourished in the times of Poly- 
 crates and Tarquinius Superbus (b. c. 540 — 510), 
 He studied in his own country under Creophilus, 
 Pherecydes of Syros, and others, and is said to 
 have visited Egypt and many countries of the East 
 for the purpose of acquiring knowledge. We have 
 not much trustworthy evidence, either as to the 
 kind and amount of knowledge which he acquired, 
 or as to his definite philosophical views. It is 
 certain liowever that he believed in the transmi- 
 gration of souls ; and he is said to have pre- 
 tended that he had been Eiiphorbus, the son of 
 Panthus, in the Trojan war, as well as various other 
 characters. He is further said to have discovered 
 the propositions that the triangle inscribed in a 
 semi-circle is right-angled, that the square on 
 the hypotenuse of a right-angled triangle is equal 
 to the sum of the squares on the sides. There is 
 a celebrated story of his having discovered the 
 arithmetical relations of the musical scale by ob- 
 serving accidentally the various sounds produced 
 by hammers of different weights striking upon an 
 anvil, and suspending by strings weights equal to 
 those of the different hammers. The retailers of 
 the story of course never took the trouble-to verify 
 the experiment, or they would have discovered 
 that different hammers do not produce different 
 sounds from the same anvil, any more than dif- 
 ferent clappers do from the same bell. Discoveries 
 in astronomy are also attributed to Pythagoras. 
 There can be little doubt that he paid great atten- 
 tion to arithmetic, and its application to weights, 
 measures, and the theory of music. Apart from 
 all direct testimony, however, it may safely be 
 affirmed, that the very remarkable influence ex- 
 erted by Pythagoras, and even the fact that he 
 was made the hero of so many marvellous stories, 
 prove him to have been a man both of singular 
 capabilities and of great acquirements. It may 
 
534 
 
 PYTHAGORAS. 
 
 also be affirmed with safety that the religious 
 element was the predominant one in the character 
 of Pythagoras, and that religious ascendancy in 
 connection with a certain mystic religious system 
 was the object which he chiefly laboured to secure. 
 It was this religious element which made the pro- 
 foundest impression upon his contemporaries. They 
 regarded hira as standing in a peculiarly close 
 connection with the gods. The Crotoniates even 
 identified him with the Hyperborean Apollo. And 
 without viewing him as an impostor, we may easily 
 believe that he himself to some extent shared the 
 same views. He pretended to divination and 
 prophecy ; and he appears as the revealer of a 
 mode of life calculated to raise his disciples above 
 the level of mankind, and to recommend them to 
 the fevour of the gods. — No certainty can be 
 arrived at as to the length of time spent by Pytha- 
 goras in Egypt or the East, or as to his residence 
 and efforts in Samos or other Grecian cities, before 
 he settled at Crotona in Italy. He probably re- 
 moved to Crotona because he found it impossible 
 to realise his schemes in his native country, while 
 lander the tyranny of Polycrates. The reason 
 why he selected Crotona as the sphere of his opera- 
 tions, it is impossible to ascertain; but soon after 
 his arrival in that city he attained extensive in- 
 fluence, and gained over preat numbers to enter 
 into his views. His adherents were chiefly of the 
 noble and wealthy classes. Three hundred of 
 these were formed into a select brotherhood or 
 club, bound by a sort of vow to Pythagoras and 
 each other, for the purpose of cultivating the re- 
 ligious and ascetic observances enjoyed by their 
 master, and of studying his religious and philoso- 
 phical theories. Every thing that was done and 
 taught among the members was kept a profound 
 secret from all without its pale. It was an old 
 Pythagorean maxim, that every thing was not to 
 be told to every body. There were also gradations 
 among the members themselves. In the admission 
 of candidates Pythagoras is said to have placed 
 great reliance on his physiognomical discernment. 
 If admitted, they had to pass through a period of 
 probation, in which their powers of maintaining 
 silence were especially tested, as well as their 
 general temper, disposition, and mental capacity. 
 As regards the nature of the esoteric instruction 
 to which only the most approved members of the 
 fraternity were admitted, some have supposed 
 that it had reference to the political views of Py- 
 thagoras. Others have maintained, with greater 
 probability, that it related mainly to the orffieS, or 
 secret religious doctrines and usages, which un- 
 doubtedly formed a prominent feature in the Py- 
 thagorean system, and were peculiarly connected 
 Tvith the worship of Apollo. There were some 
 outward peculiarities of an ascetic kind in the 
 mode of life to which the members of the brother- 
 hood were subjected. Some represent him as for- 
 bidding all animal food; but all the members 
 cannot have been subjected to this prohibition ; 
 since the athletic Milo, for instance, could not 
 possibly have dispensed with animal food. Ac- 
 cording to some ancient authorities, he allowed 
 the use of all kinds of animal food except the flesh 
 of oxen used for ploughing, and rams. There is a 
 similar discrepancy as to the prohibition of fish and 
 beans. But temperance of all kinds seems to have 
 been strictly enjoined. It is also stated that they 
 had common meals, resembling the Spartan sys- 
 
 PYTHAGORAS. 
 
 sitia, at which they met in companies of ten. Con- 
 siderable importance seems to have been attached 
 to music and gymnastics in the daily exercises of 
 the disciples. Their whole discipline is repre- 
 sented as tending to produce a lofty serenity and 
 self-possession, regarding the exhibition of which 
 various anecdotes were current in antiquity. Among 
 the best ascertained features of the brotherhood are 
 the devoted attachment of the members to each 
 other, and their sovereign contempt for those who 
 did not belong to their ranks. It appears that 
 they had some secret conventional symbols, by 
 which members of the fraternity could recognise 
 each other, even if they had never met before. 
 Clubs similar to that at Crotona were established 
 at Sybaris, Metapontum, Tarentum, and other cities 
 of Magna Graecia. — The institutions of Pythago- 
 ras were certainly not intended to withdraw those 
 who adopted them from active exertipn, that they 
 might devote themselves exclusively to religious and 
 pliilosophical contemplations. He rather aimed at 
 the production of a calm bearing and elevated tone 
 of character, through which those trained in the 
 discipline of the Pythagorean life should exhibit 
 in their personal and social capacities a reflection 
 of the order and harmony of the universe. Whether 
 he had any distinct political designs in the foun- 
 dation of his brotherhood, is doxibtful ; but it was 
 perfectly natural, even without any express design 
 on his part, that a club such as the Three Hundred 
 of Crotona should gradually come to mingle po- 
 litical with other objects, and by the facilities 
 afforded by their secret and compact organisation 
 should speedil)"" gain extensive political influence. 
 That this influence should be decisively on the 
 side of aristocracy or oligarchy, resulted naturally 
 both from the nature of the Pythagorean insti- 
 tutions, and from the rank and social position of 
 the members of the brotherhood. Through them, 
 of course, Pythagoras himself exercised a large 
 amount of indirect influence over the affairs both 
 of Crotona and of other Italian cities. This Py- 
 thagorean brotherhood or order resembled in many 
 respects the one founded by Loyola. It is easy 
 to understand how this aristocratical and exclusive 
 club would excite the jealousy and hostility not 
 only of the democratical party in Crotona, but also 
 of a considerable number of the opposite faction. 
 The hatred which they had excited speedily led 
 to their destruction. The populace of Crotona 
 rose against them ; and an attack was made upon 
 them while assembled either in the house of Milo, 
 or in some other place of meeting. The building 
 was set on fire, and many of the assembled mem- 
 bers perished ; only the younger and more active 
 escaped. Similar commotions ensued in the other 
 cities of Magna Graecia in which Pythagorean 
 clubs had been formed. As an active and organ- 
 ised brotherhood the Pythagorean order was every- 
 where suppressed ; but the Pythagoreans still 
 continued to exist as a sect, the members of which 
 kept up among themselves their religious observ- 
 ances and scientific pursuits, while individuals, as 
 in the case of Archytas, acquired now and then 
 great political influence. Respecting the fate of 
 Pythagoras himself, the accounts varied. Some 
 say that he perished in the temple with his dis- 
 ciples, others that he fled first to Tarentum, and 
 that, being driven thence, he escaped to Meta- 
 pontum, and there starved himself to death. His 
 tomb was shown at Metapontum in the time of 
 
PYTHAGORAS. 
 
 Cicero. — According to some accounts Pythagoras 
 married Theano, a lady of Crotona, and had a 
 daughter Darao, and a son Telaiiges, or, according 
 to others, two daugliters, Damo and Myia ; while 
 other notices seem to imply that he had a wife 
 and a daughter grown up, when he came to Cro- 
 tona. — When we come to inquire what were the 
 philosophical or religious opinions held by Py- 
 thagoras himself, we are met at the outset by the 
 difficulty that even the authors from whom we 
 have to draw possessed no authentic records bear- 
 ing upon the dge of Pythagoras himself. If Py- 
 thagoras ever wrote any thing, his writings perished 
 with him, or not long after. The probability is 
 that he wrote nothing. Every thing current under 
 his name in antiquity was spurious. It is all but 
 certain that Philolaus was the first who published 
 the Pythagorean doctrines, at any rate in a written 
 form [Philolaus]. Still there was so marked a 
 peculiarity running through the Pythagorean phi- 
 losophy, that there can be little question as to the 
 germs of the system at any rate having been de- 
 rived from Pythagoras himself. Pythagoras re- 
 sembled the philosophers of the Ionic school, who 
 undertook to solve by means of a single primordial 
 principle the vague problem of the origin and con- 
 stitution of the universe as a whole. His predi- 
 lection for mathematical studies led him to trace 
 the origin of all things to number^ his theory being 
 suggested, or at all events confirmed, by the ob- 
 servation of various numerical relations, or analo- 
 gies to them, in the phenomena of the universe. 
 — Musical principles likewise played almost as 
 important a part in the Pythagorean system as 
 mathematical or numerical ideas. We find running 
 through the entire system the idea that order, or 
 harmony of relation, is the regulating principle of 
 the whole universe. The intervals between the 
 heavenly bodies were supposed to be determined 
 according to the laws and relations of musical 
 harmony. Hence arose the celebrated doctrine of 
 the harmony of the spheres ; for the heavenly 
 bodies in their motion could not but occasion a 
 certain sound or note, depending on their distances 
 and velocities ; and as these were determined by 
 the laws of harmonical intervals, the notes alto- 
 gether formed a regular musical scale or harmony. 
 This harmony, however, we do not hear, either 
 because we have been accustomed to it from the 
 first, and have never had an opportunity of con- 
 trasting it with stillness, or because the sound is 
 BO powerful as to exceed our capacities for hearing. 
 The ethics of the Pythagoreans consisted more in 
 ascetic practice, and maxims for the restraint of 
 the passions, especially of anger, and the cultiva- 
 tion of the power of endurance, than in scientific 
 theory. What of the latter they had was, as 
 might be expected, intimately connected with their 
 number-theory. Happiness consisted in the science 
 of the perfection of the virtues of the soul, or in 
 the perfect science of numbers. Likeness to the 
 Deity was to be the object of all our endeavours, 
 man becoming better as he approaches the gods, 
 who are the guardians and guides of men. Great 
 importance was attached to the influence of music 
 in controlling the force of the passions. Self- 
 examination was strongly insisted on. The trans- 
 migration of souls was viewed apparently in the 
 light of a process of purification. Souls under the 
 dominion of sensuality either passed into the bodies 
 of animals, or, if incurable, were thrust down 
 
 PYTHIUS. 635 
 
 into Tartarus, to meet with expiation, or condign 
 punishment. The pure were exalted to higher 
 modes of life, and at last attained to incorporeal 
 existence. As regards the fruits of this system 
 of training or belief, it is interesting to remark, 
 that wherever we have notices of distinguished 
 Pythagoreans, we usually hear of them as men 
 of great uprightness, conscientiousness, and self- 
 restraint, and as capable of devoted and enduring 
 friendship. [See Archytas ; Damon and Phin- 
 TiAS.] — 3. Of Rhegium, one of the most cele- 
 brated statuaries of Greece, probably flourished 
 B. c. 480 — 430. His most important works ap- 
 pear to have been his statues of athletes. 
 
 Pytheas {Uvdeas). 1. An Athenian orator, 
 distinguished by his unceasing animosity against 
 Demosthenes. He had no political principles, 
 made no pretensions to honesty, and changed sides 
 as often as suited his convenience or his interest. Of 
 the part that he took in political affairs only two or 
 three facts are recorded. He opposed the honours 
 which the Athenians proposed to confer upon 
 Alexander, but he afterwards espoused the inter- 
 ests of the Macedonian party. He accused Demo- 
 sthenes of having received bribes from Harpalua. 
 In the Lamian war, b. c. 322, he joined Antipater, 
 and had thus the satisfaction of surviving his great 
 enemy Demosthenes. He is said to have been 
 the author of the well-known saying, that the ora- 
 tions of Demosthenes smelt of the lamp. ^2. Of 
 Massilia, in Gaul, a celebrali^d Greek navigator, 
 who sailed to the western and northern parts of 
 Europe, and wrote a work containing the results of 
 his discoveries. He probably lived in the time of 
 Alexander the Great, or shortly afterwards. He 
 appears to have undertaken voyages, one in which 
 he visited Britain and Thule, and of which he 
 probably gave an account in his work On the Ocean ; 
 and a second, undertaken after his return from his 
 first voyage, in which he coasted along the whole 
 of Europe from Gadira {Cadiz) to the Tanais, and 
 the description of which probably formed the sub- 
 ject of his Feriplus. Pytheas made Thuie a 6 
 days' sail from Britain ; and said that the day 
 and the night were each 6 months long in Thule. 
 Hence some modern writers have supposed that 
 he must have reached Iceland ; while others have 
 maintained that he advanced as far as the Shetland 
 Islands. But either supposition is very improbable, 
 and neither is necessary ; for reports of the great 
 length of the day and night in the northern parts 
 of Europe had already reached the Greeks, before 
 the time of Pytheas. There has been likewise 
 much dispute as to what river we are to understand 
 by the Tanais. The most probable conjecture is 
 that upon reaching the Elbe, Pytheas concluded 
 that he had arrived at the Tanais, separating Eu- 
 rope from Asia. ^ 3. A silver-chaser, who flourished 
 at Rome in the age immediately following that of 
 Pompey, and whose productions commanded a re- 
 markably high price. 
 
 Pythias (nuflioy). 1. The sister or adopted 
 daughter of Hermias, and the wife of Aristotle. 
 •^2. Daughter of Aristotle and Pythias. 
 
 Pytliium {UuBiov). 1. A place in Attica, not 
 far from Eleusis. — 2. A town of Thessaly in the 
 E. part of the district Hestiaeotis, which with 
 Azorus and Doliche formed a Tripolis. 
 
 Pythius (nu0ios), a Lydian, the son of Atys, 
 was a man of enormous wealth, which he derived 
 from his gold mines in the neighbourhood of Ce- 
 
636 
 
 PYTHOCLIDES. 
 
 laenae in Phrygia. When Xerxes arrived at 
 Celaenae, Pythius banqueted him and his whole 
 army. His five sons accompanied Xerxes. Pythiu?, 
 alarmed by an eclipse of the sun which happened, 
 came to Xerxes, and begged that the eldest might 
 be left behind. This request so enraged the king 
 that he had the young man immediately killed 
 and cut in two, and the two portions of his body 
 placed on either side of the road, and then ordered 
 the army to march between them. 
 
 Pytlioclides {Uu6oic\iii57}s)y a celebrated musi- 
 cian of the time of Pericles, was a native of Ceos, 
 and flourished at Athens, under the patronage of 
 Pericles, whom lie instructed in his art. 
 
 Pythodoris {Uvdo^copis), wife of Polemon I. 
 ting of Pontus. After the death of her husband 
 she retained possession of the government. She 
 subsequently married Archelaus, king of Cappa- 
 docia, but after his death (a. d. 17) returned to 
 her own kingdom, of which she continued to admi- 
 nister the affairs herself until her decease, which 
 probably did not take place until a. o. 30. Of 
 her two sons, the one, 2enon, became king of 
 Armenia, while the other, Polemon, succeeded her 
 on the throne of Pontus. 
 
 Python {TlvBoiv). 1. The celebrated serpent, 
 ■which was produced from the mud left on the earth 
 after the deluge of Deucalion. He lived in the 
 caves of Mt. Parnassus, but was slain by Apollo, 
 who founded the Pythian games in commemoration 
 of his victory, and received in consequence the sur- 
 name Pylliius. ^ 2. Of Catana, a dramatic poet of 
 the time of Alexander, whom he accompanied into 
 Asia, and whose army he entertained with a 
 satyric drama, when they were celebrating the 
 Dionysia on the banks of the Hydaspes. The 
 drama was in ridicule of Harpalus and the Athe- 
 uians. 
 
 Pyxites (nulfrrjs : Vitzeh)^ a river of Pontus, 
 falling into the Euxine near Trapezus. 
 
 PyXUS. [BUXENTUM.] 
 
 Q- 
 
 Quadi, a powerful German people of the Suevic 
 race, dwelt in the S.E. of Germany, between Mt. 
 Gabreta, the Hercj-nian forest, the S:irmatian 
 mountains, and the Danube. They -were bounded 
 on the W. by the Marcomanni, with whom they 
 ■were always closely united, on tlie N. by the 
 Gothini and Osi, on the E. by the lazyges Meta- 
 nastae, from whom they were separated by tlie 
 river Granuas (Craji), and on the S. by the Pan- 
 nonians, from whom they were divided by the 
 Danube. They probably settled in this district at 
 the same time as the Marcomanni made tliem- 
 selves masters of Bohemia [Marcomanni] ; but 
 we have no account of the earlier settlements of 
 the Quadi. When Maroboduus, and shortly after- 
 wards his successor Catnalda, had been expelled 
 from their dominions and had taken refuge with 
 the Romans in the reign of Tiberius, the Romans 
 assigned to the barbarians, who had accompanied 
 these monarchs, and who consisted chiefly of Mar- 
 comanni and Quadi, the country between the 
 Marus {March"! Morava ? or Marosch ?) and Cu- 
 sus ( Wauff ?), and gave to thera as king Vannius, 
 ■who belonged to the Quadi. Vannius was ex- 
 pelled by his nephews Vangio and Sido, but this 
 new kingdom of the Quadi continued for a long 
 
 QUADRIGARIUS. 
 
 time afterwards under Roman protection. In the 
 reign of M. Aurelius, however, the Quadi joined 
 the Marcomanni and other Gennan tribes in the 
 long and bloody war against the empire, which 
 lasted during the greater part of that emperor's 
 reign. The independence of the Quadi and Mar- 
 comanni was secured by tiie peace which Commo- 
 dus made with them in A. D. 180. Their name is 
 especially memorable in the history of this war by 
 tlie victory which M. Aurelius gained over them 
 in 174, when his army was in great danger of 
 being destroyed by the barbarians, and v/as said to 
 have been saved by a sudden storm, which waa 
 attributed to tlte prayers of his Christian soldiers. 
 [Seep. Ill, a.] The Quadi disappear from his- 
 tory towards the end of the 4th century. They 
 probably migrated with the Suevi further W. 
 
 Qnadi'atus, one of the Apostolic Fathers, and an 
 early apologist for the Christian religion. He 
 passed the early part of his life in Asia Minor, 
 and was afterwards bishop of the Church at Athens. 
 He presented his Apology to Hadrian, in lire lOth 
 year of his reign (a. d. 126). This apology has 
 been long lost. 
 
 Quadratus, Asiiii^as, lived in the times of 
 Philippus I. and II., emperors of Rome (a. d. 244 
 ■ — 249), and wrote two historical works in the 
 Greek language. I. A history of Rome, in 15 
 books, in the Ionic dialect, called XiAieriipis, because 
 it related the history of the city, from its founda- 
 tion to the 1 000 th year of its nativity (a. d. 248), 
 when the Ludi Saeculares were performed with 
 extraordinary pomp. 2. A history of Parthia. 
 
 Quadratus, Fannitis, a contemporary of Horace, 
 was one of those envious Roman poets who tried 
 to depreciate Horace, because his writings threw 
 their own into tlie shade. 
 
 Quadrat^us, L. Ninnius, tribune of the plebs 
 B. c. 58, distinguislied himself by his opposition to 
 the measures of his colleague P. Clodius against 
 Cicero, 
 
 Quadratus, Ummldiua. 1. Governor of Syria 
 during the latter end of the reign of Claudius, and 
 the commencement of the reign of Nero, from about 
 A. D. 51 to 60. — 2. A friend and admirer of the 
 younger Pliny, whom he took as his model in 
 oratory. 
 
 Quadrifrons, a surname of Janus. It is said 
 that after the concjuest of the Faliscans an image 
 of Janus was found with 4 foreheads. Hence a 
 temple of Janus Quadrifrons was afterwards built 
 in the Forum transitorium, which had 4 gates. 
 The fact of the god being represented with 4 heads 
 is considered by the ancients to be an indication of 
 his being the divinity presiding over the year with 
 its 4 seasons, 
 
 ftuadrigarius, Q. Claudius, a Roman historian 
 who flourished b. c. 100 — 78. His work, which, 
 contained at least 23 books, commenced imme- 
 diately after the destruction of Rome by the 
 Gauls, and must in all probability have come down 
 to the death of Sulla, since the 7th consulship of 
 Marius was commemorated in the 19th book. By 
 Livy he is uniformly referred to simply as Claudius 
 or Clodius. By otlier authors he is cited as Qiiin- 
 tiits, as Clcmdius^ as Q. Claudizts, as Claudius Qu^- 
 diigariua, or as Quadrigarius. From the caution 
 evinced by Livy in making use of him as an 
 authority, especially in matters relathig to num- 
 bers, it would appear that he was disposed^ to in- 
 dulge, although in a less degree, in those exaggeca- 
 
QUARTATES. 
 tions which disfigured the productions of his con- 
 temporary Valerius Antias. It is somewhat re- 
 markable that lie is nowhere noticed by Cicero. 
 By A. Gellius, on the other hand, he is quoted re- 
 peatedly, and praised in the waraipat terms. 
 
 Quariates, a people in Gallia Narbonensis, on 
 the W. slope of the Alpes Cottiae, in the valley of . 
 Queiras. 
 
 Qnies, the personification of tranquillitj'-, was 
 ■worshipped as a divinity by the Romans. She 
 hiid one sanctuary on the Via Lavicana, probably a 
 pleasant resting-place for the weary traveller ; and 
 another outside the Porta CoUina. 
 
 Quietus, Q. Lusius, an independent Moorish 
 chief, served with distinction under Trajan both in 
 the Dacian and Parthian wars. Trajan made him 
 governor of Judaea, and raised him to the consul- 
 ship in A. D. 116 or 117. After Trajan's death he 
 returned to his native country, but he was suspected 
 by Hadrian of fomenting the disturbances which 
 then prevailed in Mauretania, and was shortly 
 afterwards put to death by order of Hadrian. 
 
 Quintilius Varus. [Varus,] 
 
 Quintia, or Quinctia Gens, an ancient patrician 
 gens at Rome, was one of the Alban houses re- 
 moved to Rome by Tullus Hostilius, and enrolled 
 by him among the patricians. Its members often 
 held throughout the whole history of the republic 
 the highest offices of the state. Its 3 most dis- 
 tinguished families bore the n.imes of Capitolinus^ 
 Cincinnatiis^ and Flaininvms. 
 
 Quintilianus, M. Fabius, the most celebrated 
 of Roman rhetoricians, was born at Calagurris 
 {Calahorra), in Spain, a. d. 40. If not reared at 
 JFlome, he must at least have completed his edu- 
 cation there, for he himself informs us that, while 
 yet a very young man, he attended the lectures of 
 JJomitius Afer, who died in 59. Having revisited 
 Snain, he returned from thence (6J)) in the train of 
 Graiba, and forthwith began to practise at the bar, 
 "where he acquired considerable reputation. But 
 he was chiefly distinguished as a teacher of elo- 
 quence, bearing away the palm in this department 
 from all his rivals, and associating his name, even 
 to a proverb, with pre-eminence in the art. Among 
 bis pupils were numbered Pliny the younger and 
 the two grand-nephews of Bomitian. By this 
 prince he was invested with the insignia and title 
 of consul [consula7na ornaine»ta)^ and is, moreover, 
 celebrated as the first public instructor, who, in 
 virtue of the endowment by Vespasian, received a 
 regular salary from the imperial exchequer. After 
 having devoted 20 years, commencing probably 
 ■with 69^ to the duties of his profession, he retired 
 into private life, and is supposed to have died about 
 118. The great work of Quintilian is a complete 
 system of rhetoric in 12 books, entitled De Insti- 
 tutione Oratorla Lihri XIL, or sometimes, Insiitu- 
 iiones Oraio7-iae, dedicated to his friend Marcellus 
 Victorius, himself a celebrated orator, and a favour- 
 ite at court. It was written during the reign of 
 Domitian, while the author was discharging his 
 duties as preceptor to the sons of the emperor's 
 niece. In a short preface to his bookseller Trypho, 
 he acquaints us that he commenced this under- 
 talcing after he had retired from his labours as a 
 public instructor (probably in 89), and that he 
 finished his task in little more than 2 years. The 
 1st book contains a dissertation on the preliminary 
 training requisite before a youth can enter directly 
 upon the studies necessary to mould an accom- 
 
 QUINTIUS. 637" 
 
 plished orator, and presents us with a carefully 
 sketched outline of tlic method to be pursued in 
 educating children, from the time they leave the 
 cradle until they pass from the hands of the gram- 
 marian. In the 2nd book we find- an exposition of 
 the first principles of rhetoric, together with an in- 
 vestigation into the nature or essence of the art. 
 The 5 following are devoted to invention and 
 arrangement {inventio, dispositio); the 8th, Sth,^ 
 10th, and 1 Itb to composition (including the proper 
 use of the figures of speech) and deliver}', com- 
 prised under the general term elocutio; and the 
 last is occupied with what the author considers 
 by far the most important portion of his project^ 
 an inquiry, namely, into various circumstances not 
 included in a course of scholastic discipline^ 
 but essential to the formation of a perfect public 
 speaker; such as bis manners — his moral cha- 
 racter, — the principles by which he must be 
 guided in undertaking, in preparing, and in con- 
 ducting causes, — the peculiar style of eloquence 
 which he may adopt with greatest advantage — 
 the collateral studies to be pursued — the age at 
 which it is most suitable to commence pleading — 
 the necessity of retiring before the powers begin 
 to fail — and various other kindred topics. This 
 production bears throughout the impress of a clear, 
 sound judgment, keen discrimination, and pure 
 taste, improved by extensive reading, deep reflec- 
 tion, and long practice. The diction is highly 
 polished, and very graceful. The sections which 
 possess the greatest interest for general readers are 
 those chapters in the first book which relate to 
 elementary education, and the commencement of 
 the 10th book, which furnishes us with a compressed 
 but spirited history of Greek and Roman literature. 
 There are also extant 164 declamations under the 
 name of Quintilian, 19 of considerable length ; the 
 remaining 145, which form the concluding portion 
 only of a collection which originally extended to 
 388 pieces, are mere skeletons or fragments. No 
 one believes these to be the genuine productions of 
 Quintilian, and few suppose that they proceeded 
 from any one individual. They apparently belong 
 not only to different persons, but to different 
 periods, and neither in style nor in substance do 
 they offer any thing which is either attractive or 
 useful. Some scholars suppose that the anonymous 
 Dialogiis de Oratorilms, usually printed among the 
 works of Tacitus, ought to be assigned to Quin- 
 tilian. The best editions of Quintilian are, by 
 Burmann, 2 vols. 4to., Lug. Bat. 1720 ; by Gesner, 
 4to. Gott. 1738; and by Spalding and Zumpt, 6 
 vols. 8vo. Lips. 1798—1829. 
 
 Quintilius, M. Aurelius, the brother of the 
 emperor M. Aurelius Claudius, was elevated to th& 
 throne by the troops whom he commanded at Aqui- 
 leia, in a. d, 270. But as the army at Sirmium, 
 where Claudius died, had proclaimed Aurelian em- 
 peror, Quintilius put an end to his own life, seeing 
 himself deserted by his own soldiers, to whom the 
 rigour of his discipline had given offence. 
 
 T. Quintxus Capitolinus Barbatus, a celebrated 
 general in the early history of the republic, and 
 equally distinguished in the* internal history of the 
 state. He frequently acted as mediator between 
 the patricians and plebeians, with both of whom he 
 was held in the highest esteem. He was six 
 times consul, namely, in b. c. 471, 468, 465, 446, 
 443,439. — Several of his descendants held the 
 consulship, but none of these require mention ex- 
 
- -^38 
 
 QUllSTUS. 
 
 cept T. Quintius Pennus Capitolinus Crispinus, 
 who ivas consul 208, and w.'vs defeated by Han- 
 nibal, 
 
 Quintus, an eminent physician at Rome, in the 
 former half of the 'Jnd century after Christ He 
 was so much superior to his medical colleagues that 
 they grew jealous of his eminence, and formed a sort 
 of coalition against him, and forced him to quit the 
 city by charging him with killing his patients. He 
 died about a. d. 148. 
 
 QuintTis Curtius. [Curtius.] 
 
 Quintus Smymaeus (KdiVros 'S./xvpyaios)^ com- 
 monly called Quintus Calaber, from the circum- 
 stance that the first copy through which his poem 
 became known was found in a convent at Otranto 
 in Caiabria. He was the author of an epic poem 
 in 14 books, entitled to; /xeff "O/xrjpou, or irapaXei- 
 ■KQfisva. 'O/iiipcf. Scarcely any thing is known of his 
 personal history ; but it appears most probable that 
 he lived towards the end of the 4th centur}-- after 
 Christ. The matters treated of in his poem are the 
 events of the Trojan war from the death of Hector 
 to the return of the Greeks. In phraseology, 
 similes, and other technicalities, Quintus closely 
 copied Homer. The materials for his poem he 
 found in the works of the earlier poets of the epic 
 cycle. But not a single poetical idea of his own 
 seems ever to have inspired him. His gods and 
 heroes are alike devoid of all character: every tiling 
 like pathos or moral interest was quite beyond his 
 powers. With respect to chronology his poem is 
 as punctual as a diary. His style, however, is clear, 
 and marked on the whole by purity and good taste, 
 without any bombast or exaggeration. There can 
 be little doubt that his work is nothing more than 
 an amplification or remodelling of the poems of Arc- 
 tinus and Lesches. He appears to have also made 
 diligent use of Apollonius. The best edition is by 
 Tychs^en, Strasburg, 1807. 
 
 Quinnalis Mons. [Roma.] 
 
 Quirmus, a Sabine word, perhaps derived from 
 quiTi^, a lance or spear. It occurs first of all as 
 the name of Romulus, after he had been raised to 
 the rank of a divinity; and the festival celebrated 
 in his honour bore the name of Quirinalia. It is 
 also used as a surname of Mars, Janus, and even 
 of Augustus. 
 
 Quirinus, P. Sulpicius, was a native of Lanu- 
 vium, and of obscure origin, but was raised to the 
 highest honours by Augustus. He was consul b. c. 
 12, and subsequently carried on war against some 
 of the robber tribes dwelling in the mountains of 
 Cilicia. In b. c. 1, Augustus appointed him to 
 direct the counsels of his grandson C. Caesar, then 
 in Armenia. Some years afterwards, but not be- 
 fore A. D. 5, he was appointed governor of Syria, and 
 while in this office he took a census of the Jewish 
 people. This is the statement of Josephus, and 
 appears to be at variance with that of Luke, who 
 speaks as if the census or enrolment of Cyrenius 
 (i. e. Quirinus) was made at the time of the birth 
 of Christ. Quirinus liad been married to Aemilia 
 Lepida, whom he divorced ; but in a. d. 20, twenty 
 years after the divorce, he brought an accusation 
 against her. The conduct of Quirinus met with 
 general disapprobation as harsh and revengeful. 
 He died in a. d. 21, and was honoured with a 
 public funeral. 
 
 Quiza {KovX^a : CHza near Oran), a munici- 
 pium on the coast of Mauretania Caesarenais in 
 N, Africa, 40 Roman miles W. of Arsenaria. 
 
 -^^,A^i^im.- 
 
 Eaamses or Rameses (lxx. 'Pa^etro-^), a city 
 of Lower Kgypt, built as a treasure city by the 
 captive Israelites under the oppression of the Pha- 
 raoh " who knew not Joseph '' (Exod. i. 11) ; and 
 usually identified with Heroopolis. 
 
 Rabatlimoba {'Pa€a6/j.coSa^ i. e. Rabbath-Moab, 
 0. T., also called Rabbah, Ar, Ar.-Moab and aft. 
 Areopolis : Rabbah), the ancient capital of the 
 Moabites, lay in a fertile plain, on the E. side of 
 the Dead Sea, and S. of the river Arnon, in the 
 district of Moabitis in Arabia Petraea, or, accord- 
 ing to the later division of the provinces, in Pa- 
 laestina Tertia. 
 
 Rabbatamana ('FaSar diiava, i. e. Rabbath- 
 Ammon, 0. T. : Ammon^ Ru.), the ancient capital 
 of the Ammonites, lay in Peraea on a S. tributary 
 of the Jabbok, N.E. of the Dead Sea. Ptolemy II. 
 Philadelphus gave it the name of Philadelphia; 
 and it long continued a flourishing and splendid 
 city. 
 
 Rabinus. 1. C, an aged senator, was accused 
 in B, c. 63, by T. Labienus, tribune of the plebs, of 
 having put to death the tribune L. Appuleius 
 Saturninus in 100, nearly 40 years before. [Sa- 
 TURNiNus.] The accusation was set on foot at 
 the instigation of Caesar, who judged it necessary 
 to deter the senate from resorting to arras against 
 the popular party. To make the warning still 
 more striking, Labienus did not proceed against him 
 on the charge of majestas, but revived the old accu- 
 sation of perdnellio, which had been discontinued 
 for some centuries, since persons found guilty of 
 the latter crime were given over to the public exe- 
 cutioner and hanged on the accursed tree. The 
 Duumvin Perduellionis appointed to try Rabirius 
 were C. Caesar himself and his relative L. Caesar. 
 With such judges the result could not be doubt- 
 ful ; Rabirius was forthwith condemned ; and the 
 sentence of death would have been carried into 
 effect, had he not availed himself of his right of 
 appeal to the people in the comitia of the centuries. 
 The case excited the greatest interest ; since it was 
 not simply the life or death of Rabirius, but the 
 power and authority of the senate, which were at 
 stake. Rabirius was defended by Cicero ; but the 
 eloquence of his advocate was of no avail, and the 
 people would have ratified the decision of the 
 duumvirs, had not the meeting been broken up by 
 the praetor, Q. Metellus Celer, who removed the 
 military flag which floated on the Janiculum. 
 This was in accordance with an ancient custom, 
 which wag intended to prevent the Campus Mar- 
 tius from being surprised by an enemy, when the 
 territory of Rome scarcely extended beyond the 
 boundaries of the city. — 2. C. Rabirius Fostu- 
 mus, was the son of the sister of the preceding. 
 He was born after the death of his father, whence 
 his surname Postumus ; and he was adopted by 
 his uncle, whence his name C. Rabirius. He had 
 lent large sums of money to Ptolemy Auletes; and 
 after the restoration of Ptolemy to hia kingdom by 
 means of Gabinius, in b. c. 65, Rabirius repaired 
 to Alexandria, and was invested by the king with 
 the office of Dioecetes, or chief treasurer. In this 
 office he had to amass money both for himself and 
 for Gabinius ; but hia extortions were so terrible 
 that Ptolemy had him apprehended, either to secure 
 him against the wrath of the people, or to satisfy 
 
-RAeitil^-S. 
 
 REATE. 
 
 -&39- 
 
 their indignation, lest they should drive hira again 
 from his kingdom. Rabiriua escaped from prison, 
 probably through the connivance of the king, and 
 returned to Rome. Here a trial awaited hira. 
 Gabinius had been sentenced to pay a heavy fine 
 on account of his extortions in Egypt ; and as he 
 was iinable to pay this fine, a suit was instituted 
 against Rabirius, who was liable to make up the 
 deficiency, if it could be proved that he had re- 
 ceived any of the money of which Gabinius had 
 illegally become possessed. Rabirius was defended 
 by Cicero, and was probably condemned. He is 
 mentioned at a later time (46) as serving under 
 Caesar, who sent him from Africa into Sicily, in 
 order to obtain provisions for his arni}'^. — 3. A 
 Roman poet, who lived in the last years of the 
 republic, and wrote a poem on the Civil Wars. A 
 portion of this poem was found at Hercuhineum, and 
 ■was edited by Kreyssig, under the title " Carminis 
 Latini de bello Actiaco s. Alexandrino fragmenta,'' 
 4to. Schneeberg, 1814. 
 
 L. Eacilius, tribune of the plebs, b. c. 56^ and a 
 warm friend of Cicero and of Lentulus Spinther. 
 In the civil war Raciliiis espoused Caesar's party, 
 and wag with his army in Spain in 48. There 
 he entered into the conspiracy formed against the 
 life of Q. Cassius Longinus, tlie governor of that 
 proviiice, and was put to death, with the other 
 conspirators, by Longinus. 
 
 EadagaisTis, a Scythian, invaded Italy at the 
 head of a formidable host of barbarians, in the 
 reign of the emperor Honorius. He was defeated 
 by Stilicho, near Florence, in a. d. 408, and was 
 put to death after the battle, although he had capi- 
 tulated on condition that his life should be saved. 
 
 Kama or Arimathaea ('Pa/ia, 'kpi^aQaia \ Er- 
 Ram)^ a town of Judaea, N. of Jerusalem, in the 
 mountains of Ephraira, frequently mentioned both 
 in the 0. and N. T. 
 
 Eambacia ('PajugaKia), the chief city of the 
 Oritae, on the coast of Gedrosia, colonised by 
 Alexander the Great. 
 
 KamitUa. [Laodicea, No. 3.] 
 
 Eamses, the name of many kings of Egypt of 
 the 18th, 19th, and 20th dynasties. It was during 
 this era that most of the great monuments of Egypt 
 were erected, and the name is consequently of fre- 
 quent occurrence on these monuments, where it 
 appears under the form of Ramessu. In Julius 
 Africanus and Eusebius it is written Ramses, Ra- 
 rneses, or Ramesses. The most celebrated of the 
 kings of this name is, however, usually called Se- 
 sostris by the Greek writers. [Sesostris.] 
 
 Eapliana or Eaphaneae {'7a<pa.v^ar, Rafaniat^ 
 Ru.), a city of Syria, in the district of Cassiotis, 
 at the N. extremity of Lebanon. 
 
 Baphia or Baphea ('Pa^ta, 'Patpeto : Repha), 
 a sea-port town in the extreme S.W. of Palestine, 
 beyond Gaza, on the edge of the desert. It was 
 restored by Gabiniua. 
 
 Easenae, [Etruria.] 
 
 Eatiaria {Arzer Falanka), an important town 
 in Moesia Superior on the Danube, the head- 
 quarters of a Roman legion, and the station of one 
 of the Roman fleets on the Danube. 
 
 Eatomagus or Eotomagus (Rouen), the chief 
 town of the Vellocassea in Gallia Ludgunensis. 
 
 Eaudii Campi. [Campi Raudii.] 
 
 Eauraci, a people in Gallia Belgica, bounded 
 on the S. by the Helvetii, on the W. by the Se- 
 quani, on the N. by the Tribocci, and on the E. 
 
 by the Rhine. They must have been a people of 
 considerable importance, as 23,000 of them are 
 said to have emigrated with the Helvetii in B.C. 
 58, and they possessed several towns, of which the 
 most important were Augusta {August) and Basilia 
 (Basel or Bale). 
 
 Baiiranum (Rom or Raum nr. Oien.ay), a town 
 of the Pictones in Gallia Aquitanica, S. of Li- 
 monum. 
 
 Eausium or Eausia (Ragusa\ a town on the 
 coast of Dalmatia, is not mentioned till a late 
 period, and only rose into importance after the 
 destruction of Epidaurus. 
 
 Eavenna (Ravennas, -atis: Ravenna), an im- 
 portant town in Gallia Cisalpina, on the river 
 Bedesis and about a mile from the sea, though it is 
 now about 5 miles in the interior in consequence of 
 the sea having receded all along this coast. Ra- 
 venna was situated in the midst of marshes, and 
 was only accessible in one direction by land, pro- 
 bably by the road leading from Ariminum. The 
 town laid claim to a higli antiquity. It was said to 
 have been founded by Thessalians (Pelasgians), 
 and afterwards to have passed into the hands of 
 the Umbrians, but it long remained an insignificant 
 place, and its greatness does not begin till the time 
 of the empire, when Augustus made it one of the 2 
 chief stations of the Roman fleet. This emperor not 
 only enlarged the town, but caused a large harbour 
 to be constructed on the coast, capable of contain- 
 ing 240 triremes, and he connected this harbour 
 with the Po by means of a canal called Padusa or 
 Augusta Fossa. This harbour was called Classes, 
 and between it and Ravenna a new town sprung 
 up, to which the name of Caesarea was given. All 
 three were subsequently formed into one town, and 
 were surrounded by strong fortifications. Ravenna 
 thus suddenly became one of the most important 
 places in the N. of Italy. The town itself how- 
 ever was mean in appearance. In consequence of 
 the marshy nature of the soil, most of the houses 
 were built of wood, and since an arm of the canal 
 was carried through some of the principal streets, 
 the communication was carried on to a great extent 
 by gondolas, as in modern Venice. The town also 
 was very deficient in a supply of good drinking- 
 water ; but it was not considered imhealthy, since 
 the canals drained the marshes to a great extent, 
 and the ebb and flow of the tide prevented the 
 waters from stagnating. In the neighbourhood 
 good wine was grown, notwithstanding the marshy 
 nature of the soil. When the Roman empire was 
 threatened by the barbarians, the emperors of the 
 West took up their residence at Ravenua, which 
 on account of its situation and its fortifications was 
 regarded as impregnable. After the downfall of 
 the Western empire, Theodoric also made it the 
 capital of his kingdom ; and after the overthrow of 
 the Gothic dominion by Narses, it became the 
 residence of the Exarchs or the governors of the 
 Byzantine empire in Italy, till the Lombards took 
 the town, a. d. 752. The modem Ravenna stands 
 on the site of the ancient town ; tlie village Porto 
 di Fuori on the site of Caesarea ; and the ancient 
 harbour is called Porto VeccMo del Caudiano* 
 
 Eeate (Reatinus: Rieti), an ancient iown of 
 the Sabines in central Italy, said to have been 
 founded by the Aborigines or Pelasgians, was 
 situated on the Lacus Velinus and the Via Salaria. 
 It was the chief place of assembly for the Sabines, 
 and was subsequently a praefectura or a munici- 
 
-etd 
 
 REBILUS. 
 
 piura. The valley, in whicli Reate wiis situateil, 
 ■was so beautiful that it received the name of Tampe) 
 and in its neighbourhood is the celebrated water- 
 fall, which 13 now known under the name of tlie 
 fall of Terni or the Cascade delle Marmore. This 
 waterfall owed its origin to a canal constructed by 
 M'. Curius Dentatus, in order to carry oif the 
 superfluous waters from the lake Velinus into the 
 river Nar. It falls into this river from a height 
 of 140 feet. By this undertaking, the Reatini 
 gained a large quantity of land, which was called 
 Rosea Rura. — Reate was celebrated for its mules 
 and asses. 
 
 Eebiliis, C. Canimua one of Caesar"*s legates in 
 Gaul and in the civil war. On the last day of 
 December in b. c. 45, on the sudden death of the 
 consul Q. Fabius Maximus, Caesar made Rebilus 
 consul for the few remaining hours of the day. 
 
 Eediculus, a Roman divinity, who had a temple 
 near the Porta Capena, and who was believed to 
 have received his name from having induced Han- 
 nibal, when he was near the gates of the city, to 
 return (redire) southward. A place on the Appian 
 road, near the 2nd mile-stone from the city, was 
 called Campus Rediculi. This divinity was pro- 
 bably one of the Lares of the city of Rome. 
 
 Redones, a people in the interior of Gallia 
 Lugdunensis, whose chief town was Condate 
 {RenTies). 
 
 Redux, i. e. " the divinity who leads the traveller 
 back to his home in safety," occurs as a surname of 
 Fortuna. 
 
 Re^alianxis, Regalliamis or Regillianus, a 
 Dacian, who served with distinction under the 
 emperors Claudius and Valerian. The Moesians, 
 terrified by the cruelties inflicted by Gallienus on 
 those who had taken part in the rebellion of In- 
 penuuB, suddenly proclaimed Regalianus emperor, 
 and quickly, with the consent of the soldiers, in a 
 jiew fit of alarm, put him to death, a. d. 263. 
 Hence he is enumerated among the 30 Tyrants. 
 
 Regiana ( Villa de Rat/na), a town in Hispania 
 Baetica on the road from Hispalis to Emerita. 
 
 Regilltmi, a small place in the Sabine territory, 
 from which Appius Claudius migrated to Rome. 
 Its site is uncertain, as it disappeared at an early 
 period. 
 
 Regillus, Aemilius. 1. M., had been declared 
 consul, with T. Otacilius, for B. c. 214, by the cen. 
 turia praerogativa, and would have been elected, 
 had not Q. Fabius Maximus, who presided at the 
 comitia, pointed out that there was need of generals 
 of more experience to cope with Hannibal. Re- 
 gillus died in 205, at which time he is spoken of 
 asFIamen Martialis.^2. L., son of the preceding, 
 was praetor 190, when he received the command 
 of the fleet in the war against Antiochus. 
 
 Regillus Lacus, a lake in Latium, memorable 
 for the victory gained on its banks by the Romans 
 over the Latins, b. c. 498. It was E. of Rome in 
 the territory of Tusculum, and between Lavicura 
 and Gabii ; but it cannot be identified with cer- 
 tainty with any modern lake. It perhaps occupied 
 the site of the valle}'- of Isidoro, which is now dry. 
 
 Regiuum or Castra Regina {Regenshurg)^ a 
 Roman fortress in Vindelicia on the Danube, and 
 on the road leading to Vindobona, was the head- 
 quarters of a Roman legion. 
 
 Regium Flumen. [Naarmalcha.] 
 
 Regium Lepldi, Regium Lepidnm, or simply 
 Regium, also Forum Lepidi (Regienses a Lepido : 
 
 - ■ — — ^-EGrtrttTs, ■■"■"" -' 
 
 Rcgqio), a town of the Boii in Gallia Cisalpina 
 between Mutina and Tarentum, which was pro- 
 bably made a colony by the consul M. Aemiiiio 
 Lepidus, when he constructed the Aemilia Via 
 through Cisalpine Gaul, though we have no record 
 of the foundation of the colony. 
 
 Eegulus, M. Aquilius, was one of the dela- 
 tores or informers in the time of Nero, and thug 
 rose from poverty to great wealth. Under Domitian 
 he resumed his old trade, and became one of the 
 instruments of that tyrant's cruelty. He survived 
 Domitian, and is frequently spoken of by Pliny 
 with the greatest detestation and contempt. Mar- 
 tial, on the contrary, who flattered all the creatures 
 of Domitian, celebrates the virtues, the wisdom, 
 and the eloquence of Regulus. 
 
 Regulus, Atilius. 1. M., consul b. c. 335» 
 carried on war against the Sidicini.^3. M., consul 
 294, carried on war against the Samnites. — 3. M., 
 consul 267, conquered the Sallentini, took the town 
 of Brundusium, and obtained in consequence the 
 honour of a triumph. In 256, he was consul a 
 2nd time with L. Manlius Vulso Longus. The 2 
 consuls defeated the Carthaginian fleet, and after- 
 wards landed in Africa with a large force. They 
 met with great and striking success ; and after 
 Manlius returned to Rome with half of the amny, 
 Regulus remained in Africa with the other half 
 and prosecuted the war with the utmost vigour. 
 The Carthaginian geneiTils Hasdrubal, Bnstar, and 
 Hamilcar avoided the plains, where their cavalry 
 and elephants would have given them an advantage 
 over the Roman army, and withdrew into the 
 mountains. There they were attacked by Regulus, 
 and defeated with great loss; 15,000 men are said 
 to have been killed in battle, and 5000 men with 
 ] 8 elephants to have been taken. The Carthaginian 
 troops retired within the walls of the city, and 
 Regulus now overran the country without oppo- 
 sition. Numerous towns fell into the power of the 
 Romans, and among others Tunis, at the distance 
 of only 20 miles from the capital. The Cartha- 
 ginians in despair sent a herald to Regulus to 
 solicit peace. But the Roman general would only 
 grant it on such intolerable terras that the Cartha- 
 ginians resolved to continue the war, and hold out 
 to the last. In the midst of their distress and 
 alarm, success came to them from an unexpected 
 quarter. Among the Greek mercenaries who had 
 lately arrived at Carthage, was a Lacedaemonian 
 of the name of Xanthippus. He pointed out to the 
 Carthaginians that their defeat was owing to the 
 incompetency of their generals, and not to the su- 
 periority of the Roman arms; and he inspired such, 
 confidence in the people, that he was forthwith 
 placed at the head of their troops. Relying on his 
 4000 cavalry and 100 elephants, Xanthippus boldly 
 marched into the open country to meet the enemy. 
 In the battle which ensued, Regulus was totally 
 defeated ; 30,000 of his men were slain ; scarcely 
 2000 escaped to Clypea; and Regulus himself was 
 taken prisoner with 500 more (255). Regulus 
 remained in captivity for the next 5 years, till 250^, 
 when the Carthaginians, after their defeat by the 
 proconsul Metelks, sent an embassy to Rome t<y 
 solicit peace, or at least an exchange of prisoners. 
 They allowed Regulus to accompany the ambas-- 
 sadors on the promise that he would return^ to 
 Rome if their proposals were declined, thinking 
 that he would persuade his countrymen to agree to 
 an exchange of prisoners in order to obtain hia owa 
 
REIT. 
 
 liberty. This embassy of Regulus is one of the 
 most celebrated stories in Roman bititory. The 
 orators and poets related how Regulus at first re- 
 fused to enter the city as a slave of the Cartha- 
 ginians ; how afterwards he would not give his 
 opinion in the senate, as he had ceased by his 
 captivity to be a member of that illustrious body ; 
 how, at length, when he was allowed by the 
 Romans to speak, he endeavoured to dissuade the 
 senate from assenting to a peace, or even to an 
 exchange of prisoners, and when he saw them 
 wavering, from their desire of redeeming him from 
 captivity, how he told them that the Carthaginians 
 had given him a slow poison, which would soon 
 terminate his life; and how, finally, when the senate 
 through hia influence refused the offers of the Car- 
 thaginians, he firmly resisted all the persuasions of 
 his friends to remain in Rome, and returned to 
 Carthage, where a martyr's death awaited him. On 
 his arrival at Carthage he is said to have been put 
 to death with the most excruciating tortures. It 
 was related that he was placed in a chest covered 
 over in the inside with iron nails, and thus perished; 
 and other writers stated in addition, that after his 
 eyelids had been cut off, he was first tfirown into 
 a dark dungeon, and then suddenly exposed to the 
 full rays of a burning sun. When the news of the 
 barbarous death of Regulus reached Rome, the 
 senate is said to have given Hamilcar and Bostar, 
 2 of the noblest Carthaginian prisoners, to the 
 family of Regulus, who revenged themselves by 
 putting them to death with cruel torments. This 
 celebrated tale, however, has nnt been allowed to 
 pass without question in modern times. Many 
 writers supposed that it was invented in order to 
 excuse the cruelties perpetrated by the family of 
 Regulus on the Carthaginian prisoners committed 
 to their custody. Regulus was one of the favourite 
 characters of early Roman story. Not only was 
 he celebrated on account of his heroism in giving 
 the senate advice which secured him a martj'r^s 
 death, but also on account of his frugality and 
 simplicity of life. Like Fabricius and Curius he 
 lived on his hereditary farm which he cultivated 
 with his own hands ; and subsequent jiges loved to 
 tell how he petitioned the senate for his recall from 
 Africa when he was in the full career of victory, as 
 his farm was going to ruin in his absence, and his 
 family was suffering from want. — 4. C. surnamed 
 Serranus, consul 2.57, when he defeated the Car- 
 thaginian fleet off the Liparaean islands, and ob- 
 tained possession of the islands of Lipara and 
 Melite. He was consul a 2nd time in 250, with 
 L. Manlius Vulso. The 2 consuls undertook the 
 siege of Lilybaeum ; but they were foiled in their 
 attempts to carry the place by storm, and after 
 losing a great number of men, were obliged to turn 
 the siege into a blockade. This Regulus is the first 
 Atilius who bears the surname Serranus, which 
 afterwards became the name of a distinct family in 
 the gens. The origin of this name is spoken of 
 under Serranus. — 5. X/C., son of No. 3. was 
 consul 227, and again 217, in the latter of which 
 years he was elected to supply the place of C. 
 Flaminius, who had fallen in the battle of the 
 Trasimene lake. He was censor in 214. — 6. C, 
 consul 225, conquered the Sardinians, who had 
 revolted. On his return to Italy he fought against 
 the Gauls, and fell in the battle. 
 
 Keii Apollinares (Biez)^ a Roman colony in 
 Gallia Narbonenais, with the surname Jul^a Au- , 
 
 RIIAETIA. 
 
 641 
 
 gmia., E. of the river Druentia, N. of Forum Vo- 
 conii and N.W. of Forum Julii. 
 
 Eemesiana or Eomesiaua {Muslapha Palm)hi)^ 
 a town ^n Moesia Superior, between Naisiis and 
 Serdlca. 
 
 Bemi or Rbemi, one of the most powerful 
 people in Gallia Belgica, inhabited the couutry 
 through which the Axona flowed, and were 
 bounded on the S. by the Ncrvii, on the S. E. by 
 the Veromandui, on the E. by the Suessiones and 
 Bellovaci, and on the W. by the Nervii. They 
 formed an alliance with Caesar, when the rest of 
 the Belgae made war against him. B.C. 57. Their 
 chief town was Durocortorum, afterwards called 
 Remi {Rheims), 
 
 Remmius Palaemon. [Palaeaion.] 
 
 Remus. [Romulus.] 
 
 Resaina, Eesaena, Resina {'V^ffaiva^'Veaiva.- 
 Ras-el-Ain)^^ city of Mesopotamia, near the sources 
 of the Chaboras, on the road from Carrae to Nisibis. 
 After its restoration and fortification by Theodosius, 
 it was called Theodosiopolis (0eo5o(Tiou7roA.is). 
 Whether it is the same as the Reseu of the 0. T. 
 (Gen. X. 12) seems very doubtful. 
 
 Rsstio, AntiU3. 1 The author of a sumptuary 
 law of uncertain dace, but passed after the sumptuary 
 law of the consul Aerailius Lepidus, b. c. 78, and 
 before the one of Caesar. — 2. Probably a son of 
 the preceding, proscribed by the triumvirs in 43, 
 but preserved by the fidelity of a slave. 
 
 Reudigni, a people in the N. of Germany on 
 the right bank of the Albis, N. of the Lango- 
 bardi. 
 
 Rex, Marcius. 1. Q., praetor b. c. 144, built 
 the aqueduct, called Aqua Marcia^ which was one 
 of the most important at Rome {DicU of Antiq. art. 
 Aquaedicctiis). —2. Q., consul 118, founded in this 
 year the colony of Narbo Martius in Gaul, and 
 carried on war against the Stoeni, a Ligurian people 
 at the foot of the Alps. — 3. Q,, consul 6J!, and 
 proconsul in Cilicia in the following year. On his 
 return to Rome in 66 he sued for a triumph, but 
 as obstacles were thrown in the way by certain 
 parties, he remained outside the city to prosecute 
 his claims, and was still there when the Catilinarian 
 conspiracy broke out in 63. The senate sent him 
 to Faesulae, to watch the movements of C. Malliua 
 or Manlius, Catiline's general. 
 
 Rha {'Pd: Volga\ a great river of Asia, first 
 mentioned by Ptolemy, who describes it as risinn* 
 in the N. of Sarmatia, in 2 branches, Rha Occi- 
 dentalis and Rha Orientalis (the Volga and tlie 
 ^a/na), after the junction of which it flowed S.W. 
 forming the boundary between Sairaatia Asiatica 
 and Scythia, till near the Tanais (X>07»), where it 
 suddenly turns to the S.E,, and falls into the N.VV". 
 part of the Caspian. 
 
 Rhadamanthus ('PaSa^uacffos), eon of Zeus and 
 Europa, and brother of king Minos of Crete. From 
 fear of his brother he fled to Ocalea in Boeotia, 
 and there married Alcmeue. In consequence of 
 his justice throughout life, he became, after his 
 death, one of the judges in the lower world. 
 
 Rhaetia, a Roman province S. of the Danube, 
 was originally distinct from Vindelicia, and was 
 bounded on the \V. by the Helvetii, on the E, by 
 Noricum, on the N. by Vindelicia, and on the S. by 
 Cisalpine Gaul, thus corresponding to the Grisova 
 in Switzerland, and to the greater part of the Tyrol. 
 Towards the end of the first century, however, 
 Vindelicia was added to the province of Rhaetia. 
 
 T T 
 
642 
 
 RHAGAE. 
 
 whence Tacitus speaks of Augusta Vindelicorura as 
 situated in Rhaetia. At a later time Rhaetia was 
 subdivided into 2 provinces Rhaetia Prima and 
 Rliaetia Secunda, the former of wliich answered to 
 the old province of Rhaetia, and the latter to that 
 of Vindelicia. The boundaries between the 2 
 provinces are not accurately defined, but it may be 
 stated in general that they were separated from 
 each other by the Brigantinus Lacas (Lalce of 
 Constance) and the river Genus {Inn). Vindelicia 
 is spoken of in a separate article. [Vindelicia.] 
 Rhaetia was a very mountainous country, since 
 the main chain of the Alps ran through the greater 
 ]iart of the province. These mountains were called 
 Alpes Rhaeticae, and extended from the St. Go- 
 thard to the Orteler by the pass by the Stelvio ; 
 and in them rose the Oenus {Inn) and most of the 
 chief rivers in the N. of Italy, such as the Athesis 
 {Adlije\ and the Addua {Adda). The valleys 
 produced com and excellent wine, the latter of 
 which was much esteemed in Italy. Augustus 
 drank Rhaetian wine in preference to all others. 
 The original inhabitants of the countiy, the 
 Ehaeti, are said by most ancient writers to have 
 been Tuscans, who were driven out of the N. of 
 Italy by the invasion of the Celts, and who tnok 
 refuge in this mountainous district under a leader 
 called Rhaetus. Many modern writers suppose 
 the Rhaeti and the lUtruscans to have been the 
 same people, only they invert the ancient tradition, 
 and believe that the Rhaeti descended from their 
 original abodes on the Alps, and settled first in 
 the N. of Italy and next in the country afterwards 
 called Etruria. They support this view by the 
 fact that the Etruscans were called in their own 
 language Rasena, which seems merely another form 
 of Rhaeti, as well as by other arguments, into which 
 it is unnecessary to enter in this place. It is im- 
 posaibie to arrive at any certain conclusion respect- 
 ing the original population of the country. In the 
 time of the Romans the country was inliabited by 
 various Celtic tribes. The Rhaeti are first men- 
 tinned by Polybius. They were a brave and war- 
 like people, and caused the Romans much trouble 
 l)y their marauding incursions into Gaul and the 
 N. of Italy. They were not subdued by the 
 Romans till the reign of Augustus, and they olfered 
 a brave and desperate resistance against both 
 Drusus and Tiberius, who finally conquered theiu. 
 Rhaetia was then formed into a Roman province, 
 to which Vindelicia was afterwards added, as has 
 been already stated. Tlie victories of J>usus and 
 Tiberius were celebmtcd by Horace [Carni. iv. 
 3 4.) The Rhaeti were divided into several tribes, 
 such as the Lepontii, Vennones, Tridentini, 
 &c. The only town in Rliaetia of any importance 
 was Tridentinum {Trent). 
 
 Eliagae {'?ayai, 'Pa7a, "Pay^ia : '?a'yr]v6s : 
 7?a/, R,u. S. E. of TcJmm), the greatest city of 
 Media, lay in the extreme N. of Great Media, at 
 the S. foot of the mountains (Caspitis M.), which 
 border tlie S. shores of the Caspi;in Sea, and on 
 the W. side of the great pass through those moun- 
 tains called the Caspiae Pylae. It was therefore 
 the key of Media towards Parthia and Hyrcania. 
 Having been destroyed by an earthquake, it was 
 restored by Seleueus Nicator, and named Europus 
 (£i)pw7r6s). In the Parthian wars it was again 
 destroyed, but it was rebuilt by Arsaces, and called 
 Arsacia {'Ap<TaKia). In the middle ages it wag 
 Mill a great city under its original name, slightly , 
 
 RHEA. 
 
 altered {Rai) ; and it was finally destroyed by 
 the Tartars in the 12th century. The surrounding 
 district, which was a nigged volcanic region, sub- 
 ject to frequent earthquakes, was called 'Payiapi). 
 
 Khamnus {''Pafj.vovs^ — ouvros : 'Paiwovffios: 
 Ohio Kastro)^ a demus in Attica, belonging to 
 the tribe Aeanti*, which derived its name from 
 the rliamnus^ a kind of prickly shrub. {^Vafxvovs 
 is an adjective, a contraction of ftajivSets^ which 
 comes from pdfj.vos.) Rhamnus was situated on a 
 small rocky peninsula on the E. coast of Attica, 
 60 stadia from Mamthon. It possessed a celebrated 
 temple of Nemesis, who is hence called by the 
 Latin poets Rhamnusia dca or viryo. In this 
 temple there was a colossal sLitue of the goddess 
 made by Agoracrltus, the disciple of Phidias. 
 Anotlier account, but less trustworthy, relates that 
 the statue was the work of Phidias, and was made 
 out of the block of Parian marble, which the 
 Persians brought with them for the purpose of 
 setting up a trophy, when they were defeated at 
 Marathon. There are still remains of this temple, 
 as well as of a smaller one to the same goddess. 
 
 Rhampsinitus ('Fa^ij/tfiTos), one of the ancient 
 kings of Egypt, succeeded Proteus, and was suc- 
 ceeded by Cheops. This king is said to have pos- 
 sessed immense wealth ; and in order to keep it safe 
 he had a treasury built of stone, respecting the 
 robbery of which Herodotus (iL 121) relates a 
 romantic story, which bears a great resemblance 
 to the one told about the treasury built by the 2 
 brothers Agamedes and Trophonius of Orchomenus. 
 [Agamedes.] Rhampsinitus belongs to the 20th 
 dynasty, and is known in inscriptions by the name 
 of Ramessu Neter-kek-pen. 
 
 Rhapta (xa 'PaTrrd), the S.-most sea-port known 
 to the ancients, the capital of the district of Bar- 
 barla, or Azania, on the E. coast of Africa. It 
 stood on a river called "Rhaptus {Doara\ and 
 near a promontory called Ehaptuiu {Formosa), 
 and the people of the district were called 'Po\//ioi 
 AiQioires. 
 
 Rhea ('Pf'a, Epic and Ion. 'Pe/a, 'Peij], or 'Pet;), 
 an ancient Greek goddess, appears to have been a 
 goddess of the earth. She is represented as a 
 daughter of Uranus and Ge, and the wife of Cronos, 
 by whom she becarrie the mother of Hestia, De- 
 meter, Hera. Hades, Poseidon and Zeus. Cronos 
 devoured all his children by Rhea, but when she 
 was on the point of giving birth to Zeus, she went 
 to Lycttis in Crete, by the advice of her parents. 
 When Zeus was born she gave to Cronos a stone 
 wrapped up like an infant, which the god swallowed 
 supposing it to be his child. Crete was undoubtedly 
 the earliest seat of the worship of Rhea; though 
 many other parts of Greece laid claim to the ho- 
 nour of being the birth-place of Zeus. Rhea was 
 afterwards identified by the Greeks in Asia Minor 
 with the Great Asiatic goddess, known under the 
 name of " the Great Mother," or the " Mother of 
 the Gods," and also bearing other names such as 
 Cybele, Agdistis, Dindymene, &c. Hence her 
 worship became of a wild and enthusiastic cha- 
 racter, and various Eastern rites were added to it, 
 which soon spread throughout the whole of Greece. 
 From the orgiastic nature of these rites, her worship 
 became closely connected with that of Dionysus. 
 Under the name of Cybele her worship was uni- 
 versal in Phrygia. Under the name of Agdistis, 
 she was worshipped with great solemnity ntPessi- 
 nus in Galatia, which town was regarded as the 
 
RHKA. 
 
 principal seat of her worship. Uiidrr different 
 iiuiiies we might trace the worship of Rhea even 
 mucli further east, as far as the Euphrattjs aad 
 even Bactriana. She was, in fact, tlie great god- 
 dess of the Eastern world, and we find her wor- 
 shipped there under a variety of forms and 
 names. As regards the Romans, thej'- had from 
 the earliest times worshipped Jupiter and his 
 mother Ops, the wife of Saturn. During the war 
 with Hannibal the Romans fetched the image of 
 the Motiier of the Gods from Pessinus ; but the 
 worship then introduced was quite new to them, 
 and either maintained itself as distinct from the 
 worship of Ops, or became united with it. A 
 temple was built to her on the Palatine, and the 
 Roman matrons honoured her with the festival of 
 the Megalesia. In all European countries Rhea 
 was conceived to he accompanied by the Curetes, 
 who are inseparably connected with the birth and 
 bringing up of Zeus in Crete, and in Phrygia by 
 the Corybantes, Atys, and Agdistis. The Cory- 
 bantes were her enthusiastic priests, who with 
 drums, C3'mbals, horns, and in full armour, per- 
 formed their orgiastic dances in the forests and on 
 the mountains of Phrygia. In Rome the Galli 
 were her priests. The lion was sacred to her. In 
 works of art she is usually represented seated on a 
 throne, adorned with the mural crown, from which 
 a veil hangs down. Lions appear crouching on the 
 right and left of her throne, and sometimes she is 
 seen riding in a chariot drawn by lions. 
 
 Ehca SUvia. [Romum'S.] 
 
 Rhebas ('P-npas, 'Pij^aios: Miva), a river of 
 Bithynia, in Asia Minor, falling into the Euxine 
 N. E. of Chalcedon ; very small and insignificant 
 in itself, but much celebrated in the Argonautic 
 legends, 
 
 Bhedones. [Redones.] 
 
 Rh.eg'ium {'P-^yi-ov: Rheglnus : liegcfio), a ce- 
 lebrated Greek town on the coast of Bruttium in 
 the S. of Italj', was situated on the Fretum Si- 
 culum, or the Straits which separate Italy and 
 Sicily. The ancients derived its name from the 
 verb ftriyvvfxi (" break "), because it was supposed 
 that Sicily was at this place torn asunder from 
 Italy. Rhegium was founded about the beginning 
 of the first Messenian war, B. c. 743, by Aeolian 
 Chalcidlans from Euboea and by Doric Messenians, 
 who had quitted their native country on the com- 
 mencement of hostilities between Sparta and Mes- 
 senia. At the end of the 2nd Messenian war, 
 C68, a large body of Messenians, under the conduct 
 of the sons of Aristomenes settled at Rhegium, 
 which now became a flourishing and important 
 cit}', and extended its authority over several of 
 the neighbouring towns. Even before the Persian 
 wars Rhegium was sufficiently powerful to send 
 3000 of its citizens to the assistance of the Ta- 
 rentines, and in the time of the elder Dionysius it 
 possessed a fleet of UO ships of war. The govern- 
 ment was an aristocracy, but in the beginning of 
 the Sth century b. c, Anaxilaus, who was of a 
 Messenian family, made himself tyrant of the 
 place. In 494 this Anaxilaus conquered Zancle 
 in Sicily, the name of which he changed into 
 Messana, He ruled over tlie 2 cities, and on his 
 death in 476 he bequeathed his power to his sons. 
 About 10 years afterwards (4G()) his sons were 
 driven out of Rhegium and Messana, and repub- 
 lican governments were established in both cities, 
 which now became independent of one another. 
 
 RHENUS. 
 
 6.13 
 
 At a later period Rhegium incurred the deadly 
 emnity of the elder Dionysius in consequence of a 
 personal insult which tlie inhabitants had oflfered 
 him. It is said that when he asked the Rhegians 
 to give him one of their maidens for his wife, 
 they replied that they could only grant him the 
 danghter of their public executioner. Dionysius 
 carried on war against the city for a long time, 
 and after two or three unsuccessful attempts lie at 
 length took the place, which lie treated with the 
 greatest severit3^ Rhegium never recovered its 
 former greatness, though it still continued to be a 
 place of considerable importance. The younger 
 Dionysius gave it the name of P/ioei/a, but this 
 name never came into general use, and was spee- 
 dily forgotten. The Rhegians having applied to 
 Rome for assistance when Pyrrhus was in the S. 
 of Italy, tlie Romans placed in the town a gar- 
 rison of 4000 soldiers, who liad been levied among 
 the Latin colonies in Campania. These troops 
 seized the town in 279, killed or expelled the 
 male inhabitants, and took possession of their 
 wives and children. The Romans were too much 
 engaged at the time with their war against Pyri-hus 
 to take notice of tliis outrage ; but wlien Pyrrhus 
 was driven out of Italy, they took signal vengeance 
 upon these Campanians, and restored the surviving 
 Rhegians to their city. Rhegium suffered greatly 
 from an earthquake shortly before the breaking 
 out of the Social war, 90 ; but its population was 
 augmented by Augustus, who settled here a number 
 of veterans from his fleet, whence the town bears 
 in Ptolemy the surname Julium. Rhegium was 
 the place from which persons usually crossed over 
 to Sicily, but the spot, at which they embarked, 
 was called Colimuia Rhegina {'Priyivuu arTTjKis : 
 Torre di Car al[o\ and was 100 stadia N. of the town. 
 The Greek language continued to be spoken at 
 Rhi'gium till a very late time, and the town was 
 subject to the Byzantine court long after the down- 
 fall of the Western empire. 
 
 Rhenea ('P^^'cm, also 'P-hvfiy 'P-r\vaiQ.\ formerly 
 called Ortygia, and Cdadussa^ an island in the 
 Aegaean sea and one of the Cyclades, W. of Delos, 
 from which it was divided by a narrow strait only 
 4 stadia in width. When Polycrates took the 
 island, he dedicated it to Apollo, and united it by 
 a chain to Delos; and Nicias connected the 2 
 islands by means of a bridge. When the Athe- 
 nians purified Delos in u.c. 426, they removed all 
 the dead from the latter island to Rhenea. 
 
 Khemis. 1. {lihein in German, JViine in Eng- 
 lish), one of the great rivers in Europe, forming 
 in ancient times the boundary between Gaul and 
 Germany, rises in Mous Adula {St.Gothard) not 
 far from the sources of the Rhone, and flows first 
 in a W.-ly direction, passing through the Lacus 
 Brigantinus {Lalce of Constance)^ till it reaches 
 Basilia (Basle), where it takes a N.-ly direction and 
 eventually flows into the Ocean by several moutiis. 
 The ancients spoke of 2 main arms, into which the 
 Rhine was divided in entering the territory of the 
 Batavi, of which the one on the E. continued to 
 bear the name of Rlienus, while that on the W,, 
 into which the Mosa (Maas or Aleuse) flowed, 
 was called Vahalis (Waal). After Drusus in B.C. 
 12 bad connected the Flevo Lacus (Zuyder-See) 
 with the Rhine by means of a canal, in making 
 which he probably made use of the bed of the 
 Yssel, we find mention of 3 mouths of the Rhine. 
 or these the names, as given by Pliny, are on the 
 
644 
 
 RHEPAIM. 
 
 "W. Helium (the Vahalia of other writers >, in the 
 centre Rhenus, and on the E. Flevum ; but at a 
 later time we again find mention of only 2 mouths. 
 The Rhine is described by the ancients as a broad, 
 rapid and deep river. It receives many tribu- 
 tiiriea, of which the most important were the Mo- 
 sella {Moselle) and Mosa {Maas or Meuse) on the 
 left, and the Nicer {Neckar\ Moenus {Main) and 
 Luppia {Lippe) on the ri^jht. It passed through 
 various tribes, of which the principal on the W. 
 ■were the Nantuates, Helvetii. Sequani, Medioma- 
 trici, Tribocci, Treviri, Ubii, Batavi, andCannine- 
 f.ites, and the principal on the E. were the Rhaeti, 
 Vindelici, Mattiaci, Sigarabri, Tencteri, Usipetes, 
 Bructeri, and Frisii. The length of the Rhine is 
 stated differently by the ancient writers. Its 
 whole course amounts to about 050 miles. The 
 inundations of the Rhine near its mouth are men- 
 tioned by the ancients. Caesar was the first Ro- 
 man general who crossed the Rhine. He threw a 
 bridge of boats across the river, probably in the 
 neighbourhood of Cologne. — The etymology of 
 the name is doubtful; some connect it with Hnnen 
 or rijinan^ according to which it would mean the 
 "current" or "stream;" others with Hten or 
 rHn^ that is, the "clear" river. — 3. {Reno)^ a 
 tributary of the PaJus {Po) in Gallia Cisaipina 
 near Bononia, on a small island of which Octavian, 
 Antony and Lepidus formed the celebrated trium- 
 virate. The small river Lavinius {Lavino) flows 
 into the Rhenus; and Appian places in the La- 
 vinius the island on which the triumvirate was 
 formed. 
 
 E-hepliaim, a valley of Judaea, continuous with 
 the valley of Hinnom, S.W. of Jerusalem. Rhe- 
 phai'm was also the name of a very ancient people 
 of Palestine. 
 
 Rhesus ('PTjtroy). 1. A river-god in Bithynia, 
 one of the sons of Oceanus and Tethys. — 3. Son 
 of king Eioneus in Thrace, marched to the assist- 
 ance of the Trojans in their war with the Greeks. 
 An oracle had declared that Troy would never be 
 taken, if the snow-white horses of Rhesus should 
 once drink the water of the Xanthus, and feed 
 upon the grass of the Trojan plain. But as soon 
 aa Rhesus had reached the Trojan territory and 
 had pitched his tents late at night, Ulysses and 
 Diomedes penetrated into his camp, slew Rhesus 
 himself, and carried off his horses. In later writers 
 Rhesus is described as a son of Stryraon and 
 Euterpe, or Calliope, or Terpsichore, 
 
 Ehianus {"?iav6s)^ of Crete, a distinguished 
 Alexandrian poet and grammarian, flourished B. c. 
 2l2. He wrote several epic poems, one of which 
 was on the Messenian wars. He a]so wrote epi- 
 fi-rams, 10 of which are preserved in the Palatine 
 Anthology, and one by Athenaeus. His fragments 
 are printed in Gaisford's Poeiae Minores Graeci ; 
 and separately edited by Nic. Saal, Bonn, 1831. 
 
 EMdagus, a tributary of the river Zioberis in 
 Parthia. 
 
 Rhinocoliira or Ehinocorura (ra "PipoK6\ovpa 
 or VivoKSpovpa^Qjid. 7} 'PivoKoKoupa or 'VivoKopovpa : 
 Kulat-el-Ai-ish)^ the frontier town of Egypt and 
 Palestine, lay in the midst of the desert, at the 
 mouth of the brook {El-Arish), which was the 
 boundary between the countries, and which is 
 called in Scripture the river of Egypt. It was 
 sometimes reckoned to Syria, sometimes to Egypt. 
 Its name " TJie-cui-nff-nases^'''' is derived from its 
 having been the place of exile of criminals who 
 
 RHODANUS. 
 
 had first been ao mutilated, under the Ethiopian 
 dynasty of kings of Egypt. 
 
 Bhintlidii {'VivQtap)^ of Syracuse or Tarentum, 
 said to have been the son of a potter, wag a drama- 
 tic poet, of that species of burlesque tragedy, which 
 was called (pXyaKo-ypatpia. or lAaporpay^Sia, and 
 flourished in the reign of Ptolemy I. king of 
 Egypt. When he is placed at the head of the 
 composers of this burlesque drama, we are not to 
 suppose that he actually invented it, but that he 
 was the first to develope in a written form, and to 
 introduce into Greek literature, a species of dra- 
 matic composition, which had already long existed 
 as a popular amusement among the Greeks of 
 southern Italy and Sicily, and especially at Taren- 
 tum. The species of drama which he cultivated 
 may be described as an exhibition of the subjects 
 of tragedy, in the spirit and style of comedy. A 
 poet of this description was called <p\va^. This 
 name, and that of the drama itself, (^AuoKoypa^ia, 
 seem to have been the genuine terms used at 
 Tarentum. Rhinthon wrote 38 dramas. 
 
 Ehipaei Montes (ra 'PiTraia opr]^ also 'Flwai), 
 the name of a lofty range of mountains in the 
 northern part of the earth, respecting which there 
 are diverse statements in the ancient writers. The 
 name seems to have been given by the Greek 
 poets quite indefinitely to all the mountains in the 
 northern parts of Europe and Asia. Thus the 
 Rhipaei Montes are sometimes called the Hyper- 
 borei Montes. [Hyperborei.] The later geo- 
 graphical writers place the Rhipaean mountains 
 N. E. of M. Alaunus on the frontiers of Asiatic 
 Sarmatia, and state that the Tanais rises in these 
 mountains. According to this account the Rhi- 
 paean mountains may be regarded as a western 
 branch of the Ural Mountains. 
 
 Ehium ('Ptof : Casiello diAIorea), a promontory 
 in Achaia, opposite the promontory of Antirrhium 
 {Castdlo di Romelia\ on the borders of Aetolia 
 and Locrig, with which it formed the narrow 
 entrance to the Corinthian gulf, which Straits are 
 now called the Little Dardaiielles. It is sometimes 
 called 'AxaiVi):/ 'Viov^ to distinguish it from the 
 opposite promontory, which was surnamed MoAf- 
 KpiKhv or AiTwAuibv, On the promontory of 
 Rhium there was a temple of Poseidon. 
 
 EMzon or EMzinium {"Pi^ou: 'Pt(uvlTi}s : 
 Risaiio), an ancient town in Daimatia, situated at 
 the upper end of the gulf, called after it Rhi- 
 zonaeus Sinus (G. of Cattaro). 
 
 Eboda or Ehodus ('PfiST;, 'PtJSos : Rozas\ 
 a Greek emporium on the coast of tlie Indigctae 
 in Hispania Tarraconensis, founded by the Rho- 
 dians, and subsequently occupied by the inha- 
 bitants of Massilia. 
 
 EUodanus [Rhone)^ one of the chief rivers of 
 Gaul, rises in M. Adula on the Pennine Alps, not 
 far from the sources of the Rhine, flows fifst in a 
 westerly direction, and after passing through the 
 Lacua Lemanus, turns to the S., passes by the 
 towns of Lugdunum, Vienna, Avenio and Arehite, 
 receives several tributaries, and finally falls by 
 several mouths into the Sinus Gallicus in the Medi- 
 terranean. The number of the mouths of the Rhone 
 is stated differently by the ancient writers ; which 
 is not surprising, as the river has frequently altered 
 its course near the sea. Pliny mentions 3 mouths, 
 of which the most important was called Os Ma.- 
 saliolicum, while the 2 others bore the general 
 name of Lif'i/ca ora, being distinguished from each 
 
RHODE. 
 
 otlier as the Os Hispaniense and the Os I\fe~ 
 titpijmm. Besides these mouths there was a 
 canal to the E. of the Os Massalioticmii, called 
 I''ossae Mariiinae^ which Avas dug by order of 
 Marias during his war with the Cimhri, in order 
 to make an easier connection between the Rhone 
 and the Mediterranean, as the mouths of the river 
 were frequently choked up with sand. The Rhone 
 is a very rapid river, and its upward navigation is 
 therefore difficult, though it is navigable for large 
 vessels as high as Lugdunum, aaid by means of the 
 AKir still further N. 
 
 Bhode. [Rhodos.] 
 
 Ehodia and Ehodiopolis ('Po5(a, 'PoSiiiiroAoj : 
 'PoSieys, 'PoSio-JToXtTTjs : JEnki-Hissar, Ru.), a 
 mounti\in city of Lycia, near Corydallus, with a 
 temple of Asclepius, 
 
 lUiodius {'PdStos : prob. i!ie hronk of tlie Darda- 
 nelles)^ a small river of the Troad, mentioned both 
 by Homer and Hesiod. ^ It rose on the lower 
 slopes of Mt. Ida, and flowed N. W. into the Hel- 
 lespont, between Abydus and Dardanus, after re- 
 ceiving the Selleis from th-; W. It is identified 
 by some with the river IluSios, which Thucydides 
 rrientions, between Cynossema and Abydus. Some 
 made it erroneously a tributary of the Aesepus. 
 It is found mentioned on the coins of Dardanus. 
 
 Rhodope ('Po5(ijnj), one of the highest range of 
 r;ountains in Thrace, extending from Mt. Scoraius, 
 E. of the river Nestus and the boundaries of 
 Macedonia, hi a S. E.-ly direction almost down to 
 the coast. It is highest in its northern part, and 
 is thickly covered with wood. Rhodope, like the 
 rest of Thrace, was sacred to Dionysus (Bacchus), 
 and is frequently mentioned by the poets in con- 
 nection with the worship of this god. 
 
 RhodSpls ('PoSmttis), a celebrated Greek courte- 
 zan, of Thracian origin, was a fellow-slave with 
 the poet Aesop, both of them belonging to the 
 Samian ladnion. She afterwards became the pro- 
 perty of Xanthes, another Samian, who carried 
 her to Naucratis in Egypt, in the reign of Amasis, 
 and at this great sea-port she carried on the trade 
 of an hetaera for the benefit of her master. While 
 thus employed, Charaxus, the brother of the poetess 
 Sappho, who had come to Naucratis as a merchant, 
 fell in love with her, and ransomed her from 
 slavery for a large sura of money. She was in 
 consequence attacked by Sappho in a poem. She 
 continued to live at Naucratis, and with the tenth 
 part of her gains she dedicated at Delphi 10 iron 
 spils, which were seen by Herodotus. She is 
 called Rhodopis by Herodotus, but Sappho in her 
 poem spoke of her under the name of Doricha. It 
 is therefore probable that Doricha was her real 
 name, and that she received that of Rhodopis, 
 which signifies the " rosy-cheeked," on account of 
 her beauty. There was a tale current in Greece 
 that -Rhodopis built the third pyramid. It has 
 been conjectured, with great probability, that in 
 consequence of her name Rhodopis, the " rosy- 
 cheeked," she was confounded with Nitocris, the 
 beautiful Egyptian queen, and the heroine of many 
 an Egyptian legend, who is said by the ancient 
 clironologers to have built the third pyramid. 
 
 Ehodos ('PifSos), sometimes called Rhode, 
 daughter of Poseidon and Halia, or of Helios and 
 Amphitrite, or of Poseidon and Aphrodite, or lastly 
 of Occauus. From her the island of Rhodes is 
 said to have derived its name ; and in this island 
 she bore to Helios 7 sons. 
 
 RHODUS. 
 
 645 
 
 Ehodus ft 'P(i5os : '76iios, Rhodius : RJiodos, 
 Rliodes)^ the E.-most island of the Aegaean, or more 
 specifically, of the Carpathian Sea, lies off the S. 
 coast of Caria, due S. of the promontory of Cynos- 
 sema (C. Aloupo)^ at the distance of about 12 geog. 
 miles. Its length, from N. E. to S. W. is about 
 45 miles ; its greatest breadth about 20 to 26. In 
 early times it was called Aethraea and Ophiussa, 
 and several other names. The earliest Greek re- 
 cords make mention of it. Mythological stories 
 ascribed its origin to the power of Apollo, who 
 raised it from beneath the waves ; and its first 
 peopling to the Telchines, children of Thalatta (the 
 Sea), upon whose destniction by a deluge, the lle- 
 liadae were planted in the island by Helios, where 
 they formed 7 tribes, and founded a kingdom, 
 which soon became flourishing by their skill in as- 
 tronomy and navigation, and other sciences and 
 arts. These traditions appear to signify the early 
 peopling of the island by some of the civilised races 
 of W. Asia, probably the Phoenicians. After other 
 alledged migrations into the island, we come to its 
 Hellenic colonisation, which is ascribed to Tlepo- 
 lemus, the son of Hercules, btfore the Trojan war, 
 and after that war to Althaemenes. Homer men- 
 tions the 3 Dorian settlements in Rhodes, namely, 
 Lindus, lalysus, and Camirus ; and these cities, with 
 Cos, Cnidus, and Halicamassus, formed the Dorian 
 Hexapolis, which was established, from a period of 
 unknown antiquity, in the S. W. corner of Asia 
 Minor. Rhodes soon became a great maritime 
 state, or rather confederacy, the island being par- 
 celled out between the 3 cities above mentioned. 
 The Rhodians made distant voyages, and founded 
 numerous colonies, of which the chief were, Rhoda 
 in Iberia ; Gela, in Sicily ; Parthenope, Salacia, 
 Siris, and Sybaris, in Italy ; settlements in the 
 Balearic islands ; and, in their own neighbourhood. 
 Soli in Cilicia, and Gagae and Corydalla in Lycia. 
 During this early period the government of each of 
 the 3 cities seems to have been monarchical ; but 
 about B. c. 660 the whole island seems to have 
 been united in an oligarchical republic, the chief 
 magistrates of which, called prytanes, were taken 
 from the family of the Eratidae, who had been the 
 royal family of lalysns. [Di-IEORas : Dorieiis.] 
 At the beginning of the Peloponnesian war, Rhodes 
 was one of those Dorian maritime states which 
 were subject to Athens ; but in the 20th year of 
 the war, 412, it joined the Spartan alliance, and the 
 oligarchical party, which had been depressed and 
 their leaders, the Eratidae, expelled, recovered their 
 former power, under Dorieus. In 408, the new 
 capital, called Ehodus, was built, and peopled from 
 the 3 ancient cities of lalysus, Lindus, and Camirus. 
 The history of the island now presents a series of 
 conflicts between the democratical and oligarchical 
 parties, and of subjection to Athens and Sparta in 
 turn, till the end of the Social war, ?,!>o, when its 
 independence was acknowledged. Then followed 
 a conflict with the princes of Caria, dmring which 
 the island was for a time subject to Artemisia, 
 and, nominally at least, to Idrieus. During this 
 period there were great internal dissensions, which 
 were at length composed by a mixed form of go- 
 vernment, uniting the elements of aristocracy and 
 democracy. At the Macedonian conquest, they 
 submitted to Alexander ; but, upon his death, they 
 expelled the Macedonian garrison. In the ensuing 
 wars they formed an alliance with Ptolemy, the 
 sou of Lagus, and their city, Rhodes, successfully 
 
64 C 
 
 RIIOECUS. 
 
 endured a most famous siege by the forces of De- 
 metrius Poliorcetes, who at length, in adniinition 
 of tlie valour of the besieged, presented them with 
 the engines lie had used against the city, from the 
 sale of which they defrayed the cost of the cele- 
 brated Colossus, which is described under the 
 raine of its artist, Chares. The state now for a 
 long time flourished, with an extensive commerce, 
 and with such a maritime power, that it compelled 
 the Byznntinos to remit the toll which they levied 
 on ships passing the Bosponis. At length they 
 came into connection with the Romans, whose 
 alliance they joined, with Attains, king of Perga- 
 mus, in the war against Philip III. of Macedon. 
 in the ensuing war with Antiochus, the Khodians 
 g;ive the Romans great aid with their fleet ; and, 
 ill the subsequent partition of the Syrian posaes- 
 jsions of Asia Minor, they were rewarded by the 
 supremacy of S. Caria, where they bad had settle- 
 ments from an early period. [Perasa. Rhodio- 
 HUM.] A temporary interruption of their alliance 
 "with Rome was caused by their espousing the 
 cause of Perseus, for which they were severely 
 punished, 168 ; but they recovered the favour of 
 Rome by the important naval aid they rendered in 
 the Mithridatic war. In the Civil wars, they 
 took part with Caesar, and suffered in consequence 
 from Cassius, 42, but were afterwards compensated 
 for their losses by the favour of Antonius. They 
 wtre nt length deprived of their independence by 
 Chiudius ; and their prosperity received its final 
 liliiw from an earthquake, which laid the city of 
 Rhodes in niius, in the reign of Antoninus Pius, 
 
 A. D. 155, The celebrated medieval history of the 
 island, as the seat of the Knights of St. John, does not 
 belong to this work. The island is of great beauty 
 and fertility, with a delicious climate. It was 
 further celebrated as the home of distinguished 
 schools of Greek art and of Greek oratory. The 
 city of Rhodes was famous for the beauty and re- 
 gularity of its architecture, and the number of statues 
 wliich adorned it ; it was designed by Hippodamus 
 of Miletus. [Comp. Ialysus, Lindus, and Ca- 
 
 3UIRUS.] 
 
 Etoecus {'Policos). 1. A Centaur, who, in con- 
 junction with Hylaeus, pursued Atalanta in Ar- 
 cadia, but was killed by her with an arrow. The 
 Roman poets call him Rhoetus, and relate that he 
 was wounded at the nuptials of Pirithous. ^ 2. 
 Son of Phileaa or Philaeus, of Samos, an architect 
 ;ind statuary, belonging to the earliest period in 
 the history of Greek art, is mentioned as the head 
 of a fjmiily of Samian artists. He flourished about 
 
 B. c. 640. He was the first architect of the great 
 temple of Hera at Samos, which Theodorus com- 
 pleted. In conjunction with Smilis and Theodorus, 
 be constructed the labyrinth at Lemnos ; and he, 
 and the members of his family who succeeded him, 
 invented the art of casting statues in bronze and 
 iron. 
 
 Rhoeteum (rh 'Poiniou ticpov^ tJ 'Voir^ia.s A/ct^, 
 'Poir^mi aKTai: Virg. Rhoetea litora ; C. Iiitepph 
 or Barbieri), a promontory, or a strip of rocky 
 coast, breaking into several promontories, in Mysia, 
 on tlie Plellespont, near Aeantium, with a town of 
 the same name (prob. Palco Caslro). 
 
 Rhoetus. 1. A centaur. [Khoecus.]— 2. One 
 of the giants, who was slain by Dionysus ; he is 
 usually called Eur3'tu3. 
 
 Rlioxolani or Eoxolani, a warlike people in 
 European Sarmatia, on the coast of the Palus 
 
 R0CIGU3. 
 
 Maeotis, and between the Borysthenes and the 
 Tanais, usuiilly supposed to be the ancestors of 
 the modern Russians. They frequently attacked 
 and plundered the Roman provinces S. of the 
 Danube ; and ILidrian was even obliged to pay 
 them tribute. They are mentioned as Jate as the 
 11th century. They fought with lances and with 
 long swords wielded with both hands ; and their 
 armies were composed chiefly of cavalry. 
 
 Rliyndacus CPw^aKSii JEdrenos), or Lycus, a 
 considerable river of Asia Minor. Rising in Mt. 
 DIndymene, opposite to the sources of the Jlermus, 
 it flows N. through Phrygia, then turns N. W. 
 then W. swid then N. tlirough the lake ApoUo- 
 niatis, into the Propontis. From the point where 
 it left Phrygia, it formed the boundary of Mysia 
 and Bithynia, Its chief tributary, which joins it 
 from the W. below the lake ApoUoniatis, was 
 called Macestur. On the banks of the Rhynda- 
 cus, Lucullus gained a great victory over Mithrl- 
 dates, B. c. 73. 
 
 Ehypes {'Pv-ms and other forms: 'P'/7ra7os), one 
 of the 1*2 cities of Achaia, situated between Ae- 
 gium and Patrae. It was destroyed by Augustus 
 and its inhabitants removed to Patrae. 
 
 IHiytium ('Purioi/), a town in Crete, mentioned 
 by Homer, which is identified by modern writers, 
 but without any sufficient reasons, witb the later 
 Ritymna. 
 
 Ricimer, the Roman " King-Maker," was the 
 son of a Suevian chief, and was brought up at the 
 court of Valentinian III. He served with distinc- 
 tion under Aetius, in the reign of Valentinian 
 III. In A. D. 456 he commanded the fleet of the 
 emperor Avitus, with which he gained a great vic- 
 tory over the Vandals, and in the same year lie 
 deposed Avitus ; but as he was a barbarian by 
 birth, he would not assume the title of emperor, 
 but gave it to Majorian, intending to keep the real 
 power in his own hands. Cut as Mnjorian proved 
 more able and energetic than Ricimer had ex- 
 pected, he was put to death in 461 by order of 
 Ricimer, who now raised Libius Sevenis to the 
 throne. On the death of Severus in 465, Ricimer 
 kept the goveniment in his own hands for the next 
 18 months ; but in 467 Anthemius was appointed 
 emperor of the West by Leo, emperor of the East. 
 Ricimer acquiesced in the appointment, and re- 
 ceived the daughter of Anthemius in marriage; 
 but in 47'2 he made war against his father-in-law, 
 and took Rome by storm. Anthemius perished in 
 the assault, and Olybrius was proclaimed emperor 
 by Ricimer, who died however only 40 days after 
 the sack of Rome. 
 
 Ricina. i. (Ricinenais), a town in Picenum, 
 colonized by the emperor Severus. Its mines are 
 on the river Potenza near Macerata. — 2, One of 
 the Ebudae Insulae, or the Hebrides. 
 
 Rigodnlum {neol\ a town of the Treviri in 
 Gallia Belgica, distant 3 days' march from Mo- 
 gontiacum. 
 
 Eobigus, or Robigo, is described by some 
 Latin writers as a divinity worshipped for the pur- 
 pose of averting blight or too great heat from the 
 young cornfields. The festival of the Robigalia 
 was celebrated on the 25th of April, and was said 
 to have been instituted by Numa. But consider- 
 ing the uncertainty of the ancients themselves as 
 to whether the divinity was masculine or feminine, 
 and that the Romans did not pay divine honours to 
 any evil demon, it is probable that the divinity 
 
MAP OF ANCIENT ROME, SHOWING THE WALLS OF SERVIUS AND 
 THOSE OF AURELIAN. 
 
 (ro/acep.6470 
 
 Gates in the WdH-s of S&rxias. 
 
 1 Porta CoUina. 
 
 2 P. 
 
 Viminalis. 
 
 3 P. 
 
 Esqmlina. 
 
 4 P. 
 
 Querquetnlana ? 
 
 S P. 
 
 Caelimontana. 
 
 6 P. 
 
 Capena. 
 
 7 P. 
 
 Raudusculana ? 
 
 8 P. 
 
 Naevia. 
 
 9 P. 
 
 Minucia. 
 
 10 P. 
 
 Trigemina. 
 
 11 P. 
 
 Flamentana. 
 
 12 P. 
 
 Carmen talis. 
 
 13 P. 
 
 Ratumena ? 
 
 14 P. 
 
 Fontinalio. 
 
 Gates in the Walls of A vrelia 
 
 15 Porta Flaminia. 
 
 16 P. 
 
 Pinciana. 
 
 17 P. 
 
 Salaria. 
 
 18 P. 
 
 Nomentana. 
 
 IS P. 
 
 Clausa. 
 
 20 Porta Tiburtiua (S. Lorenzo). 
 
 21 P. Praenestina (Maggiore). 
 
 22 P. Asinaria. 
 
 23 P. 
 
 Metro via .' 
 
 24 P. 
 
 Latina. 
 
 25 P. 
 
 26 P. 
 
 Appia (S. Sebastiano). 
 Ardeatina ? 
 
 27 P. 
 
 Ostiensis. 
 
 28 P. 
 
 Portuensis. 
 
 29 P. 
 
 30 P. 
 
 31 P. 
 
 Aurelia (S. Pancrazio). 
 Septimiana. 
 Aurelia of Procopius. 
 
 
 Bridges. 
 
 32 Pons Aelius (Ponte S. Angelo). 
 
 33 P. Vaticanus? 
 
 34 P. 
 
 Janiculensis? 
 
 35 P. 
 
 Fabricius. 
 
 36 P. 
 
 Cestius. 
 
 37 P. 
 
 38 P. 
 
 Palatinus (Aemiliua ?). 
 Supposed remains of the Sublician 
 
 
 Bridge. 
 
RODUS. 
 
 Robifjiia, or Robigo, is only an abstmction of the 
 later Romans t'rom the festival of the Robigalia. 
 
 Kobus, a fortress in the territory of the Rauraci 
 in Gallia Bulglca, whicli was built by Valentinian 
 near Rasilia, a. d. 374. 
 
 Ruma (Romanus : Rome)^ the capital of Italy 
 and of the world, was situated on the left bank 
 of tlie river Tiber, on the N.W. confines of 
 I-ativim, about 16 miles from the sea, ^ A. 
 History of th,e City. Rome is said to have 
 been a colony from Alba Longa, and to have 
 been founded by Romulus, about u. c. 7-53. [Ro- 
 mulus.] All traditions agree that the original 
 city comprised only the Afons Falatinns or Pa~ 
 latiuni and some portion of the ground immediately 
 below it. It was surrounded by walls, which 
 followed the line of the Pomoerium (see Diet, of 
 Antiq. s. c), and was built in a square form, 
 ■whence it was called Roma Qitadraia. This city 
 on the Palatine was inhabited only by Latins. 
 On the neighbouring hills there also existed from 
 the earliest times settlements of Sabines and Etrus- 
 cans. The Sabine town, probably called Quirium, 
 and inhabited by Quiriles, was situated on the 
 hills to the N. of the Palatine, that is, the Quiri- 
 nalis and Capitolinus^ or Capitolium^ on the latter 
 of which hills was the Sabine Arx or citadel. 
 These Latin and Sabine toAvns afterwards became 
 imited, according to tradition, in the reign of Romu- 
 lus, and the 2 peoples formed one collective body, 
 known under the name of " Populus Romanus (et) 
 Quirites." The Etruscans were settled on Mons 
 Caelius, and extended over Mons Cispiiis and Mons 
 Oppkis^ which are part of the Esquiline. These 
 Etmscans were at an early period incorporated in 
 the Roman state, but were compelled to abandon 
 their seats on the hills, and to take up their abode 
 in the plains between the Caelius and the Esqui- 
 line, whence the Ficiis Tuscus derived its name. 
 Under the kings the city rapidly grew in popu- 
 lation and in size. Ancus Martins added the 
 J]fons Aventinus to the city. The same king also 
 built a fortress on the Janiculus, a hill on the 
 other side of the Tiber, as a protection against the 
 Etruscans, and connected it with the city by means 
 of the Pons Sublicius. Rome was still further 
 improved and enlarged by Tarquinius Priscus and 
 Servius TuUius. The former of these kings con- 
 structed the vast sewers {cloacae) f by which the 
 lower part of the city between the Palatine and 
 Capitol was drained, and which still remain with- 
 out a stone displaced. He also laid out the Circus 
 Maximus and thw forum, and, according to some 
 traditions, commenced the erection of the Capitoline 
 temple, which was finished by Tarquinius Superbus. 
 The completion of the city however was ascribed 
 to Servius TuUius. This king added the Motis VU 
 minalis and Mojis Esquilinus, and surrounded the 
 whole city with a line of fortifications, which 
 comprised all the seven hills of Rome {Falatmus^ 
 Capitolinus, Qairinalls^ Caelius., Aveniinus^ Vimi- 
 nalis, Esquilinus). Hence Rome was called Urbs 
 SepticoUis. These fortifications were about 7 miles in 
 circumference. At the same time Servius extended 
 the pomoerium so as to make the sacred enclosure 
 of the city identical with its walls. In d. c. 390 
 Rome was entirely destroyed by the Gauls, with 
 the exception of a few houses on the Palatine. 
 On the departure of the barbarians it was rebuilt 
 in great haste and confusion, without any attention 
 to regularit}^, and with narrow and crooked streets. 
 
 ROMA. 
 
 647 
 
 After the conquest of the Carthaginians and of 
 the monarchs of Macedonia and Syria, the city 
 began to be adorned with many public buildings 
 and handsome private houses; and it was still 
 further embellished by Augustus, who introduced 
 great improvements into all parts of the city, and 
 both erected many public buildings himself and 
 induced all the leading nobles of his court to follow 
 his example. So greatly had the appearance of 
 the city improved during his long and prosperous 
 reign that he used to boast that he had found the 
 city of brick, and had left it of marble. Still the 
 main features of the city remained the same ; and 
 the narrow streets and mean houses fonued a 
 striking and disagreeable contrast to the splendid 
 public buildings and magnificent palaces which hail 
 been recently erected. The great fire at Rome in 
 the reign of Nero (a, d. 64) destroyed two-thirds 
 of the city. Nero availed himself of this oppor- 
 tunity to indulge his passion for building; and the 
 city now assumed a more regular and stately ap- 
 pearance. The new streets were made both wide 
 and straight ; the height of the houses was re- 
 stricted ; and a certain part of each was required 
 to be built of Gabian or Alban stone, which was 
 proof against fire. Rome had long since extended 
 beyond the walls of Servius TuUius ; but down to 
 the 3rd century of the Christian aera the walls of 
 this monarch continued to mark the limits of the 
 city properly so called. These walls however had 
 long since been rendered quite useless, and the 
 city was therefore left without any fortifications. 
 Accordingly the emperor Aureliau determined to 
 siuTound Rome with new walls, which embraced 
 the city of Servius Tullius and all the suburbs 
 which had subsequently grown up around it, such 
 as the M. Janiculus on the right bank of the Tiber, 
 and the Collis Hortuhrum or MonsPincianus on the 
 left bank of the river to the N. of the Quirinalis, 
 The walls of Aurelian were commenced by this 
 emperor before he set out on his expedition against 
 Zenobia {a. d. 271), and were tenninated by his 
 successor Probus. They were about 11 miles in 
 circumference. They were restored by Honorius, 
 and were also partly rebuilt by Belisarius. ^B. 
 Divisions of the City. Rome was divided by 
 Servius Tullius into 4 Regiones or districts, corre- 
 sponding to the 4 city tribes. Their names were : 
 \. Suburana^ comprehending the space from the 
 Subura to the Caelius, both inclusive. 2. jEs- 
 quiliTia, comprehending the Esquiline hill. 3. Cul- 
 Una, extending over the Quurinal and Viminal. 
 
 4. PoZa/iVzo, comprehending the Palatine hill. The 
 Capitoline, as the seat of the gods, and the Aven- 
 tine, were not included in these Regiones. These 
 Regiones were again subdivided into 27 Sacella 
 Argaeorum, which were probably erected where 
 two streets (compita) crossed each other. It is 
 probable that each of the 4 Regiones contained G 
 of these sacella, and that the remaining 3 belonged 
 to the Capitoline. The division of Servius Tullius 
 into 4 Regiones remained unchanged till the time of 
 Augustus; but this emperor made a fresh division 
 of the city into 14 Regiones, which comprised 
 both the ancient city of Servius Tullius and all the 
 suburbs which had been subsequently added. This 
 division was made by Augustus to facilitate the 
 internal government of the city. The names of 
 the Regiones were : — I. Porta Capena, at the 
 
 5. E. corner of the city by the Porta Capcna. 2. 
 CacUmontium^ N. E. of the preceding, embracing 
 
 T T 4 
 
648 ROMA. 
 
 M. Caellug. 3. his et Serapis, N. W, of No. 2, 
 in tlic valley between the Caelins, the Palatine 
 and Esquiline. 4. Via Sacra^ N.W. of No. 3, 
 embracing the valley between the Esquiline, Vimi- 
 nal and Quirinal towards the Palatine. S. 
 l^squUina cum Code Viminali, N.E. of No. 4, com- 
 prehending the whole of the Esquiline and Viminal. 
 6. Alta Semita^ N.W. of No. 5, comprising the 
 Quirinal. 7. Via Laia^ W. of No. 6, between the 
 Quirinal and Campus Martins. (I. Forum Ro- 
 manum, S. of No. 7, comprehending the Capitoline 
 and the valley between it and the Palatine. 9. 
 dircus Fhiminius, N.AV". of No. 8, extending as 
 far as the Tiber, and comprehending the whole of 
 the Campus Martins. 10. Palaimm^ S.E. of No. 8, 
 containing the Palatine. 11. Circus Maximits, 
 S.W. of No. 10, comprehending the plain between 
 the Palatine, Aventine and Tiber. 12. Piscina 
 Publica, S.E. of No. 11. 13. Aventinus, N.W. of 
 No. 12, embrncing the Aventine. 14. Trans Ti- 
 hertni, the only region on the right bank of the 
 river, containing the Insula Tiherina^ the valley 
 between the river and the Janiculus, and a part of 
 this mountain. Each of these Regiones was sub- 
 divided into a certain nnmher of Vioi^ analogous to 
 the sncella of Sarvius TuUius. The houses were 
 divided into 2 different classes, called respectively 
 domus and lusidae. The former were the dwellings 
 of the Roman nobles, corresponding to the modern 
 palazzi ; the latter were the habitations of the 
 middle and lower classes. Each insula contained 
 several apartments or sets of apartments, which 
 were let to different families, and it was frequently 
 surrounded with shops. The insulae contained 
 several stories ; and as the value of ground in- 
 creased in Rome, they were frequently built of a 
 dangerous height. Hence Augustus restricted the 
 height of all new houses to 70 feet, and Trajan to 
 fiO feet. No houses of any description were al- 
 lowed to be built close together at Rome, and it 
 was provided by the 12 Tables that a space of at 
 least 5 feet should be left between every house. 
 The number of insulae of course greatly exceeded 
 that of the domi. It is stated that there were 
 4G.G02 insulae at Rome, but only 1790 domus.-— 
 C. Size and Population of the City. It has 
 been already stated that the circumference of the 
 ■walls of Servius TulHus was about 7 miles; but a 
 great part of the space included within these walls 
 was at first not covered with buildings. Subse- 
 quently, as we have seen, the city greatly extended 
 beyond these limits ; and a measurement has come 
 down to us, made in the reign of Vespasian, by 
 which it appears to have been about 13 miles in 
 circumference. It was probably about this t*me 
 that Rome reached its greatest size. The walls of 
 Aurelian were only about 11 miles in circuit. It 
 is more difficult to determine the population of the 
 city at any given period. We learn however 
 from the Monumentum Ancyranum, that the plebs 
 iirbana in the time of Augustus was .820,000. This 
 did not include the women nor the senators nor 
 knights ; so that the free population could not have 
 been less than 650,000. To this number we must 
 add the slaves, who must Iiave been at least as 
 numerous as the free population. Consequently 
 the wiiole population of Rome in the time of Au- 
 gustus must have been at least 1,800,000, and in 
 all probability greatly exceeded that nuniber. 
 Moreover, as we know that the city continued to 
 inarease in size and population down to the time of 
 
 ROMA. 
 
 Vespasian and Trajan, we sliall not be far wrong 
 in supposing that the city contained nearly 2 mil- 
 lions of inhabitants in the reigns of those emperors. 
 — D. Walls and Gates. I. Wail of Romulus. 
 The direction of this wall is described by Tacitus. 
 Commencing at the Forum Boarium, the site of 
 which is marked by the arch erected there to Sep- 
 timius Severus, it ran along the foot of the Pala- 
 tine, having the valley afterwards occupied by tiie 
 Circus Maximus on the right, as far as the altar of 
 Cousus, nearly opposite to the extremity of the 
 Circus ; thence it turned round the southern angle 
 of the Palatine, followed the foot of the hill nearly 
 in a straight line to the Curiae Veteres, which stood 
 not far from the site of the Arch of Constantine; 
 thence ascended the steep slope, at the summit of 
 which stands the Arch of Titus, and descended 
 again on the other side to the angle of the Forum, 
 which was then a morass. In this wall there were 
 3 gates, the number prescribed by the rules of the 
 Etruscan religion. I. PoHa Alugonia or I\hi(/io7iis, 
 also called Porta veins Palatii, at the northern 
 slope of the Palatine, at the point where the Via 
 Sacra and the Via Nova met. 2. Porta Romanula^ 
 at the western angle of the hill near the temple of 
 Victory, and between the modern churches of S. 
 Teodoro and Santa Anastasia. 3. The name and 
 position of the 3rd gate is not mentioned, for the 
 Porta Janualis appears to be identical with the 
 Janus or archway, commonly known as the temple 
 of Janus, which stood on the other side of the 
 fomm, and could have had no connection with the 
 original city of Romulus. — II. Walls of Sor- 
 vius Tullius. It is stated that this king sur- 
 rounded the whole city with a wall of hewn stone ; 
 but there are many reasons for questioning this 
 statement. The 7 hills on which Rome was built, 
 were most of them of great natural strength, having 
 sides actually precipitous, or easily rendered so by 
 cutting away the soft tufo rock. Instead, there- 
 fore, of building a wall around the whole circuit of 
 the city, Servius TuUus appears only to have con- 
 nected the several hills by walls or trenches drawn 
 across the narrow valleys which separated them. 
 The most formidable part of these fortifications was 
 the Agger or mound, which extended across the 
 broad table-land formed by the junction of the 
 Quirinal, Esquiline, and Viminal, since it was on 
 this side that the city was most open to the attacks 
 of the enemy. The agger was a great ram- 
 part or mound of earth, 50 feet wide and above 
 GO high, faced with flagstones and flanked with 
 towers, and at its foot was a moat 100 feet 
 broad and 30 deep. There are still traces of this 
 work. Starting from the southern extremity of 
 this mound at the Porta Esquilina, the fortifications 
 of Servius ran along the outside edge of the Caeliaii 
 and Aventine hills to the river Tiber by the Porta 
 Trigemina. From this point to the Porta Flu- 
 mentana near the S.W. extremity of the Capitoline 
 hill, there appears to liave been no wall, the river 
 itself being considered a suflicient defence. At the 
 Porta Flumentana the fortifications again com- 
 menced ; and ran along the outside edge of the 
 Capitoline and Quirinal hills, till they reached the 
 northern extremity of the agger at the Porta Col- 
 lina. The number of the gates in the walls of 
 Servius is uncertain, and the position of many of 
 them is doubtful. Pliny, indeed, states that their 
 number was 37 ; but it is almost certain tliat tins 
 number includes many mere openings made throtigli 
 
ROMA. 
 
 tlie walls to connect different purls of the city with 
 the suburbs, since tlie walls of Servius had long 
 since ceased to be regarded. The following is a 
 list of the gates as far as they can he ascertained : 
 — 1. Porta Cuilina, at the N. extremity of the 
 agger, and the most N.-ly of all the gates, stood at 
 tile point of junction of the Via Sahiria and Via 
 Nomentana, just above the N. angle of the Vigna 
 dei Certosini. 2. P. Vimmatis, S. of No. 1, and 
 in the centre of the agger. 3. P. Esquilinti^ S. of 
 No. 2, on the site of the arch of Gallienus, which 
 probably replaced it ; the Via Praenestina and 
 J^abicana began here. 4. P. Qiicrqueiulana^ S. of 
 No. 3. 5. P. Gaeliomoniamt^ S. of No. 4, on the 
 heights of M. Caelius, behind the hospital of S. 
 Giov.anni in Laterano, at the point of junction of 
 the 2 modern streets which bear the name of 
 K. Stefano Rotondo, and the SS. Qnattro Coronati. 
 ti. P. Capena, one of the most celebrated of all the 
 Roman gates, from which issued the Via Appia. It 
 stood S.W. of No, 5, and at the S. W. foot of the 
 Caelian, on the spot now occupied by the grounds 
 of the Villa Mattel. 7, 8, !). P. Lave.malis, P. 
 liauduscidana^ and P. Naevda^ 3 of the most S.-ly 
 gates of Rome, lying between the Caelian and the 
 Aventine. The walls of Servius probably here 
 took a great bend to the S., inclosing the heights 
 of ISta Balbina and Sta Kaba. 10. P, M'mucia^ 
 probably W. of the 3 preceding, and on the S. of 
 the Aventine. 11. P. Ti-u/emina, on the N.W. of 
 the Aventine, near the Tiber and the great salt- 
 magazines. 12. P. Flumeniana^ N. of the pre- 
 ceding, near the S.W. slope of the Capitol and 
 close to the Tiber. 13. P. Carmcjitatis^ N. of 
 No. 12, and at the foot of the S.W. slope of the 
 Capitoline, near the altar of Carmenta, and lead- 
 ing to the Forum Olitorium and the Theatre of 
 . Marcellus. This gate contained 2 passages, of 
 which the right hand one was called Porta Soe- 
 lerata from the time that the 300 Fabii passed 
 through it, and was always avoided. 14. P. Ratu- 
 menaiis, N. of No. 13, and at the N.W. slope of 
 the Capitoline, leading fj-om the Forum of Trajan 
 to the Campus Martins. 15. P. Fontinalis, N, of 
 No. 14, on the W. slope of the Qniriual, also lead- 
 to the Campus Martins. 16. P. Sanqualis, N. of 
 No. 15, also on the W. slope of the same hill. 
 17. P. Salularis,'N. of No. 16, on the N.W. slope 
 of the same hill, near the temple of Salus. 18. J-*. 
 Triumpludis, The position of this gate is quite 
 uncertain, except that it led, more or less directly, 
 to the Campus Martins. — III. Walls of Atire- 
 llan. These walls are essentially the same as 
 those which surround the modern city of Rome, 
 with the exception of the part beyond the Tiber. 
 The Janiculus and the adjacent suburb was the 
 only portion beyond the Tiber which was in- 
 cluded within the fortifications of Aurelian ; for 
 the Vatican was not surrounded with walls till 
 the time of Leo IV. in the 9th century. On 
 the left bank of the Tiber the walls of Aurelian 
 embraced on the N. the Collis Hortulorum or 
 rincianus, on the W. the Campus Martins, on the 
 E. the Campus Esquilinus, and on the S. the Mons 
 Testaceus. There were 14 gates in the Aurelian 
 walls, most of which derived their names from the 
 roads issuing from them. These were, on the N. 
 side: 1. P. Aurelia, on the Tiber in front of the 
 Pons Aelius. 2. P. Pinciaiia, on the hill of the 
 same name. 3. P.Salanu^ extant under the same 
 name, but restored in modern times. 4. P. No- 
 
 ROMA. 
 
 649 
 
 ■meniana^ leading to the ancient P. ColHna. On 
 the E. side: 5. P, Tiburtina, leading to the old P. 
 Esquilina, now Porta S. Lorenzo. 6. P. Prue- 
 ncstina., now Porta Maggiore. On the S. side : 7. 
 P. Asmaria^ on the site of the modem Porta S. 
 Giovanni. 8. P. MeironiSy or ]\leii'0?ni, or Mciro- 
 via., which has now disappeared, probably at the 
 entrance to the Caelian, between S. Stefano Ro- 
 tondo and the Villa Mattel. 9. P. Lalina, now 
 walled up. 10. P. Appia, now Porta S. Pan- 
 crazio. The roads through this gate and through 
 No. 9, both led to the old Porta Capena. 11. P. 
 OstienszH, leading to Ostia, now Porta S. Paolo. 
 On the W. side: 12. P. Porliumsis, on the other 
 side of the Tiber near the river, from which issued 
 the road to Portus. 1 3. A second P. A urelia, on 
 the W. slope of the Janiculus, now Porta S. Pau- 
 crazio. 14. P. Sapiinuana, near the Tiber, which 
 was destroyed by Alexander VL —E. Bridges. 
 There were 8 bridges across the Tiber, which pro- 
 bably ran in the following order from N. to S ; — ■ 
 
 1. Pons Aelius, which was built by Hadrian, and 
 led from the city to the mausoleum of that em- 
 peror, now the bridge and castle of St. Angelo. 
 
 2. Pons NeroniamLS, or Vaticanus, which led from 
 the Campus Martius to the Vatican and the gar- 
 dens of Caligula and Nero. The remains of its 
 piers may still be seen, when the waters of the 
 Tiber are low, at the back of the Hospital of San 
 Spirito. 3. P. Aiirelius, sometimes, but errone- 
 ously, called Janiculensis, which led to the Jani- 
 culus and the Porta Aurelia. It occupied the site 
 of the present " Ponte Sisto," which was built by 
 Sistus IV. upon the rnins of the old bridge. 4, 5. 
 P. Fahrieim and P. Cestius, the two bridges which 
 connected the Insula Tiberina with the opposite 
 sides of the river, the fonner with the city, the 
 latter with the Janiculus. Both are still remain- 
 ing. The P. Fabricius, which was built by one 
 L. Fabricius, curator viarum, a short time before 
 the conspiracy of Catiline, now bears the name of 
 '• Ponte Quattro Capi." The P. Cestius, which 
 was built at a much later age, is now called " Ponte 
 S. Bartolommeo." S. P.Senatorius, or Palatinus, 
 below the island of the Tiber, formed the com- 
 munication between the Palatine and its neigh- 
 bourhood and the Janiculus. 7. P. SuUidus, the 
 oldest of the Roman bridges, said to have been 
 built by Ancus Martius, when he erected a fort on 
 the Janiculus. It was built of wood, whence its 
 name, which comes from sublices, '* wooden beams." 
 It was carried away several times by the river 
 but from a feeling of religious respect was aUvavs 
 rebuilt of wood down to the latest times. 8. P. 
 MUvius, or Mulvius, now *^ Ponte Molle," was situ- 
 ated ontside the city, N. of the P. Aelius, and was 
 built by Aemilius Scaunis the censor. — F. Inte- 
 rior of the City. I. Fora and Campi. The 
 Fora were open spaces of ground, paved with 
 stones, surrounded by buildings, and used as market 
 places, or for the transaction of public business. An 
 account of the Fora is given elsewhere. [Forum.] 
 The Campi were also open spaces of ground, but 
 much larger, covered with grass, planted with trees, 
 and adorned with works of art. They were used 
 by the people as places of exercise and amusement, 
 and may be compared with the London parks. 
 These Campi were : 1. Campus Martius, the open 
 plain lying between the city walls and the Tiber, of 
 which the southern part, in the neighbourhood of 
 the Circus Flaminius, was called Campus Fhminius, 
 
650 ROMA. 
 
 or Prata Flaminiou This plain, which was by far 
 the most celebrated of all, is spoken of separatelj-. 
 [Campus Martius.] 2. Campus Sceleralns, close 
 to the Porta Collina and within the walls of Ser- 
 vius, where the vestals who had broken their vows 
 of cliaetity were entombed alive. 3. Campus 
 Agrippae^ probably on the S. W. slope of the Pin- 
 cian hill, E. of the Campus Martius, on the right 
 of the Corso, and N. of the Piazza degli ApostoH. 
 4. Campus Esquilinm, outside of the agger of Ser- 
 viiis and near the Porta Esquilina, where criminals 
 wt^re executed, and the lower classes were buried. 
 The greater part of this plain was afterwards con- 
 verted into pleasure grounds belonging to the palace 
 of Maecenas. 5. Campus Vhninalis^ on the E, 
 slope of the Viminal near the Villa Negroni.— II. 
 Streets and Districts. There are said to have 
 been in all 215 streets in Rome. The broad streets 
 were called Viae and Vici*\ the narrow streets 
 Avgipoi-tiis, The chief streets were : 1. ViaSaci-a^ 
 the principal street in Rome. It began near the 
 Saceilum Streniae, in the valley between the Cae- 
 lian and the Esquiline, and leaving the Flavian 
 Amphitheatre (Colosseum) on the left ran along 
 the N. slope of the Palatine, passing imder the 
 arch of Titus, and past the Fomm Ronianum, till it 
 reached the Capitol. 2. Via Lata,, led from the N. 
 side of the Capitol and the Porta Ratumena to the 
 porta Flaminia, whence the N. part of it was 
 called Via Flaminia. 3. Via Nova^ by the side 
 of the W. slope of the Palatine, led from the 
 ancient Porta Roraanula and the Vclabrum to the 
 Forum, and was connected by a side street with 
 the Via Sacra. 4. VicziS Juijanus^ led from the 
 Porta Carraentalis under the Capitol to the Forum 
 Romanum, which it entered near the Basilica Julia 
 and the Lacus Servilius. 5. Vicus Tuscus, connected 
 the Velabrum with the Forum, running "W". of, find 
 nearly parallel with, the Via Nova. It contiined a 
 great number of shnps, where articles of luxury were 
 sold, and its inhabitants did not possess the best of 
 chnractcrs {Tusci iurba impia ri'c/, Ilor, Sai. \\, 3. 
 228). 6. Vicus Cf/pnus,, ran from the Forum to 
 the Esquiline. The upper part of it, turning on the 
 right to the Urbius Clivus, was called Scdcratus 
 Vicus, because TuUia here drove her chariot over 
 the corpse of her father Serviiis. 7- Viais Pa/rlcius^ 
 in the vnlley between the Esquiline and the Vimi- 
 nnf in the direction of the modern Via Urbana and 
 Via di S. Pudenziana. 8. Viais Africus, m the 
 district of Esquiline, but the exact situation of which 
 cannot be detennined, said to have been so called, 
 because African hostages were kept here during 
 the first Punic war. 9. Vicus Samhilarius^ also in 
 the district of the Esquiline, extending as far as 
 the heights of the Carinae. Besides the shops of 
 the shoemakers, from whom it derived its name, it 
 contjiined several booksellers'* shops. 10. Vicus 
 Vitiiariiis or Vitmrius^ in the S.E. part of the citj', 
 near the Porta Capena. 11. Vicus Longus, in the 
 Vallis Qnirini between the Quirinal and Viminal, 
 now S. Vitale. 12. Caput Jfrioac, near the Co- 
 losseum, the modem Via de S. Quattro Coronati. 
 13. Subura or Su^mrra, a district, tlirough which a 
 street of the same name ran, was the whole valley 
 between the Esquiline, Quirinal and Viminal. It 
 was one of the most frequented parts of the town 
 
 * Victis, properly signified ji quarter of the cltj', but 
 the principal street in a vicus was fri^quoiilly called by 
 the name of the Vicus to whicli It belonged. 
 
 ROMA. 
 
 and contained a great number of shops and brothels. 
 14. Fe/2«, a height near the forum, which extended 
 from the Palatine near the Arch of Titus, to the 
 Esquiline, and which separated the valley of the 
 forum from that of the Colosseum. On the Velia 
 were situated the Basilica of Constantino and the 
 temple of Venus and Rome. 15. Carinas, a district 
 on the S.W. part of the Esquiline, or the modern 
 height of S.Pietro in Vincoli, where Pompey, Cicero 
 and many other distinguished Romans lived. 16. 
 Velabrum^ a district on the \V, slope of the Palatine 
 ■between tiie Vicus Tuscus and the Forum Boariuni, 
 was originally a morass. 17. Aeqniuielium., a place 
 at the E. foot of the Capitol and by the side of the 
 Vicus Jugarius, where the house of Sp. Macliiis 
 once stood. [See p. 407. a.] 10. Argilctum, a dis- 
 trict of uncertain site, but probably at the S. ex- 
 tremity of the Quirinal between the Subura, tlic 
 Forum of Nerva and the Temple of Peace. The 
 etymology of the name is uncertain ; some of the 
 ancients derived it from argUla " white clay " ; 
 others from a hero Argus, a friend of Evauder. who 
 is said to have been buried here. 19. Lautumlue^ 
 a district near the Argiletum and the Forum Pis- 
 catoiium, on which subsequently the Basilica Porcia 
 was built. In this district was one of the state 
 prisons, called Lautuviiae or Career Lauiumiarum. 
 ^III. Temples. There are said to have been 400 
 temples in Rome. Of these the following, enume- 
 rated for the most part in chronological order, 
 were the principal: — 1. Templum Jovis Feretrii, 
 on the Capitolinc, the oldest of all the Roman 
 temples, built, according to tradition, by Romulus, 
 and restored by Augustus. 2. T. Fidei, likewise on 
 the Capitoline, built by Numa, and restored suc- 
 cessively by A. Atilins Collatinus and M. Aemilius 
 Scaurus. 3. T. Javi,, also tailed Janus Blfrons or 
 Blformis^ Janus Gcminus and Janus Quirinus, also 
 built by Numa, was, properly speaking, not a 
 temple, but a passage with an entrance at each end, 
 the gates of which were opened during war and 
 closed in times of peace. It was situated N.E. of 
 the forum towards the Quirinal. There were also 
 other temples of Janus at Rome, of which one was 
 near the Theatre of Marcellus, and the other near 
 the forum of Nerva. 4. Aedcs Veatae^ a round 
 temple built by Numa, in the S. part of the forum 
 or on the slope of the Palatine, adjoining the Pegii.c 
 Numae^ probably near Sta Maria Liberatice. The 
 Atrium Vestae^ also called Atrium Regium, probably 
 formed a part of the Regia Numae, which may be 
 regarded as forming a portion of the building sacred 
 to Vesta, 5. 7'.D/awae,on the Aventine, which hill is 
 hence called by Martial Collis Diaiiae,, built by Ser- 
 vius Tullius, as the place of meeting for the Romans 
 and the members of the Latin league, and restored 
 by Augustus, probably near the modern church 
 S. Prisca. 6. r.ittwae, frequently confounded with 
 the preceding, abo built by Scrvius Tullius, and on 
 the Aventinc, probably on the side adjoining tho 
 Circus. 7. T. Jovis, usually called the Capitol ium, 
 situated on the S. summit of the Capitoline hill, 
 was vowed by Tarquiniua Priscus and built by 
 Tarqninius Superbus. It was the most magniticent 
 of ail the temples in Romo^ and is described else- 
 where. [Capitolium.] 8. T. Salurw\ wiiich was 
 also used as the Aerarium, on the Clivus Capitoli* 
 nua and by the Forum, to which it is supposed that 
 the 3 pillars in the forum belong. It was built by 
 Tar(|uinius Superbus and restored successively by 
 L. Munatiua Plancus and Septimius Scverus. 9. 
 
ROMA. 
 
 Aedea Castoris or T. Castoris ei Polluds, by the 
 Forum, near the fountnin of Jutunia, in which the 
 senate frequently assembled. It was vowed by the 
 dictitor A. Posturaius in the great battle with the 
 Latins near the lake Regillua, and was successively 
 restored by L. Metellus Dalmaticus, Tiberius, Ca- 
 ligula and Claudius. 10. T, MarcunU between the 
 Circus Maximus and the Aventine. 11. T. Cereris^ 
 on the slope of the Aventine near the Circus. 12. 
 T. ApoUinis^ between the Circus Maximus and the 
 Theatre of Marcellus near the Porticus Octaviae, 
 where the senate often assembled. 13. T. Jimonis 
 Tteginae^ on the Aventine. 14. T. Martis Extra- 
 mui'anei, before the Porta Capena on the Via Appia, 
 
 15. T. Jimonis Monetae^ on the area of the Capi- 
 toline, where the house of M. Manlius had stood. 
 
 16. T. Junonis Lucinae^ on the W. summit of the 
 J'Isquiline. 17. T. Concordiae^ on the slope of the 
 Capitoline above the forum in which the senate 
 frequently assembled. There were probably two 
 temples of Concordia, both by the forum, of which the 
 more ancient was consecrated by Camillus, and the 
 other by L. Opimius after the death of C. Gracchus. 
 The remains of the ancient temple of Concordia are 
 to be seen behind the arch of Septimius Sevcrus. 
 lo. T. SaluiiSy oji the slope of the Quirinal near 
 the Porta Salutaris, adorned with paintings by 
 Fabius Pictor, burnt down in the reipn of Claudius. 
 
 19. 7'. Bellonae, before the Circus Flaminius, and 
 near the confines of tlie Campus Martins, in which 
 tlie senate assembled, in order to give audience to 
 foreign ambassadors and to receive applications 
 from generals who solicited the honour of a triumph. 
 
 20. T. Jovis Victoris^ on the Palatine, between the 
 Domus August! and the Curia Vetus. 21. T. Vic- 
 tortae, on the summit of the Palatine, or theClivus 
 Victoriae above the Porta Ilomanula and the 
 circus, in which the statue of the mother of the 
 gods was at first preserved. 22. T. Magnae Matris 
 Idaeae, near the preceding and the Casa Romnli, in 
 which the ibove named statue of the goddess was 
 placed I'A yetirs after its arrival in Rome. 23. 7'. 
 Jovis Slatoins, near the arch of Titus on the Via 
 Sacra, where the senate frequently assembled. 24. 
 T. Quirini^ on the Quirinal, where also the senate 
 frequently assembled, enlarged and adonied by 
 Augustus. 25. T, Fortunae^ built by Servius Tul- 
 lius in the Forum Boarium. 26. T. Aesculapii in 
 the island of the Tiber, which was called after it 
 Insula Aesculapii. 27. T, Mentis and Venei-is 
 Ei-ycinac^ both of which were built at the same 
 time and close to one another on the Capitoline. 
 There was also anotiier temple of Venus Erj-cina 
 before the Porta CoUina. 28. 7". Honoris and Vir~ 
 talis, which were built, close to one another, near 
 the Porta Capena and Via Appia, by Marcellus, 
 and adorned with Greek works of art brought from 
 Syracuse. 29. T, Jovis, in the island of the Tiber, 
 near the temple of Aesculapius. 30. T. Fauni, in 
 the island of the Tiber. 31.7". Spei^ in the Forum 
 Olitorium. 32. T. Junonis Sonpitae or Maiuiae, in 
 the Fonim Olitorium near the Theatre of Marcellus. 
 33. T. Pietatis, in the Forum Olitorium, which was 
 pulled down in order to make room for the Theatre 
 of Marcellus. 34. Aedes Fortunae Eqiteatns, in the 
 Campus Flaminius near the theatre of Pompey, 
 built by Fulvius Flaccua, the roof of which, made 
 of marble, was brought fi-om a temple of Juno Lu- 
 cina in Bruttium. It was probably burnt down in 
 the reign of Augustus or Tiberius, since in A.n. 
 22 we are told there was no temple of Fortuna 
 
 ROMA. 651 
 
 Eqnestria at Rome. There were other temples of 
 Fortuna on the Palatine, Quiriiuil, &c. 35. Aedes 
 Uerculis Muscwum, close to the Porticus Octaviae, 
 and between the Theatre of Marcellus and the 
 Circus Flaminius, built by M. Fulvius Nobilior 
 and adorned with the statues of the Muses brought 
 from Arabracia. 36. T. Honoris et Virtidia, built 
 by Marius, but of uncertain site: somu modem 
 writers suppose it to have been on the Esquiline, 
 others on the Capitoline. 37. T. Mariis, in the 
 Campus Martius near the Circus Flaminius, built 
 by D. Brutus Callaicus, and adorned with a colossal 
 statue of the god. 33. T. Veneris Genetricis^ in 
 the forum of Caesar, before which Caesar's eques- 
 trian statue was placed. 39. T. Martis UHoris, in 
 the forum of Augustus, to which belong the 3 
 splendid Corinthian pillars near the convent S. 
 Annunziata. 40. T. ApoUlnis, on the Palatine, 
 surrounded by a porticus in which was the cele- 
 brated Palatine library. i\. Pantheon^ u. celebrated 
 temple in the Campus Martius, built by Agrippa : 
 it is described in a separate article. [Pantheon.] 
 42. T. Avgusti, founded by Tiberius and completed 
 by Caligula, on the slope of the Palatine towards 
 the Via Nova. It stood before the temple of Mi- 
 nerva, from which it was probably separated by 
 the Via Nova. 43. T. Pads, one of the most 
 splendid temples in the city, built by Vespasian 
 on the Velia. 44. T. Isidis et Serapidis in the 3rd 
 Regio, which was named after the temple. 45. T, 
 Vcspasiani et Titi, in the forum, alongside of tho 
 temple of Concordia. 46. T. Antonini et Fttus- 
 iiuae, at the further end of the N. side of the 
 forum under the Velia. The remains of this temple 
 are in the modern church of S. Lorenzo in Miranda, 
 47. T. Minervae, on the S. side of the forum, be- 
 hind the temple of Augustus, built by Domitian. 
 40. T. Bonae Deae, a very ancient temple on a 
 spot of the Aventine, which was called Saximi 
 Sacrum, but removed by Hadrian, undoubtedly on 
 the S. E. side of the hill, opposite the heights of 
 S. Sabba and S. Balbina. 49. T. Pomacet Veneris, 
 subsequently called T. Urhis, a large and splendid 
 temple, built by Hadrian, between the Esquiline 
 and Palatine, N. E. of the Colosseum. It was 
 burnt down in the reign of Maxeiititis, but was 
 subsequently restored. Its remains are between 
 the Colosseum and the church of S. Maria Nuova 
 or S. Francesca Romima. 50. T, Solis, at the 
 upper end of tho Circus Maximus. 51. T. IlercuHs, 
 in the forum Boarium, probably the round temple 
 still extant of S. Maria del Sole, which used to be 
 erroneously regarded as the temple of Vesta. 
 There was another temple of Hercules by the 
 Circus Maximus, near the Porta Trigemina. 
 52. T. Solis, a splendid temple built by Aurelian, 
 E. of the Quirinal. 53. T. Florae, an ancient 
 temple on the S. point of the Quirinal ; but the 
 time of its foundation is not recorded. 54. Vul- 
 cana/e, was not a temple, but only an Area dedi- 
 cated to the god with an altar, on the N. side of 
 the forum above tho Comitium ; it was so large 
 that not only were the Curia Hostilia and the 
 Aedes Concordiae built there, but also a fish- 
 market was held in the place. ^IT. Cii'ci. The 
 Circi were places for chariot-races and horse-races. 
 1. Circles Maximus, frequently called simply tlie 
 Circus, was founded by Tarquinius Priscua, in the 
 plain between the Palatine and Aventine, and was 
 successively enlarged by Julius Caesar and Trajan. 
 Under the emperors it contained seats for 305,000 
 
6o2 ROMA. 
 
 persons. It was restored Ijy Ccnstantlne the 
 Great, nnd games were celebrated in it as late as 
 the 6th century. 2. C. Flavnnius^ erected by Fla- 
 niinius in B.C. 221 in tlie Prata Flaniinia before 
 the Porta Camientalia ; it was not sufficiently 
 large for the population of Rome, and was there- 
 fore seldom used. 3. C Neronis^ erected by Ca- 
 li^^ula in the gardens of Agrippina on the other 
 side of the Tiber. There was also another 
 C. Nei-onis^ on the other side of the Tiber, near 
 the Moles Hadriani, in the gardens of Domitia. 
 4. C Palutinus^ on the Palatine in which the 
 Liidi Palatini were celebrated. There are traces 
 of it in the Orto Roncioni on the S. part of the 
 hiil. 5. C. Hdioydbali, in the gardens of this 
 emperor, behind the Ampliitheatnim Castrense, at 
 tlie E. point of the Aurelian walls. 6. C. Ala.x- 
 ciitiu commonly called Circo di Caracalla, before 
 the Porta Appia in the S. part of the city. Among 
 the Circi we may also reckon ; 7. The Stadium, 
 likewise called C. Ago7talis and C. Ale.t:cmd)\ in 
 the Campus Martius, erected by Domitian in place 
 of the wooden Stadium built by Augustus. It 
 contained seats for 33,88fi persons. Its remains 
 still exist in the Piazza Navona. ^V. Theatres. 
 Theatres were not built at Rome till a com- 
 paratively late period, and long after the Circi. 
 At first they were only made of wood for tem- 
 porary purposes, and were afterwards broken up ; 
 but many of these wooden theatres were notwith- 
 standing constructed with great magnificence. 
 Tlie splendid wooden theatre of M. Aemilius 
 Scaurus was capable of containing 80,000 spec- 
 tators. 1. T/ieatrum Pompeii, the first permanent 
 stone theatre, was erected by Cn. Pompey, B.C. .55, 
 in the Campus Martius, N. E. of the Circus Fla- 
 miiiius, after the model of the theatre of Mytilene. 
 It contained seats for 40,000 spectators. It was 
 restored successively by Augustus, Tiberius, Cali- 
 gula, Diocletian, and Theodorich. Its ruins are 
 by tiie Palazzo Pio, not far from the Canipo di 
 Fiore. 2. T/t. Comelli Bcdbi, S. E. of the pre- 
 ceding, near the Tiber, on the site of the Palazzo 
 Cenci. It was dedicated by Cornelius Balbus in 
 B. c. 13, was partly burnt down under Titus, but 
 was subsequently restored. It contained seats for 
 1 1 ,600 persons. 3. Th. Marcelli, in the forum 
 Oiitorium, W. of the preceding, between the slope 
 of the Capitoline and the island of the Tiber, on 
 the site of the temple of Pietas. It was begun by 
 Julius Caesar, and dedicated by Augustus in 
 E. c. 13, to the memory of his nephew Marcellus. 
 It was restored by Vespasian, and perhaps also by 
 Alexander Severus. It contained seats for 20,000 
 spL-ctatnrs. The remains of its Cavea exist near 
 the Piazza Montanara. These were the only 3 
 theatres at Rome, whence Ovid speaks of iema 
 thmtra. There was, however, an Odeum or con- 
 certs-house, which may be classed among the 
 theatres. 4. Odeum, in the Campus Martius, built 
 by Domitian, though some writers attribute its 
 erection to Trajan : it contained seats for about 
 11,000 persons.— VI. Ampliitlieatres. The am- 
 phitheatres, like the theatres, were originally 
 made of wood for temporary purposes. They were 
 used for the shows of gladiators and wild beasts. 
 The first wooden amphitheatre was built by C. Scri- 
 bonius Curio (the celebrated partisan of Caesar), 
 and the next by Julius Caesar during his perpetual 
 dictatorship, B.C. 46. 1. Amj^h. Stutilii Tuuri, in 
 the Campus Martius, was the first stone amphi- 
 
 ROMA. ' 
 
 theatre in Rome, and was built by Statilius Taui-us, 
 E. c. 30. This edifice was the only one of the 
 kind until the building of the Flavian amphi- 
 tlieatre. It did not satisfy Caligula, who com- 
 menced an amphitheatre near the Septa; but the 
 work was not continued by Claudius. Nero too, 
 A. D. 57, erected a vast amphitheatre of wood, but 
 this was only a temporary building. The amphi- 
 theatre of Taurus was destroyed in the burning of 
 Rome, A. D. 64, and was probably never restored, 
 as it is not again mentioned. 2. Amph. Flavium, 
 or, as it has been called since' the time of Bede, 
 the Colosseum or Colisaeuni, a name said to be de- 
 rived from the Colossus of Nero, which stood close 
 hy. It was situated in the ■Galley between the 
 Caelius, the Esquiline and tiie Velia on the marsliy 
 ground which was previously the pond of Nero's 
 palace. It was commenced by A'^espasian, and was 
 completed by Titus, who dedicated it in a. d. 80, 
 when 5000 animals of different! kinds were slaugh- 
 tered. This wonderful building, of which there 
 are still extensive remains, covered nearly 6 acres 
 of ground, and furnished seats for 87,000 spec- 
 tators. In the reign of Macrinus it was struck by 
 lightning, and so much damage was done to it 
 that the games were for some years celebrated in 
 the Stadium. Its restoration was commenced by 
 Elagabalua and completed by Alexander Sevenis. 
 3. Amph. Castrense^ at the S. E. of the Aurelian 
 walls. — VII. NaumacMae. These were build- 
 ings of a kind similar to the amphitheatres. They 
 were used for representations of sea-fights, and 
 consisted of artificial lakes or ponds, with stone 
 seats around them to accommodate the spectators. 
 1. NaumacJua Jidii Caesaris, in the middle part 
 of the Campus Martius, called the " Lesser Co- 
 deta." This lake was filled up in the time of 
 Augustus, so that we find in later writers mention 
 of only 2 Naumachiae. 2. TV. Augusli, constructed 
 by Augustus on the other side of the Tiber under 
 the Janiculus and near the Porta Porl?6ensis. It 
 was subsequently called the Veius Ndumachia, to 
 distinguish it from the following one. 3. A^. Do- 
 miliani, constructed by the emperor Domitian, pro- 
 bably on the other side of the Tiber under the 
 Vatican and the Circus Neronis. ^VIII. Ther- 
 mae. The Thermae were some of the most mag- 
 nificent buildings of imperial Rime. They were dis- 
 tinct from the Balneae, or common baths, of which 
 there were a great number at Rome. In the 
 Thermae tlie baths constituted a small part of the 
 building. They were, properly speaking, a Roman 
 adaptation of the Greek gymnasia ; and besides 
 the baths they continued places for athletic games 
 and youthful sports, exedrae or public halls, por- 
 ticoes and vestibules for the idle, and libraries for 
 tiie learned. They were decorated with the finest 
 objects of art, and adorned with fountains, and 
 shaded walks and plantations.' 1. Thermae Agrip- 
 pae, in the Campus Martius, erected by M. 
 Agrippa. The Pantheon, stlU existing, is sup- 
 posed by some, but without sufficient reason, to 
 have served originally as a vestibule to these 
 T]i£innae. 2, Th. Nerojiis, erected by Nero in 
 the Campus Martius alongside of the Thermae 
 of Agrippa : they were restored by Alexander 
 Severus, and were from that time called Th. Aiex- 
 andrinae. 3. Th. Titi, on the Esquiline, near 
 the amphitheatre of this emperor, of which there 
 are still considerable remain's. 4. Th. Trajani, 
 also on the Esquiline, immediately behind the 
 
ROMA. 
 
 two preceding', towards the N. E. 5. Tit. Com- 
 viodianae and Tk. Severmnae^ close to one another, 
 near S. Balbina, in the S. E. part of the city. 
 6. Th. Antoniidanaej also in the S. E. part of the 
 city, behind the two preceding, one of the most 
 magnificent of all the Thermae, in which 2,300 
 men could bathe at the same time. The greater 
 part of it was built by Caracalla, and it was com- 
 pleted by Heliogabalus and Alexander Severus. 
 There are still extensive remains of this immense 
 building below S. Balbina. 7. Th. Diocleiiani^ 
 in the N. E. part of the city between the Agger 
 of Servius and the Viminal and Quirinal. It was 
 the most extensive of all the Thermae, containing 
 a library, picture gallery, Odeum, &c., and such 
 immense baths that 3,000 men could bathe in 
 them at the same time. There are still extensive 
 remains of tiiis building near S. Maria d'Angeli. 
 8. Th. Consianiinij on the Quirinal, on the site of 
 the modern Palazzo Rospigiiosi, but of which ail 
 traces have disappeared. The following Thermae 
 were smaller and less celebrated. 9. Th.Decianae^ 
 on the Aventine. 10. Tk Suranae^ erected by 
 Trajan to the memory of his friend Sulpicius Sura, 
 also in the neighbourhood of the Aventine, pro- 
 bably the same as the Th. Varianae. 11. Th. Phi- 
 lippic near S. Matteo in Memlana. 12. Th. Jgrip- 
 pinac^ on the Viminal behind S. Lorenzo, 13. Th. 
 Caii et Lucii^ on the Esquiline, called in the middle 
 agfs the Terrae di Galluccio. — IX. Basilicae. 
 The BMsilicae were buildings which served as 
 courts of law, and exchanges or places of meeting 
 for mtTchants and men of business. 1. Basilica 
 Porcia, erected by M. Porciua Cato, in the forum 
 adjoining the Curia, b. c. 104. It was burnt down 
 along with the Curia in the riots which followed 
 the death of Clodius, 52. 2, B. Fulvia^ also 
 called Aemilia ct Fulvia, because it was built by 
 the censors L. Aeinilius Lepidus and M. Fulvius 
 Nobilior in 179. It was situated in the forum 
 near the preceding one. It was restored by 
 Aemilius PauJus in the time of Caesar, and was 
 lience called B. Aemilia or Pauli. It was dedi- 
 cated by his son Paulus Aemilius Lepidus in his 
 consulship, 34. It was burnt down 20 years 
 afterwards (l4), and was rebuilt nominally by 
 Paulus Lepidus, but in reality by Augustus and 
 the friends of Paulus. The new building was a 
 most magnificent one ; its columns of Phrygian 
 marble were especially celebrated. It was re- 
 paired by another Lepidus in the reign of Tibe- 
 rius, A. D. 22. 3. B. Sempronia, built by Ti. 
 Hempronius Gracchus, B.C. 171, in the forum at 
 the end of the Vicus Tuscus. 4. B. Opimia^ in the 
 forum near the temple of Concordia. 5. B. Julia^ 
 commenced by Julius Caesar and finished by 
 Augustus, in the forum between the temples of 
 Castor and Saturn, probably on the site of the 
 B. Sempronia mentioned above. Some writers sup- 
 pose that Aemilus Paulus built two Basilicae, and 
 that the B. Julia occupied the site of one of them. 
 6. B. Argentaria^ in the forum near the Clivus 
 Argentarius and before the temple of Concordia, 
 probably the same as the one mentioned under the 
 name of B. Vascularia. The remains of this 
 building are behind S. Martina, along side of the 
 Salita di Marforio. 7. B. Ulpia^ in the middle of 
 the forum of Trajan, of which there are still eon- 
 siderable remains. 8, B. Conslantiana^ between 
 the temple of Peace and the temple of Rome and 
 Venus. — X. Porticoes. The Porticoes {Furticus) 
 
 ROMA. 
 
 653 
 
 were covered walks, supported by columns, and open 
 on one side. There were several public poiticoos 
 at Rome, many of them of great size, which were 
 used as places of recreation, and for the transaction 
 of business. 1. Porticus Pompeii^ adjoining the 
 theatre of Pompey, and erected to afford shelter to 
 the spectators in the theatre during a shower of 
 rain. It was restored by Diocletian, and was 
 hence called P, Jovia. 2. P. Argonautaintm, or 
 Neptuni or Agrippae, erected by Agrippa in the 
 Campus Martins around the temple of Neptune, 
 and adorned with a celebrated painting of the 
 Argonauts. 3. P. Philipjn, by the side of the 
 T. Herculis Musarum and the Porticus Octavinc, 
 built by M. Philippus the father-in-law of Au- 
 gustus, and adorned with splendid works of art. 
 4. P. Minucii in the Campus Martins, near the 
 Circus Flaminius, built by Q. Minucius Rufus in 
 B.C. 109, to commemorate his victories over the 
 Scordisci and Triballi in the preceding year. 
 There appear to have been 2 porticos of this name, 
 since we find mention of a Minncia Vetus et FrU' 
 mentaria. It appears that the tesserae, or tickets, 
 which entitled persons to a share in the public 
 distributions of corn were given to them in the 
 P. Minucia. 5. P. Meielli, built by Q. Metellus, 
 after his triumph over Perseus, king of Macedonia, 
 B. c. 146. It was situated in the Campus Martins 
 between the Circus Flaminius and the theatre of 
 Marcellus, and surrounded the 2 temples of 
 Jupiter Stator and Juno Regina. 6. P. Octaviae, 
 built by Augustus on the site of the P. Metelli 
 just mentioned, in honour of his sister Octavia. 
 It was a magnificent building, containing a vast 
 number of works of art, and a public library, in 
 which the senate frequently assembled ; hence it 
 is sometimes called Curia Octavia. It was burut 
 down in the reign of Titus. Its ruins are near 
 the churcli of S. Angelo in Pescaria. 7- P- Oc- 
 tavia^ which must be cai'ofully distinguished from 
 the P. Octaviae just mentioned, was built by Cn. 
 Octavius, who commanded the Roman fleet in the 
 war against Perseus, king of Macedonia. It was 
 situated in the Campus Martins between the 
 theatre of Pompey and the Circus Flaminius. It 
 was rebuilt by Augustus, and contained 2 rows of 
 columns of the Corinthian order, with brazen 
 capitals, whence it was also called P. Corinlhia. 
 8, P. Europae^ probably at the foot of the Pincius, 
 in which foot-i-aces took place. 9. P. Polae^ built 
 by the sister of Agrippa in the Campus Agrippae, 
 in which also foot-races took place. 10. P.Livia^ 
 on the Esquiline, surrounding a temple of Con- 
 cordia, 11. P. Julia^ or P. Caii et Lucii, built by 
 Julia in honour of these 2 sons of Agrippa, was 
 probably also situated on the Esquiline near the 
 Thermae Caii et Lucii. The following Porticoes 
 were less celebrated : 12. P. Vipsania^ supposed 
 by some writers to be only a later name of the 
 P. Argonautarum. 13. P. Claudia^ on the Esqui- 
 line. —XI. Triumphal Arches. The Triumphal 
 Arches {Arcus) were structures peculiar to the 
 Romans, and were erected by victorious generals 
 in commemoration of their victories. They were 
 built across the principal streets of the city, and, 
 according to the space of their respective localities, 
 consisted either of a single arch-way or of a central 
 one for carriages, with 2 smaller ones on each side 
 for foot passengers. Ancient writers mention 21 
 arches in the city of Rome. Of these the most 
 important were : 1, Arcus Fabianiis, also called 
 
654 
 
 ROMA. 
 
 Fornix Fahlanus^ near the beginning of the Via 
 Siici-a, built by Fabiiis Maximua in B.C. 121, in 
 commemoration of his victory over the Allobroges. 
 2. A.Drasi^ erected by the senate in B.C. 9, in 
 lionour of Nero Claudius Drusus. It was situated 
 on the Via Appia, and still exists, fonning the 
 inner gate of the Porta di S. Sebastlano. 3, A. 
 Aui/usli, in the fonmi near the house of Julius 
 Caesar. 4. A. Tibeni^ near the temple of Saturn 
 on the Clivus Capltolinus erected by Tiberius, 
 A. D. il>, in honour of the victories of Gennamcus 
 in Germnny. 5. A. Claudii^ in the plain E. of 
 the Quirinal, erected a. d. 51, to commemorate the 
 victuries of Claudius in Britain. Remains of it 
 have been dug up at the beginning of the Piazza 
 di Sciarra, by tlie Via di Pietra, 6. A. Tiii, in 
 the middle of the Via Sacra at the foot of the 
 Palatine, which still exists. It was erected to the 
 hnnour of Titus, after his conquest of Judaea, but 
 was not finished till after his death ; since in the 
 inscription upon it he is called "'Di\-us," and he 
 is also represented as being carried up to heaven 
 upon an eagle. The bas-reliefs of this arch repre- 
 sent the spoils from the temple of Jerusalem 
 carried in triumphal procession. 7. A. Trajani^ 
 in the forum of this emperor, at the point where 
 you enter it from the forum of Augustus. C. 
 A. Verif on the Via Appia, erected to the honour 
 of Verus after his victory over the Parthian^, i). 
 A. Marci Jurelii, in the 7th Regio, probably 
 erected to commemorate the victory of this em- 
 peror over the Marconianni. It existed under dif- 
 ferent names near the Piazzo Fiano down to 1662, 
 ■when it was broken up by order of Alexander VII. 
 10. ^. Septimii Sevei% in the forum at the end of 
 tlie Via Sacra and the Clivus Capitolinus before 
 the temple of Concordia, and still extant near the 
 church of SS. Sergio e Bacco, was erected by the 
 senate. A- D. 203, in honour of Septimius Severus 
 and his 2 sons, Caracalla and Geta, on account of 
 Iiis victories over the Parthians and Arabians. 
 W.A. Gordiani, on the Esquiline. 12. ^4. Gultieni^ 
 erected to the honour of Gallienus by a private 
 individual, M. Aurelius Victor, also on the Esqui- 
 line, S.E. of the Porta Esquilina. It is still extant 
 near the church of S.Vito. 12. A. Diodetiani, 
 probably identical with the A. Novus, in the 7th 
 Regio. 13. A. C(mstantini^ at the entrance to the 
 valley between the Palatine and the Coelius, is 
 still extant. It was erected by the senate in 
 honour of Constantine after his victory over Max- 
 entius, a.d. 312. It is profusely ornamented, and 
 many of the bas-reliefs which adorn it were taken 
 from one of the arches erected in the time of 
 Trajan. 13. A. Tkeodosiani, Gratiani et Valen- 
 tiniani^ opposite the Pons Aelius and the Moles 
 Hadriani. ^ XII. Curiae or Senate-Houses. 1. 
 Curia Hostilia^ frequently called Cuma simply, 
 was built by Tullus Hostilius, and was used as the 
 ordinary place of assembly for the senate down to 
 the time of Julius Caesar. It stood in the Forum 
 on the N. side of the Comitium. It was burnt to 
 the ground in tlie riots which followed the death 
 of Ciodius, B, c. 52, It was however soon re- 
 built, the direction of the work being entrusted to 
 FaustuSjthe son of the dictator Sulla ; but scarcely 
 had it been finished, when the senate, at the sug- 
 gestion of Caesar, decreed that it should be de- 
 stroyed, and a temple of Fortune erected on its 
 site, while a new Curia should be erected, which 
 should bear the name of Julia. (See below.) 2. 
 
 HOMA. 
 
 C. Pompeia or Pompeii^ attached to the Portico of 
 Pompcy in the Campus Martius. It was in this 
 Curia that Caesar was assassinated on the Ides of 
 March. 3. C. Julia^ the decree for the erection of 
 which has been mentioned above, was finished 
 and consecrated by Augustus. It did not stand 
 on the site of the Curia Hostilia, as many modern 
 writers have supposed, but at the S.W. angle of 
 the Comitium, between the temple of Vesta and 
 that of Castor and Pollux. 4. C. Pompiliana, 
 built by Bomitian and restored by Diocletian, was 
 the usual place of the senate's meeting from the 
 time of Domitian. It was situated alongside of 
 the temple of Janus, which was said to have been 
 built by Numa Pompilius, whence this curia was 
 called Pompiliana. — XII. Prisons. There were 
 2 public prisons (carceres) in Rome. The more . 
 ancient one, called Career AlameHinus (a name 
 however which does not occur in any ancient 
 author), was built by Ancus Martius on the slope 
 of the Capitoline overhanging the Forum. It was 
 enlarged by Servius TuUius, wlio added to it a 
 dismal subterranean dungeon, called from him 
 TuUianum, where the conspirators of Catiline were 
 put to death. This dungeon was 12 feet under 
 ground, walled on each side, and arclied over wiih 
 stone-work. It is still extant, and serves as a 
 subterranean chapel to a small church built on the 
 spot called S. Pietro in Carcere. Near this prison 
 were the Sccilae Gemoniae or steps, down which 
 the bodies of those who had been executed were 
 thrown into the Forum, to be exposed to the gaze 
 of the Roman populace. The other state prison 
 was called Lautamiae^ and was probably situated 
 towards the N. side of the Forum, near the Curia 
 Hostilia and Basilica Porcia. Some writers how- 
 ever suppose Ijautumiae to be only another name 
 of the Career Mamertinus. ■— XIII. Castra or 
 Barracks. 1. Castra Praetoria^ in the N.E. 
 corner of the city on the slope of tlie Quirinal and 
 Viminal, and beyond the Thermae of Diocletian, 
 were built by the emperor Tiberius in the form of 
 a Roman camp. Here the Praetorian troops or 
 imperial guards were always quartered. 2. Castra 
 PercgHiia, on the Caelius, probably built by Sep- 
 timius Severus for the use of the foreign troops, 
 who might serve as a counterpoise against the 
 Praetorians. — XIY. Aqueducts. The Aqueducts 
 {AquaediLctus) supplied Rome with an abundance 
 of pure water from the hills which surround the 
 Campagna. The Romans at first had recourse to 
 the Tiber and to wells sunk in the city. It was 
 not till B. c. 313 that the first aqueduct was con- 
 structed, but their number was gradually increased 
 till they amounted to 14 in the time of Procopius, 
 that is, the 6th century of the Christian era. 1. 
 Aqua Appia^ was begun by the censor Appius 
 Claudius Caecus in B.C. 313. Its sources were 
 near the Via Praenestina, between the 7th and 8th 
 milestones, and its termination was at the Salinae 
 by the Porta Trigemina. Its length was 11,190 
 passus ; for 11,130 of which it was carried under 
 the earth, and for the remaining 60 passua, within 
 the city, from the Porta Capena to the Porta Tri- 
 gemina, it was on arches. No traces of it remain. 
 2. Anio Veiusy commenced B. c. 273, by the censor 
 M\ Curius Dentatus, and finished by M. Fulvius 
 Flaccus. The water was derived from the river 
 Anio, above Tibur, at a distance of 20 Roman 
 miles from the city; but, on account of its windings 
 its actual length was 43 miles, of which length 
 
ROMA. 
 
 less tlian a quarter of a mile only (viz. 221 passns) 
 ■\vaa above the ground. Tliere are considemble 
 remains of this aqueduct on the Aurclian wall, near 
 the Porta Maggiore, and also in the neighbourhood 
 of Tivoli. 3. A(j7ia Marcla^ which brought the cold- 
 est and most wliolesome water to Rome, was built 
 by the praetor Q. Marcius Rex, by command of 
 the senate, in u. c. 144. It commenced at the side 
 of the Via Valeria, 36 miles from Rome; its length 
 was 61,710^ passus, of which only 7463 were 
 above ground; namely, 528 on solid substructions, 
 and 6935 on arches. It was high enough to supply 
 water to the summit of the Capitoline mount. It 
 Wiia repaired byAgrippa in his aedileship, B. c. 33 
 (see below No. 5), and the volume of its water 
 ■was increased by Augustus, by means of the water 
 of a spring 800 passus from it : the short aqueduct 
 which conveyed this water was called Aqua Au- 
 gvsia^ but is never enumerated as a distinct aque- 
 duct. Several arches of the Aqua Marcia are still 
 standing. 4. Aqua Tepula^ which was built by 
 the censors Cn. Servilius Caepio and L. Cassius 
 Longinus in B. c. 127, began in a spot in the Lu- 
 cullan or Tusculan land, 2 miles to the right of the 
 ]Oth milestone on the Via Latina. It was after- 
 wards connected with, — 5. Aqua Julia. Among 
 the splendid public works executed by Agrippa in 
 his aedileship, B. c. 33, was the formation of a new 
 aqueduct, and the restoration of all the old ones. 
 From a source 2 miles to the right of the 12th 
 milestone of the Via Latina, he constructed his 
 aqueduct (the Aqua Julia) first to the Aqua Tepula, 
 in which it was merged as far as the reservoir 
 (piscina) on the Via Latina, 7 miles from Rome. 
 From the reservoir, the water was carried along 2 
 distinct channels, on the same substructions (which 
 were probably the original substructions of the 
 Aqua Tepula newly restored), the lower channel 
 being called the Aqua Tepula, and the upper the 
 Aqua Julia ; and this double aqueduct again was 
 united with the Aqua Marcia, over the water- 
 course of which the other two were carried. The 
 monument erected at the junction of these 3 aque- 
 ducts is still to be seen close to the Porta S. Lorenzo. 
 It bears an inscription referring to the repairs under 
 Caracalla, The whole course of the Aqua Juliii, 
 from its source, amounted to 15,426 passus, partly 
 on massive substructions and partly on arches. 6. 
 Aqua Viryo, built by Agrippa to supply his baths. 
 Its water was as highly esteemed for bathing as 
 that of the Aqua Miircia was for drinking. It 
 commenced by the 8th milestone on the Via Col- 
 iatina, and was conducted by a very circuitous 
 route, chie'fly under the ground, to the M. Pincius, 
 whence it was carried on arches to the Campus 
 Martius : its length was 14,105 passus, of which 
 12,865 were mider ground. 7. Aqua AUietina^ 
 sometimes called also ylrywa ^w_7Wffto, on the other 
 side of the Tiber, was constructed by Augustus from 
 the Liicus Alsietinus (Lago di Martignano ) which 
 lay 6500 passus to the right of the I4th milestone, on 
 the Via Claudia, and was brought to the part of the 
 Kegio Transtiberina below the Janiculus. I ts length 
 was 22,172 passus, of which only 358 were on 
 arches* and its water was so bad that it could only 
 have been intended for the supply of Augustus's 
 Naumachia, and for watering gardens. 8, 9. Aqua 
 Claudia and Anio Novus (or Aqna Anicna Nova), 
 the 2 most magnificent of all the aqueducts, both 
 commenc'-d by Caligula in a. d. 36, and finished 
 by Claudius in a. d. 50. The Aqm CUiudia com- 
 
 ROMA. ess 
 
 menced near the 38th milestone on theViaSubla- 
 ceiisis. Its water was reckoned the best after the 
 Marcia. Its length was 46,406 passus (nearly 
 46^ miles) of which 9567 were on arches. The 
 Anio Novus began at the 42nd milestone on the Via 
 Sublacensis. Its length was 58,700 passus (nearly 
 59 miles) and some of its arches were 109 feet high. 
 In the neighbourhood of the city, these two aque- 
 ducts were united, forming two channels on the same 
 arches, the Claudia below and the Anio Novus 
 above. An interesting monument connected with 
 these aqueducts is the gate now called Porta Mag- 
 giore, which was originally a miignificent double 
 arch, by means of which the aqueduct was earned 
 over the Via Labicana and the Via Praenestina. 
 Over the double arch are three inscriptions, which 
 record the names of Claudius as the builder, and of 
 Vespasian and Titus as the restorers of the aque- 
 duct. By the side of this arch the aqueduct passes 
 along the wall of Aurelian for some distance, and 
 then it is continued upon the Arcus Neroniani or 
 Caelimontani, which were added by Nero to the 
 original structure, and which terminated at the 
 temple of Claudius, which was also built by Nero, 
 on the Caelius, where the water was probably con- 
 veyed to a castellum already built for the Aqua 
 Julia, and for a branch of the Aqua Mai-cia, which 
 had been at some previous time continued to the 
 Caelius. 10. Aqua Crabra, which had its source 
 near that of the Julia, and which was originally 
 carried right through the Circus Maximus; but the 
 water was so bad, tliat Agrippa would not bring it 
 into the Julia, but abandoned it to the people of 
 the Tusculan land. Hence it was called Aqua 
 Damnata, At a later period, part of the water was 
 brought into the Aqua Julia. Considerable traces 
 of it remain, 11. Aqua Trajana, was brought bv 
 Trajan from the Lacus Sabatinus (now Bracciano) 
 to supply the Janiculus and the Regio Transtibe- 
 rina. 12. Aqua Alexandrina, constructed by Alex- 
 ander Severus ; its source was in the lands of Tus- 
 culum, about 14 miles from Rome, between Gabii 
 and the lake Regillus. Its small height shows 
 that it was intended for the baths of Sevenis, which 
 were in one of the valleys of Rome. 13. Aqua 
 Septimiana, built by SoptimiusSeverus, was perhaps 
 only a branch of the Aqua Julia, formed by the em- 
 peror to bring water to his batlis. 14. Aqua Algeniia 
 had its source at M.Algidus by the ViaTusculana. 
 Its builder is unknown. Tiiree of these aqueducts 
 still supply the modern city of Rome with water, 
 (1) The Acqua Vergine. the nncient Aqna Virgo, 
 which was restored by Pope Pius IV. and further 
 embellished by Benedict XIV, and Clement XIII. 
 The chief portion of its waters gush out through 
 the beautiful Fontana di Trevi, but it also supplies 
 12 other public fountains and the greater part of 
 the lower city. (2) The Acqua Felice, named after 
 the conventual name of its restorer Sixtus V. (Fra 
 Felice), is, probably, a part of the ancient Aqua 
 Claudia, though some take it for the Alexandrina, 
 It supplies 27 public fountains and the eastern part 
 of the city. (3) The Acqua Paola, the ancient 
 Alsietina, supplies the Transtevere and the Vatican, 
 and feeds, among others, the splendid fountains 
 before St. Peter's. — XV. Sewers. Of these the 
 most celebrated was the Cloaca Maorima, con- 
 structed by Tarquinius Priscus, which was formed 
 to carry off the waters brought down from the ad- 
 jacent hills into the Velabrum and valley of the 
 Forum. It empties itself into the Tiber nearly 
 
656 
 
 ROMA. 
 
 opposite one extremity of the Tusula Tiberinn. 
 Tliis cloaca was formed by 3 aixhes, one within 
 the other, the innermost of which is a semicircular 
 vault about 14 feet in diameter. It is still extant 
 in its original state, with not a stone displaced.— 
 XTL Palaces. 1. jPalatmm^ or the imperial pa- 
 lace, was situated on the N.E. side of tlie Palatine 
 between the arch of Titus and the sanctuary of 
 Vesta ; its front was turned towards the Forum, 
 and the approach to it was from the Via Sacra 
 close by the ai-ch of Titus. It was originally the 
 house of the orator Hortensius, and was enlarged 
 by Augustus, who made it the imperial residence. 
 A part of the Palatium was called Domus Tibejiana^ 
 which was originally a separate house of Tiberius 
 on the Palatine, and was afterwards united to the 
 palace of Augustus. It was on the side of the hill 
 turned towards the Circus and the Velabrum, and 
 is sometimes called Postica Pars Palatii, It was 
 through this part of the palace that the emperor 
 Otho fled into the Velabrum. We read of the 
 Doiuus Tiberiana even after the imperial palace 
 had been burnt to the ground in the reign of Nero; 
 whence it follows that when the palace was rebuilt 
 a portion of it still continued to bear this name. 
 The Palatium was considerably enlarged by Ca- 
 ligula ; but it did not satisfy Nero's love of pomp 
 and splendour. Nero built 2 magnificent palaces 
 wliich must be distinguished from one another. 
 The first, called the Domus Traiisitona Neru-nis, 
 covered the whole of the Palatine, and extended as 
 far as the Esquiline to the gardens of Maecenas. 
 This palace was burnt to the gromid in the great 
 fire of Uome, whereupon Nero commenced a new 
 palace known by the name of Domus Aurea, which 
 embraced the whole of the Palatine, the Velia, the 
 valley of the Colosseum and the heights of the 
 Thermae of Titus, extended near the Esquiline 
 gate, and was cut through not only by the Via 
 Sacra but also by other streets. The whole build- 
 ing however was not finished at the time of Nero's 
 death ; and Vespasian confined the imperial palace 
 to the Palatine, converting the other pai'ta of the 
 Domus Aurea into public or private buildings. The 
 palace itself was not finished till the time of Do- 
 mitian, who adorned it with numerous works of 
 art. The emperor Septimius Severus added on the 
 S. side of the Palatine a building called the Sep- 
 tizonium, wliich was probably intended ns an 
 Atrium. There were considenible remains of this 
 Septizonium down to the end of the 16th century, 
 when Slxtus V. caused them to be destroyed, and 
 the pillars brought to the Vatican. Among the 
 numerous private palaces at Rome the following 
 were some of the most important. 2. Domus 
 Ciceroitis^ close to the Porticns Catuli, probably on 
 the N.E. edge of the Palatine, was built by M. 
 Living Drusus, and purchased by Cicero of one of 
 the Crassi. It was destroyed by Claudius after 
 the banishment of Cicero, but was subsequently 
 rebuilt at the public expense. 3. D. Pompeii^ the 
 palace of Pompey was situated in the Carinae near 
 the temple of Tellus. It was afterwards the resi- 
 dence of M. Antonins. 4. D. Crassly the palace of 
 L. Crassus the orator, on the Palatine. 5. D. 
 Smuri also on the Palatine, celebrated for its mag- 
 nificence, subsequently belonged to Clodius. 6. D. 
 Latei\morum, on the E. confines of the Caelius, 
 was a palace originally belonging to the distin- 
 guished family of the Plautii Laterani ; but after 
 the execution of Plautius Lateraiius under Nero, 
 
 ROMA. 
 
 it became imperial property. It was given by 
 Septimius Severus to his friend Lateranas, ami 
 was subsequently the palace of Coustantine, who 
 adorned it with great magnificence. The nmderii 
 palace of the Lateran occupies its site. ^ XVII. 
 Horti. The Horti were parks or gardens, which 
 were laid out by wealthy Roman nobles, on the 
 hills around the city, and were adorned with 
 beautiful buildings and works of art. 1. Hortt 
 LucuUiani^ on M. Pincius, which hill was hence 
 called CoUis Hortorum. They were laid out by 
 Lncullus the conqueror of Mithridates. In the 
 reign of Claudius they belonged to Valerius Asia- 
 ticus, who was put to death through the influence 
 of Messalina, chiefly because she coveted the pos- 
 session of these gardens. From this time they 
 appeiir to have belonged to the imperial house. 'J. 
 //. Sallustiani^ laid out by the historian Sallust, 
 on his return from Numidia, in the valley between 
 the Quirinal and the Pincius. 3. //. Caesans^ 
 bequeathed by Julius Caesar to the people, were 
 situated on the right bank of the Tiber at the foot 
 of the Janiculus, probably on the spot where 
 Augustus afterwards constructed his great Nauma- 
 chia. 4. //. Mtu'cenatisy in the Campus Esquilinus, 
 bequeathed by Maecenas to Augustus and fre- 
 qurntly used by the imperial family. 5. H.Affrip- 
 pinae^ on the right bank of the Tiber, in which 
 Caligula built his Circus. It was here that Nero 
 burnt the Christians to serve as lights for his noc- 
 turnal games, after previously wrapping them up 
 in pitch. 6. //. Domitiac^ also on the riglit bank 
 of the Tiber, in which Hadrian built his Mauso- 
 leum. 7. H . Pallanticmi^ on the Esquiline, laid out 
 by Pallas, the powerful freedman of Claudius. 8. 
 H. Getae, on the other side of the Tiber, laid nut 
 by Septimius Severus. — XVIII. Sepulchral Mo- 
 numents. 1. MausoUum Augusti, was situated 
 in the Campus Martins and was built by Augustus 
 as the burial-place of the imperial family. It was 
 surrounded with an extensive garden or park, and 
 was considered one of the most magnificent build- 
 ings of his reign ; but there are only some insig- 
 nificant ruins of it still extant. 2. Mausolcunt 
 Hadiiani, was commenced by Hadrian in the 
 gardens of Domitia on the right bank of the Tiber, 
 and was connected with the city by the Pons 
 Aelius ; it was finished and dedicated by Anto- 
 ninus Pius, A. D. 140. Here were buried Hadrian, 
 Antoninus Pius, L. Varus, Commodus, and pro- 
 bably also Septimius Severus, Geta, and Caracalln. 
 This building, stripped of its ornaments, still forms 
 the fortress of modern Rome (the castle of S.Angelo J. 
 3. Mausoleum Helenae, a round building on the Es- 
 quiline, of considerable extent, erected by Coustan- 
 tine as the sepulchre of his mother. Its remains, 
 situated in the street on the right of the Porta Mag- 
 giore, are now called Torre Pignattara. 4. Sepul- 
 crum Scipionum., the burial-place of the Scipios, was 
 situated, left of the Via Appia, near the Porta 
 Capena. Most of the tombs of the distinguished 
 Roman families during the Republican period lay 
 on the Via Appia. The tomb of the Scipios was 
 discovered in 17tJ0, about 400 paces within the 
 modern Porta S. Sebastiano. It contained many 
 interesting monuments and inscriptions, which are 
 now deposited in the Museo Pio-Clementino. 
 5. Sepulcrum Caeciliae Mdellae, erected to the 
 memory of Caecilia Metella, the daughter of I\Io- 
 tellufi Creticus, not far from the Circus Maxentii. 
 This imposing monument is still extant and known 
 
KOMA. 
 br the name of Capo di Bove. 6. Scpjdcrum C^slii, 
 situated S. of the Aventine, near the Porta 
 Ostlensis, being partly within and partly without 
 the walls of Aurelian. This monument^ which 
 is still extant, is in the 'form of a pyramid, and 
 was built in the time of Augustus for a certain 
 C. Cestiua. 7. Ssptdcrum Septimii Severi, on the 
 Via Appia, built by Septimius Severus in his life- 
 tinie.aiter the model of his SSeptizonium. [See above, 
 XVI., No. ].]. — XIX. Columns. Columns {Colum- 
 nae) were frequently erected at Rome to commemo- 
 rate persons and events. 1. C'olumna Ahienia^ near 
 the end of the Forum, towards the Capitol, was 
 erected to the lioniour of tlie consul C. Maenius, 
 who conquered the Latins and took tlie town of 
 Antium, B. c. 33H. 2. Cul. lioslraia, a.\so in the 
 Koruin, erected in honour of the consul C.Duilius, to 
 commemorate his victory over the Carthaginian fleet, 
 n. c. 260. The name of Rostrata was given to it 
 from its being adorned with the beaks of the con- 
 quered ships. Tlie inscription upon this column, 
 written in obsolete Latin, is still preserved, 3. Col. 
 Trajani in the Forum, in which the ashes of the 
 emperor Trajan were deposited. This column is 
 still extant, and is one of the most interesting 
 monuments of ancient Rome. It is, including tlie 
 pedestal, 117 feet high. The top was originally 
 crowned with the statue of the emperor ; it is now 
 surmounted by that of the apostle Peter. A spiral 
 bas-relief is folded round the pillar, which repre- 
 sents the emperor's wars against Decebalus and 
 the Dacians, and is one of the most valuable 
 authorities for archaeological inquiries. 4. Col. 
 Antonini JPii, erected in honour of Antoninus Pius 
 after his death, consisted of a column of red granite 
 on a pediment of white marble, and was situated 
 in the Campus Martins, near the temple dedicated 
 to this emperor. It stood at an earlier period not 
 far from the Curia Innocenziana on Monte Citorio, 
 in the garden of the Casa della Missione. At 
 present the basis only is extant, and is preserved 
 in the garden of the Vatican. 5. Col. M. Auralii 
 Antonmi, generally called the Antonine Cohmin, 
 erected to the memory of the emperor M. Aurelius. 
 also in the Campus Martius, and still extant. It 
 is an imitation of the Column of Trajan, and con- 
 tains bas-reliefs representing the wars of M. Au- 
 relius against the Marcomanni.— XX. Obelisks. 
 The Obelisks {Obdisci) at Rome were mostly 
 works of Egyptian art, which were transported 
 from Egypt to Rome in the time of the emperors. 
 Auo^ustus caused '2 obelisks to be brought to 
 Rome, one of which was erected in the Circus and 
 another in the Campus Martius. The former was 
 restored in 158!), and is called at present the 
 Flarainian Obelisk. Its whole height is about 
 116 feet, and without the base about 78 feet. The 
 obelisk in the Campus Martius was set up by 
 Augustus as a sun-dial. It stands at present on 
 the Monte Citorio, where it was placed in 1792. 
 Its whole height is about 110 feet, and without 
 the base about 71 feet. Another obelisk was 
 brought to Rome by Caligula, and placed on the 
 Vatican in the Circus of Caligula. It stands at 
 present in front of St. Peter's, where it was placed 
 in 15M6, and its whole height is about 132 feet, 
 and without the base and modem ornaments at 
 top about 83 feet. But the largest obelisk at 
 Rome is that which was originally transported 
 from Heliopolis to Alexandria by Constantine, 
 and conveyed to Rome by his son Constantius, 
 
 ROMTTLUS. 6.57 
 
 who plncfd it in the Circus Maximus. Its present 
 position is before tlie north portico of the Lateran 
 church, whore it was placed in 1.588. Its wliole 
 height is about 149 feet, and without tlio base 
 about 1 05 feet. There are 8 other obelisks at Rome, 
 besides those mentioned above, but none of them 
 an; of liistofical imporuince. — G. Koads leading 
 out of Rome. Of these the most important were : 
 
 I. Via Latiiia^ the most ancient of the south roads, 
 which issued at first from the Porta Capena, and 
 after the time nf Aurelian from the Porta Latina. 
 It joined the Via Appia at Beneventum. 2. Vta 
 Appia., the Great South Road, also issued from the 
 Porta Capena, and wns the most celebrated of all 
 the Roman roads. It was commenced by Appius 
 Claudius, when censor, and wns eventually carried 
 to Brundusium. [Appia Via.] 3. Via Osiiensis, 
 originally passed through the Porta Trigemina, 
 afterwards through the Porta Ostiensis, and kept 
 the left bank of the Tiber to Ostia. 4. Via Por- 
 iuensis^ issued from the same gate as the Via 
 Ostiensis, and kept the right bank of the Tiber to 
 Portus, the new harbour founded by Claudius, 
 near Ostia. 5. Via Lubicana, issued from the 
 Porta Esquilina, and passing Labicum fell into the 
 Via Latina at the station ad Biviiun, 30 miles 
 from Rome. 6. Via Pvaenestiiia., originally the 
 Via Gahina., issued at first from the Porta Es- 
 quilina, and subsequently from the Porta Pme- 
 nestina. Passing through Gabii and Praeneste, it 
 joined the Via Latina just below Anagnia. 7. Via 
 Tiburtiva^ issued originally from the Porta Esqui- 
 lina, or from the Porta Viminalis, and subsequently 
 from the Porta Tiburtina, and proceeded to Tibur, 
 from which it was continued under the name of the 
 Via Valeria, past Corfinium to Adria. 8. Via 
 Nometiiana, anciently Ficulnensis., ran from the 
 Porta Collina, subsequently from the Porta No- 
 mentana, across the Anio to Nomentum, and a 
 little beyond fell into the Via Salaria at Eretrum. 
 
 9. Via hiataria^ ran from the Porta Collina, sub- 
 sequently from the Porta Salaria, past Fidenae to 
 Reate and AscuUim Picenum. At Castrum Trn- 
 entinum it reached the coast, which it followed 
 until it joined the Via Flaminia at Ancona. 
 
 10. Via Flaminia., the Great North Road, com- 
 menced in the censorship of C. Fiaminius, issued 
 from the Porta Flaminia, and proceeded past 
 Ocriculum, Narnia and Pisaurum to Ariminum, 
 from which town it was continued under the name 
 of the Via Aemilia to Placentia and Aquileia. 
 
 II. Via Aurelia., the Great Coast Road, issued 
 originally from the Porta Janiculensis. It reached 
 the coast at Alsium. and followed the shore of the 
 Lower Sea along Etruria and Liguria by Genoa, 
 as far as Forum Julii in Gaul. • 
 
 Eomulea, an ancient town of the Klrpini in 
 Samnium, on the road from Beneventum to Ta- 
 rentum, destroyed at an early period liy the 
 Romans. 
 
 Eomiilus, the founder of the city of Rome, must 
 not be regarded as a real personage. The stories 
 about him are mythical, and represent the tradi- 
 tional belief of the Roman people respecting their 
 origin. Romulus, which is only a lengthened form 
 of Romus, is the Roman people represented as an 
 individual. The common legend about Romulus 
 ran as follows : — At Alba Longa there reigned a 
 succession of kings, descended from lulus, the S(mi 
 of Aeneas. One of the last of these kings left two 
 sons, Numitor and Amulius. The latter, who wag 
 
€53 
 
 ROMULUS. 
 
 the younger, deprived Numitor of the kingdom, 
 Lut allowed him to live in the enjoyment ot" liis 
 private fortune. Fearful, however, lest the heirs 
 of Nnmitor might not submit so quietly to his 
 usurpation, he caused his only sou to be murdered, 
 and made his daughter Silvia, or Rhea Silvia, 
 one of the Vestal virgins. Silvia was violated by 
 JTars, and in course of tiuie gave birth to twins. 
 Anmlius doomed the guilty Vestal and her babes 
 to be drowned in the river. In the Auio Silvia 
 exchanged her eartiily life for that of a goddess, 
 and became the wife of the river god. The stream 
 rarried the cradle in which the cliildren were lying 
 into the Tiber, which had overflowed it3 banks 
 far and wide. It was stranded at the foot of the 
 Palatini, and overturned on the root of a wild fig- 
 tree, which, under the name of the Ficus Rumi- 
 nalis, was preserved and held sacred for many ages 
 after. A she-wolf, which had come to drink of the 
 stream, carried tliem into her den hard by, and 
 suckled them ; where tliey were discovered by 
 Faustulu% the king's shepherd, who took the 
 children to his own house, and gave them to the 
 care of liis wife, Acca Larentia. They were called 
 Romulus and Remus, and were bmught up witii 
 the other shepherds on the Palatine hill. As 
 they grew up, they became distinguished by the 
 beauty of tlieir person and the bnivery of their 
 deeds, and fought boldly against wild beasts and 
 T'lbbers. A quarrel having arisen between these 
 shepherds and the herdsmen of Numitor, who 
 stalled their cattle on the neighbouring hill of the 
 Aveutine, Remus was taken by a Bti-aUigem, during 
 the absence of iiis brother, and carried off to Numi- 
 tor. This led to the discovery of the parentage 
 both of Romulus and Remus, who now slew Anm- 
 lius, and placed their grandfather Numitor on the 
 throne. — Romulus and Remus loved their old abode, 
 and therefore left Alba to found a city on the 
 hanlo of the Tiber. A strife arose between the 
 brothers where tlie city should be built, and after 
 whose name it should be called. Romulus wished 
 to build it on the Palatine, Remus on the Aven- 
 tlne. It was agreed that the question should be 
 decided by augury ; and each took his station on 
 the top of his chosen hill. The night passed away, 
 and as the day was dawning Renms saw 6 vultures; 
 but at sun-rise, when these tidings were brought 
 to Romulus, 12 vultures flew by him. Each claimed 
 the augury in his o^vn favour ; but the shepherds 
 decided for Romulus, and Remus was obliged to 
 yield. RomuUia now proceeded to mark out the 
 pumoeHum of his city (see Did. of Antiq. s. v.), 
 and to raise the wall. Remus, who still resented 
 the wrong he had suifered, leapt over the wall in 
 scorn, whereupon he was slain by his brother. As 
 soon as the city was built, Romulus found his 
 people too few in numbers. He therefore set apart, 
 on the Capituline hill, an asylum, or a sanctuary, 
 in which homicides and runaway slaves might Uike 
 rt-fuge. The city thus became filled with men, but 
 they wanted women. Romuluf, therefore, tried 
 to form treaties with the neighbouring tribes, in 
 order to obtain coiiniihium^ or the right of legal 
 marriage with their citizens ; but his offers were 
 treated with disdain, and he accordingly resolved 
 to obtain by force what he could not gain by en- 
 treaty. In the fourth month after the foundation 
 of the city, he proclaimed that games were to be 
 celebrated in honour of the god Consus, and invited 
 hia neighbours, the Latins and Sabines, to the 
 
 ROMULUS. 
 
 festival. Suspecting no treachery, they cnme in 
 numbers, with iheir wives and children. But the 
 Roman youths rushed upon their guests, and car- 
 ried off the virgins. The parents of the virgins 
 returned home and prepared for vengeance. The 
 inhabitants of 3 of the Latin towns, Caenina, An- 
 temnae, and Crustumerium, took up arms one 
 after the other, and were successively defeated by 
 the Romans. Romulus slew with his own hand 
 Acron, king of Caenina, and dedicated his arms 
 and armour, as spolia opinia, to Jupiter At last 
 the Sabine king, Titus Tatius, advanced with a 
 powerful army against Rome. The fortress of the 
 Saturnian, afterwards called the Capitoline hill, 
 was surrendered to the Sabines, by the treachery 
 of Tarpeia, the daughter of the commander of the 
 fortress. [Tarpeia. J On the next day the 
 Romans endeavoured to recover the hill ; and a 
 long and desperate battle was fought in the valley 
 between the Palatine and the Capitoline. At 
 length, when both pai'ties were exhausted with the 
 struggle, the Sabine women rushed in between 
 them, and pmyed their husbands and fathers to be 
 reconciled. Their prayer was heard ; the two 
 people not only made peace, but agreed to form 
 only one nation. The Romans contiimed to dwell 
 on the Palatine under their king Romulus ; the 
 Sabines built a new town on the Capitoline and 
 Quirinal hills, where they lived under their king 
 Titus Tatius. The two kings and their senates met 
 for deliberation in the valley between the Palatine 
 and Capitoline hills, which was hence called comi- 
 tiiii)}^ or the place of meeting. But this union did 
 not last long. Titus Tatius was slain at a festival at 
 Lavinium by some Laurentines, to whom he had 
 refused satisfaction for outrages which had been 
 committed by his kinsmen. Henceforward Romu- 
 lus ruled alone over both Romans and Sabines. 
 After reigning 37 years, he was at length tiken 
 away from the world. One day as he was review- 
 ing his people in the Campus Martins, near the 
 Goat's Pool, the sun was suddenly eclipsed, dark- 
 ness overspread tlie earth, and a dreadful storm 
 dispersed the people. When daylight had re- 
 turned Romulus had dis-appeared, for his father 
 Mars had carried liim up to heaven in a fiery 
 chariot. {QtUrinus Martis equis Acheronta fugit. 
 Hor. Cunn. iii. 3.) Shortly afterwards he ap- 
 peared in more than mortal beauty to Proculna 
 Julius, and bade him tell the Romans to worship 
 him aa their guardian god under the name of 
 Quirinua. Such was the sjlorified end of Romulus 
 in the genuine legend. But as it staggered the 
 faith of a later age, a Uile was invented to account 
 for his mysterious disappearance. It was related 
 that the senators, discontented with the tyrannical 
 rule of their king, murdered him during the 
 gloom of a tempest, cut up liis body, and car- 
 ried home the mangled pieces under their robes. 
 — As Romulus was regarded as the founder 
 of Rome, its most ancient political institutions 
 and the organisation of the people were ascribed 
 to him. Thus he is said to have divided the 
 people into 3 tribes, which bore the names Ram- 
 nes. Titles, and Luceres. The Rsunnes were sup- 
 posed to have derived their name from Ronm- 
 lus, the Titles from Titus Tatius the Sabine king, 
 and the Luceres from Lucumo, an Etruscan chief 
 who had assisted Romulus in the war against the 
 Sabines. Each tribe contained 10 curiae, which 
 received their names from the 30 Sabine women 
 
ROMULUS. 
 
 who had brought about the peace between the 
 Romans and their own people. Further, each curia 
 contained 10 gentes,and each gens 100 men. Thus 
 the people, according to the general belief, were 
 divided originally into 3 tribes, 30 curiae, and 
 300 gentes, which mustered 3000 men, who fought 
 on foot, and were called a legion. Besides those 
 there were 300 horsemen, called Celei'es, the same 
 body as the Equites of a later time. To assist him 
 in the government of the people Ilomukis is said to 
 hiive selected a number of the aged men in the 
 state, who were called Patres, or Senatores. The 
 council itself, which was called the senatus, ori- 
 ginally consisted of 100 members ; but this number 
 «as increased to 200 when the Sabines were in- 
 cnrpomted in the state. In addition to the senate, 
 there was another assembly, consisting of the mem- 
 bers of the gentes, which bore the name of comitia 
 curiata, because they voted in it according to their 
 division into curiae. 
 
 Komiilus Augustiilus. [Augustulus.] 
 
 R5miilus Silvius. [Silvius.] 
 
 Koscianum (Rossano), a fortress on the E. coast 
 of Bruttium between Thurii and Paternum. 
 
 Boscillus [Aegus.] 
 
 Boscius. 1. L., a Roman ambassador sent to 
 Fidenae in b. c. 438. He and his three colleagues 
 were killed by the inhabitants of Fidenae, at the 
 instigation of Lai- Tolumnius, king of the Veientes. 
 The statues of all four were erected in the Rostra 
 at Rome. — 2. Sex., of Ameria, a town in Umbria. 
 The father of this Roscius had been murdered at 
 the instigation of 2 of his relations and fellow- 
 townsmen, T. Roscius Maguus and T. Roscius 
 Capjto, who coveted the Wfalth of their neighbour. 
 These two Roscii struck a bargain with Chry- 
 sogonus, the freednian and favourite of Sulla, to 
 divide the property of the murdered man between 
 them. But as the proceeding excited the utmost 
 indignation at Ameria, and the magistrates of the 
 town made an effort to obtain from Sulla the 
 restitution of the property to the son, the robbers 
 accused young Roscius of the murder of his father, 
 and hired witnesses to swear to the fact. Roscius 
 was defended by Cicero (b. c. UO) in an oration 
 which is still extant, and was acquitted. Cicero's 
 speech was greatly admired at the time, and though 
 at a later period he found fault with it himself, as 
 bearing marks of youthful exaggeration, it displays 
 abundant evidence of his great oratorical powers. 
 — 3. Q., the most celebrated comic actor at Rome, 
 was a native of Solonium, a small place in the 
 neighbourhood of Lanuvinm. His histrionic powers 
 procured him the favour of many of the Roman 
 nobles, and, among others, of the dictator Sulla, 
 who presented him with a gold ring, the symbol 
 of equestrian rank. Roscius enjoyed the friend- 
 ship of Cicero, who constantly speaks of him in 
 terms both of admiration and affection. Roscius 
 was considered by the Romans to have reached 
 such perfection in his own profession, that it be- 
 came the fashion to call every one who became 
 particularly distinguished in his own art, by the 
 name of Roscius, In his younger years Cicero 
 received instruction from Roscius ; and at a later 
 time he and Roscius often used to try wliich of 
 them could express a thought with the greatest 
 effect, the orator by his eloquence, or the actor 
 by his gestures. These exercises gave Roscius so 
 high an opinion of his art, that he wrote a work 
 in which he compared eloquence and acting. Like 
 
 RUESIUM. 
 
 659 
 
 his celebrated contemporar)'-, tlie tragic actor Ae- 
 sopus, Roscius realized an immense fortune by his 
 profession. He died in G2. — One of Cicero's ex- 
 tant orations is entitled Pro Q. Roscio Comoedo. 
 It was delivered before the judex C. Piso, proba- 
 bly in'6y, and relates to a claim fur 50,000 ses- 
 terces, whicli one C. Fannius Chaerea brought 
 agfiinst Roscius. — 4. Fabatus. [Fabatcs.J — 
 6. Otho. [Otho.] 
 
 Kotomagus. [Ratomagus.] 
 Koxana ('Pa>|af7?), daughter of Oxj'artes the 
 Bactrian, fell into the hands of Alexander on his 
 ciipture of the hill-fort in Sogdiana, named " the 
 rock," B. c. 327. Alexander was so captivated by 
 her channs, that he married her. Soon after 
 Alexander's death (323), she gave birth to a son 
 (Alexander Aegus), who was admitted to share 
 the nominal sovereignty with Arrhidaeus, under 
 the regency of Perdiccns. Before the birth of the 
 boy she had drawn Statira, or Barsine, to Babylon 
 by a friendly letter, and there caused her to be 
 murdered. Roxana afterwards crossed over to 
 Europe with her son, and placed herself under the 
 protection of Olympias. She shared the fortunes 
 of Olympias, and threw herself into Pydna along 
 with the latter, where they were besieged by Cas- 
 aander. In 316 Pydna was taken by Cassander; 
 Olympias was put to death ; and Roxana and her 
 son were placed in confinement in Arnphipolis. 
 Here they were detained under the charge of 
 Glaucias till 311, in which year, soon after the 
 general peace then concluded, they were murdered 
 in accordance with orders from Cassander. 
 Eoxolani. [RhoxolanlJ 
 Kubi (Rubustinus: Ruvo)^ a town in Apvdia 
 on the road from Canusium to Brundusium. 
 
 Bubico, a small river in Italy, falling into the 
 Adriatic a little N. of Ariminum, fomied the 
 boundary in the n-publican period between the 
 province of Gallia Cisalpina and Italia proper. It 
 is celebrated in history on account of Caesar's pas- 
 sage across it at the head of his army, by which 
 act he declared war against the republic. A papal 
 decree, issued in 1756, declared the modern Lusa 
 to be the ancient Rubico, but the PisateUo^ a little 
 further N., has better claims to this honour. 
 
 Rubra Saxa, called Rubrae breves (sc. petrae) 
 by Martial, a small place in Etruria only a few 
 miles from Rome, near the river Cremera, and on 
 the Via Flaminia. It was near this spot that the 
 great battle was fought, in which Maxentius was 
 defeated by Constantine, a. d. 312. 
 Rubresus Lacus. [Narbo.] 
 Eubricatus. 1. Or Ubus ( Seibous), a consider- 
 able river of Numidia in N. Africa, rising in the 
 mountains S. E. of Cirta {Constantineh)^ ffowino- 
 N. E., and falling into the Mediterranean E. of 
 Hippo Regius {Bonah).^2. {Llobregat)^ a email 
 river of Hispania Tarraconensia, flowing into the 
 sea "W. of Barcino. 
 
 Bubnim Mare. [Ervthraeum Mare.] 
 Budiae (Rudiims : Rutigliano ov Ruge)^ a town 
 of the Peucetii in Apulia, on the road from Brun- 
 dusium to Venusia, was originally a Greek colony, 
 and afterwards a Roman municipium. Rudiae is 
 celebrated as the birth-place of Ennius. 
 
 Ruesaum, a town of the Vellavi or Velauni, 
 hence called simply Civitas Vellavorum, in Gallia 
 Aquitanica (in the modern Velay)^ probably the 
 modern St. PauHcn or Patdhan on the frontiers of 
 Auvergne. 
 
660 
 
 RUFINUS. 
 
 Riilinus. 1. P. Cornelius Rufinus, was cotisuI 
 B.C. 290, with M'.Curius Dentatus, and in conjunc- 
 tion with his coUengue brought the Samnite war to a 
 conclusion, and obtained n. triumpli in consequence. 
 He was consul a second time in 277, and carried 
 on the war against tlie Samnites and the Greeks 
 in Southern Italy. Tlie chief event of liis second 
 consulship was the capture of the important town 
 of Croton. In 275, Rufinns was expelled from 
 the senate by the censors C. Fabricius and Q. Ae- 
 milius I'apus, on account of his possessing 10 
 pounds of silver plate. The dictator Sulla was 
 descended from tliis Rufinuf;. His grandson was 
 the first of the family who assumed the suniame 
 of Sulla. ^2. Licinius Rufinus, a jurist, who 
 lived under Alexander Severus. There are in the 
 Digest 17 excerpts from 12 books of He.<ju(ae by 
 Rutinus. — 3. The chief minister of state under 
 Theodosius the Great, was an able, but at the same 
 time a treacherous and dangerous man. He insti- 
 gated Theodosius to tliose cruel measures which 
 brought ruin upon Antioch, a. d. 3f)0. After the 
 death of Theodosius in 39o, Rufiuus exercised 
 paramount influence over the weak Arcadius ; but 
 towards the end of the year a conspiracy was 
 formed against him by Eutropius and Stiliclio, who 
 induced Gainas, the Gothic ally of Arcadius, to 
 join in the plot. Kufinus was in consequence 
 slain by the troops of Gainas. — 4. Surnamed Ty- 
 rannins or Turranius, or Toranus, a celebrated 
 ecclesiastical writer, was prolxibly born about a.d. 
 345 in Italy. He was at first an inmate of the 
 monastery at Aquileia, and he afterwards resided 
 many years at a monastery in Palestine, where he 
 became very intimate with St. Jerome, The two 
 friends afterwards quarrelled ; and Jerome attacked 
 Rufiniis with the utmost vehemence on account of 
 liis supporting the tenets of Origen. After* re- 
 maining in the East for about 26 years, Rufiuus 
 returned to Italy in 3.*)7, where lie published n 
 Latin translation of the Apology for Origen by 
 Pamphilus, and of the hooks ot Qrigen De Prm- 
 ^)j22.v, together with an original tract Da Adu/tera- 
 tujne Lihrontm Origenis. In the preface to the De 
 Princijiiis, he quoted a panegyric, which Jerome 
 had at an earlier period pronounced upon Origen. 
 This led to a bitter correspondence between the 2 
 foi'mer friends, which was crowned by the AiJologia 
 of the one adversiis liif.rojn/nntm^ and tiie Apologia 
 of the other adversm Rafinum. Rufiuus died in 
 Sicily in 410, to which island he lind fled upon 
 the invasion of Italy by Alaric. Several of his 
 works are extant, but there is no complete edition 
 of them. — 5. The author of a little poem in 22 
 lines, Pasip}uxes f'afmla ex omnibus Melris Ho- 
 ratlanis^ which, as the name imports, contains an 
 example of each of the different metres employed 
 by Horace. His date ie quite uncertain, but he 
 may be the same person with the following. ^6. 
 A grammarian of Antioch, whose treatise De Me- 
 ti-is Comicis, or rather extracts from it, is contained 
 in the Grammaiicas Lathiac Aiictores Ajdi/jtii of 
 Putschius, Ilannov. 1605. — 7. The author of 39 
 epigrams in the Greek Anthology. His date is 
 uncertain ; but there can be no doubt that he was 
 a Byzantine, His verses are of the same light 
 iimatory character as those of Agathias, Paulus, 
 Macedonius, and others. 
 
 Rufrae, a town in Campania, frequently con- 
 founded with Rufrium. 
 
 Eufrium, a town of the Hirpini in Samnium. 
 
 RUPILIUS. 
 
 Eufus, Curtius. [Cuurrus.] 
 
 Kiifas Ephesius, so called from the place of 
 his birth, a celebrated Greek physician, lived in the 
 reign of Trajan (a. d. 98' — 1 1 7), and wrote several 
 meiHcal works, some of which are still extant. 
 
 Eufus, L. Caeciiius, brother of P. Sulla by the 
 same mother, but not by the same father. He was 
 tribune of the plebs, B.C. 6.'i, when he rendered 
 warm support to Cicero, and in particular opposed 
 the agragrian law of Rullus. In his praetorship, 
 57, he joined most of the other magistrates in pro- 
 posing the recall of Cicero from banishment. 
 
 Eufus, BI. Caelius, a young Roman noble, dis- 
 tinguished as an elegant writer and eloquent 
 speaker, but equally conspicuous for his profligacy 
 .and extravagance. Notwithstanding his vices he 
 lived on intimate terms with Cicero, who defended 
 him in B.C. 56 in an oration still extant. The 
 accusation was brought against him by Sempronius 
 Atratinus, at the instigation of Clodia Quadran- 
 taria, whom he had lately deserted. Clodia 
 charged him with having borrowed money from 
 her in order to murder Dion, the head of the 
 embassy sent by Ptolemy Auletes to Rome ; and 
 with having made an attempt to poison her. In 
 52 Caelius was tribune of the plebs, and in 50 
 aedile. During the j-^ears 51 and 50 he carried 
 on an active correspondence with Cicero, who was 
 then in Cilicia, and many of the letters which he 
 wrote to Cicero at that time are preserved in the 
 collection of Cicero's Letters. On the breaking 
 out of the civil war in 49 he espoused Caesar^'s 
 side, and was rewarded for his services by the 
 pmetorship, in 48. Being at this time overwhelmed 
 with debt, he availed himself of Caesar's absence 
 from Italy to bring forward a law for the abolition 
 of debts. He was, however, resisted by the other 
 magistrates and deprived of his office ; whereupon 
 he went into the S. of Italy to join Milo, whom 
 he had secretly seTit for from Massilia. Milo was 
 killed near Thurii before Caelius could join him 
 [Milo]; and Caelius himself was put to death 
 shortly afterwards at Thurii. 
 
 Eufus, Sextus. [Sextus Rufur.] 
 
 Eugii, an important people in Germany, origi- 
 nally dwelt on the coast of the Baltic between the 
 Viadus (Oder) and the Vistula. After disappear- 
 ing a long time from history, they are found at a 
 later time in Attila's army ; and after Attila's 
 death they founded a new kingdom on the N. 
 bank of the Danube in Austria and Hungarj', the 
 name of which is still preserved in the modern 
 Ragilaiid. They have left traces of their name in 
 the country which they originally inhabited in the 
 modern Rugen^ Rur/emculde, Rega, Regeinvalde. 
 
 Eullus, P. Serviliua, tribune of the plebs, b. c. 
 63. proposed an agrarian law, which Cicero at- 
 tacked in 3 orations which have come down to us. 
 It was the most extensive agrarian law that had 
 ever been brought forward ; but as it was im- 
 possible to carry such a sweeping measure, it was 
 withdrawn by Rullus himself. 
 
 P. Eupilius, consul B.C. 132, prosecuted with 
 the utmost vehemenceall the adherents of Tib. Grac- 
 chus, who had been slain in the preceding year. In 
 his consulship he was sent into Sicily against the 
 slaves, and brought the servile war to a close. He 
 remained in the island as proconsul in the following 
 year; and, with 10 commissioners appointed by 
 the senate, he made various regulations for the 
 government of the province, which were known by 
 
RUSCINO. 
 the name of Leges Rupiljae. Kupilius was con- 
 demned in the tribunate of C. Gracclius, 123, on 
 account of his illegal and cruel acts in the prose- 
 cution of the friends of Tib. Gracchus. He was 
 an intimate friend of Scipio Africauus the ^-oungcr, 
 who obtained the consulship for him, but wlio 
 failed in gaining the same honour for bis brother 
 Lucius. He is said to have taken his brother's 
 failure so much to heart as to have died iii conse- 
 quence. 
 
 Ruscmo, a town of the Sordones or Sordi in 
 the S. 1*1. part of Gallia Narbonensis, at the foot of 
 the Pyreuoes, on the river Ruscino (Tc^, and on 
 the road from Spain to Narbo. A tower of the 
 ancient town is still extant near Perpignan, called 
 la Tour da liuftsillort. 
 
 Busellae (Rusellanus : nr. Grosaelo Ru.), one 
 of the most ancient cities of Etruria, situated on 
 an eminence E. of the lake Prelius and on the Via 
 Aurelia. It is first mentioned in the time of 
 Tarquinius Prisons. It was taken by the Romans 
 in B. c. 294, when 2000 of its inhabitants were 
 slain, and as many mnrc made prisoners. It 
 was subsequently a Roman colony, and con- 
 tinued in existence till liai], when its inliabi- 
 tjuits were removed to Grosseto. The walls 
 of Rusellae still remain, and are some of the most 
 ancient in Italy. They are formed of enormous 
 masses of travertine, piled up without regard to 
 f<u-m, with small stones inserted in the interstices. 
 'J'lie masses vary from 6 to 8 feet in length, and 
 from 4 to y in height. The area enclosed by the 
 walls forms an irregular quadrangle, between 
 10.000 and 1 1.000 feet, or about 2 miles in circuit. 
 Ruslcada (S. K. of Stoi-uh Ru.), a sea-port and 
 Roman colony in Numidia, used especially as the 
 port of Cirt:u 
 
 Euspinum, a town of Africa Propria {Ryza- 
 cium), 2 miles i'rom the sea, between Leptis Parva 
 and Pladrumetur. 
 
 Kussadir { tius-v^l Dii\ or C. di Trcs Foveas : 
 lilts in ancient Punic, and Btis in Arabic, alike 
 mean oajm)^ a promontory of MaureCanIa Tingitana, 
 in N. Al'rica, on the coast of the Metagunitae. 
 S. E. of it was a city of the same name (prob. 
 Mel Utah). 
 
 Eustious, Fabius, a Roman historian, and a 
 contemporary of Claudius and Nero. 
 
 Eustious, L. Junius Arulenus, more usually 
 called .Arulenus Rusticus, but sometimes Junius 
 Rusticus. He was a friend and pupil of Paetus 
 Thrasea, and an ardent admirer of the ytoic phi- 
 losophy. He was put to death by Domitiau, be- 
 cause he had written a panegyric upon Thrasea. 
 
 KusucumiDi {Colouli, opposite Alijier)^ a consi- 
 derable sea-port in the E. pju't of MauretjiniaCaesar- 
 iensis, constituted a Roman colony under Claudius. 
 
 Etiteni, a people in Gallia Aquitanica on the 
 frnn tiers of Gallia Narbonensis in the modern 
 Jim'dync, Their chief town was Segodununi, 
 afterwards Civitas Rutenorum {liodi-z). The coun- 
 try of the Ruteni contained silver mines, and 
 produced excellent flax. 
 
 Eutilius Lupus. [LuPL's.] 
 Eutilius Nuraatianus, Claudius, a Roman 
 poet, and a native of Gaul, lived at the beginning 
 of the .5th century of the Christian aera. He re- 
 sided at Rome a considerable time, where he at- 
 tained the dignity of praefectus urbi, about .4. d. 
 4 1 3 nr 414. He afterwards returned to his native 
 coujilrv, and has described his return to Gaul in an 
 
 SABA. 661 
 
 elegiac poem, which bears the title of /tincrarium, 
 or Do Reditu. Of this poem the first book, con- 
 sisting of 644 lijies, and a small portion of the 
 second, have come down to ua. It is superior 
 both in poetical colouring and purity of language 
 to most of the productions of the age ; and the 
 passage in which he celebrates the praises of Rome 
 is not unworthy of the pen of Claudian. Rntiliua 
 was a hea,then, and attacks the Jews and monks 
 with no small severity. The best edition is by 
 A. W. Zunipt, Berlin, 1840. 
 
 P. Eutilius Eufus, a Roman statesman and 
 orator. He was military tribune under Scipio in 
 the Numantine war, praetor B.C. Ill, consul 105, 
 and legatus in 95 under Q. Mucins Scae\oIa, pro- 
 consul of Asia. While acting in this capacity he 
 displayed so much honesty and firmness in re- 
 pressing the extortions of the publicani, that he 
 became an object of fear and hatred to the whole 
 body. Accordingly, on his return to Rome, he 
 was impeached of malversation (de refietiinJis), 
 found guilty, and compelled to withdraw into 
 banishment, 92. He retired first to Mytilene, 
 and from thence to Smyrna, where he fixed his 
 abode, and passed the remainder of his days in 
 tranquillity, having refused to return to Rome, 
 although recalled by Sulla. Besides his orations, 
 Rutilius wrote an autobiography, and a History of 
 Rome in Greek, which contained an account of 
 the Numantine war, but we know not what period 
 it embraced. 
 
 Eutilus, C. Marcius, was consul b. c. 357, 
 when he took the town of Privernum. In 356 
 he was appointed dictator, being the first time 
 that a plebeian had attained this dignity. In his 
 dictatorship he defeated the Etruscans with great 
 slaughter. In 352 he was consul a second time ; 
 and in 351, he was the first plebeian censor. He 
 was consul for the third time in 344, for the fourtli 
 time in 342. The son of this Rutilus took the 
 surname of Censoriims, which in the next genera- 
 tion entirely supplanted that of Rutilus, and be- 
 came the name of the family. [Cen.soiiinus.] 
 
 Rutuba (Rui/a), a river on the coast of Liguria, 
 which Hows into the sea near Albiuui Inte- 
 melium. 
 
 Eutiili, an ancient people in Italy, inhabiting 
 a narrow slip of country on the coast' of Latium a 
 little to the S. of the Tiber. Their chief town 
 was Ardea, which was the residence of Tumus. 
 They were subdued at an early period by the 
 Romans, and disappear from history. 
 
 Eiitiipae or Eutiipiae (Rkhboroiigh), a port 
 town of the Caiitii in the S. E. of Britain, from 
 which persons frequently crossed over to the har- 
 bour of Gessoriacum in Ganl. Excellent oysters 
 were obtained in the neighbourhood of this'place 
 (RutupinoedUafmdo ostrea, Juv. iv. 141). There 
 are still several Roman remains at Ridiborowjh. 
 
 Saba (2a§a). 1. (0. T. Sheba), the capital of 
 the Sabaei in Arabia Felix, lay on a high woody 
 mountain^ and was pointed out, by an Arabian 
 tradition, as the residence of the "Queen of Sheba," 
 who went to Jerusalem to hear the wisdom of 
 Solomon- Its e.xact site is doubtful — 2. There 
 was another city of the same name in the interior 
 of Arabia Felix, where a place Sabca is still found, 
 
 u u 3 
 
tJ62 SABACON. 
 
 alinut in the centre of El- Yemen. ^3. A seaport 
 town of Aethinpia, on the Red Sea, S. of Ptolemaia 
 Theron. A town called Safiat and SoSfiara is 
 mentioned by Ptolemy, who places it on the Sinus 
 Adulitanus; and about in the same position Strabo 
 mentions a town Sabae (Saffai) as distinct from 
 Saba. The sites of these places (if they are reall}'- 
 different) are sought by geographers at NowaraU 
 or Port MorniTigion^ in the S- part of the coast of 
 Nidna^ and Afassawak on Foul Bay, on the N.E. 
 coast of Abyssinia. 
 
 Sabacon (2a&a/cwr), a king of Ethiopia, "who 
 invaded Egypt in the reign of the blind king Any- 
 ais, whom he dethroned and drove into the marshes. 
 Tiie Rthinpian conqueror then reigned over Egypt 
 for 50 years, but at length quitted the country in 
 consequence of a dream, whereupon An3'si8 regained 
 his kingdom. This is the account which Herodotus 
 received from the priests (ii. 137 — 140); but it 
 appears from Manetho, that there were 3 Ethiopian 
 kings who reigned over Egypt, named Sabacon^ 
 ScUchus^ and Taracus., whose collective reigns 
 amount to 40 or 50 years, and who form the 25th 
 dyniisty of that writer. The account of Manetho 
 is to be preferred to that of Herodotus. It appears 
 that this Ethiopian dynasty reigned over Egypt in 
 the latter half of tlie 8th century before the Chris- 
 tian era. They are mentioned in the Jewish re- 
 cords. The iSo, king of Egypt, with whom Hosea, 
 kins of Israel, made an alliance about B.C. 722 
 (2 Kings, xvii. 4), was probably the same as 
 Sebichiis ; and the Tirliakah, king of the Ethi- 
 opians, who was preparing to make war against 
 Sennacherib, in 711 (Is. xxxvii. 9), is the same 
 as Taracus. 
 
 Sabaei nr Sabae (2aea7oi, 'XdSai: 0. T. She- 
 baiiin), one of the chief peoples of Arabia, dwelt 
 in the SAV". corner of the peninsula, in the most 
 beautiful part of Arabia Felix, the N. and centre 
 of the province of El- Yemen. So, at least, Ptolemy 
 places them ; but the earlier geographers give them 
 a wider extent, quite to the S. oi El~ Yemen. The 
 fact seems to be that they are the chief repre- 
 sentatives of a race wliich, at an early period, was 
 widely spread on both sides of the S. part of the 
 Red Sea, where Arabia and Aethiopia all but 
 joined at the narrow stniit of Bab-el- Mandeb ; and 
 hence, probably, the confusion often made between 
 the S]iei>a and Seha of Scripture, or between the 
 Sliehaiim of Arabia and the Sebai'im of Aethiopia. 
 Another proof of the wide extent of this race is 
 furnished by the mention, in the book of Job, of 
 Sabeans as far N., prol)ably, as Arabia Deserta 
 (Job, i. 15). The Sabeans of El-Yemen were 
 celebrated for their wealth and luxurj'. Their 
 country produced all the most precious spices and 
 perfumes of Arabia, and they carried on an ex- 
 tensive trade with the East. Their capital was at 
 Saba, where we are told that their king was kept 
 a close prisoner in his palace. The monarchy was 
 not hereditary, but descended according to an 
 order of succession arranged among the chief 
 families of the country. 
 
 Sabate, a town of Etniria on the road from 
 Cosa to Rome, and on the N.W. corm^r of a lake, 
 which was named after it Lacus Sabatinus {La^o 
 di Bracciano). 
 
 Sabatini, a people in Campania, who derived 
 their name from the river Sabatus (Subbato)., a 
 tributary of the Calor, which Hows into the Vul- 
 turnus. 
 
 SABINA. 
 
 Sabazius (Saffafios), a Phrygian divinity, com- 
 monly described as a son of Rhea or Cybele. In 
 later times he was identified with the mystic 
 Dionysus, who hence is sometimes called Dionysus 
 Sabazius. For the same reason Sabazius is called 
 a son of Zeus by Persephone, and is said to have 
 been reared by a nymph Nyssa; though others, 
 by piiilosophical speculations, were led to consider 
 him a son of Cabirus, Dionysus, or Cronos, He 
 was torn by the Titans into 7 pieces. The con- 
 nection of Sabazius with the Phiygian mother of 
 the gods accounts for the fact that he was identified, 
 to a certain extent, with Zeus himself, who is 
 mentioned as Zeus Sabazius, both Zeus and Dio- 
 nysus having been brought up by Cybele or Rhea. 
 His worship and festivals (Sabazia) were also 
 introduced into Greece; but, at least in the time 
 of Demosthenes, it was not thought reputable to 
 take part in them, for they were celebrated at 
 night by both sexes in a licentious manner. Ser- 
 pents, which were sacred to him, acted a prominent 
 part at the Sabazia and in the processions : the 
 god himself was represented with horns, because, 
 it is said, he was the first that yoked oxen to the 
 plough for agriculture. 
 
 Sabelli. [Sabini.] 
 
 Sabellius, an heresiarch of the 3rd century, 
 of whose personal history hardly anything is 
 known. He broached his heresies in the Libyan 
 Pentapolis, of which be appears to have been a 
 native. His characteristic dogma related to the 
 Divine Nature, in which he conceived that there 
 was only one hypostasis or person, identifying with 
 each other the Father, the Son, and the Spirit, 
 "so that ill one hypostasis there are three desig- 
 nations'''' ((lis ilvai eV /lia v-Kocndc^i Tpets ovo- 
 fiaa-ias). 
 
 Sablna, the wife of the emperor Hadrian, was 
 the gmnd-niece of Trajan, being the daughter of 
 Matidia, who was the daughter of Marciana, the 
 sister of Trajan. Sabina was married to Hadrian 
 about A. D. 100 through the influence of Plotina, 
 the wife of Trajan. The marriage did not prove 
 a happy one. Sabina at length put an end to her 
 life, and there was a report that she had even 
 been poisoned by her husband. She was certainly 
 alive in 136, and probably did not die till 13H, a 
 few months before Hadrian. She was cnrollud 
 among the pods after her decease. 
 
 Sabina, Foppaea, a woman of surpassing beaut}', 
 hut iifcentious morals, was the daughter of T. 01- 
 lius, but assumed the name of her maternal grand- 
 father Poppaeus Sabinus, who had been consul in 
 A. D. 9. She was first married to Rufius Cris- 
 pinus, and afterwards to Otho, who was one of the 
 boon companions of Nero. The latter soon became 
 enamoured of her ; and in order to get Otho out of 
 the way Nero sent him to govern the province of 
 Lusitania (58). Poppaea now became the ac- 
 knowledged mistress of Nero, over whom she 
 exercised absolute sway. Anxious to become the 
 wife of the emperor, she persuaded Nero first to 
 murder his mother Agrippina (59), who was op- 
 posed to such a disgraceful union, and next to 
 divorce and shortly afterwards put to death his 
 innocent and virtuous wife Octavia (62). Im- 
 mediately after the divorce of Octavia, Poppaea 
 became the wife of Nero. In the following year 
 she gave birth to a daughter at Antium ; but the 
 infant died at the age of 4 months. In 66 Pop- 
 paea was pregnant again, but was killed by u kick 
 
SABINI. 
 
 from her brutal husband in a fit of passion. She 
 was enrolled among the gods, and a magnificent 
 temple was dedicated to her by Nero. Poppaea 
 was inordinately fond of luxury and pomp, and 
 took immense pains to preserve the beauty of her 
 person. Thus we are told that all her mules were 
 shod with gold, and that 500 asses were daily 
 milked to supply her with a bath. 
 
 Sabini, one of the most ancient and powerful of 
 the peoples of central Italy. The ancients usually 
 derived their name from Sabinus, a son of the na- 
 tive god Snncus. The different tribes of the Sabine 
 race were widely spread over the whole of central 
 ItJily, and were connected with the Opicans, tJm- 
 brians, and those other peoples whose languages 
 were akin to the Greek. The earliest traces of 
 the Sabines are found in the nei;j;hbourhood of 
 Ainiternum at the foot of the main chain of the 
 Apennines, whence they spread as far S. as the 
 confines of Lucania and Apulia, The Sabines 
 may be divided into 3 great classes, called by the 
 names of Sabini, Sabelli, and Samnites respectively. 
 The Sabini proper inhabited the country between 
 the Nar, the Anioand the Tiber, between Latium, 
 Etruria, Umbria and Picenum. This district was 
 mountainous, and better adapted for pasturage 
 than corn. The chief towns were Amitemum, 
 Reate, Nursia, Ciitiliae, Cures, Eretrum and No- 
 mentum. The Sabelli were tlie smaller tribes 
 who issued from the Sabines. To these belong 
 the Vestini, Maisi, Marnicini, Peligni, Frentani 
 and Hirpini. In addition to these peoples, to 
 whom the name of Sabellians is usu;i]ly restricted, 
 the Picentes in Picenum, the PicentinI, who were 
 transplanted from the latter country to Campania, 
 and the Lucani, were also of Sabine origin. The 
 Sanmitea, who were by far the most powerful of 
 all the Sabine peoples, are treated of in a separate 
 article. [Samnium.] There were certain na- 
 tional characteristics which distinguished the whole 
 Sabine race. They were a people of simple and 
 virtuous habits, faithful to their word, and imbued 
 with deep religious feeling. Hence we find fre- 
 quent mention of omens and prodigies in their 
 countrj'. Tliey were a migratory race, and adopted 
 a peculiar system of emigration. In times of 
 great danger and distress they vowed a Ver Sa- 
 crum^ or Sacred Spring ; and all the children born 
 in that spring were regarded as sacred to the god, 
 and were compelled, at the end of 20 years, to 
 leave their native country and seek a new home 
 in foreign lands. The form of government among 
 the Sabines was republican, but in war they chose 
 a sovereign ruler {E ml/rat ur), whom the Romans 
 sometimes call dictator, and sometimes king. With 
 the exception of the Sabines in Lucania and Cara- 
 pimia, they never attained any high degree of 
 civilisation or mental culture ; but they were 
 always distinguished by their love of freedom, 
 wiiich they maintained with the greatest bravery. 
 Of this the Samnites were the most striking ex- 
 ample. After the decline of the Etruscan power, 
 the Sabines were for a long time the greatest 
 people in Italy; and if they had remained united, 
 they might have conquered the whole peninsula. 
 The Sabines formed one of the elements of which 
 the Roman people was composed. In the time of 
 Romulus, a portion of the Sabines, after the rape 
 of their wives and daugliters, became incorporated 
 with the Romans, and the 2 peoples were united 
 into one under the general name of Quirites. The 
 
 SABINUS. G63 
 
 remainder of the Sabini proper, who were leas 
 warlike than the Samnites and Sabellians, were 
 finally subdued by M'. Curius Dentatus, b. c. 290, 
 and received the Roman franchise, si?ie suJfra(jio. 
 The Sabeliian tribes concluded a treaty with the 
 Romans at an early period, namely, the Vestini in 
 32IJ, and the Marsi, Mairucini, Peligni and Fren- 
 tani in 304 ; but these peoples again took tip arms 
 against the Romans in the Social M'ar (90 — JJiJ), 
 which ended in the complete subjugation of all 
 the Sabeliian tribes. The history of the wars 
 between the Samnites and the Romans is given 
 under Samnium. 
 
 Sabiuua. 1. A contemporary poet and a friend 
 of Ovid. Ovid informs ua that Sabinus had 
 written answers to six of the Epistolue Ilerokluin 
 of Ovid. Tliree answers enumerated by Ovid in 
 this passage are printed in man}-- editions of the 
 poet's works as the genuine poems of Sabiuus ; 
 but they were written by a modern scholar, An- 
 gelus Sabinus, about the year 1467. — 2. M. 
 Caelius, a Roman jurist, wlio succeeded Caesius 
 Longinus, was consul a. d. GQ. He was not the 
 Sabinus from whom the Sabiniani took their name. 
 He wrote a work. Ad Edicium Aedilium Curulium. 
 There are no extracts from Caelius in the Digest, 
 but he is often cited, sometimes as Caelius Sabinus, 
 sometimes by the name of Sabinus only. — 3. 
 C. Calvisius, one of Caesar's legates in the civil 
 war, B. c. 4JJ. In 45 he received the province of 
 Africa from Caesar, Having been elected praetor 
 in 44, he obtained from Antony the province of 
 Africa again; but he did not return to Africa, as 
 the senate, after the departure of Antony fi)r Mu- 
 tina, conferred it upon Q. Cornificius. Sabinus 
 was consul 39, and in the following year com- 
 manded the fleet of Octavian in the war witli Sex. 
 Ponipey. He was superseded by Agrippa in the 
 command of the fleet. He is mentioned too at a 
 later time as one of the friends of Octavian. —4. 
 T. Flaviua, father of the emperor Vespasian, was 
 one of the farmers of the taxes in Asia, and after- 
 wards carried on business as a money-lender amoufr 
 the Helvetians. — 5. Flavius, elder son of the 
 preceding, and brother of the emperor Vespasian. 
 He governed Moesia for 7 years during the reign 
 of Claudius, and held the important office of prae- 
 fectus urbis during the last 1 1 years of Nero's 
 reign. He was removed from this office by Galba, 
 but was replaced in it on the accession of Otho, 
 who was anxious to conciliate Vespasian, who 
 commanded the Roman legions in the East. He 
 continued to retain the dignity imder Vitellius ; 
 but when Vespasian was proclaimed general by the 
 legions in the East, and Antonius Primus and his 
 otlier generals in the West, after the defeat of the 
 troops of Vitellius, were marching upon Rome. 
 Vitellius, despairing of success, offered to surrender 
 the empire, and to place the supreme power in the 
 hands of Sabinus till the arrival of his brother. 
 The German soldiers of Vitellius, however, refused 
 submission to this arrangement, and resolved to 
 support their sovereign by arms. Sabinus there- 
 upon took refuge in the Capitol, where he wa3 
 attacked by the Vitellian troops. In the assault 
 the Capitol was burnt to the ground, Sabinus was 
 taken prisoner, and put to death by the soldiers in 
 the presence of Vitellius, who endeavoured in vain 
 to save his life. Sabinus was a man of distin- 
 guished reputation, and of unspotted character. 
 He left 2 sons, Flavius Sabinus, nuA Flavius 
 
 u u 4 
 
664 SABIS. 
 
 Clemens. [Clemens.] — 6. Flavias, son of the 
 preceding, nuin-ied Julia, tlie daughter of his cou- 
 sin TitU3. He was consul fJ"2, with liia cousin 
 Doraitiiui, but was afterwards slain by the hitter. 
 — 7. Massurius, a hearer of Ateius Capito, 
 was a distinguished jurist in the time of Tibe- 
 rius. Tins is the Sabiuiis from whom the 
 school of the Sabiniani took its name. [Capito.] 
 There is no direct excerpt from Sabinus in the 
 Digest, but he is often cited by other jurists, who 
 commented upon his LHjH ires Juiia Civiiia. It 
 ia conjectured that Peiaius means to refer to this 
 work (Sat. v. 90)^ when he says, " Excepto si 
 quid Masuri rubrica vetavit." Massurius also 
 wrote numerous other works, which are cited by 
 name in the Digest. — 8. Uympliidius. [Nym- 
 PHiDius.]— 9. Poppaeus, consul a. d. 9, was 
 appointed in the lifetime of Augustus governor of 
 Moesia, and was not only confirmed in this govern- 
 ment by Tiberius, but received from the latter the 
 provinces of Achaia and Macedonia in addition. 
 He continued to hold these provinces till his death 
 in 35, having ruled over Moesia for 24 years. 
 He was the maternal grandfather of Poppaea Sa- 
 bina, the mistress, and afterwards the wife of 
 Nero. — 10. Q. Titurius, one of Caesar's legates 
 in Gaul, who perished along with L. Aurunculelus 
 Cotta in the attack made upon them by Ambiorix 
 in B. c. 54. 
 
 Sabis {SauJiie) 1. A broad and deep river in 
 Gallia Belgica and in the territory of the Ambiani, 
 falling into the river Mosa. — 2. A small river on 
 the coast of Carmania. — 3. See SaPIS. 
 
 Sabrata. [ABROTONU.^r.] 
 
 Sabrina, also called Sabriaaa {Severn^ a river 
 in the W. of Britain, which flowed by Venta Si- 
 lurum into the ocean. 
 
 Sacadas (SaKciSas), of Argos, an eminent Greek 
 musician, was one of the masters who established at 
 Sparta the second great school of music, of which 
 Thaletas was the founder, as Terpander bad been of 
 the first. He gained the prize for Hute-playing at the 
 first of the musical contests which the Amphictyoiis 
 established in connection with the Pythian games 
 (B.C. 590), and also at the ne.xt two festivals in 
 succession (SiSb", S'Ji). Sacudas was a composer of 
 elegies, as well as a musician. 
 
 Sacae (Sawai), one of the most numerous and 
 mo-it powerful of tlie Scythian nomad tribes, had 
 their abodes E. and N. E. of the Massagetae, as 
 far as Serica, in the steppes of Central Asia, which 
 are now peopled by the Kiryluz Kluisaks^ in whose 
 name that of their ancestors is traced by some 
 geographers. They were very warlike, and ex- 
 celled especially as cavalrj', and as archers both 
 on horse and foot. Their women shared in their 
 military spirit ; and, if we are to believe Aelian, 
 they had the custom of settling before marriage, 
 whether the man or woman should rule the house, 
 by the result of a coml^it between them. In early 
 times they extended their predatory incursions as 
 far W. as Armenia and Cappadocia. They were 
 made tributary'- to the Persian empire, to tiie army 
 of which they furnished a large force of cavalry 
 and archers, who were among the best troops that 
 the kings of Persia had. It should be remembered 
 tliat the name of the Sacae is often used loosely 
 for other Scythian tribes, and sometimes for tlie 
 Scythians in general. 
 
 Sacasene {'2,aKaui]vri)^ a fertile district of Ar- 
 menia Major, on the river Cyrus and the coniiues 
 
 SAGARIS. 
 
 of Albania, so called from its having been at one 
 period conquered by the Sacae. A district of 
 Drangiana bore the same name for a similar reason. 
 
 Sacer Mons. 1. An isolated hill in the country 
 of the Sabines, on the right bank of the Anio and 
 W. of the Via Nomentana, 3 miles from Rome, to 
 which the plebeians repaired in their celebrated 
 secessions. The hill is not called by any special 
 name at the present day, but there is upon its 
 summit the Turre di SijeccJdo.-^2. A mountain in 
 Hispaiiia Tarniconensis near the Minius, probably 
 the modern J-*uerio de Rabanon near Ponferrada. 
 
 Sacili, with the surname Martialium, a town of 
 the Turduli in Hispania Baetica. 
 
 Sacra Via. [Ruma, p. 650, a.] 
 
 Sacraria, a town in Umbria on the road be- 
 tween Treba and Spoletium, supposed by some to 
 be identical with Clitmuni Fanum on the river 
 Clitumnus. 
 
 Sacriportus, a small place in Latium, of un- 
 certain site, memorable for the victory of Sulla 
 over the younger Marius, b. c. 82. 
 
 Sacrum Flumen. L (f7>-as), a river on the 
 W. coast of Sardinia.^ 2. {Tavignano)^ a river on 
 the E. coast of Corsica, which flowed into tlie sea 
 at Aleria. 
 
 Sacrum Promont5rium. 1. (C. St Vincent)^ 
 on the W. coast of Spain, said by Strabo to be 
 the most W>-ly point in the whole earth. — 2. 
 (C. Corso), the N. E. point of Corsica. — 3. (C./mr, 
 also il/o/in, Efta Kavi or Jcdi Burun^ i. e. the 7 
 points), the extreme point of the mountain Cragus 
 in Lycia, between Xanthus and Telmissus. — 
 
 4. (C. Khdidoni)^ another promontory in Lycia, 
 near the confines of Pamphylia, and opposite the 
 Chelidonian islands, whence it is also called. 
 Prom Chelidonium. 
 
 Sadyattes (SaSuciTTTjs), king of Lydia, suc- 
 ceeded his father Ardys, and reigned B. c. G'29 — 
 617. He carried on war with the Milesians for 6 
 years, and at his death bequeathed the war to his 
 son and successor, Aiyattes. [Alyatte.s.] 
 
 Saepinum or Sepinum (Sepinas, -atis : Sepino)^ 
 a nmnicipium Jn Saninium on the road from Allifae 
 to Beneventum. 
 
 Saetabis. 1. {Alcoy'?), a river on the S. coast 
 of Hispania Tarraconensis, W. of the Sucro. — 
 2. Or Setabis (Setabitanus : tAa^ifa). animport-uit 
 town of the Contestani in Hispania Tarraconensis, 
 and a Roman municipiuni, was situated on a hill 
 
 5. of the Sucro, and was celebrated for its manu- 
 facture of linen. 
 
 Sagalassus {'2,o.yaKa(T(r6^ : AUahsim^ Ru.), a 
 large fortihed city of Pisidin, near the Phrygian 
 border, a day's joui'ney S. E. of Apamea Cibotus. 
 It lay, as its large ruins still show, in the form of 
 an amphitheatre on the side of a hill, and had a 
 citadel on a rock 30 feet high. Its inhabitants 
 were reckoned the bravest of the Pisidians, and 
 seem, from the wnrd AamhaifXiov on their coins, to 
 have claimed a Spartan origin. Among the ruins 
 of the city are the remains of a very fine temple, 
 of an amphitheatre, and of 52 other large 
 buildings. 
 
 Sagaiius {'Xa.'yo.v6s\ a small river on the coast 
 of Ciirniania. 
 
 Sag'apa, one of the mouths of the Indus. 
 
 Sagaris. (Ovid. Em Punt. \\\ 10, 47) a river of 
 Sarmatia Em-opaea, falling into a bay in the N.'W . 
 of the I'Juxiiic, which was called after it Sagaricus 
 Siuuo, and which also received the river Axiaces. 
 
SAGAKTII. 
 
 The bay appears to be that on which Odessa now 
 stands, and the rivers the Bol-Koukdnik and the 
 Mal-Kouialnih. 
 
 Sag'artii (SaTaprioi), according to Hemdotus, 
 a nomad people of Persis. Afterwards, they are 
 found, on the authority of Ptolemy, in Media and. 
 the passes of M. Zai^ros. 
 
 Sagra, a small river in Mai^na Graecia on the 
 S. E. coast of Bruttium, falling into tiie sea 
 between Caulonia and Locri, on the banks of 
 whicli a memorable victoiy was gained by 10,000 
 Locrians over 120,000 Crotoniates. This victory 
 appeared so extraordinary, that it gave rise to tlie 
 proverbial expression, ** It is truer than what 
 happened on the Sagra," when a person wished to 
 make any strong asseveration. 
 
 Saguntla. 1. {Xigonza or Gujmiza, N. W. of 
 Medina Sidonia), a town in the W. part of His- 
 pania Baetica, S. of the Bactis. — 2. A town of the 
 Arevaci in Hispania Tarraconensis, S. W. of Bil- 
 bilis near the Mons Solarius. 
 
 Saguntum, more rarely SagTintus (Saguntinus: 
 A(urviedro\ a town of the Edetani or Sedetani in 
 Hispania Tarraconensis, S. of the Iberus on the 
 river Palantias, about 3 miles from the coast. It 
 is said to have been founded by Greeks from 
 Zacynthua, with whom Rutulians from Ardea 
 were intermingled, whence it is sometimes called 
 Ait^onia Saf/imtus. It was situated on an eminence 
 in the niidut of a fertile country, and became a 
 place of great commercial importance. Although 
 S. of the Iberus it had formed an alliance with 
 the Romans; and its siege by Hannibal, B.C. 219, 
 was the immediate cause of the 2nd Punic war. 
 The inhabitants defended their city with the 
 utmost bravery against Hannibal, who did not 
 succeed in taking the place till after a siege of 
 nearly 8 months. The greater part of the city 
 was destroyed by Haimibal ; but it was rebuilt by 
 the Ilomans 8 years afterwards, and made a culnny. 
 Sagnntum was celebrated for its manufacture of 
 beautiful drinking-cups ; and the figs of the sur- 
 rounding country were rmch valued in antiquity. 
 The ruins of the ancient town, consisting of a 
 theatre and a temple of Bacchus, are extant at 
 Miirviedro^ which is a corruption of Muri veieres. 
 
 Sais (^ai's, ^.diTTjs : Sa-ei-IIajjar^ Ru.), a great 
 city of Egypt, in the Delta, on the E. side of the 
 Canopic branch of the Nile. It was the ancient 
 capital of Lower Egypt, and contained the palace 
 and burial place of the Pharaohs, as well as the 
 tomb of Osiris. It was the chief seat of the wor- 
 ship of the Egyptian goddess Neith (also called 
 Sa'is), who had here a splendid temple in the 
 middle of an artificial lake, where a great feast of 
 lamps was celebrated yearly by worshippers from 
 all parts of Egypt. The city gave its name to the 
 Sa'ites Nomos. 
 
 Saitis (2a7Tis), a surname of Athena, under 
 which she had a sanctuary on Mount Pontinus, 
 near Lerjia in Argolis. The name was traced by 
 the Greeks to tiie Egyptians, among whom Athena 
 ■was said to have been called Sais. 
 
 Sala. 1, {Saule), a river of Germany, between 
 ■which and the Rhine Drusus died. It was a tri- 
 butary of the Albis. — 2. (.S'oa/e), also a river of 
 Germany and a tributary of the Moenus, which 
 formed the boundary between the Hermundurl 
 and Chatti, with great salt springs in its neigh- 
 bourhood, for the possession of which these 2 
 peoples frequently contended. — 3. {Burar(jiig\ a 
 
 SALAMIS. 
 
 665 
 
 river in the N. part of the W. coast of Mauretania 
 Tingitana, rises in the Atlas Minor, and falls into 
 the Atlantic, N. of a town of the same name. ^ 
 
 4. A river in the same province, S, of the one last 
 mentioned, rises in the Atlas Major and falls into 
 the Atlantic near the S. boundary of Mauretania. 
 ^5. A Samothracian town in Thrace on the coast 
 of tlie Aegaean sea, W. of the mouth of the 
 Hebrus. — 6. A town in Pannonia on the road from 
 Saliaria to Poetovio. — 7. {Shella\ a town in the 
 N. part of the W. coast of Mauretania Tingitana, 
 
 5. of the mouth of the river of the same name 
 mentioned under No. Ji. This town was the 
 furthest place in Mauretania towards tiie S. pos- 
 sessed by the Romans ; for altliough the province 
 nominally extended further S., the Romans never 
 fully subdued the nomad tribes beyond this point. 
 
 Salacia, the female divinity of the sea among 
 the Romans, and the wife of Neptune. The name 
 is evidently connected with sal (aA.s), and accord- 
 ingly denotes the wide, open sea. 
 
 Salacia {Alcaccr do Sal), a municipium of 
 Lueitania in the territory of the Turdetani, N. W. 
 of Pax Julia and S. W. of Ebora, with the sur- 
 name of Urbs Imperatoria, celebrated for its 
 woollen manufactures. 
 
 Salamis CZaKafiit ; ^ahafxivios). 1. {Koluri)^ 
 an island off the W. coast of Attica, from which 
 it is separated by a narrow channel. It forms 
 the S. boundary of the bay of Eleusis. Its form 
 is that of an irregular semicircle towards the 
 W., with many small indentations along the coast. 
 Its greatest length, from N. to S., is about 10 
 miles, and its width, in its broadest part, from E. 
 to W., is a little more. In ancient times it is said 
 to have been called Filyussa^ from the pines which 
 grew in it, and also Sciras and Cyohrea^ from the 
 names of 2 native heroes. It is further said to 
 have been called Sidamis from a daughter of 
 Asopus of this name. It was colonised at an tarly 
 time by tlie Aeacidae of Aegina. Telamon, the 
 son of Aeacus, fled thither after the murder of his 
 half-brother Phocus, and became sovereign of the 
 island. His son Ajax accompanied the Greeks 
 with 12 Salaminian ships to tliu Trojan war. 
 Salamis continued an independent state till about 
 the beginning of the 40th Olympiad (b. c, 620), 
 when a dispute arose for its posscsoton between 
 the Megarians and the Athenians After a long 
 struggle it first fell into the hands of the Me- 
 garians, but was finally taken possession of by the 
 Athenians through a stratagem of Solon [Solon], 
 and became one of the Attic demi. It continued 
 to belong to Athens till the time of Cassander, when 
 its inhabitants voluntarily surrendered it to the 
 Macedonians, 3U>. The Athenians recovered the 
 island in 232 tlirough means of Aratus, and 
 punished the Salaminians for their desertion to 
 the Macedonians with great severity. The old 
 city of Salamis stood on the S. side of the island 
 opposite Aegina ; but this was afterwards deserted, 
 and a new city of the same name built on the M. 
 coast opposite Attica, on a small bay now called 
 Ambelakia. Even this new city was in ruins in 
 the time of Pausanians. At the extremity of the 
 S. promontory forming this bay was the snuill 
 island of Psyttalia {Lupsokutali), which is about 
 a mile long, and from 200 to 300 yards wide.-- ^ 
 Salamis is chiefly memorable on account of the 
 great battle fought off its coast, in which tlie 
 Persian fleet of Xerxes was defeated by the 
 
6G6 
 
 SALAPIA. 
 
 Greeks, 480. The battle took place in the strait 
 between the E. part of the island and tiie coast of 
 Attica, and the Greek fleet was drawn up in the 
 small bay in front of the town of Salamis. The 
 battle waa witnessed by Xerxes from the Attic 
 coast, who had erected for himself a lofty throne 
 on one of the projecting deulivities of Mt. Ae- 
 galeos. — 2. A city of Cyprus, situated in the 
 middle of the E. coast a little N. of the river 
 Pcdiaeus. It is said to have been founded by 
 Teucer, the son of Telamon, who gave it the name 
 of his native island, from which he had been 
 banished hy his father. Salamis possessed an 
 excellent harbour, and was by far the most im- 
 portant city in the whole of Cyprus. It became 
 subject to the Persians with the rest of the island ; 
 but it recovered its independence about 385 under 
 Evagoras, who extended his sovereignty over the 
 greater part of the island. [Cyprus.] Under the 
 Romans the whole of the E. part of the island 
 formed part of the territory of Salamis. In the 
 time of Trajan a great part of the town was 
 destroyed in an insurrection of the Jews ; and 
 under Constantino it suffered still more from an 
 earthquake, which buried a large portion of the 
 inhabitants beneath its ruins. It was, however, 
 rebuilt by Constantine, who gave it the name of 
 Constantia, and made it the capital of the island. 
 There are still a few ruins of this town. 
 
 Salapia (Salapinus : Sulpi)^ an ancient town of 
 Apulia in the district Daunia, was situated S. of 
 Sipontum ou a lake named after it. According to 
 the common tradition it was founded by Diomedes, 
 though others ascribe its foundation to the Khodlan 
 Elpias. It is not mentioned till the 2nd Punic 
 ■war, when it revolted to Hannibal after the battle 
 of Cannae, but it subsequently surrendered to the 
 Romans, and delivered to the latter the Cartha- 
 ginian garrison stationed in the town. The original 
 site of Salapia was at some distance from the 
 coast ; but in consequence of the unhealthy exha- 
 lations arising from the lake above mentioned, the 
 inhabitants removed to a new town on the sea 
 coast, which was built by M. Hostilius with the 
 approbation of the Roman senate, about B. c. 200. 
 This new town served as the harbour of Arpi. 
 The ruins of the ancient town still exist at some 
 distance from the coast at the village of Salpi. 
 
 Sal&pina Paltis {Laffo di Salpi)^ a lake of 
 Apulia, between the mouths of the Cerbalus and 
 Aufidus, which derived its name from the town of 
 Salapia situated upon it, and which M. Hostilius 
 connected with the Adriatic by means of a canal. 
 
 Salaria, a town of the Bastetani in Hispania 
 Tarraconensis and a Roman colony. 
 
 Salaria Via. [Roma, p. 657, b.] 
 
 Salassi, a brave and warlike people in Gallia 
 Transpadana, in the valley of the Duria at the foot 
 of the Graii.in and Pennine Alps, whom some re- 
 garded as a branch of the Salyes or Salluvii in 
 Gaul. They defended the passes of the Alps in 
 their territory with such obstinacy and courage 
 that it was long before the Romans were able to 
 subdue them. At length in the reign of Augustus 
 the countrj' was permanently occupied by Terentius 
 Varro with a powerful Roman force ; the greater 
 part of tlie Salassi were destroyed in battle, and 
 the rest amounting to 1-^6,000 were sold as slaves. 
 Their chief town wjvs Augusta Practoria {Aodtf\ 
 which Augustus colonised with soldiers of the 
 Praetorian cohorts. 
 
 SALINATOR. 
 
 fialdae (2aA5ai : Bovjayah^ Ru. or Delhjz, Rii ?) 
 a large seaport town of N. Africa, originally tho 
 E. frontier town of the kingdom of Mauretania, 
 afterwards in Mauretania Caesariensis, and, after 
 the division of that province, the W. frontier town 
 of Mauretiinia Sitifensis. Augustus made it a 
 colony. 
 
 Salduba, 1. {liio Verde), a river in the territory 
 of the Turduli in Hispania Baetica, at the mouth 
 of wliicli was situated a town of the same name. — 
 2. See Caesaraugu.sta. 
 
 Sale (2aA,7i), a town on the coast of Thrace. 
 
 Salebro, a place in Etruria between Cosa and 
 Populoiiium. 
 
 Saleius Bassus. [Bassus.] 
 
 Salem, I.e. peace, the original name of Jeru- 
 salem (Gen. xiv. 18). 
 
 Salentini or Sallentini, a people in the S- pnrt 
 of Calabria, who dwelt around the promontory 
 Iap3*gium, which is hence called Salentinum or 
 Salentina. They laid claim to a Greek origin 
 and pretended to have come from Crete into Italy 
 under the guidance of Idomeneus, They were 
 subdued by the Romans at the conclusion of their 
 war with Pyrrhus, and having revolted in the 2nd 
 Punic war were again easily reduced to subjection. 
 
 Salemum (Salemitanus : Safenio)^ an ancient 
 town in Campania at the innermost comer of the 
 Sinus Paestanus, was situated on a height not 
 far from the coast, and possessed a harbour at the 
 foot of the hill. It was made a Roman colony at 
 the same time as Puteoli, 13. c. 19-t; but it attained 
 its greatest prosperity in the middle ages, after it 
 had been fortified by the Lombards. 
 
 Salganeus or Salganea {laKyavevs : 2a\yd- 
 vios^ 'S.aXyaveiTTjs), a small town of Boeotia on 
 the Euripus, and on the road from Anthedon to 
 Chalcis. 
 
 Salinae, salt-works, the name of several towns 
 which possessed salt-works in their vicinity. 1. A 
 town in Britain ou the E. coast, in the S. part of 
 Lincolnshire. — 2. A town of the Sueirii in the 
 Maritime Alps in Gallia Narbouenais, E. of Reii. 
 — 3. {Torre dclk Siiline\ a place on the coast of 
 Apulia near Salapia. ^ 4. A place in Picenum on 
 the river Sannus (5«////o), — 5. (Tbrt/a), a place in 
 Dacia.^6 Salinae Herculeae, nearHerculanura 
 in Campania. 
 
 Salinator, Livlus. 1. M.. consul b.c. 219, with 
 L. Aemilius Paulus, carried on war along with his 
 colleague against the Illyrians. On their return to 
 Rome, both consuls were brought to trial on the 
 charge of having unfairly divided the booty among 
 the soldiers. Paulus escaped with difficulty, but 
 Livins was condemned. Tlie sentence seems to 
 have been an unjust one, and Livius took his dis- 
 grace so much to heart that he left the city and re- 
 tired to his estate in the country, where he lived 
 some years without taking any part in public 
 aifairs. In 210 the consuls compelled him to return 
 to tlie cit}', and in 207 he was elected consid a 2nd 
 time with C. Claudius Nero. He shared with his 
 colleague in the gh'ry of defeating Hasdrubal oil 
 the Metaurus. [For details, see Nero, Claudius, 
 No. 2.] Next year (206) Livius was stationed in 
 Etruria, as proconsul, with an army, and liis impe- 
 rium was prolonged for 2 successive years. In 
 204 he was censor with his former colleague in the 
 consulship, Claudius Nero, The two censors had 
 long been enemies; and their long-smothered re- 
 sentment now bui'st forth, and occasioned no small 
 
SALLENTINI. 
 
 scandal in the state. Livius, in his censorship, 
 imposed a tax upon salt, in consequence of which 
 he received the surname oi Salmator^ which seems 
 to have been given him in derision, but which be- 
 came, notwithstanding, hereditary in his family. 
 — S. C, curule acdile 203, and praetor 202, in 
 which year ho obtained Bruttii as his province. In 
 193 he fought under the consul against the Boii, 
 and in the same 3'ear was an unsuccessful candi- 
 date for the consulsin'p. — 3. C, praetor 191, when 
 he had the command of the fleet in the war.against 
 Antiochns. He was consul 188, and obtained 
 Gau! a3 his province. 
 
 SaUentinL [Salentinl] 
 
 Salluatius or Salustius {'ZaKovano^). 1. 
 Praefectus Praetorio under the emperor Julian, 
 with whom he was on terms of friendship. Sal- 
 lustius was a heatiien, but dissuaded the emperor 
 from persecuting the Christians. He was probably 
 the author of a treatise Tlepl htiau Kal KSa-fxou, 
 which is still extant. If so, he was attached to 
 the doctrines of the Neo-Platonists. The best 
 edition of this treatise is by Orellius, Turici, 1821. 
 ^ 2. A Cynic philosopher of some note, who 
 lived in the latter part of the 5th century after 
 Christ. He was a native of Emesa in Syria, and 
 studied successively at Emesa, Alexandria, and 
 Athens. Sallustius was suspected of holding some- 
 wliat impious opinions regarding the gods. He 
 seems at least to have been unsparing in his attacks 
 upon the fanatical theology of the Neo-Platonists. 
 
 C. Sallustius Crispus, or Salustius. 1. The 
 Roman historian, belonged to a plebeian family, 
 and was born b. c. 86, at Amiternum, in the coun- 
 try of the Sabines. He was quaestor about 59<, 
 and tribune of the plebs in 52, the year in which 
 Clodiiis was killed by Milo. In his tribunate he 
 joined tlie popular party, and took an active part 
 in opposing Milo. It is said that he had been 
 caught by Milo in the act of adultery with his wife 
 Fausta, the daughter of the dictator SuUa ; that he 
 had received a sound whipping from the husband ; 
 and that he had been only let off on payment of a 
 sum of money. In 50 Sallust was expelled from the 
 senate bj' the censors, probably because he belonged 
 to Caesar's party, though some give as the ground 
 of his ejection from the senate the act of adultery 
 already mentioned. In the civil war he followed 
 Caesar's fortune. In 47 we find him praetor elect, 
 by obtaining which dignity he was restored to his 
 rank. He nearly lost his life in a mutiny of some 
 of Caesar's troops in Campania, who had been led 
 thither to pass over into Africa. He accompanied 
 Caesar in his African war, 46, and was left by 
 Caesar as the governor of Numidia, in which capa- 
 city he is charged witli having oppressed the people, 
 and enriched himself by unjust means. He was 
 accused of maladministration before Caesar, but it 
 does not appear that he was brought to trial. The 
 charge is somewh.it confirmed by the fact of his 
 becoming innnensely rich, as was shown by the 
 expensive gardens which he formed (korti Sal- 
 histiani) on the Quirinalis. He retired into pri- 
 vacy after he returned from Africa, and he passed 
 quietly through the troublesome period after 
 Caesar*s death. He died 34, about 4 years before 
 the battle of Actium. The story of his mariying 
 Cicero's wife, Terentia, ought to be rejected. It was 
 probably not till after his return from Africa that 
 Sallust wrote liis historical works. 1. The Cati- 
 Una^ or Bcllum Catilinanum, is a history of the 
 
 SALLUSTIUS. 
 
 6G7 
 
 conspiracy of Catiline during the consulship of 
 Cicero, 63. The introduction to this history, whicli 
 some critics admire, is only a feeble and rhetorical 
 attempt to act the philosopher and moralist. The 
 historj', however, is valuable. Sallust was a living 
 spectator of the events which he describes, and 
 considering that he was not a friend of Cicero, and 
 was a partisan of Caesar, he wrote with fairness. 
 The speeches which he has inserted in his history 
 are certainly his own composition; but we may 
 assume that Caesar's speech was extant, and that 
 he gave the substance of it. 2. The Jugurtha^ or 
 Bellum JugurOiimim^ contains the history of tlie 
 war of the Romans against Jugurtha, king of 
 Numidia, which began ill, and continued until 
 106. It is likely enough that Sallust was led to 
 write this work from having resided in Africa, and 
 that he collected some materials there. He cites 
 the Punic Books of King Hiempsal, as authority 
 for his general geographical description {Jug. c. 
 17). The Jtigurthine war has a philosophical in- 
 troduction of the same stamp as that to the Cuti- 
 iina. As a history of the campaign, the Jugurthine 
 war is of no value : there is a total neglect of geo- 
 graphical precision, and apparently not a very strict 
 regard to chronology. 3. Sallustius also wrote 
 Historifiruw. Lihri Quinque^ which were dedicated 
 to Lucullus, a son of L. Licinius LucuUus. The 
 work is supposed to have comprised the period from 
 the consulship of M. Aemilius Lepidus and Q. 
 Lutatiua Catulus, 7H, the year of Sulla's deatli, to 
 the consulship of L. Vulcatius Tullus and M. Ae- 
 milius Lepidus, 66, the year in which Cicero was 
 praetor. This work is lost, with the exception of 
 fragments which have been collected and arranged. 
 The fragments contain, among other things, several 
 orations and letters. Some fragments belonging to 
 the 3rd book, and relating to the war with Spar- 
 tacus, have been published from a Vatican MS. in 
 the present century. 4. Duae Epislolae de lie 
 Pnhlica ordinanda^ which appear to be addressed 
 to Caesar at the time when he was engaged in liis 
 Spanish campaign (49) against Petreius and Afra- 
 nias, and are attributed to Sallust; but the opi- 
 nions of critics on their authenticity are dividt-d, 
 5. The Dedamaiio in Sallustium, which is attri- 
 buted to Cicero, is generally admitted to be the 
 work of some rhetorician, the matter of which is 
 the well-known hostility between the orator and 
 the historian. The same opinion is generallv 
 maintained as to the Dcclamatio in Ciceroiiein^ 
 wliich is attributed to Sallust, — Some of the Roman 
 writers considered that Sallustius imitated the 
 style of Thucydides. His language is generally 
 concise and perspicuous : perhaps his love of bre- 
 vity mny have caused the ambiguity that is some- 
 times found in his sentences. He also affected 
 archaic words. Though he has considerable merit 
 as a writer, his art is always apparent. He had no 
 pretensions to great research or precision about 
 facts. His reflections have often something of the 
 same artificial and constrained character as his ex- 
 pressions. One may judge that his object was to 
 obtjiin distinction as a writer ; that style was what 
 he thought of more than matter. He has, how- 
 ever, probably the merit of being the first Roman 
 who wrote what is usually called history. He 
 was not above his contemporaries as a politician ; 
 he was a party man, and there are no indications 
 of any comprehensive views, wliich had a wiiole 
 nation for their object. He hated the nobility, as 
 
66R 
 
 SALMANTICA. 
 
 a man may do, without loving the people. The 
 best editions of Sallust are by Coi'te, Lips. 1724 ; 
 Gerkich, Basil. IS'Jli— li!31 . 3 vols.; and by 
 Kritz, Lips. l«-2n— 11S34, '2 vols. — 3. The grand- 
 eon of the sister of tlie hi.storian, was adopted 
 by the latter, and inherited his great wealth. In 
 imitation of Maecenas, he preferred remaining a 
 Roman eques. On tiie fall of Maecenas he became 
 the principal adviser of Augustus. He died in 
 A. D. 20, at an advanced age. One of Horace's 
 odes (Carm. ii. 2) is addressed to him. 
 
 Salniantica (Salamanca)^ called Helmantica 
 or Hermandica by Livy, and Elmantica by Po- 
 lybius, an important town of the Vettones in Lu- 
 sitania, S. of the Duriua, on the road from Emerita 
 to Caesaniugusta. It was taken by Hannibal. A 
 bridge was built here by Ti-ajan, of which the 
 piers still eiist. 
 
 Salmona or Salmonia {XaXfj-wvi}, ^aXfuavia)^ a 
 town of Elis in the district Pisatis, on the river 
 Enipens, said to have been founded by Salmoneus. 
 
 Salmoneus (SaA^oit/euy), sou of Aeolus and 
 Enarete, and brother of Sisyphus. He was first 
 married to Alcidice and afterwards to Sidero ; by 
 the former of whom he became the father of Tyro. 
 He originally lived in Thessaly, but emigrated to 
 Elis, where he built the town of Salmone. His 
 presumption and arrogance were so great that lie 
 deemed himself equal to Zeua, and ordered sacri- 
 fices to be offered to himself; nay, he even imi- 
 tated the thunder and lightning of Zeus, but the 
 father of the gods killed him with his thunder- 
 bolt, destroyed his town, and pimished him in the 
 lower world. His daughter Tyro bears the patro- 
 nymic Salmo7i{s. 
 
 Salmonium or Salmona (SaX/nwf to^, ^a\f.itov7} : 
 C. Salmon), the most E.-ly promontory of Crete. 
 
 Salmydessus, called Halmydessus also in later 
 times ('2,aX^vbija'(T6s, 'A\}iu^'Tj(Ta6s : SaAui/S-^ff- 
 (TLos : Midja or MidjeJi), a town of Thrace on 
 the coast of the Euxine, S. of the promontory 
 Thynias. The name was originally applied to the 
 whole coast from this promontory to the entrance 
 of the Bosporus ; and it was from this coast that 
 the Black Sea obtained the name of Ponlus Accejios 
 {"A^evos), or inhospitable. The coast itself was 
 rendered dangerous by shallows and marshes, and 
 the inhabitants were accustomed to plunder any 
 ehips that were driven upon them. 
 
 Salo (^((^on), a tributary of the Ibenis in Celti- 
 beria, which flowed by Bilbilis, the birth-place of 
 Martial, who accordingly frequently mentions it in 
 his poems. 
 
 Saloaa, Salonae, or Salon (Saloria), an im- 
 portant town of Illyria and the cafiital of DaJinatia, 
 was situated on a small bay of the sea. It was 
 strongly fortitied by the Komaus after their con- 
 quest of the country, and was at a later time made 
 a Roman colonj', and the seat of a conventus juri- 
 dicus. The emperor Diocletian was bom at the 
 small village Dioclea near Saluna ; and after his 
 abdication he retired to the neighboui'hnod of tliis 
 town, and here spent the rest of \ns dyys. The 
 remains of his magnificent palace are still to be 
 seen at the village oi Spalutro, the ancient Spola- 
 tum, 3 miles S. of Salona. 
 
 Salonina, Cornelia, wife of Gallicnus and tno- 
 ther of Saloninus. She witnessed with her own 
 eyes the death of her husband before Milan, in 
 A. n. 2fi8. 
 
 S3.1ouiau3, P. Licinius Cornelius Valcrianus, 
 
 SALUS. 
 
 son of Gallienus and Salonina, grandson of the em- 
 peror Valerian. When his father and grandfather 
 assumed the title of Augustus, in a. D. "253. the 
 youth received the designation of Caesar. Some 
 years afterwards he was left in Gaul, and was put 
 to death upon the capture of Colnnia Agrippina 
 by Postumus in 259, being about 17 years old. 
 
 Salordurum (Soleure or Solothuni), a town of 
 the Helvetii on the road from Aventicum to 
 Vindonissa, was fortified by the Romans about 
 A. D. 350. 
 
 Salsum Flnmen, a tributary of the Baetis in 
 Hispania Baetica, between Attegua and Attubis. 
 
 Salvianus, an accomplished ecclesiastical writer 
 of the 5th century, was born in the vicinity of Treves, 
 and passed the latter part of his life as a presbyter 
 of the church at Marseilles. The following works 
 of Salvianus are still extant: — 1. Advcrsns Ava- 
 riiiam Libri IV, ad Ecdexiam CuthoUcam, pub- 
 lished under the name of Timotheus, about a. d. 
 440. 2. De Providentia s. dc Guhcruatione Dti e.t 
 de Justo Dei pracsentique Judicio Lihri^ written du- 
 ring the inroads by the barbarians upon the Roman 
 empire, 451 — 455. 3. Epistokie /JT., addressed 
 to friends upon familiar topics. The best edition 
 of these works is by Baluzius, 8vo. Paris, 1684. 
 
 Q. Salvidienus Rufus, one of the early friends 
 of Octavian (Augustus), whose fleet he commanded 
 in the war against Pex. Pompeius, B. c. 4'2. In 
 the Perusinian war (41 — 40) he took an active part 
 as one of Octavian 's legates against L. Antonius and 
 Fulvia. He was afterwards sent into Gallia Nar- 
 bonensis, from whence he wrote to M. Antonius, 
 offering to induce the troops in his province to de- 
 sert from Octavian. But Antonius, who had just 
 been reconciled to Octavian, betraj'ed the treachery 
 of Salvidienus. The latter was forthwith sum- 
 moned to Rome on some pretext, and on his arrival 
 was accused by Augustus in the senate, and con- 
 demned to death, 40. 
 
 Salviua, the leader of the revolted slaves in 
 Sicily, better known by the name of Tryphon, 
 which he assumed. [Trvi'HON.] 
 
 Salvius Jnlianus. [JuLianus.] 
 
 Salvius Otho. [Otho.] 
 
 Salus, a Roman goddess, the personification of 
 health, prosperity, and the public welfare. In the 
 first of these three senses she answers closely to 
 the Greek Ilygieia, and was accordingly represented 
 in works of ait with the same attributes as the 
 Greek goddess. Li the second sense she repre- 
 sents prosperity in general. In the third sense she 
 is the gnddess of the public welfare {Salus publica 
 or Roimma). In this capacity a temple had been 
 vowed to her in the year B. c. 307, by the censor 
 C. Junius Bnbulcus on the Quirinal hill, which 
 was afterwards decorated with paintings by C. 
 Fabius Pictor. She was worshipped publicly on 
 the 30tb of April, in conjunction with Pax, Con- 
 cordia, and Janus. It had been customary at 
 Rome every year, about the time when the consuls 
 entered upon tlieir ofHce, for the augurs and other 
 high-priests to observe the signs for the purpose of 
 ascertaining the fortunes of the republic during the 
 coming year; this observation of the signs was 
 called aufjuriiim SaliUis. In tlie time of Cicero, 
 this ceremony had become neglected ; but Augustus 
 restored it, and the custom afterwards remained as 
 long as piiganism was the religion of the state. 
 Salus was represented, like Fortuna, with a rudder, 
 a globe at her feet, mid sometimes in a sitting 
 
SALUSTIUS. 
 posture, pouring from a patera a libation upon an 
 altar, around wliich a serpent is winding. 
 
 Salustius. [Sallustius.] 
 
 Salyes or Salluvii, the most powerful and most 
 ct^lebrated of all the Ligurian tribes, inhabited the 
 S. coast of Gaul from the Rhtme to the Maritime 
 Alps. They were troublesome neighbours to Mas- 
 silia, with which city they frequently carried on 
 W!ir. 'I'hey were subdued by the Romans in B. c. 
 123 after a long and obstinate struggle, and the 
 colony of Aquae Sextiae was founded in their ter- 
 ritory by the consul Ssxtius. 
 
 Samaclioiiitis Lacus [Semechositis LacusJ. 
 
 Samara. [Samarobriva.] 
 
 Samaria (Sa^apeia : Ileb. Shomron, Chaldee, 
 Shamrain : 2ci|Uapei5s, 'Sa/j.apeirTis^ Siunadtea, pi, 
 Sa/ictpeTy, Sa^ape'iTat, Samarltae), aft. Sebaste 
 (2,e§aarT) : Sebustieh^ Ru.), one of the chief cities 
 of Palestine, was built by Omri, king of Israel 
 (about B.C. 922), on a hill in the midst of a plain 
 surrounded by mountains, just in the centre of 
 Palestine W. of the Jordan. Its name was de- 
 rived from Shemer, the owner of the hill which 
 Omri purchased for its site. It was the capital of 
 the kingdom of Israel, and the chief seat of the 
 idolatrous worship to which the ten tribes were 
 addicted, until it was taken by Shahnaneser, king 
 of Assyria (about n. c. 720), who carried away 
 the inhabitants of tlie city and of the surrounding 
 ciiuutF}', which is also known in history as Samaria 
 (see below), and replaced them by heatlien peoples 
 from the E. provinces of his empire. These settlers, 
 being troubled witli the wild beasts wiio had be- 
 come numerous in tlie depopulated country, sought 
 to propitiate the god of the land ; and Esar- 
 haddon sent them a priest of the tiibe of Levi, 
 who resided at Bethel, and taught them the wor- 
 ship of the true God. Tlie result was a strange 
 mixture of religions aud of races. When the Jews 
 returned from the Babylonish cjiptivity, those of 
 the Sniniiritans who worshipped Jehovah otfered 
 to assi>t them in rebuilding the temple at Jeru- 
 Kalem ; but their aid was refused, and lience arose 
 the lasting hatred between the Jews and the Sa- 
 maritans. This religious animosity reached its 
 height when, in the reign of Darius Nothus, the 
 son of the Jewish high-priest, having married the 
 daughter of Saiiballat, governor of Samaria, went 
 over to the Samaritans and became high-pi-iest of 
 a temple which his father-in-law built fnr him, on 
 Mt. Gerizim, near Sichem. The erection of this 
 temple had also the effect of diminishing the im- 
 portance of the city of Samaria. Under the Svrian 
 kings and the JVIaccabean princes, we find the 
 name of Samaria used distinctly as that of a 
 province, which consisted of the district between 
 Galilee on the N. and Judaea on the S. In the 
 persecution of Antiochus Epiphanes, the Sama- 
 ritans escaped by conforming to the king's edicts 
 and dedicating the temple on Mt. Gerizim to Zeus 
 Hellenius, B.C. IG7. As the power of the As- 
 monean princes increased, they attacked the 
 Samaritans; and, about B.C. 129, John Hyrcanus 
 took and destroyed the temple on Mt. Gerizim 
 and the city of Samaria. The latter seems to 
 iiave been soon rebuilt. Pompey assigned the 
 district to the province of Syria, and Gabinius 
 fortified the city anew. Augustus gave the district 
 to Herod, who greatly renovated tlie city of Sa- 
 maria, which he called Sebaste in honour of his 
 patron. Still, as the Samaritans continued to 
 
 SAMNIUM. 
 
 GGO 
 
 worship on Mt. Gerizim, even after tlieir temple 
 had been destroyed, the neighbouring city of 
 Sichem was regarded as their capital, and, as it 
 grew, Samaria declined ; and, by the 4th century 
 of our era it had become a place of no importance. 
 Its beautiful site is now occupied by a poor village, 
 which bears the Greek name of the city, slightly 
 altered, viz. Sebustieh. — As a district of Palestine, 
 Samaria extended trnm Ginaea [Jenin) on the N. 
 to Bethhoron, N. W. of Gibeon on the S. ; or, along 
 the coast, from a little S. of Caesarea on the N. to 
 a little N. of Joppa on the S. It was intersected 
 by the Mountains of Ephraim. running N. and S. 
 through its middle, and by their lateral branches, 
 which divide the country into beautiful and fertile 
 valleys. For its political history after tlie time of 
 Herod the Great, see Palaestina, — A remnant 
 of the ancient Samaritajis have remained in the 
 country to the present da}', especiall}' at NaUons 
 (the ancient Sichem), and have preserved their 
 ancient version of the Five Books of Moses, the 
 only part of the Old Testament which they 
 acknowledge. This version is known as the 
 Samaritan Pentateuch, and is of vast importance 
 in biblical criticism. 
 
 Samarobriva, afterwards Ambiani {Amiens), 
 the chief town of the Ambiani in Gallia Belgica, 
 on the river Samara; whence its name, which sig- 
 nifies Samara- Bridge. 
 
 Sambana {'Xa.fjJSaua)^ a city of Assyria, 2 days' 
 journey N. of Sittace. In its neighbourhood 
 dwelt the people called Sam batae (Sa.u&ctrai). 
 
 Sambastae (SayuSacrai), a people of India 
 intra Gangem, on the Lower Indus, near the island 
 Pattalene. The fort of SevisUm or Sehoun in the 
 same neighbourhood has been thought to preserve 
 their name, and is by some identified with the 
 Brahman city taken by Alexander. 
 
 Same or Samos (Saui;, '2.6.}ios\ the ancient 
 name of Cephallenia. [Cepallenia.] It was 
 also the name of one of the 4 towns of Ceplmllonia. 
 The town Same or Samos was situated on the E. 
 coast, opposite Ithaca, and was taken and destroyed 
 by the Romans, b. c. Ili9. 
 
 Samia (Sa^i'a : Khaiafu), a town of Elis in the 
 district Triphylia, S. of Olympia, between Lepreum 
 and the Alpheus, with a citadel called Samicum 
 (5a;iiK(Jj/), the s-ame as the Homeric Arene. 
 
 Samintlius {'2,diJ.ii/6os : nr. Phiklia)^ a place in 
 Argolis, on the W. edge of the Argive plain, oppo- 
 site Mycenae. 
 
 Samnium (Samnltes, more rarely Samnitae. pi.), 
 a country in the centre of Italy, bounded on the 
 N. by the Marsi, Peligni, and Marrucini, on the 
 W. by Latium and Campania, on the S. by Lucania, 
 and on the E. by the Frentani and Apulia. The 
 Samnites were an offshoot of the Sabines, who 
 emigrated from their country between the Nar, the 
 Tiber, and the Anio, before the foundation of 
 Rome, and settled in the country afterwards called 
 Samnium. [Sabini.] This country was at the 
 time of their migration inhabited by Opicans, 
 whom the Samnites conquered, and whose language 
 they adopted ; for we find at a later time tha°t the 
 Samnites spoke Opican or Oscan. Samnium is a 
 country marked by striking physical features. The 
 greater part of it is occupied by a huge mass of moun- 
 tains, called at the present day the Maiese, which 
 stands out from the central line of the Apennines. 
 The circumference of the Matese is between 70 
 and aO miles, and its greatest height is 6000 feet. 
 
670 
 
 SAMOS. 
 
 The 2 most important tribes of the Samnites were 
 the Caudini and Pentri, of whom the former occa- 
 pled the S. aide, and the latter the N. side of the 
 Matese. To the Caudini belonged the towns of 
 AUifae, Telesia, and Beneventum ; to the Pentri, 
 those of Aesemia, Bovianum, and Sepinum. Be- 
 sides these 2 chief tribes, we find mention of the 
 Caraceni, who dwelt N. of the Pentri, and to whcm 
 the town of Aufidena belonged; and of the Hirpini, 
 who dwelt SE. of the Caudini, but who are some- 
 times mentioned as distinct from tlie Saranites. 
 The Samnites were distinguished for tlieir braverj' 
 and love of freedom. Issuing from their mountain 
 fastnesses, they overran a great part of Campania ; 
 and it was in consequence of Capua applying to 
 the Romans for assistance against the Samnites, 
 that war broke out between the 2 peoples in b. c. 
 343. The Romans found the Samnites the moat 
 warlike and fonnidable enemies whom they had 
 yet encountered in Italy; and the war, which com- 
 menced in 343, was continued with few inter- 
 ruptions for the space of 53 years. It was not till 
 290, when all their bravest troops had fallen, and 
 their country had been repeatedly ravaged in every 
 direction by the Roman legions, that the Samnites 
 sued for peace and submitted to the supremacy of 
 Rome. They never, however, lost their love of 
 freedom; and accordingly they not only joined the 
 other Italian allies in the war against Rome (90), 
 but, even after the other allies had submitted, they 
 still continued in anns. The civil war between 
 Marius and Sulla gave them hopes of recovering 
 their independence ; but they were defeated by 
 Sulla before the gates of Rome (82), the greater 
 part of their troops fell in battle, and the remainder 
 were put to death. Their towns were laid waste, 
 the inhabitants sold as slaves, and their place sup- 
 plied by Roman colonists. 
 
 Samos or Samus {^a./j.oi: Sum'o^ Samius : Grk. 
 SamOy Tiuk. Suaam Adassi)^ one of the principal 
 islands of the Aegean Sea, lying in that portion of 
 it called the Icarian Sea, off the coast of Ionia, 
 from which it is separated only by a narrow strait 
 formed by the overlapping of its E. promontory 
 Poaidium {C. Colonna) with the W.-most spur of 
 M.Mycalo,Pr.Trogilium(C'.5. Maria). This strait, 
 which is little more than 3-4ths of a mile wide, 
 was the scene of the battle of Mycale. The 
 island is formed by a range of mountains extending 
 from E. to W., wlience it derived its name ; for 
 2a/ioy was an old Greek word signifying a moun- 
 tain ; and the same root is seen in Same, the old 
 name of Cephallenia, and Samothrace, i. e- the 
 Thracian Samos. The circumference of the island 
 is about 80 miles. It was and is very fertile; and 
 some of its products are indicated by its ancient 
 names, Dryuaa, Antliemuni, Melamphyllus and 
 Cyparissia. According to the earliest traditions, 
 it was a chief seat of the Carians and Leleges, and 
 the residence of their first king, Ancaeus; and was 
 afterwards colonised by Aeolians from Lesbos, and 
 by loniana from Epidaurus. In the earliest histo- 
 rical records, we find Samos decidedly Ionian, and 
 a powerful member of the Ionic confederacy. Thu- 
 cydides tells us that the Samians were the first of 
 the Greeks, after the Corinthians, who paid great 
 attention to naval affairs. They early acquired 
 such power at sea that, besides obtaining possession 
 of parts of the opposite coast of Asia, they founded 
 many colonies; among which were, Bisanthe and 
 Perinthus, in Thrace ; Celenderia and Nagidua, in 
 
 SAMOS. 
 
 Cilicia; Cydonia, in Crete ; Dicaearchia (Puteoli), 
 in Italy; and Zancle (Messana), in Sicily. After 
 a transition from the state of an heroic monarchy, 
 through an aristocrac}', to a democracy, the island 
 became subject to the most distinguished of the 
 so-called tyrants, Polycrates (b. c. 532), under 
 whom its power and splendour reached their highest 
 pitch, and Samos would probably have become tlie 
 mistress of the Aegean, but for the murder of 
 Polycrates. At this period the Samians had ex- 
 tensive commercial relations with Egypt, and they 
 obtained from Amasis the privilege of a separate 
 temple at Naucratis. Their commerce extended 
 into the interior of Africa, partly through their 
 relations with Cyrene, and also by means of a 
 settlement which they effected in one of the Oases, 
 7 days' journey from Thebes. The Samians now 
 became subject to the Persian empire, under which 
 tliey were governed by tyrants, with a brief in- 
 terval at the time of the Ionic revolt, until the 
 battle of Mycale, which made them independent, 
 B, c. 479. They now joined the Athenian confe- 
 deracj', of which they continued independent mem- 
 bers until B. c. 440, when an opportunity arose for 
 reducing them to entire subjection and depriving 
 them of tlieir fleet, which was effected by Pericles 
 after an obstinate resistivnce of 9 months' duration, 
 (For tlie detfiils see the histories of Greece.) In 
 the Peloponnesian war, Samos held firm to Athens 
 to the last; and, in the history of the latter part of 
 that war, the island becomes extremely impi-rtant 
 as the head-quarters of the exiled democratical 
 party of the Athenians, Transferred to Sparta 
 after the battle of Aegospotami, 405, it was soon 
 restored to Athens by that of Cnidus, 394 ; but 
 went over to Sparta again in 390. Soon after, it 
 fell into the hands of the Persians, being conquered 
 by the satrap Tigranes ; but it was recovered hy 
 Tiniotheus for Athens. In the Social war, the 
 Athenians successfully defended it against the at- 
 tacks of the confederated Chians, Rhodians, and 
 Byzantines, and placed in it a body of 2000 cle- 
 ruchi, B. c. 352. After Alexander's death, it was 
 taken from the Athenians by Perdiccas, 323; but 
 restored to them by Polysperchon, 319. In the 
 subsequent period, it seems to have been rather 
 nominally than really a part of the Greco -Syrian 
 kingdom : we find it engaged in a long contest 
 with Priene on a question of boundary, which was 
 referred to Antiochus II., and afterwards to the 
 Roman senate. In the Macedonian war, Samos was 
 taken by the Rhodians, then by Philip, and lastly 
 by the Rhodians again, b. c. 200. In the Syrian war, 
 the Samians took part with Antiochus the Great 
 against Rome. Little further mention is made of 
 Samos till the timeofMithridates, with whom it took 
 part in his first war against Rome, on the conclusion 
 of which it was finally united to the province of 
 Asia, B. c. 84. Meanwhile it had greatly declined, 
 and during the war it had been wasted by the 
 incursions of pirates. Its prosperity was partially 
 restored under the propraetorship of Q. Cicero, B.C. 
 62, but atill more by the residence in it of Antony 
 and Cleopatra, 32, and afterwards of Octavianus, 
 who made Samos a free state. It was favoured by 
 Caligula, but was deprived of its freedom by Vea- 
 pasian, and it sank into insignificance as early as 
 the 2nd century, although its departed glory is 
 found still recorded, under the emperor Deciua, by 
 the inscription on its coins, Xa/xicov irpciTcov 'Iwulas. 
 — Samos may be regarded as almost the chief 
 
SAMOSATA. 
 
 centre of Ionian mannera, energies, luxury, science, 
 and art. In very early times, there was a n.Ttive 
 school of statuary, at tiie head of which was Rhoe- 
 cus, to whom tradition ascribed the invention of 
 casting in metal. [Rhoecus, Tklecles, Theodo- 
 R.US.] In the hunda of the same school archi- 
 tecture flourished greatly ; the Heraeum, one of 
 the finest of Greek temples, was erected in a marsh, 
 on the W. side of the city of Samos ; and the city 
 itself, especially under the government of Poly- 
 crates, was furnished with other splendid works, 
 among which was an aqueduct pierced through a 
 mountfiin. Snmian architects liecanie famous also 
 beyond their own island ; as, for example, Man- 
 drocles, who constructed Darius's bridge over the 
 Bosporus. In painting, tlie island produced Calli- 
 phon, TheodoruB, Agatliarchus, and Timanthea. 
 Its pottery was celebrated througliout the ancient 
 world. In literature, Samos was made illustrious 
 by the poets Asius, Chociilus, and Aeschritm ; by 
 the philosophers Pythagoras and Melissus ; and 
 by the historians Pagaeus and Dnris. — The capital 
 city, also called Samoa, stood on the S. E. side of 
 the island, opposite Pr. Trogilium, partly on the 
 shore, and partly rising on the hills behind in the 
 form of an amphitheatre. It had a magnificent 
 harbour, and numerous splendid buildings, among 
 which, besides the Ileraeum and other temples, 
 the chief were the senate-house, the theatre, and 
 a gymnasium dedicated to Kros. In the time 
 of Herodotus, Samos was reckoned one of the 
 finest cities of the world. Its ruins are so con- 
 siderable as to allow its plan to be traced : there 
 are remains of its walls and towers, and of the 
 theatre and aqueduct. The Heraeum already 
 mentioned, celebrated as one of the best early 
 specimens of tiie Doric ordt^r of architecture, and 
 as the chief centre of the worship of Hera among 
 the Ionian Greeks, stood about "2 miles W. of the 
 city. Its erection is ascribed to Rlioecus and his 
 sons. It was burnt by the Persians, but soon re- 
 built, probably in the time of Polycrates. This 
 second temple was of the Ionic order, decastyle 
 dipteral, 346 feet long by 189 wide, and is spoken 
 of by Herodotus as the largest temi)le that he 
 knew. It was gradually filled with works of 
 sculpture and painting, of which it was plundered, 
 first by the pirates in the Mithridatic War, then 
 by Verres, and lastly by M. Antonius. Nothing 
 is left of it but traces of the foundations and a 
 single capital and base. 
 
 Samosata ( ra ^afidaara : 2a/i.orraTetJs, Samosa- 
 tensis : Someisat), the capital of tlie province, and 
 afterwards kingdom, of Commagene, in the N. of 
 Syria, stood on the right bank of the Euphrates, 
 N.W, of Edessa. It was strongly fortified as a 
 frontier post against Osrocne. In the 1st century 
 of our era, it was the capital of the kings of Com- 
 magene, It is celebrated, in literary histor}-, as 
 the birthplace of Lucian, and, in church history, as 
 that of the heretic Paul, bishop of Antioch, in the 
 3rd century. Nothing remains of it but a heap 
 of ruins on an artificial mound. 
 
 Samothrace {2a^o0p^«77, Sa/toflpctKi'o, Ep. rj 
 2a,uws QfrrjiKiT} : 2a^(J0^fl[/cej : Samothraki\ a small 
 island in the N. of the Aegaean sea, opposite the 
 mouth of the Hebrus in Thrace, from which it was 
 38 miles distant. It is about 32 miles in cir- 
 ciunfereuce, and contains in its centre a lofty 
 mountain, called Saoce, from which Homer says 
 that Troy could be seen. Samothrace bore various 
 
 SANCCS- 671 
 
 names in ancient times. It is said to have been 
 called Melite, Saonnesus, Leucosia, and more fre- 
 quently Dardania, from Dardanus, the founder of 
 Troy, who is reported to have settled here. Homer 
 calls the island simply Samos ; sometimes the 
 Thracian Samos, because it was colonised, accord- 
 ing to some accounts, from Samos on the coast of 
 Asia Minor. Samothrace was the chief seat of 
 the worship of tlie Cabiri [Cabiri], and was cele- 
 brated for its religious mysteries, which were some 
 of the most famous in the ancient world. Their 
 origin dates from the time of the Pelasgians, who 
 are said to have been the original inhabitants of 
 the island ; and they enjoyed great celebrity down 
 to a very late period. Both Philip of Macedon 
 and his wife Olympias were initiated in them. 
 The political history of Samothrace is of little 
 importance. The Samothracians fought on the 
 side of Xerxes at tlie battle of Salamis ; and at 
 this time they possessed on the Thnician main- 
 land a few places, such as Sale, Serrhinn, Mesam- 
 bria, and Tempyra. In the time of the Macedonian 
 kings, Samothrace appears to have been regarded 
 as a kind of asylum, and Perseus accordingly fied 
 thither after his defeat by the Romans at the 
 battle of Pydna. 
 
 Sampsiceramus, the name of a petty prince of 
 Emesa in Syria, a nickname given by Cicero to 
 Cn. Pompeius. 
 
 Sancliuiuathoxi {'S.ayx'^^^^^^^^)^ s<iid to have 
 been an ancient Phoenician writer, whose works 
 were translated into Greek by Philo Byblius, who 
 lived in the latter half of the first century of tlie 
 Christian era. A considerable fragment of the 
 translation of Philo is preserved by Eusebius in 
 the first book of his Praeparatio EiKmgi'.lica. Tlie 
 most opposite opinions have been held by the 
 learned respecting the authenticity and value of 
 the work of Sanchunialhon ; but it is now ijene- 
 rally agreed among modern scholars, that the work 
 was a forgery of Philo. Nor is it difficult to see with 
 wliat object the forgery was executed. Philo was 
 one of the many adherents of the doctrine of Enhe- 
 merus, that all the gods were originally men, who 
 had distinguished themselves in their lives as kings, 
 warriors, or benefactors of man, and became wor- 
 shipped as divinities after their death. This doc- 
 trine Philo applied to the religious system of the 
 Oriental nations, and especially of the Phoenicians ; 
 and in order to gain more credit for liis statements, 
 he pretended that they were taken from an an- 
 cient Phoenician writer. Sanchunialhon, he says, 
 was a native of Berytus, lived in the time of Semi- 
 ramis, and dedicated his work to Abibalus, king of 
 Berytus. The i'ragments of this work have been 
 published separately by J. C. Orelli, Lips. 1826. 
 In 1835 a manuscript, purporting to be the entire 
 translation of Philo Byblius, was discovered in a 
 convent in Portugal. The Greek text was pub- 
 lished by Wagenfeld, Bremae, 1837. It was at 
 first regarded as geiniine, but is now universally 
 agreed to have been the forgery of a later age. 
 
 SancuB, Sangus, or Semo Sancus, a Roman 
 divinity, said to have been originally a Sabine gnd, 
 and identical with Hercules and Dius Fidius. 
 The name, which is etymologically the same as 
 Sunctus^ and connected with Sancire^ seems to jus- 
 tify this belief, and characterises Sancus as a divi- 
 nity presiding over oaths. Sancus also had a 
 temple at Rome, on the Quirimil, opposite that of 
 Qiiirinus, and close by the gate which derived from 
 
672 SANDROCOTTUS. 
 
 him the name of iianqudlis porta. This sanctuary 
 was the same a3 that of Dius Fidius, which was 
 consecrated B. c. 465 by Sp. Postiimias, but was 
 said to have been founded \iy Tarquinius Superbiis. 
 
 SandrScottus (SarS^xiKoTToj), an Indian king 
 at the time of Seleiicus Nicator, ruled over the 
 powerful nation of the Gangaridae and Prasii on 
 tlie banks of the Ganijes. He was a man of mean 
 origin, and was the leader of a band of robbers, 
 before he obtained tiie supreme power. In the 
 troubles which followed the death of Alexander, 
 lie extended his dominions over the greater part of 
 northern India, and cnnqucred the Macedonians, 
 who had been left by Alexander in the Panjab. 
 Hia dominions were invaded by Seleucns, who did 
 not however succeed in the object of his expedition ; 
 for, in the peace concluded between the two mo- 
 narchs, Seleucns ceded to Simdiocottus not only his 
 conquests in the Panjab, but also the country of the 
 Paropamisus. Seleucns in return received oOO war 
 elephants. Megasthenes subser[uently resided for 
 many years at the court of Sandrncottus as the 
 amV.assador of Seleucns. [Megasthiwes.] San- 
 drocottus is probably the same tis i\\it Clumdragupta 
 of the Sanscrit writers. The histoty of Chandra- 
 pnpta forms the subject of a Hindu dnima, entitled 
 JMudia Rukskasa, which has been translated from 
 the Sanscrit by Prof. Wilson. 
 
 Sang-arius, Sangaria, or Sagaris (^ayydpios^ 
 ^dyyapis^ 'S.a.ypayos : Sakiiriych\ the largest 
 river of Asia Minor after the Half's, had its source 
 in a mountain called Adorens, near the little town 
 of Sangia, on the borders of Galatia and Phrygia, 
 whence it flowed first N. through Galatin, then 
 "W. and N. VV, through the N.E, part of Phrygia, 
 and then N. through Blthynia, of which it origi- 
 nally formed the E. boundary. It fell at last into 
 the Euxine, about half way between the Bosporus 
 and Heraclea. It was navigable in the lower part 
 of its course. Its chief tributaries were the Thym- 
 bres or Thymbrus, the Bathys, and the Gallus, 
 flowing into it from the W. 
 
 Saagia. [Sangarius.] 
 
 Sannio, a name of the buffoon in the mimes, 
 derived from sauna, whence comes the Italian Zanni 
 (hence our Zany). 
 
 Sannyrion [^"tavvv^lmv).^ an Athenian comic 
 poet, belonging to the latter years of the Old 
 Comedy, and the beginning of the Middle. He 
 flourished B.C. 407, and onwards. "We know 
 nothing of his personal history, except that his 
 excessive leanness was ridiculed by Strattis and 
 Aristophanes. 
 
 Santonea or Santoni, a powerful people In 
 Gallia Aquitanica, dwelt on the coast of the ocean, 
 N. of the Garumna. Under the Romans they 
 were a free people. Their chief town was Me- 
 diolanum, afterwards Santones {SainlmX Their 
 country produced a species of wormwood which 
 was much valued. 
 
 Saocoras. [jMascas.] 
 
 Sapaei (SaTraTot, Saratoi), a people in Thrace, 
 dwelt on Mt. Pangasus, between the lake Bistonis 
 and the coast. 
 
 Sapiar, Sapphar, or Tapliar (2d(pap or''A<pap, 
 "Zdiripap, Tdcpapov. l)hafai\ ilu.), one of the chief 
 cities of Arabia, stood on the S. coast of Arabia 
 Felix, opposite to the Aromata Pr. in Africa 
 (C Guardafai). It was the capital of the Ho- 
 meritae, a part of which tribe bpre the name of 
 Sapharitae or Sappharitac {'S,aiT(pap7Tai). 
 
 SARD AN A PA LUS. 
 
 Sapis (Savio), a small river in Gallia Clsnlpina, 
 rising in the Apennines, and flowing into the 
 Adriatic S. of Ravenna, between the Po and the 
 Aternus. 
 
 Saper. [Sassamd.ae.] 
 
 Sapph.0 (5a7r{/>ai, or, in her own Aeolic dialect, 
 TaTT^ctJ, one of the two great leaders of the Aeolian 
 school of lyric poetry (Alcaeus being the other), 
 was a native of M3'tilene. or, as some said, of 
 IDresos in Lesbos. Her father's name was Sca- 
 mandronynnis, who died when she was only 6 
 years old. She had 3 brothers, Cbaraxns, Larichus, 
 and Eurigiiis. Charaxus was violently upbraided 
 by his sister in a poem, because he became so 
 enamoured of the courtezan Rliodopis at Naucratis 
 in Egypt, as to ranstmi her from slavery at an 
 immense price. [Charaxus.] Sappho was con- 
 temporary with Alcaeus, Stesichorus, and Pittacus. 
 That she was not only contemporary, but lived in 
 friendly intercourse, with Alcaeus, is shown by 
 existing fragments of the poetr}- of both. Of the 
 events of her life wc have no other information 
 than an obscure allusion in the Parian Marble, and 
 in Ovid {Hei'. xv. 51), to her flight from Mytilene 
 to Sicily, to escape some unknown danger, between 
 b'04 and 592 ; and the common stnry that being ia 
 love with Phaon, and finding her love unrequited, 
 she leapt down from the Leucadian rock. Tiiis 
 story however seems to have been an invention of 
 later times. The name of Phaon does not occur in 
 one of Sappho's fragments, and there is no evidence 
 that it was mentioned in her poems. As fur the 
 leap from the Leucadian rock, it is a mere metaphor, 
 which is taken from an expiatory rite connected 
 with the worship of Apollo, which seems to have 
 been a frequent poetical image. At Mytilene 
 Sappho appears to have been the centre of a female 
 literary society, most of the members of which were 
 her pupils in poetry, fashion and gallantry. Modern 
 writers have indeed attempted to prove that the 
 moral character of Sappho was free from all re- 
 proach ; but it is impossible to read the fragments 
 which remain of her poetry without being forced 
 to come to the conclusion that a female, who could 
 write such poetry, could not be the pure and 
 virtuous woman, which lier modern apologists pre- 
 tend. Of her poetical genius however there cannot 
 be a question. The ancient writers agree in ex- 
 pressing the most unbounded admiration for her 
 poetry. Already in her own age the recitation of 
 one of her poems so affected Solon, that he ex- 
 pressed an eamest desire to learn it before he died. 
 Her lyric poems formed 9 books, but of these only 
 fragments have come down to us. The most im- 
 portant is a splendid ode to Aphrodite (Venus), of 
 which we perhaps possess the whole. The best 
 separate edition of the fragments is bv Neuc, 
 Berol, 1827. 
 
 Sarancae, Sarangae or es C^iapdyyai, 'Zapay- 
 ydiSi Herod.), a people of Sogrliana. 
 
 Saravus {Saar% a small river in Gaul, flowing 
 into the Mosella on its right bank. 
 
 Sardanapalua (2ap5ai/aTra\oj), the last king of 
 the Assyrian empire of Ninus or Nineveh, noted 
 for liis luxury, licentiousness and effeminacy. He 
 passed his time in his palace unseen by any of his 
 subjects, dressed in female apparel, and surrounded 
 by concubines. At length Arbaces, satrap of Me- 
 dia, and Beiesys, the noblest of the Chaldaean 
 priests, resolved to renounce allegiance to such a 
 worthless monarch, and advanced at the head of 
 
SARDEMISUS. 
 
 a formidable nrmy against Nineveh. But all of a 
 fiudden the effeminate prince threw off his luxu- 
 rious habits, and appeared an undaunted warrior. 
 Placing himself at the head of his troops, he twice 
 defeated the rebels, but was at length worsted and 
 ■obliged to shut himself up in Nineveh. Here he 
 -Bustained a siege for two years, till at length, 
 finding it impossible to hold out any longer, he 
 ■coilected ail his treasures, wives, and concubines, 
 and placing them on an immense pile which he had 
 constructed, set it on fire, and thus destroyed both 
 himself and them. The enemies then obtained 
 possession of the cit}'. This is the account of Cte- 
 fiiaa, which has been preserved by Diodorus Siculus 
 and which has been followed by most subsequent 
 writers and chronologists. The death of Sardana- 
 palus and the fall of the Assyrian empire is placed 
 B. c. 876. Modem writers however have shown 
 that the whole narrative of Ctesias is mythical, and 
 must not be received as a genuine history. The 
 legend of Sardanapalus, who so strangely appears 
 at one time sunk in the lowest effeminacy, and 
 immediately afterwards an heroic warrior, has pro- 
 bably arisen from his being the same with the god 
 Sandon, who was worshipped extensively in Asia, 
 both as an heroic and a female divinity. The 
 account of Ctesias is also in direct contradiction to 
 Herodotus and the writers of the Old Testament. 
 Herodotus places the revolt of the Medes from the 
 Assyrians about 710, but relates that an Assyrian 
 kingdom still continued to exist, which was not 
 destroyed till the capture of Nineveh by the Me- 
 dian king Cyaxares, about GOG. Further, the 
 writers of the Old Testament represent the Assyrian 
 empire in its glory in the 8th century before the 
 Christian era. It was during this period that 
 Pul, Tiglath-pileser, Shalmanescr, and Sennacherib, 
 appear as powerful kings of Assyria, who, not 
 contented with their previous dominions, subdued 
 Israel, Phoenicia, and the surrounding countries. 
 In order to reconcile these statements with those 
 ■of Ctesias, modern writers have invented two As- 
 syrian kingdoms at Nineveh, one which was de- 
 stroyed on the death of Sardanapalus, and another 
 which was established after that event, and fell on 
 the capture of Nineveh by Cyaxares. But this is 
 a purely gratuitous assumption, unsupported by any 
 evidence. We have only records of one Assyrian 
 empire, and of one destruction of Nineveh. 
 
 Sardemisus, a branch of M. Taunis, extending 
 S. -wards on the borders of Pisidia and Paraphylia, 
 as far as Phaselis in Lycia, wlience it was con- 
 tinued in the chain called Climax. It divided the 
 district of Milyas from Pisidia Proper. 
 
 Sardene (2ci/)5eV7j), a mountain of Mysia, N. of 
 the Plermus, near Cyme. The town of Neontichos 
 Tvas built on its side. 
 
 Sardi. [Sardinia.] 
 
 Sardinia (?f 5ap5dj or Sa/jSoj;', G. 2ap5oi/oF, 
 D. 2ap5or, A. 2ap5aJ : subsequently 2ap5aii^ia, 
 '2,apdavia^ or SapST/via : 2ap5^os, SctpSocioy, 2ap- 
 "Sdifios, Sardns: Sardinia)^ a large island in the Me- 
 diterranean, ia in shape in the form of a parallelo- 
 gram, upwards of 140 nautical miles in length from 
 N- to S. with an average breadth of 60. It was 
 regarded by the ancients as the largest of tlie 
 Mediterranean islands, and this opinion, though 
 usually considered an error, is now found to be 
 correct ; since it appears by actual admeasurement 
 that Sardinia is a little larger than Sicily. Sardinia 
 iie3 in almost a centml position between Spain, Gaul, 
 
 SARDINIA. 
 
 673 
 
 Italy, and Africa. The ancients derived its name 
 from Sardus, a son of Hercules, who was worshipped 
 in the island under the name oi Sardus paier. The 
 Greeks called it Ichnusa {^Ixvovffa) from its re- 
 semblance to the print of a foot, and Sundaliotis 
 (2ap5aAjwTis) from its likeness to a sandal. A chain 
 of mountains nms along the whole of the E- side 
 of the island from N. to S. occupying about 
 l-3rd of its surface. These mountains were called 
 by the ancients Insani Montes, a name which 
 they probably derived from their wild and savage 
 appearance, and from their being the haunt of 
 numerous robbers. In the W. and S. parts o^ 
 Sardinia there are numerous plains, intersected 
 by ranges of smaller hills ; but this pnrt of the 
 island was in antiquity, as in the present day, 
 exceedingly unhealthy. The principal rivers are 
 the Termus (I'erino) in the N., the Thyrsus 
 (Oristano) on the W. (the largest river in the 
 island), and the Flumen Sacrum (Uras) and the 
 Saeprus (Flumendoso) on the E. The chief towns 
 in the island were : on the N. coast, Tibula {Forie 
 Folio) and Turris Libyssonis; on the S. coast. Sulci 
 and Caralis (Cu^/i'aW); on the E. coast, Olbia ; and 
 in the interior, Comus {Curneto) and Nora {Nurri). 
 — Sardinia was very fertile, but was not exten- 
 sively cultivated, in consequence of the uncivilised 
 chariicter of its inhabitants. Still the plains in 
 the W. and S. parts of the island produced a great 
 quantity of corn, of which a large quantity was ex- 
 ported to Rome every year. Among the products of 
 the island one of the most celebrated was the <Sar- 
 donica. kerba, a poisonous plant, which was said 
 to produce fatal convulsions in the person who ate 
 of it. These convulsions agitated and distorted 
 the moutli, so that the person appeared to laugh, 
 though in excruciating pain ; hence the well-known 
 risus Sardonicus. No plant possessing these pro- 
 perties is found at present in Sardinia ; and it 
 is not impossible that the whole tale may have 
 arisen from a piece of bad etymology, since we find 
 mention in Homer of the 'Za.pZa.vios ydAws, which 
 cannot have any reference to Sardinia, but is pro- 
 bably connected with the verb aaip^iy^ " to grin." 
 Another of the principal productions of Sardinia 
 was its wool, which was obtained from a breed of 
 domestic animals between a sheep and a goat, 
 called 7)nismo7ies. The skins of these animals 
 were used by the inhabitants as clothes, whence 
 we find them often called Felliii and Musirucati. 
 Sardinia also contained a large quantity of th& 
 precious metals, especially silver, the mines of 
 which were worked in antiquity to a great extent. 
 There were likewise numerous mineral springs ; 
 and large quantities of salt were manufactured on 
 the W. and S. coasts. — The population of Sar- 
 dinia was of a very mixed kind. To what race 
 the original inhabitants belonged wo are not in- 
 formed ; but it appears that Phoenicians, Tyrrhe- 
 nians, and Carthaginians settled in the island at 
 different periods. The Greeks are also said to 
 have planted colunics in the island, but this account 
 is very suspicious. The first Greek colony is said 
 to have been led by lolaus, a now of Hercules ; 
 and from^ him a tribe in the island, called lolai 
 ('loAaoi, 'IoAaeiO(,*Io/\ae:5), or lUenses {'Wi^Ti), 
 derived their name. These were some of the most 
 ancient inhabitants of Sardinia, and were probably 
 not of Greek, but Tyrrhenian origin. Their name 
 is still preserved in the modern town of lUola, m 
 the middle of the W. coast. "We also find in tha 
 
 X z 
 
674 SARDIS. 
 
 island Corsi^ wlio liad crossed over from Corsica, 
 and Balan^ who were probably descendants of 
 the Iberian and Libyan mercenaries of the Car- 
 thaginians, who revolted from the latter in the 
 first Punic war, and settled in the mountains. 
 At a later time all these names became merged 
 under the general appellation of Sardi. although, 
 even in the Roman period, we still find mention 
 of several tribes in the island under distinct names. 
 The Sardi are described as a rude and savage 
 people, addicted to thievery and lying. — Sardinia 
 was known to the Greeks as early as B. c. 500, 
 since we find that Histiaeus of Miletus promised 
 Darius that he would render the island of Saido 
 tributary to his power. It was conquered by the 
 Carthaginians at an early period, and continued in 
 their possession till the end of the first Punic war. 
 Shortly after this event, the Romans availed them- 
 selves of the dangerous war which the Cartha- 
 ginians were carrying on against their mercenaries 
 in Africa, to take possession of Sardinia, b. c. 238. 
 It was now formed into a Roman province under 
 the government of a praetor ; but a large portion 
 of it was only nominally subject to the Romans ; 
 and it was not till after many years and numerous 
 revolts, that the inhabitants submitted to the Roman 
 dominion. It was after one of these revolts that 
 BO many Sardinians were thrown upon the slave 
 market as to give rise to the proverb, *■' Sardi ve- 
 nales," to indicate any cheap and worthless com- 
 modity. In fact, the inhabitants of the mountains 
 in the E. side of the island, were never completely 
 subdued, and gave trouble to the Romans even in 
 the time of Tiberius. Sardinia continued to be- 
 long to the Roman empire tjU the oth century, 
 when it was taken possession of by the Vandals. 
 
 Sardis or Sardes (a: 2ap5€is, Ion. 2ap5(ey, con- 
 tracted 2ap5rs : 2a'p5ior, 'S.ap^iavSs, Ion. SapSiT/i'tJs, 
 Sardiunus : Sarl^ Ru.), one of the most ancient and 
 famous cities of Asia Minor, and the capital of the 
 great Lydian monarchy, stood on the S. edge of 
 the rich valley of the Hermus, at the N. foot of 
 M. Tmolus, on the little river Pactolus, 30 stadia 
 (3 geog. miles) S. of the junction of that river 
 ■with the I-Iermn.=. On a lofty precipitous rock, 
 forming an outpost of the range of Tmolus, was 
 the almost impregnable citadel, which some sup- 
 pose to be the Hyde of Homer, who, though he 
 never mentions the Lydians or Sardis by name, 
 speaks of M. Tmolus and the lake of Gyges. 
 The erection nf this citadel was ascribed to Meles, 
 an ancient king of Lydia. It was surrounded by 
 a triple wall, and contained the palace and trea- 
 sury of the Lydian kings. At the downfall of the 
 Lydian empire, it resisted all the attacks of Cyrus, 
 and was only taken by surprise. The story is 
 told by Herodotus, who relates other legends of 
 the fortress. The rest of the city, which stood in 
 the plain on both sides of the Pactolus, was very 
 slightly built, and was repeatedly burnt down, 
 first by the Cimmerians, then by the Greeks in 
 the great Ionic revolt, and again, in part at least, 
 by Antiochus the Great ; but on each occasion it 
 was restored. For its history, as the capital of 
 the Lydian monarchy, see Lyjiia, Under the 
 Persian and Greco- Syrian empires, it was the 
 residence of the satrap of Lydia. The rise of 
 Pergamus greatly diminished its importance; but 
 "Under the Uomans it was still a considerable city, 
 and the seat of a conventus juridicus. In the 
 reign of Tiberias, it was almost entirely destroyed 
 
 SARMATIA. 
 
 by an earthquake, but it was restored by the 
 emperor's aid. It was one of the earliest seats of 
 the Christian religion, and one of the 7 churches 
 of the province of Asia, to which St. John ad- 
 dressed the Apocalype ; but the apostle's language 
 implies that tlie church at Sardis had already sunk 
 into almost hopeless decay (Rev. iii. 1, foil.). In 
 the wars of the middle ages the city was entirely 
 destroyed, and its site now presents one of the 
 most melancholy scenes of desolation to be found 
 among the niins of ancient cities. Though its 
 remains e.'ctend over a large surface on the plain, 
 they scarcely present an object of importance, 
 except two or three Ionic columns, belonging pro- 
 bably to a celebrated temple of Cybele. The 
 chief of the other remains are those of a theatre, 
 stadium, and a building supposed to be the senate- 
 house. The triple wall of the acropolis can still 
 be traced, and some of its lofty towers are stand- 
 ing. The necropolis of the city stood on the banks 
 of the lake of Gyges [Gvgaeus Lacuh], near 
 which the sepulchre of Alyattes may still be seen. 
 [Alyattes.] 
 
 Sardouni or Sardonicum Hare (r^ SapSiwoy 
 or '2.apdwviQV -r^Kayos)^ the part of the Mediter- 
 ranean sea on the W. and S. of Sardinia, separated 
 from the Libyan sea by a line drawn from the pro- 
 montory Lilybaeum in Sicily. 
 
 Sarepta or Sarephtha (2ape(^0a, SapeTrra, 2a- 
 pa-TTTa : 0. T. Zarepbath : Sura/end^ Serphrmt^ or 
 Tzarpliand), a city of Phoenicia, about 10 miles- 
 S. of Sidon, to the territory of which it belonged ; 
 well known as the scene of "3 miracles of Elijah. 
 (1 Kings xvii.) It was celebrated for its wine. 
 
 Sar^etia [Slrd or Strci/, a tributary of the 
 Marosch), a river in Dacia, on which w.'is situated 
 the residence of Deccbaius. 
 
 Sariphi Montes (ra 'S.dpKpa op-n : ITazarch 
 Mowiiains), a mountain-range of Central Asia, 
 separating Margiana on the N. from Aria on the 
 S., and forming a W. part of the great chain of 
 the Indian Caucasus, which may be regarded as a 
 prolongation through Central Asia of the chain of 
 Anti-Taurus. 
 
 Sarmatae or Satiromatae (Sap^arai, Strabo y 
 ^aupo/j-drai, Herod.), a people of Asia, dwelling- 
 on the N. E. of the Palus Maeotis {Sea of Aznn\ 
 E. of the river Tana'is (Do7i) wliich separated 
 them from the Scythians of Europe. This Is th& 
 account of Herodotus, who tells us that the Sar- 
 matians were allied to the Scythians, and spoke ii 
 corrupted form of the Scytliian language ; and that 
 their origin was ascribed to the intercourse of Scy- 
 thians with Amazons. Strabo also places the 
 Sauromatae between the Tanais and the Caspian ; 
 hut he elsewhere uses the word in the much raoro 
 extended sense, in which it was used by the 
 Romans, and by tKe later geographers. [Sai--- 
 
 MATIAJ. 
 
 Sarmatia (t] "Zapfxaria ; "Xapfidrai^ 'Xa.upofxd.r ai : 
 the E. part of Poland^ and S. part of Russia in 
 Eurnpe), a name first used by Mela for the part of 
 N. Europe and Asia extending from the Vistula 
 (Wisfa) and the Saiimatici Montes on the W-, 
 which divided it from Germany, to the Rha ( Volga) 
 on the E., which divided it from Scythia ; bounded 
 on the S. W. and S. by the rivers Ister {Danube)^ 
 Tibiscus [Theiss], and Tyras {Dniester)^ which 
 divided it from Pannonia and Dacia, and, further, 
 by the Euxine, and beyond it by M. Caucasus, 
 which divided it from Colchis, Iberia, and Al- 
 
SARMATICAE, 
 
 bania ; and extending on the N. as far as the Baltic 
 and the unknown retrions of N. Euiope. The part 
 of this country which lies in Europe justcorresponds 
 to the Scy thia of Herodotus. The people from whom 
 the name of Sarmatia was derived inhabited only 
 a small portion of the country. [Sarmatae.] 
 The greater part of it was peopled by Scythian 
 tribes ; but some of the inhabitants of its W. part 
 seem to have been of German origin, as the 
 Venedi on the Bultic, and the I.vzyges, Rho- 
 LOXANJ, and Hamaxobii in S. Russia : the chief 
 of tlie other tribes W. of the Tana'is were the 
 Alauni or Alani Scythae, a Scythian people who 
 came out of Asia and settled in the central parts 
 of Russia. [Alani.] The people E. of the 
 Tana'is were not of sufficient importance in ancient 
 history to require specific mention. The whole 
 country was divided by the river Tanais (Don) 
 into 2 parts, called respectively Sannatia Europaea 
 and Sarmatia Asiatica (7; iv Eupdjirp and v ^v 
 'Kaia Sap/ittTia) ; but it should be observed that, 
 according to the modern division of the continent, 
 the whole of Sarraatia belongs to Europe. It 
 should also be noticed that the Chersonesus 
 Taurica (CWmea), thougli falling within the speci- 
 fied limits, was not considered as a part of Sar- 
 matia, but as a separate country. 
 
 Sarmaticae Portae (at 5ap/iaTiKal vvKai : 
 Pass of Dariel)^ the central pass of the Caucasus, 
 leading from Iberia to Sarmatia. It was more 
 commonly called Caucasiae Portae, [Caucasus.] 
 It was also called Caspiae Portae, apparently 
 through a confusion with the pass of that name at 
 the E. end of the Caucasus. [Caspiae Portae.] 
 The remains of an ancient wall are still seen in 
 the pass. 
 
 Sarmatici Montes (to y,cLpixaTiKa. opj] : part 
 of the Carpathian Mountains)^ a range of moun- 
 tains in central Europe, extending from the sources 
 of the Vistula to the Danube, between Germany 
 on the W. and Sarmatia on the E. 
 
 Sarmatieus OceanusandPontus, Sarmaticum 
 Blare {^ap^aTiKos wiceavhs : Baltic), a great seii, 
 ■washing the N. coast of European Sarmatia. 
 
 Sarmize^ethusa (nr. Vacltahj^ also called Gra- 
 dischie, Rii.), one of tiie most important towns of 
 Dacin, and the residence of its kings, was situated 
 on the river Sargetia {Strel or Strey). It was 
 subsequently a Roman colony under the name of 
 Col. Ulpia Trajana Aug., and the capital of the 
 province in which a legion had its head-quarters. 
 
 Samus [Satmo)^ a river in Campania, flowing 
 by Nuceria, and falling into the Sinus Puteolanus 
 near Pompeii. Its course was changed by the 
 great eruption of Vesuvius, a. d. 79. On its banks 
 dwelt a people named Sarrastes, who are said to 
 liave migrated from Peloponnesus. 
 
 Saron {^dpoov : 0. T, Sharon), a most beautiful 
 and fertile plain of Palestine, extending along the 
 coast N. of Joppa towards Caesarea; celebrated 
 for its pastures and its flowers. 
 
 SaroElcus Sinuo {'S.aptavLKb-i kSXttos, also irSpos, 
 7re\ayo9, and ttoptos : G. of Egina), a bay of the 
 Aegacan sea lying between Attica and Argolis, and 
 commencing between the promontory of Sunium 
 in Attica and that of Scyllaeura in Ai-golia. It 
 contains within it the islands of Aegina and Sala- 
 mis. Its name was usually derived from Saron, 
 kinif of Troezene, who was supposed to have been 
 drowned in this part of the sea while swimming in 
 pursuit of a stag. 
 
 SASSANIDAE. 
 
 675 
 
 Sarpedon (2apn-^5wi/). 1. Son of Zeus and 
 Kuropa, and brother of Minos and Rhadamaiithus. 
 Being involved in a quarrel with Minos about 
 Miletus, he took refuge with Cilix, whom he as- 
 sisted against the Lycians. [Miletu.s.] He after- 
 wards became king of the Lycians, and Zeus granted 
 liim the privilege of living 3 generations. — 2. Son 
 of Zeus and Landamia, or, according to others, of 
 Evander and Deidamia, and a brother of Clarus 
 and Themon. He was a Lycian prince, and a 
 grandson of No. 1. In the Trojan war he was an 
 ally of the Trojans, and distinguished himself by 
 his valour, but was slain by Patroclns. Apollo, by 
 the command of Zeus, cleansed Sarpedon '3 body 
 from blood and dust, covered it with ambrosia, and 
 gave it to Sleep and Death to carrj' into Lycia, 
 there to be honourably buried. 
 
 Sarpedon Promontorium {'S,apTr-T)hwvia anpa : 
 C. Lissan el Kapeh), a promontory of Cilicia, in 
 long. 34° E., 80 stadia W. of the mouth of the 
 Calycadnus. In the peace between the Romans 
 and Antiochua the Great, the W. boundary of 
 the Syrian kingdom was fixed here. 
 
 Sarpedonium Prom. {/} 5ap7nj5to»'ti7 &Kpa), a 
 promontory of Thrace betvi^een the moutiis of the 
 rivers Melas and Erginus, opposite the island of 
 Imbros. 
 
 Sarrastes. [Sarnus.] 
 
 Sars (Sar), a small river on the W. coast of 
 Hispania Tarraconensis, between the Prom. Ne- 
 rium and the Minius. 
 
 Sarsina (Sarsinaa, -atis : Sarsina)^ an ancient 
 town of Umbria, on the river Sapis, S.W. of Ari- 
 minum, and subsequently a Roman municipium, 
 celebrated as the birthplace of the comic poet 
 Plautus. 
 
 Sams {6 ^dpos : Seilum), a considerable river 
 in the S. E. of Asia Minor, Rising in the Anti- 
 Tam^ls, in the centre of Cappadocia, it flows S. 
 past Comana to tiie borders of Cilicia, where it 
 receives a W. branch that has run nearly parallel 
 to it ; and thence, flowing through Cilicia Cam- 
 pestris in a winding course, it falls into the sea a 
 little E. of the mouth of the Cydnus, and S. E. of 
 Tarsus, Xenophon gives 3 plethra (303 feet) for 
 its width at its mouih. 
 
 Saso orSasonis Insula (Saseno, Sassono^Sassa), 
 a small rocky island off the coast of Illyria, N. of 
 the Acroceraunian promontory, much, fi'equented 
 by pirates. 
 
 Saspires, or -i, or Sapires (Sairireiper, ^aawei- 
 poi^ SaVefpe?, Sc^Tnreipes), a Scythian people of 
 Asia, S. of Colchis and N. of Media, in an inland 
 position (z. e, in Armenia) according to Herodotus, 
 but, according to others, on the coast of the 
 Euxine. 
 
 Sasfsanidae, the name of a dynasty which 
 reigned in Persia from a. D. 226 to a. n. 631. 
 1. Artaxerzes (the Ardishir or Ardshir of the 
 Persians), the founder of the dynasty of the Sas- 
 sanidae, reigned a. d. CJOe — 240. He was a son 
 of one Babek, an inferior officer, who was the son 
 of Sassan, perhaps a person of some const-quence, 
 since his royal descendants chose to call themselves 
 after him. Artaxerxes had served with distinction 
 in the army of Artabanus, the king of Parthia, 
 was rewarded with ingratitude, and took revenge 
 in revolt. He obtained assistance from several 
 grandees, and having met with success, claimed 
 the throne on the plea of being descended from the 
 ancient kings of Persia, the progeny of the great 
 
67G 
 
 SASSANIDAE. 
 
 Cyrus. The people warml}-- supported his cause^ 
 a3 be declared himself the champion of the an- 
 cient Persian religion. In 226 Artabanus was 
 defeated, in a decisive Lattle ; and Artaxerxes 
 thereupon assumed the pompous, but national title 
 of" King of Kings." One of his first legislative 
 acts was the restoration of the pure religion of 
 Zoroaster and the worship of fire. The reigning 
 branch of the Parthian Arsacidae was exterminated, 
 biit some collateral branches were suffered to live 
 and to enjoy the privileges of Persian grandees, 
 who, along with the Magi, formed a sort of senate. 
 Having succeeded in establishing his authority at 
 home, Artaxerxes demanded from the emperor 
 Alexander Severus the immediate cession of all 
 those portions of the Roman empire that had be- 
 longed to Persia in the time of Cyrus and Xerxes, 
 that is, the whole of the Roman possessions in 
 Asia, as well as Egj-pt. An immediate war be- 
 tween the two empires was the direct consequence. 
 After a severe contest, peace was restored, shortly 
 after the murder of Alexander in 237, each nation 
 retaining the possessions which they held before 
 the breaking out of the war. ^2. Sapor I. (Sha- 
 pnr), the son and successor of Artaxerxes I., 
 reigned 240 — 273. He carried on war first against 
 Gordian, and afterwards against Valerian, The 
 latter emperor was defeated by Sapor, taken pri- 
 soner, and kept in captivity for the remainder of 
 bis life. After the capture of Valerian, Sapor 
 conquered Syria, destroyed Antioch, and having 
 made himself master of the passes in the Taurus, 
 laid Tarsus in ashes, and took Caesarea. His 
 further progress was stopt by Odenathus and Ze- 
 nobia, who drove the king back beyond the Eu- 
 phrates, and founded a new empire, over which 
 they ruled at Palmyra. In his reign lived the 
 celebrated Mani, who, endeaTouring to amalgamate 
 the Christian and Zoroastrian religions, gave rise 
 to the famous sect of the Manichaeans, who spread 
 over the whole East, exposing themselves to most 
 sanguinary persecutions from both Christians and 
 fire-worshippers. —3. Hormisdaa L (Hormuz), 
 son of the preceding, who reigned only one year, 
 and died 274.-4. Taranes or Vararanes I. 
 (Bahram or Baharam), son of Hormisdas I., 
 reigned 274 — 277. He earned on unprofitable 
 wars against Zenobia, and, after her captivity, was 
 involved in a contest with Aurelian, which, how- 
 ever, was not attended with any serious residts on 
 account of the sudden death of Aurelian in 275. 
 In his reign the celebrated Mani was put to death. 
 — 5, Varanea 11. (Sahram), son of Varanes I., 
 reigned 277 — 294. He was defeated by Carus, 
 ■who took both Seleucia and Ctesiphon, and his 
 dominions were only saved from further conquests 
 by the sudden death of Carus (283). — 6. Va- 
 ranes III. (Bahram), elder son of Varanes II., 
 died after a reign of 8 months, 294.-7. Narses 
 (Warsi), younger son of Varanes II., reigned 2i)4 
 • — 303. He carried on a formidable war against the 
 emperor Diocletian. The Roman army was com- 
 manded by Galerius Caesar, who in the first cam- 
 paign (296) sustained most signal defeats in Meso- 
 potamia, and fled in disgrace to Antioch. In the 
 second campaign Narses was defeated with great 
 loss, and was obliged to conclude a peace with the 
 Romans, by which he ceded to Diocletian Meso- 
 potamia, five small provinces beyond the Tigris, 
 the kingdom of Armenia, some adjacent Median 
 districts, and the supremacy over Iberia, the kings 
 
 SASSANIDAE. 
 
 of which were henceforth under the protection of 
 Rome. In 303 Narses abdicated in favour of his 
 son, and died soon afterwards. ^ 8. Honnisdas II. 
 (Hormuz), son of Narses, reigned 303 — 310. 
 During his reign nothing of importance happened 
 regarding Rome. ^9. Sapor II. Postumus (Sha- 
 pur), son of Hormisdas II., was boni after the 
 death of liis father, and was crowned in his mother's 
 womb, the Magi placing the diadem with great 
 solemnity upon the body of his mother. He reigned 
 310 — 381. His reign was signalised by a cruel 
 persecution of the Christians. Pie carried on war 
 for many years against Constantius II. and his 
 successors. The armies of Constantius were re- 
 peatedly defeated ; Julian, as is related elsewhere 
 [Jfjlianus], perished in battle; and the war was 
 at length brought to a conclusion by Jovian ceding 
 to the Persians the five provinces beyond the Ti- 
 gris, and the fortresses of Nisibis, Singara, &c. 
 Iberia and Armenia were left to their fate ; and 
 "were completely reduced by Sapor in 365, and the 
 following year. Sapor has been sumamed the 
 Great, and no Persian king had ever caused such 
 terror to Rome as this monarch. ^ 10. Arta- 
 xerxes II. (Ardishir), the successor of Sapor II., 
 reigned 381 — 385. He was a prince of royal 
 blood, but was not a son of Sapor. — 11. Sapor III. 
 (Shapur), reigned 385 — 390. He sent an em- 
 bassy to Theodosius the Great, with splendid 
 presents, which was returned by a Greek embassy 
 headed by Stilicho going to Persia. Owing to 
 these diplomatic transactions, an arrangement was 
 made in 384, according to which Annenia and 
 Iberia recovered their independence. — 12. Va- 
 ranes rV. (Bahram), reigned a.d. 390 — 404, or 
 perhaps not so long. He was the brother of 
 Sapor III,, and founded Kermanshah, still a 
 flourishing town. —13. Yesdigerdl. (Yezdijird), 
 sumamed Ulathim, or the Sinneh, son or brother 
 of the preceding, reigned 404 — 420 or 421. He 
 was on friendly terms with the emperor Arcadius, 
 who is said to have appointed him the guardian 
 of his infant son and successor, Theodosius the 
 Younger. He concluded a peace with Arcadius 
 for 100 years. ^14. Varanes V. (Bahram), son 
 of Yesdigerd I., sumamed Gour, or the " Wild 
 Ass," on account of his passion for the chase of 
 that animal, reigned 420 or 421 — 448. He per- 
 secuted his Christian subjects with such severity 
 that thousands of them took refuge within the 
 Roman dominions. He carried on war with Theo- 
 dosius, which was terminated by a peace for 100 
 years, which peace lasted till the 12th year of the 
 reign of the emperor Anastasius. During the 
 latter part of his reign Varanes carried on wars 
 against the Huns, Turks, and Indians, in which 
 he is said to have achieved those valorous deeds 
 for which he has ever since continued to be a fa- 
 vourite hero in Persian poetry. He was acci- 
 dentally drowned in a deep well together with his 
 horse, and neither man nor beast ever rose again 
 from the fathomless pit. —15. Yezdigerd II., son 
 of the preceding, reigned 448 — 458. The perse- 
 cutions against the Christians were renewed by 
 him with unheard of cruelty. His relations with 
 Rome were peaceful. — 16. Hormisdas III. (Hor- 
 muz), and 17. Peroses (Firoze), sons of the pre- 
 ceding, claimed the succession, and rose in arms 
 against each other. Peroses gained the throne by 
 the assistance of the White Huns, against whom 
 he turned his sword in after years. He perished 
 
SASSANIDAE. 
 in a great battle with them in 484, together with 
 all ot" his sons except Pallas and Cobades. ^18. 
 Fallas (Pallash), who reigned 484 — 488, had to 
 contest the throne with Cobades. He perished in 
 a battle with his brother Cobades in 488.-19. 
 Cobades (Kobad), reigned 488 — 438, and again 
 £01 or 50-2—531. The years from 4.')8 till 502 
 were filled np by the short reign of, 20. Zames 
 (Jamaspes). The latter was the brotlier of Co- 
 bades, whom he dethroned, and compelled to fly 
 to the Huns, with whose assistance Cobades re- 
 covered his throne about 502. He carried on war 
 with success against the emperor Anastasius ; but 
 in consequence of the Huns, who had previously 
 been his auxiliaries, turning their aims against 
 him, he made peace with Anastasius in 505, on 
 receiving 11,000 pounds of gold as an indemnity. 
 He also restored Mesopotamia and his other con- 
 quests to the Romans, being unable to maintain 
 his authority there on account of the protracted 
 war with the Huns. About this time the Romans 
 constnicted the fortress of Dara, the strongest bul- 
 wark against Persia, and situated in the very face 
 of Ctcsiphon. The war with Constantinople was 
 renewed in 52], in the reign of the emperor 
 Justin I. — 21. Chosroes I. (Khosru or Khosrew), 
 surnamed Nushirw.an, or *' the generous mind," 
 reigned 531 — 579. He carried on several wars 
 against the Romans. The first war was finished 
 in 532 or 533, Justinian having purchased peace 
 by an annual tribute of 440,000 pieces of gold. 
 One of the conditions of Cliosroes was, that 7 
 Greek, but Pagan, philosophers who had resided 
 some time at the Persian court, should be allowed 
 to live in the Roman empire without being subject 
 to the imperial laws against Pagans. The 2nd 
 war lasted from 540 to 561. Peace was concluded 
 on condition of Justinian promising an annual 
 tribute of 40,000 pieces of gold, and receiving in 
 return the cession of the Persian claims upon Colchis 
 and Lazica. The third war broke out in 571, in the 
 reign of Justin II., but Chosroes died before it 
 was concluded. Chosroes was one of the greatest 
 kings of Persia. In his protracted wars with the 
 Romans he disputed the field with the conquerors 
 of Africa and Italy, and with those very generals, 
 Tiberius and Mauiicius, who brought Persia to the 
 brink of ruin but a few years after his death. 
 His empire extended from the Indus to the Red 
 Sea, and large tracts in Central Asia, perhaps a 
 portion of eastern Europe, recognised him fur a 
 time as their sovereign. He received embassies 
 and presents from the remotest kings of Asia and 
 Africa. His internal government was despotic and 
 cruel, but of that firm description which pleases 
 Orientals, so that he still lives in the memory of 
 the Persians as a model of justice. He provided 
 for all the wants of his subjects; and agriculture, 
 trade, and learning were equally protected by him. 
 He caused the best Greek, Latin, and Indian 
 works to be translated into Persian. — 22. Hor- 
 misdas IV. (Hormuz), son of Chosroes, reigned 
 579 — 590. He continued the war with the Ro- 
 mans, which had been bequeathed him by his 
 father, but was defeated successively by Mauricius 
 and Heraclius. Hormisdas was deprived of his 
 sight, and subsequently put to death by the Per- 
 sian aristocracy. — 23. Varanes VI. (Bahrain) 
 SUtibin, a royal prince, usurped tlie throne ou tlie 
 death of Hormisdas, and reigned 5fl0— Sfll. Un- 
 able to maintain the throne against Chosroes, who 
 
 SATURAE. 
 
 677 
 
 was supported by the emperor Mauricius, he fled 
 to the Turks. — 24. Chosroes II. (Kbosru) Pur- 
 wiz, reigned 590 or 591 — 628. He was the son of 
 Hormisdas IV., and recovered his father^s throne 
 with the assistance of the emperor Mauricius. After 
 the murder of Mauricius, Chosroes declared war 
 against the tyrant Phocas, and met with extra- 
 ordinary success. In several successive campaigns 
 he conquered Mesopotamia, Syria, Palestine, Kgypt, 
 Asia Alinor, and finally pitched his campatCtial- 
 cedon,oppositeCon8tantinople. At length Heraclius 
 saved the empire from the brink of ruin, and in a 
 series of splendid campaigns not only recovered the 
 provinces which the Romans had lost, but carried 
 his victorious arms into the heart of the Persian 
 empire. Borne down by his misfortunes, and worn 
 out by age and fatigue, Chosroes resolved, in 6'2o, 
 to abdicate in favour of his son Merdaza ; but Shir- 
 weh, or Siroes, his eldest son, anticipated his design, 
 and at the head of a band of conspirators seized 
 upon the person of his father, deposed him, and 
 put him to death. The Orientals say that Chos- 
 roes reigned 6 years too long. No Persian king 
 lived in such splendour as Chosroes ; and however 
 fabulous the Eastern accounts respecting his mag- 
 nificence may be, thej' are true in the main, as is 
 attested by the Western writers. — 25. Siroes 
 (Sbirweh), reigned only 8 months, 628. He con- 
 cluded peace with the emperor Heraclius. The 
 numerous captives were restored on both sides. 
 Siroes also restored the holy cross which had been 
 taken at the conquest of Jemsalem. — 26. Arta- 
 xerzes III. (Ardialiir), the infiuit son of Siroes, 
 was murdered a few days after the death of his 
 father. He was the last male Sassanid. After 
 him the throne was disputed by a host of candi- 
 dates of both sexes and doubtful descent, who had 
 no sooner ascended the throne than they were 
 hurried from it into death or captivity. ^ The last 
 king was Yesdigerd III., who was defeated and 
 slain in 651 by Kaleb, the general of the khalif 
 Abu-Bekr. Persia now became a Mohammedan 
 country. 
 
 Sassiila, a town in Latium, belonging to the 
 territory of Tiber. 
 
 Satala (ra SaraAa, ij SaraAa), a considerable 
 town in the N. E. of Armenia Minor, important 
 as the key of the mountain passes into Pontus. 
 It stood at the junction of 4 roads leading to 
 places on the Euxine, a little N. of the Euphrates, 
 in a valley surrounded by mountains, 325 Roman 
 miles from Caesarea in Cappadocia, and 1 35 from 
 Trapezus. Under the later Roman empire, it 
 was the station of the 15th legion. Notwithstand- 
 ing the abeve indications, its site has not yet been 
 identified with certainty, 
 
 Satarchae, a Scythian tribe on the E. coast of 
 the Tauric Chersonesus. 
 
 ^ Satioiila (Saticulanus), a town of Samnium, 
 situated^ upon a mountain on the frontiers of 
 Campania, probably upon one of tha furthest 
 heights of the niount.ain chain of Cajazxo. It was 
 conquered by the Romans and colonised B.C. 313. 
 
 Satniois {'Xa.-rvi6iis -. Tuzla), a river in the S. 
 of the Troad, rising in M. Ida, and flowing W. 
 into the Aegean N. of Prom. Lectum, between 
 Larissa and Haniaxitns. 
 
 Satricum (Satricanus ; Casale di Coma), a town 
 in Latium, near Antiuni, to the territory of which 
 it belonged. It was destroyed by the Romans. 
 
 Saturae Palus {Lago di Faola), a lake or marsh 
 
678 
 
 lTUUIUM. 
 
 in r.atiuin, formed ty the river Nyraphaeus, and 
 near tlie promontory Circeium. 
 
 Saturmm or Satnreinm {Satu7-o), a town in 
 tiie S. uf Italy near Tarentum, celebrated for its 
 liorses. (Hor. Sat. i. 6. 59.) 
 
 Saturnia. 1. An ancient name ofltaly [Italia]. 
 — 2. (Saturiiinus: Saturnia], fonnerly called Au- 
 rinia, an ancient town of Etruria, said to have 
 been founded by the Pelasgiuns, was situated in 
 the territory of Caletra, on the road from Rome to 
 Cosa, about 20 miles from the sea. It was cnlo- 
 nised by the Romans, B. c. l!33. The ancient 
 town wag rather more than 2 miles in circuit, and 
 there -m still remains of its walls and tombs. 
 
 Saturniuus I., one of the Thirty Tyrants, was 
 a general of Valerian, by whom he was much be- 
 loved. Disg-usted by the debauchery of Gallie- 
 nus, he accepted from the soldiers the title of 
 emperor, but was put to death by the troops^ 
 ■who could not endure the sterness of his discipline. 
 The country, however, in which these events took 
 place, is not mentioned. — IL, a native of Gaul, 
 and an able officer, was appointed by Aurelian 
 commander of the Eastern frontier, and was pro- 
 claimed emperor at Alexandria during the reign of 
 Probus. He was eventually slain by the soldiers 
 of Probus, although the emperor would willingly 
 have spared his life. 
 
 Satununus, L. Antonius, governor of Upper 
 Germany in the reign of Domitian, raised a re- 
 boliion against that emperor, a. d. 91, but was 
 defeated and put to death by Applus Maximus, 
 the general of Domitian. 
 
 Satu-rmnus, L. Appiileius, the celebrated de- 
 magogue, was quaestor, B. C. 104, and tribune 
 of the plebs for the first time, 102. He entered 
 into a close alliance with Marina and his friends, 
 and soon acquired great popularity. He became a 
 candidate for the tribunate for the 2nd time, 100. 
 At the same time Glaucia, who next to Saturninus 
 was the greatest demagogue of the day, offered 
 himself as a candidate for the praetorship, and 
 Marius for the consulship. Marius and Glaucia 
 carried their elections ; but A. Nonius, a partizan 
 of the aristocrac}', was chosen tribune instead of 
 Saturninus- Nonius, however, was murdered on 
 the same evening by the emissaries of Glaucia 
 and Saturninus ; and early the following morn- 
 ing, Saturninus was chosen to fill up the vacancy. 
 As soon as he had entered upon his tribunate, 
 lie brought forward an agrarian law, which led 
 to the banishment of Metellus Numidicua, as is 
 related elsewhere. [Metellus, No. 10.] Satur- 
 ninus proposed other popular measures, such as 
 a Lex Frumentaria, and a law for founding new 
 colonies in Sicil}-, Achaia, and Macedonia. In the 
 comitia for the election of the magistrates fur the 
 following year, Saturninus obtained the tribunate 
 for the third time, and along with him there was 
 chosen a certain Equitius, a runaway slave, who 
 pretended to be a son of Tib. Gracchus. Glaucia 
 was at the same time a candidate for the consul- 
 ship ; the two other candidates were M. Antonius 
 and C. Me.mmius. The election of M. Antonius 
 was certain, and the struggle lay bt-tween Glaucia 
 and Memmius. As the latter seemed likely to 
 caiTy his election, Saturninus and Glaucia^ hired 
 some ruffians who murdered him openly in the 
 comitia. This last act produced a complete reaction 
 against Saturninus and his associates. The senate 
 declared them nublic enemies, and ordered the 
 
 SATURNUS. 
 
 consuls to put them down by force. Marius was 
 unwilling to act against his friends, but he had no 
 alternative, and his backwardness was compensated 
 by the zeal of others. Driven out of the forum, 
 Satm-ninuH, Glaucia, and the qmiestor Saufeius 
 took refuge in the Capitol, but the partisans of the 
 senate cut off the pipes which supplied the Capitol 
 with water. Unable to hold out any longer, they 
 surrendered to Marius. The latter did all he 
 could to save their lives: as soon as they descended 
 from the Capitol, he placed them for security in 
 the Curia Hostilia, but the mob pulled off the tiles 
 of the senate-house, and pelted them with the tiles 
 till they died. The senate gave their sanction to 
 these proceedings by rewarding with the citizen- 
 ship a slave of the name of Scaeva, who claimed 
 the honour of having killed Saturninus. Nearly 
 40 years after these events, the tribune T. La- 
 hienus accused an aged senator Kabirlus, of liaving 
 b(;en the murderer of Saturninus. An account of 
 this trial Is given elsewhere. [Rabirhjs.J 
 
 Saturninus, Claudius, a jurist from whose 
 Liber Swgularis de PoefUs Pat/anorum there is a 
 single excerpt in the Digest, He was praetor 
 under Antoninus Pius. 
 
 Saturninus, Pompeius, a contemporary of the 
 younger Pliny, is praised by the latter as a dis- 
 tinguished orator, historian, and poet. Several of 
 Pliny''s letters are addressed to him. 
 
 Saturiunus, C. Sentius. 1. Propraetor of Ma- 
 cedonia dm-ing the Social war, and probably for 
 some time afterwards. He defeated the Thracians, 
 who had invaded his province. — 3. One of the 
 persons of distinguished rank who deserted Sex, 
 Pompeius in b. c. 35, and passed over to Octavian. 
 He was consul in 19, and was afterwards appointed 
 to the government of Syria. Three sons of Sa- 
 turninus accompanied htm as legati to Syria, and 
 were present with their father at the trial of 
 Herod's sons at Berytns in B. c. 6. 
 
 Saturninus, Venuleius, a Roman jurist, is 
 said to liave been a pupil of Paplnianus, and a 
 consiliarius of Alexander Severus, There are 71 
 excerpts from his writings in the Digest. 
 
 Saturnius, that is, a son of Satumus, and 
 accordingly used as a surname of Jupiter, Neptune, 
 and Pluto. For the same reason the name of Sa- 
 turnia is given both to Juno and Vesta. 
 
 Satumus, a mythical king of Italy to whom 
 was ascribed the introduction of agriculture and 
 the habits of civilised life in general. The name 
 is connected with the verb sero, sevi, satuni. The 
 Romans invariably identiSed Saturnus with the 
 Greek Cronos, and hence made the former the 
 father of Jupiter, Neptune, Pluto, Juno, &c. 
 [Cronos] ; but there is in realitj'- no resemblance 
 between the attributes of the two deities, except 
 that both were regarded as the most ancient di- 
 vinities in their respective countries. The resem- 
 blance is much stronger between Demeter and 
 Saturn, for all that the Greeks ascribe to their 
 Demeter is ascribed by the Italians to Saturn. 
 Saturnus, then, deriving his name from sowing, is 
 justly called the introducer of civilisation and social 
 order, both of which are inseparably connected 
 with agriculture. His reign is conceived for the 
 same reason to liave been the golden age of Italy, 
 and more especially of the Aborigines, his subjects. 
 As agricultural industry is the source of wealtb 
 and plenty, his wife was Ops, the representative 
 of plenty. The stoiy ran that the god came to 
 
SATYUL 
 
 Italy, in the reJgii of Janus, hy wliom lie was 
 hospitably received, and that be fonued a SMttle- 
 nieiit on the Capitoliiie hili, which was hence 
 called the Satuinian hill. At the foot of that hill, 
 on the road leading up to the Capitol, there stood 
 in aftertimes the temple of Satui'n. Saturn then 
 taught the people agviculture, suppressed their 
 savage mode of life, and introduced among them 
 civilization and morality. The result was that the 
 "whole country was called Saturiiia or tlie land of 
 plenty. Saturn was suddenly removed from earth 
 to the abodes of the gods, whereupon Jamis erected 
 an altar to him in the forum. It is further related 
 that Latium received its name (from lateo) from 
 this disappearance of Saturn, who for the same 
 reason was regarded b}"^ some as a divinity of the 
 nether world. Respecting the festival solemnized 
 by the Romans in honour of Saturn, see Diet, of 
 A?iti(^. s. V. Satamalia, The statue of Saturnus 
 ■was hollow and filled with oil, probably to denote 
 the fertility of Latium in olives ; in his hand he 
 held a crooked pruning knife, and his feet were 
 surrounded with a woollen riband. In the pedi- 
 ment of the temple of Saturn were seen two figures 
 resembling Tritons, with horns, and whose lower 
 t^xtremities grew out of the ground ; the temple 
 itself was used as the treasury of the state, and 
 many laws also were deposited in it. 
 
 Satyri (^ari/poi), the name of a class of beings 
 in Greek mythology, who are inseparably con- 
 jiected with the worship of Dionysus, and represent 
 the luxuriant vital powers of nature. Homer does 
 not mention the Satyrs. Hesiod describes thera 
 as a race good for nothing and unfit for work. 
 The}' are commonly said to be the sons of 
 Hermes and Iphthima, or of the Naiads. The 
 Satyrs arc represented with bristly hair, the nose 
 round and somewhat turned upwards, the ears 
 pointed at the top like those of animals, with 2 
 amali horns growing out of the top of the forehead, 
 and with a tail like that of a horse or goat. In 
 works of art they are represented at different 
 stages of life ; the older ones were commonly called 
 Sileni, and the younger ones are termed Satyrisci. 
 The Satyrs are always described as fond, of wine, 
 ^whence they often appear either with a cup or a 
 thyrsus in their hand), and of every kind of 
 sensual pleasure, whence they are seen sleeping, 
 playing musical instnmicntg, or engaged in volup- 
 tuous dances with nymphs. Like all the gods 
 dwelling in forests and fields, they were greatly 
 dreaded by mortals. Later writers, especially the 
 Roman poets, confound the Satyrs with the Itiilian 
 Fauni, and accordingly represent them with larger 
 horns and goats' feet, although originally they 
 ■were quite distinct kinds of beings. SatjTs usually 
 iippear with flutes, the thyrsus, syrinx, the shep- 
 herd's staff, cups or bags filled with wine ; they are 
 ■dressed with the skins of animals, and wear wreaths 
 ■of vine, ivy or fir. Representations of them are 
 still very nuraeroue, but the most celebrated in 
 antiquity was the Satyr of Praxiteles at Athens. 
 
 Satyrus {^drupos). 1. I. King of Bosporus, 
 -was a son of Spartacus T., and reigned b. c. 407 or 
 406-393. He maintained friendly relations with 
 Athens. He was slain at the sitge of Theudosia 
 in 393, and was succeeded by his son Leucon.— 
 2. II., king of Bosporus, was the eldest of the sons 
 of Paerisiides I., whom he succeeded in 311, but 
 reigned only 9 months. — 3, A distinguished comic 
 actor at Athena, is said to have given instructions 
 
 SAX0NE3. 679 
 
 to Demosthenes in the art of giving full effect to 
 liis speeches by appropriate action. — 4. A dis- 
 tinguished Peripatetic philosopher and historian, 
 who lived in the time of Ptolemy Philopator, if 
 not later. He wrote a collection of biographies, 
 among which were lives of Philip and Demosthenes, 
 and which is frequently cited by ancient writers. 
 — 5. A physician in the 2nd century after Christ, 
 who wi'ote some works, which are no longer 
 extant 
 
 Sauconna. [Arar.] 
 
 Saufeina. 1. C, quaestor b. c. 100, was one of 
 the partisans of Saturninus, took refuge with him 
 in the capitol, and was slain along with his leader, 
 when they were obliged to surrender to Marius.— 
 2. L., a Roman eques, was an intimate friend of 
 Atticus, and a warm admirer of the Epicurean 
 pliilosophy. He had very valuable property in 
 Italy, which was confiscated by the triumvirs, but 
 was restored to him through the exertions of 
 Atticus. 
 
 Sauloe Parthatmisa {2av\(x>i] Vlafj6avpLa-a\ 
 the later capital of Parthia, called by the Greeks 
 Nisaea, Its site is not known. 
 
 Sauromatae. [S^RniATAE.] 
 
 Sauromates ("Zavpo^aTTis), the name of several 
 kings of Bosporus, who are for the most part known 
 only from their coins. ^Ve find kings of this name 
 reigning over Bosporus from the time of Augustus 
 to that of Constantine. 
 
 Saverrio, P. Sulpiciiis. 1. Consul b. c. 304, 
 when he carried on the war against the Samnites. 
 He was censor in 229 with Sempronius Sophus, 
 his former colleague in the consulship. In their 
 censorship 2 new tribes were formed, the Aniensis 
 and Terentina. — 2. Son of the preceding, consul 
 279 with P. Decius Mus, commanded, with his 
 colleague, against Pyn-hus. 
 
 Savo {Saone\ a river in Campania, which flows 
 into the sea S. of Sinuessa. 
 
 SaYUS (Save or Sau), a navigable tributary of 
 the Danube, which rises in the Carnic Alps, forms 
 first the boundary between Noricum and Italy, 
 and afterwards between Pannonia and Illyria, and 
 falls into the Danube near Singidunum. 
 
 Saxa, Decidiiis, a native of Celtiberia, was ori- 
 ginally one of Caesar's common soldiers. He was 
 tribune of the plebs in 44, and after Caesar's death 
 in this year he took an active part in supporting 
 the friends of his murdered patron. He served 
 under M. Antonius in the siege of Mutina, and 
 subsequently under both Antonius and Octavianus 
 in their war against Brutus and Cassius. After 
 the battle of Philippi Saxa accomjjanied Antony 
 to the East, and was made by the latter governor 
 of Syria. Here he was defeated by the younger 
 Labienus and the Parthians, and was slain in tlie 
 flight after the battle (40). 
 
 Saxa, Q. Voconius, tribune of the plebs, b. c. 
 169, proposed the Voconia lex, which was sup- 
 ported by the elder Cato, who spoke in its favour, 
 when he was 65 years of age. Respecting this 
 lex, see Diet of Antiq. s. v. 
 
 Saxa Rubra. [Rubra Saxa.] 
 
 Saxoues, a powerful people in Germany, who 
 originally dwelt ^n the S. part of the Cimbric Cher- 
 sonesus, between the rivers Albis and Chalusus 
 {Truve)^ consequently in the modern Holstein. 
 They are not mentioned by Tacitus and Pliny, 
 since these writers appear to have comprehended 
 all the inhabitants of the Cimbric Chersonesus 
 
 XX 4 
 
680 SCAEYA. 
 
 under the general name of Cimbri. The Saxones 
 first occur in history in a. d. 2Jj6, when they are 
 mentioned as brave and skilful sailors, who often 
 joined the Cliauci in piratical expeditions against 
 the coast of Gaul. The Saxones afterwards appear 
 at the head of a powerful confederacy of German 
 peoples, who became imited under the general 
 name of Saxons, and who eventually occupied the 
 country between the Elbe, the Rhine, the Lippe, 
 and the German ocean. A portion of the Saxons, 
 in conjunction wiih the Angli, led by Hengist and 
 Horsa, conquered Briton, as is well known, about 
 the middle of the 5th centiny. The Romans never 
 came into close contact with the Saxons. 
 
 Scaeva, Cassius, a centurion in Caesar's army, 
 who distinguished himself by his extraordinary 
 feats of valour at the battle of Dyrrhachium, He 
 survived the battle, and is mentioned as one of the 
 partisans of Caesar, after the death of the latter. 
 
 Scaevola, Q. Cervidius, a Roman jurist, lived 
 under Antoninus Pius. He wrote several works, 
 and there are 307 excerpts from him in the Digest. 
 
 Scaevola, Mucius. 1. C, the hero of a cele- 
 brated story in early Roman historj'. When King 
 Porsenna was blockading Rome, C. Mucins, a 
 young man of the patrician class, resolved to rid 
 his country of the invader. He went out of the 
 citj', with a dagger hid beneath his dress, and 
 approached the place where Porsenna was sitting, 
 with a secretary by his side, dressed nearly in tlie 
 same style as the king himself. Mistaking the 
 secretary for the king, Mucius killed him on the 
 spot. He was seized by the king's guards, and 
 brought before tlie royal seat, when he declared 
 his name, and his design to kill the king himself, 
 and told him tiiat there were many more Romans 
 ready to attempt his life. The king in his passion 
 and alarm ordered him to be burnt alive, unless he 
 explained more clearly what he meant by his vague 
 threats, upon which Mucius thrust his right hand 
 into a fire which was already lighted for a sacri- 
 fice, and held it there without flinching. The king, 
 who was amazed at his finnness, ordered him to be 
 removed from the altar, and bade him go away 
 free and uninjured. To make some return to the 
 king for his generous behaviour, Mucius told him 
 that there were 300 of the first youths of Rome 
 who had agreed with one another to kill the king, 
 that the lot fell on him to make the first attempt, 
 and that the rest would do the same when their 
 turn came. Mucius received the name of Scae- 
 vola, or left-handed, from the circumstance of the 
 loss of his right hand. Porsenna being alarmed 
 for his life, which he could not secure against so 
 many desperate men, made proposals of peace to 
 the Romans, and evacuated the territor}'". The 
 patricians gave Mucius a tract of land beyond 
 the Tiber, which was thenceforth called Mucia 
 Praia. The Mucius of this story was a patrician ; 
 tut the Mucii of the historical period were ple- 
 beians, —2. Q., praetor b. c. 215, had Sardinia 
 for his province, where he remained for the next 3 
 years. He was decemvir sacrorum, and died 209. 
 — 3. Q., probably eon of No. 2, wjis praetor 179, 
 with Sicily for his province, and consul 174. — 4. 
 P., brother of No. 3, was pi-aetor*with his brother 
 179, and consul 175. In his consulship he gained 
 a victory over the Ligurians. — 5. P., probably son 
 of No. 4, was tribune of the plebs 141 ; praetor 
 urbanus 136; and consul 133, the year in which 
 Tib, Gracchus lost his life. In 131 he succeeded 
 
 SCALABIS. 
 his brother Mucianus [Mucianus] as Pontifex 
 Maximus. Scaevola was distinguislied for his 
 knowledge of the Jus Poatijicittin. He was also 
 famed for his skill in plfiying at ball, as well as at 
 the giune called Duodecim Scripta. His fame as a 
 lawyer is recorded by Cicero in several passages. 
 There is no excerpt from his writings in the 
 Digest, but he is cited several times by the jurists 
 whose works were used for that compilation. — 6. 
 Q., called the Augur, Avas son of No. 3, and mar- 
 ried the daughter of C. Laelius, the friend of Scipio 
 Ai'ricanus the younger. He was tribune of the 
 plebs 120, plebeian aedile 125, and as praetor was 
 governor of the province of Asia in 121, tiie year 
 in which C. Gracchus lost his life. He was prose- 
 cuted after his return from his province for the 
 olfence of Repetundae, in 120, by T. Albucius, but 
 was acquitted. He was consul 1 17. He lived at 
 least to the tribunate of P. Sulpicius Rufus 8^. 
 Cicero, who was born 106, informs us, tiiat after he 
 had put on the toga virilis, his father took him ta 
 Scaevola, who was then an old man, and that he 
 kept as close to him as he could, in order to profit 
 by his remarks. After his death Cicero became a 
 hearer of Q. Mucius Scaevola, the pontifex. The 
 Augur was distinguished for his knowledge of the 
 law ; but none of his writings are recorded. — Mucia, 
 the Augur's daughter, married L. Licinius Crassus, 
 the orator, who was consul 95^ with Q. Muciu3 
 Scaevola, the pontifex maximus ; whence it ap- 
 pears that theQ. Mucius, who is one of the speakers 
 in the treatise de Orutore, is not the pontifex and 
 the colleague of Crassug, but the Augur, the father- 
 in-law of Crassus, He is also one of the speakers 
 in the Laelius sive de Amicitta (c. 1), and in the- 
 de Rcpublica (i. 12). ^ 7. Q., Pontifex Maxi- 
 mus, was son of No. 5, and is quoted by Cicero as 
 an example of a son who aimed at excellence in 
 that which had given his father distinction. Ha 
 was tribune of the plebs in 106, curule aedile iu 
 104, and consul dby with Licinius Crassus, the 
 orator, as his colleague. After his consulship Scae- 
 vola was the governor (proconsul) of the province 
 of Asia, in which capacity he gained the esteem 
 of the people who were under his government. 
 Subsequently he was made pontifex maximus, by 
 which title he is often distinguished from Q. Mu- 
 cins the Augur. He lost his life in the consulship 
 of C. Marius the younger and Cn. Papirius Carbo 
 (82), having been proscribed by the Marian party,. 
 from which we may conclude that he belonged to 
 Sulla's party. His body was thrown into the Tiber. 
 The virtues of Scaevola are recorded by Cicero, 
 who, after the death of the Augur, became an 
 attendant (auditor) of the pontifex. The purity of 
 his moral character, his exalted notions of equity 
 and fair dealing, his abilities as an administrator, 
 an orator, and a jurist, place him among the first of 
 the illustrious men of all ages and countries. He 
 was, says Cicero, the most eloquent of jurists, and 
 the most learned jurist among orators. Q. Scae- 
 vola the pontifex is the first Roman to whom we 
 can attribute a scientific and systematic handlings 
 of the Jus Civile, which he accomplished in a work 
 in 18 books. He also wrote a Liher Shigidar'is 
 wc-pl '6p(A}i/y a work on Definitions, or perhaps, rather, 
 short rules of law, from which there are 4 ex- 
 cerpts in the Digest. This is the oldest work from 
 which there are any excerpts in the Digest, and 
 even these may have been taken at second hand. 
 Scalabis {Saniarem)^ a town in Lusitania, on 
 
SCALDIS. 
 
 the road from Olisipo to Emerita and Bracara, also 
 a Roman colony with the surname Praesidium Ju- 
 liuni, and the seat of one of the 3 Conventus 
 Juridici of the province. The town is erroneously 
 called Scalabiscus by Ptolemy. 
 
 Scaldis (ScJieldt), an important river in the N. 
 of Gallia Belgica, flowing into the ocean, but which 
 Caesar erroneously makes a tributary of the Mosa. 
 Ptolemy calls this river Tubudas or 7«izi/^os, which 
 name it continued to bear in the middle ages 
 under the form of Tabid or Tabula. 
 
 Scamander {^KafiavSpos). L A river in the 
 "W. part of the N. coast of Sicily, falling into the 
 sea near Segesta. — 3. The celebrated river of the 
 Troad. [Trojs.] As a mythological personage, 
 the river-god was called Xanthus by the gods. 
 His contest with Achilles is described bv Homer 
 ill. xxl 136, foil.). 
 
 Scamandrius (2/ca/tat'5pios), son of Hector and 
 Andromache, whom the people of Troy called 
 Astyanax, because his father was the protector of 
 the city of Tro}'. 
 
 Scambonidae (2/:a/i§wf(Sai), a demus in Attica, 
 between Athens and Eleusts, belonging to the tribe 
 Leontis. 
 
 Scampa (2f aMi"« : Shimhi or Iscampi), a town 
 in the interior of Greek Illyria, on the Via Egnatia 
 between Clodiana and Lychnidus. 
 
 Scandea (2/cai'5eia), a port-town on the E. side 
 of the island Cythera, forming the harbour of the 
 town of Cythera, from which it was lOstadia distant. 
 
 Scandia or Scandinavia, the name given by 
 the ancients to Norway, Sweden, and the sur- 
 rounding islands. Even the later Romans had a 
 very imperfect knowledge of the Scandinavian 
 peninsula. They supposed it to have been sur- 
 rounded by the ocean, and to have been composed 
 of several islands called by Ptolemy Scandiae. Of 
 these the largest bore especially the name of 
 Scandia or Scandinavia, by which the modern 
 Sweden was undoubtedly indicated. This country 
 was inhabited by the Hilleviones, of whom the 
 Suiones and Sitones appear to have been tribes. 
 
 Scandila {Scandole)^ a small island in the N.E. 
 of the Aegaean sea, between Peparethos and Scjtos. 
 
 Scantia Silva, a wood in Campania, in which 
 were probably the Aq^uae Scantiae mentioned by 
 Pliny. 
 
 Scapte Hyle {'XKain^ v\7j), also called, but 
 less correctly, Scaptesyle (^KairTTja-vXT])^ a small 
 town on the coast of Thrace opposite the island of 
 Thasos. It contained celebrated gold mines, which 
 ■were originally worked by the Thasians. Thuc}-'- 
 dides, who had some property in these mines, re- 
 tired to this place after his banishment from Athens, 
 and here arranged the materials for his histor}'. 
 
 Scaptia (Scaptiensis or Scaptius), an ancient 
 town in Latium, which gave its name to a Roman 
 tribe, but which disappeared at an early period. 
 
 Scapula, P. Ostorius, succeeded A. Plautius as 
 governor of Britain, about a. d. 50. He defeated 
 the powerful tribe of the Silures, took prisoner 
 their king Caractacus, and sent him in chains to 
 Rome. In consequence of this success he received 
 the insignia of a triumph, but died soon afterwards 
 in the province. 
 
 Scarabantia {Oedenburg\ a town in Pannonia 
 Superior on the road from Vindobona to Poetovio, 
 and a municipium with the surname Flavia Au- 
 gusta. 
 
 Scardona {^Kap^ava. or S/ccipSw;'). 1. {Skar- 
 
 SCAURUS. 
 
 681 
 
 dona or Skardin)^ the chief town of Libumia in 
 Illyria on the right bank of the Titius, 12 milea 
 from its mouth, the seat of a Conventus Juridicus. 
 ^3. {Arbe), a small island off the coast of Li- 
 bumia, also called Arba, which was the name of 
 its principal town. 
 
 Scardus or Scordiis Mons (rh 'S.icdpSov Spos), a 
 range of lofty mountains, forming the boundary 
 between Moesia and Macedonia. 
 
 Scarphe, Scarphea or ScarpMa {'B.Ka.p'prij 
 '2,Kdp(peia, "B-Kapipia: '2,Kap(pevs^ ^Kap<pt€vs^ "Ztcap- 
 tpalos^ '2Kdp<pios)f a town of the Epicnemidii Locri, 
 10 stadia from the coast, at which the roads united 
 leading through Thermopylae. It possessed a 
 harbour on the coast, probably at the mouth of the 
 river Boagrius. 
 
 Scarponna {Cliarpeigne\ a town in Gallia Bel- 
 gica on the Mosella, and on the road from TuUum 
 to Divo durum. 
 
 Scato or Cato, Tettius, one of the Italian 
 generals in the Marsic war, b. c. 90. He defeated 
 the consuls, L. Julius Caesar and P. Rutilius Lupus, 
 in 2 successive battles. He was afterwards taken 
 prisoner, and was stabbed to death by his own slave 
 as he was being dragfjed before the Roman general, 
 being thus delivered from the ignominy and punish- 
 ment that awaited liini. 
 
 Scaums, Aemilius. 1. M., raised his family 
 from obscurity to the highest rank among the 
 Roman nobles. He was bom in b. c. 163. His 
 father, notwithstanding his patrician descent, had 
 been obliged, through poverty, to carry on the 
 trade of a coal-merchant, and left his son a very 
 slender patrimou}'. The latter had thought at 
 first of carrying on the trade of a money-lender; 
 but he finally resolved to devote himself to ths 
 study of eloquence, with the hope of rising to the 
 lionours of the state. He likewise served in the 
 army, where he appears to have gained some dis- 
 tinction. He was cumle aedile in 123. He ob- 
 tained the consulship in 115, when he carried on 
 war with success against several of the Alpine 
 tribes. In 1 12 he was sent at the head of an em- 
 bassy to Jugurtha; and in HI he accompanied 
 the consul L. Calpumius Bestia, as one of his 
 legates, in the war against Jugurtha. The Numi- 
 dian king bestowed large sums of money upon both 
 Bestia and Scanrus, in conseq^uence of which the 
 consul granted the king most favourable temis of 
 peace. This disgraceful transaction excited the 
 greatest indignation at Rome ; and C. Mamilius, 
 the tribune of the plebs, 110, brought forward a 
 bill, by which an inquiry was to be instituted 
 against all those who had received bribes from 
 Jugurtha. Although Scaurus had been one of the 
 most guilty, such was his influence in the state 
 that he contrived to be appointed one of the three 
 quaesitores, who were elected under the bill, for 
 the purpose of prosecuting the criminals. But 
 though he thus secured himself, he was unable to 
 save any of his accomplices. Bestia and- many 
 others were condemned. In 109, Scaurus was 
 censor with M. Livius Drusus. In his consulship 
 he restored the Milvian bridge, and constructed 
 the Aemilian road, which ran by Pisae and Luna 
 as far as Dertona. In 107, he was elected consul 
 a second time, in place of L. Cassius Longinus, 
 who had fallen in battle against the Tigurinr. 
 In the struggles between the aristocratical and 
 popular parties, Scaurus was alv/ays a warm sup- 
 porter of the former. He was several times ac- 
 
6G2 SCAURUS. 
 
 cused of diffei'ent offences, chiefly by his private 
 eneinit?s; but such was liis influence in the state, 
 that he was always acquitted. He died about 8£). 
 By his wife Caecilia Scaurus had three children, 2 
 sons mentioned below, and a daughter Aemilia, 
 lirst married to M\ Glabrio, and next to Cn. Pom- 
 pL-y, subsequently the triumvir. — 2. M., eldest 
 son of the preceding, and stepson of the dictator 
 SuIIn, whom his mother Caecilia married after the 
 death of liis father. In the third Mithridatic war 
 he served under Pompey as quaestor. The latter 
 sent him to Damascus v/iih an array, and from 
 thence he marched into Judaea, to settle the dis- 
 putes between the brothers Hyrcanus and Aristo- 
 bulus. Scaurus was left by Pompey in the com- 
 mand of Syria with two legions. During his 
 government of Syria be made a predatory incursion 
 into Arabia Petraea, but withdrew on the pay- 
 ment of 300 talents by Aretas, the king of the 
 country. He was curule aedile in 58, when he 
 celebrated the public games with extraordinary 
 splendour. The temporary theatre which he built 
 accommodated 80,000 spectators, and was adorned 
 in the most magnificent manner. 360 pillars deco- 
 rated the stage, arranged in 3 stories, of which the 
 lowest was made of white marble, the middle one 
 of glass, and the highest of giU wood. The com- 
 bats of wild beasts were equally astonishing. ! "jO 
 panthers were exhibited in the circus, and 5 cro- 
 codiles and a hippopotamus were seen for the first 
 time at Rome. In 56 he was praetor, and in the 
 following year governed the province of Sardinia, 
 which he plundered without mere}''. On his re- 
 turn to Home he was accused of the crime of repe- 
 tundae. He was defended by Cicero, Hortensius, 
 and others, and was acquitted, notwithstanding his 
 guilt. He was accused again in 5'3, under Pom- 
 pay's new law against ambitus, and was con- 
 demned. He married Mucia, who had been pre- 
 viously the wife of Pompey, and by her he had 
 one son [No. 4].— 3. Younger son of No. 1, 
 fought under the proconsul, Q. Cutulus, against 
 tjie Cimbri at the Athesis, and having fled from 
 the field, was Indignantly commanded by his father 
 not to come into his presence ; whereupon tlie 
 youth put an end to his life. — 4. M., son of No. 
 2, and Mucia, the former \vife of Pompey the tri- 
 umvir, and consequently the half-brother of Sex. 
 Pompey. He accompanied the latter into Asia, 
 after the defeat of his fleet in Sicily, but betrayed 
 him into the hands of the generals of M. Antonlus, 
 in 35. After the battle of Actium, he fell into the 
 power of Octavian, and escaped death, to which he 
 had been sentenced, only througli the intercession 
 of his mother, Mucia. — 5. Iffamercua, son of 
 No. 5, was a distinguished orator and poet, but of 
 a dissolute character. He was a member of the 
 senate at the time of the accession of Tiberius, 
 A. D. 14, when he offended this suspicious emperor 
 by some remarks which he made in the senate 
 Being accused of majestas in 34, he put an end 
 to his own life, 
 
 Scaurus, Iff. Aurelius, consul suffectus u. c. 
 108, was 3 years afterwards consular legate in 
 Gaul, where he was defeated by the Cimbri, taken 
 prisoner, and put to death. 
 _ Scaurus, Q. Terentius, a celebrated gramma- 
 rian who flourished under the emperor Hadrian, 
 and whose son was one of the preceptors of the 
 emperor Verus. He was the author of an Jis 
 O'raminatlca and of commentaries upon Plautus, 
 
 SCIATHUS. 
 
 Virgil, and the Ars Pottica of Horace, which are 
 known to us from a few scattered notices only, for 
 the tract entitled Q. Termiii Scauri de Orihographia 
 ad Tlieseum included in the '' Grammaticae Latiuce 
 Auctores Antiqui " of Putschius (Haniiov. Ib'Oa), 
 is not believed to be a genuine production of this 
 Scaurus. 
 
 Sceleratus Campxis. [Roma, p. 650, a.] 
 
 Scenae CZic-^vai^ i. e, the ieids), a town of Meso- 
 potamia, on the borders of Babj'lonia, on a canal 
 of the Euphrates, 25 days' journey below Zeugma. 
 It belonged to the Scenitae, and was evidently 
 only a collection of tents or huts. 
 
 Scenitae (S^Tj^Trai, i.e. dwellers i?i tents), the 
 general name used by the Gre-.-ks for the Bedawee 
 (Bedouin) tribes of Arabia Deserta. It was also 
 applied to noraad tribes in Africa, who likewise 
 lived in tents. 
 
 Scepsis {^ic^\\>is : prob. EsM-Upslii^ ov Eski- 
 ShupsJie, Ru.), an ancient city in the interior of 
 the Troad, S. E. of Alexandria, in the mountains 
 of Ida. Its inhabitants were removed by Anti- 
 gonus to Alexandria ; but being permitted by Ly- 
 siniachus to return to their homes, they built a 
 new city, called ?j v^a Kci/ii7, and the remains of the 
 old tovvn were tben called na\aicrK?]i|,is. Scepsis 
 is celebrated in literary history as the place where 
 certain MSS. of Aristotle and Tlieophrastus were 
 buried, to prevent their transference to Pergamus. 
 When dug up again, they were found nearly de- 
 stroyed by mould and worms, and in this condition 
 they were removed by Sulla to Athens. The 
 philosopher Metrodorus and the grammarian De- 
 metrius were natives of Scepsis. 
 
 Scsrdilaidas, or Scerdilaedus (SKepSiAaiSay or 
 2/cepBiA.ai5os), king of lliyria, was in all proba- 
 bility a son of Pleuratus, and younger brother of 
 Agron, both of them kings of that country. After 
 the defeat and abdication of Teuta (b. c. -'29), he 
 probabh"" succeeded tn a portion of her dominions, 
 but did not assume the title of king, till after the 
 death of his nephew Pinnes. He tarried on war 
 for some years against Philip, king of Macedonia, 
 and thus appears as an ally of the Romans. He 
 probably died about 205, and was succeeded by 
 his son Pleuratus. 
 
 Schedius {2x^oios). 1, Son of Iphitus and 
 Hippolyte, commanded the Phocians in the war 
 against Troy, along with his brother Epistrophus. 
 He was slain by Hector, and his remains v;'ere 
 carried from Troy to Anticyra in Phocis, -=-2. Son 
 of Perimedes, likewise a Phocian who was killed 
 at Troy by Hector. 
 
 Schera (Scherinus), a town in the interior of 
 Sicily in the S.W. part of the island. 
 
 Scheria. [Phaeages.] 
 
 Schoenus {^x°^'^"^ '■ Sxoit'ietis), a town of 
 Boeotia, on a river of the same name, and on the 
 road from Thebes to Anthedon. 
 
 Schoentis {'S.xoii^ovs -ovvros) 1. A harbour of 
 Corinth, N. of Cenchreae, at the narrowest part of 
 the isthmus. — S. A place in the interior of Ar- 
 cadia near Methydrium. 
 
 Sciatiius {2,ida6os: ^KidOios: Shiatho)^ a small 
 island in the Aegaean sea, N. of Euboea and E. 
 of the Magnesian coast of Thessal3% with a town 
 of the same name upon it. It is said to have been 
 originally colonised by Pelasgians from Thraae. 
 It is irequently mentioned in the history of the 
 invasion of Greece by Xerxes, since the Persian 
 and Grecian fleets were stationed near its coasts. 
 
SCIDRUS. 
 
 It subsequently bt>came one of the subject allies of 
 Athens, but attained s-iich little prosperity that it 
 only had to pay the small tribute of 200 dnichinae 
 yearly. Its cliief town was destroyed by the last 
 Philip of Macedonia. At a later time it was 
 restored by Antonius to the Athenians. Sciathus 
 produced good wine. 
 
 Scidrus (^KiBpos), a place in the S. of Italy of 
 unccrtJiin site, in which some of the Sybarites 
 settled after the destruction of their own ci:y. 
 
 Scillus (SkiAAous -ovvtos : 'XkiWowtios, 2kiA- 
 Aoiltnos), a tnwn of Elis in the district Triphylia, 
 on the river Selinus, 20 stadia S. of Olympia. It 
 ■was destroyed by the Eleans in the war which 
 they carried on against the Piaaeans, whose cause 
 liad been espoused by the inhabitants of Scillus. 
 The Lacedaemonians subsequently took possession 
 of the territory of Scillus ; and, although the 
 Eleans still laid claim to it, they gave it to 
 Xenophon jifter his banishment from Athens. 
 Xenophon resided at this place during the re- 
 mainder of his life, and erected here a sanctuary 
 to Artemis, which he had vowed during the retreat 
 of the Ten Thousand. 
 
 Scingomagus, a small place in the S. E. part of 
 Gallia Tninspadana, in the kingdom of Cottius, 
 W. of Segusio, at the pass across the Alps. 
 
 Scione (5«ttiji'ij : '^KtuvaTos^ S^iajj/eus), the 
 chief town in the Macedonian peninsula of Pal- 
 Icne, on the W. coast. It is said to have been 
 founded by some Pellenians of Achaia, who settled 
 here after their return from Troy. It revolted 
 from the Athenians in the Peloponnesian war, but 
 was retaken by Cleon ; whereupon all the men 
 were put to death, the women and children sold as 
 slaves, and the town given to the Plataeans, 
 
 Scipio, the name of an illustrious patrician family 
 of the Cornelia gens. This name, which signifies 
 a stick or staff", is said to have been given to the 
 founder of the family, because he served as a staff 
 in directing his blind father. This family produced 
 some of the greatest men in Rome, and to them 
 she was more indebted than to any others for the 
 empire of the world. The family-tomb of the 
 Scipios was discovered in 1780, on the left of thp 
 Appia Viii, about 400 paces within the modern 
 Porta S. Sebastiano. The inscriptions and other 
 curiosities are now deposited in the Museo Pio-Cle- 
 mentino, at Rome. — 1. P, Cornelius Scipio, ma- 
 gister equitum, b. c. 396. and consular tribune 395, 
 and 394. — 2. L. Com. Scipio, consid 350. —3. P. 
 Com. Scipio Barbatus, consul 328, and dictator, 
 306. He was also pontifex maximus. — 4. L. Corn, 
 Scipio Barbatus, consul 2911, when he carried on 
 war against the Etruscans, and defeated thein near 
 Volaterj-ae, He also served under the consuls in 
 297, 295, and 293 against tlie Samnites. This 
 Scipio was the great great-grandfather of the co'n- 
 queror of Hannibal. The genealogy of the family 
 can be traced with more certainty from this time.— 
 5. Cn. Com. Scipio Asina, son of No. 4, was consul 
 260, in the 1st Punic war. Jn an attempt upon 
 the Liparaean islands, he was taken prisoner "with 
 17 ships. He probably recovered his liberty when 
 Regulus invaded Africa ; for he was consul a 2nd 
 time in 254. In this year he and his colleague A. 
 Atilius Calatinus crossed over into Sicily, and took 
 the town of Panormus. —6. L. Corn, Scipio, also 
 son of No. 4, was consul 259. He drove the Car- 
 thaginians out of Sardinia and Corsica, defeating 
 Planno, the Carthaginian commandnr. He was 
 
 SCIPIO. 683 
 
 censor in 250. — 7. P. Com. Scipio Asina, son of 
 No. 5, was consul 221, and carried on war, with 
 his colleague M. Minncius Riifus, against the Istri, 
 who were subdued by the consuls. He is mentioned 
 aj»ain in 211, when he recommended that the senate 
 should recall all the generals and armies from Italy 
 for the defence of the capital, because Hannibal 
 was marching upon the city. — 3. P. Com. Scipio, 
 son of No. 6. was consul, with Ti. Sempronius 
 Longus, in 21R, the first year of the 2nd Punic 
 War. He sailed with an army to Gaul, in order to 
 encounter Hannibal before crossing the Alps ; but 
 finding that Hannibal had crossed the Rhone, and 
 had got the start of him by a 3 days' march, he 
 resolved to sail back to Ital}'", and await Hannibal's 
 arrival in Cisalpine Gaul. But as the Romans had 
 an army of 25,000 men in Cisalpine Gaul, under 
 the command of 2 praetors, Scipio sent into Spain 
 tlie army which he had brought with him, under 
 the command of his brother Cn. Scipio. On his 
 return to Italy, Scipio took the command of the 
 army in Cisalpine Gaul, and hastened to meet 
 Hannibal. An engagement took place between 
 the cavalry and light-armed troops of the 2 armies. 
 The Romans were defeated ; the consul himself 
 received a severe wound, and was only saved from 
 death by the courage of his young son, Publius, 
 the future conqueror of Hannibal. Scipio now 
 retreated across the Ticinus, crossed the Po also, 
 first took up his quarters at Placentia, and subse- 
 quently withdrew to the hills on the left bank of 
 the Trebiii, where he was joined by the other 
 consul, Sempronius Longus. The latter resolved 
 upon a battle, in opposition to the advice of his 
 colleague. The result was the complete defeat of 
 tiio Tloninn army, which was obliged to take refuge 
 witliin the walls of Placentia. In the following 
 year 217, Scipio, whose imperium had been pro- 
 longed, crossed over into Spain. He and his 
 brother Cneius continued in Spain till their death 
 in 211; but the histor}-^ of their campaigns, though 
 important in their results, is full of confusions and 
 contradictions. They gained several victories over 
 the enemy, and they felt themselves so strong by 
 the beginning of 212, that they resolved to cross 
 the Iberus, and to make a vigorous effort to drive 
 the Carthaginians out of Spain. They accordingly 
 divided their forces, but they were defeated and 
 slain in battle by the Carthaginians.^9. Cn. Corn. 
 Scipio Calvus, son of No. 6, and brother of No. 8, 
 was consul 222, with M. Claudius JIarcellus. In 
 conjunction with his colleague he carried on war 
 against the Insubrians. In 218 he carried on war 
 as the legate of his brother Publius for 8 years in 
 Spain, as has been related above. -—10. P. Com. 
 Scipio Africanus Major, son of No. 8. was born 
 in 234. He was unquestionably one of the greatest 
 men of Rome, and he acquired at an early age the 
 confidence and admiration of his countrymen. His 
 enthusiastic mind led him to believe that he was 
 a special favourite of the gods ; and he never 
 engaged in any public or private business without 
 first going to the Capitol, where he sat some time 
 alone, enjoying communication from the gods. For 
 all he proposed or executed he alleged the divine 
 approval; and the Roman people gave credit to his 
 assertions, and regarded him as a being almost 
 superior to the common race of men. There can be 
 no doubt that Scipio believed himself in the divine 
 revelations, which he asserted to have been vouch- 
 safed to him, and the extraordinary success which 
 
684 
 
 SCIPIO. 
 
 attended all his enterprises must liavc deepened 
 this belief. He is tirst mentioned in 218 at the 
 battle of the Ticlnus, when he saved the life of his 
 father as has been already related. He fought at 
 Cannae two years afterward (216), when he was 
 already a tribune of the soldiers, and was one of 
 the few Roman officers who survived that fatal 
 day. He was chosen along with Appius Claudius 
 to command the remains of the army, which had 
 taken refuge at Canusiura ; and it was owing to 
 liis youthful heroism and presence of mind, that 
 the Roman nobles, who had thought of leaving 
 Italy in despair, were prevented from carrying 
 their rash project into effect. He had already 
 gained the favour of the people to such an extent, 
 that he was elected aedile in 212, although he 
 liad not yet reached the legal age. In 210, 
 after the death of bis father and uncle in Spain, 
 the Romans resolved to increase their army in that 
 country, and to place it under the command of a 
 proconsul. But when the people assembled to 
 elect a proconsul, none of the generals of experience 
 ventured to sue for so dangerous a command. At 
 length Scipio, who was then barely 24, offered 
 himself as a candidate, and was chosen with en- 
 thusiasm to take the command- His success in 
 Spain was striking and rapid. In the first cam- 
 paign (210) he took the important city of Carthago 
 Nova, and in the course of the next 3 years he 
 drove the Carthaginians entirely out of Spain, and 
 became master of that country. He returned to 
 Rome in 206, and was elected consul for tlie fol- 
 lowing year (205), although he had not yet filled 
 the office of praetor, and was only 30 years of age. 
 He was anxious to cross over at once to Africa, 
 and bring the contest to an end at the gates of 
 Carthage; but the oldest members of the senate, 
 and among them Q. Fabius Maximus, opposed his 
 project, partly through timidity and partly through 
 jealousy of the youthful conqueror. All that Scipio 
 could obtain was the province of Sicily, with per- 
 mission to cross over to Africa ; but the senate 
 refused him an arm}', thus making the permission 
 of no practical use. But the allies had a truer 
 view of the interests of Italy than the Roman 
 senate ; and from all the towns of Italy volunteers 
 flocked to join the standard of the youthful hero. 
 The senate could not refuse to allow him to enlist 
 volunteers; and such was the enthusiasm in his 
 favour, that he was able to cross over to Sicily with 
 an army and a fleet contrary to the expectations 
 and even the wishes of the senate. After spend- 
 ing the winter in Sicily, and completing all his 
 preparations for the invasion of Africa, he crossed 
 over to the latter country in the course of the 
 following year. Success again attended his arms. 
 The Carthaginians and their ally Syphax were 
 defeated with great slaughter; and the former 
 were compelled to recall Hannibal from Italy as 
 the only hope of saving their country. The long 
 struggle between the 2 peoples was at length 
 brought to a close by the battle fought near the 
 city of Zama on the I9th of October, 202, in which 
 Scipio gained a decisive and brilliant victory over 
 Hannibal. Carthage had no alternative but sub- 
 mission ; but the final treaty was not concluded 
 till the following year (201). Scipio returned to 
 Italy in 201, and entered Rome in triumph. He 
 was received with universal enthusiasm, and the 
 surname of Africanus was conferred upon him. 
 The people wished to make him consul and dic- 
 
 SCIPIO. 
 
 tator for life, and to erect his statue in the coraitia, 
 the rostra, the curia, and even in the Capitol, but 
 he prudently declined all these invidious dis- 
 tinctions. As he did not choose to usurp the su- 
 preme power, and as he was an object of suspicion 
 and dislike to the majority of the senate, hs took 
 no prominent part in public affairs during the next 
 few years. He was censor m 199 with P. Aelius 
 Paetus, and consul a second time in 194 with Ti. 
 Sempronius Longus. In 193, be was one of the 
 3 commissioners who were sent to Africa to me- 
 diate between Masinissa and the Carthaginians ; 
 and in the same year he was one of the ambas- 
 sadors sent to Antiochus at Ephesus, at whose 
 court Hannibal was then residing. The tale runs 
 that he had there an interview with the great Car- 
 thaginian, who declared him the greatest general 
 that ever lived. The compliment was paid in a 
 manner the most flattering to Scipio. The latter 
 had asked, "Who was the greatest general?" 
 " Alexander the Great," was Hannibars reply. 
 "Who was the second?" " Pyrrhus." "Who 
 the third ?" '* Myself," replied the Carthaginian. 
 " Wiiat would you have said, then, if you had 
 conquered me?" asked Scipio, in astonishment. 
 " I should then have placed myself before Alex- 
 ander, before Pyrrhus, and before all other ge- 
 nerals."- — In 190 Africanus served as legate 
 under his brother Lucius in the war against An- 
 tiochus the Great. Shortly after his return, he 
 and his brother Lucius were accused of having 
 received bribes from Antiochus to let the monarch 
 off too leniently, and of having appropriated to 
 their own use part of the money which had been 
 paid by Antiochus to the Roman state. The de- 
 tails of the accusation are related with such dis- 
 crepancies by the ancient authorities, that it is 
 impossible to determine with certainty the true 
 history of the affair, or the year in which it oc- 
 curred. It appears, however, that there were 
 two distinct prosecutions, and the following is 
 perhaps the most probable history of the transac- 
 tion. In 187, 2 tribunes of the people of the 
 name of Petillii, instigated by Cato and the other 
 ^eraies of the Scipios, required L. Scipio to render 
 an account of all the suras of money which he 
 had received from Antiochus. L. Scipio accord- 
 ingly prepared his accounts, but as he was in the 
 act of delivering them up, the proud conqueror of 
 Hannibal indignantly snatched them out of his 
 hands, and tore them up in pieces before the senate- 
 But this haughty conduct appears to have produced 
 an unfavourable impression, and his brother, when 
 brought to trial in the course of the same year, was 
 declared guilty, and sentenced to pay a heavy 
 fine. The tribune C. Minucius Augurinus ordered 
 him to be dragged to prison and there detained till 
 the money was paid ; whereupon Africanus res- 
 cued his brother from the hands of the tribune's 
 officer. The contest would probably have been at- 
 tended with fatal results had not Tib. Gracchus, 
 the father of the celebrated tribune, and then 
 tribune himself, had the pnidence to release Lu- 
 cius from the sentence of imprisonment. The 
 successful issue of the prosecution of Lucius em- 
 boldened his enemies to bring the great Africanus 
 himself before the people. His accuser was M. 
 Naevius, the tribune of the people, and the accu- 
 sation was brought in 185. When the trial came 
 on, and Africanus was summoned, he proudly re- 
 minded the people that this was the anniversary 
 
SCIPIO. 
 
 of tlie day on which he had defeated Hannibal at 
 Zama, and called upon them to follow him to the 
 Capitol, in order there to return thanks to the 
 immortal gods, and to pray tiiat thej-- would 
 grant the Roman state other citizens like himself. 
 Scipio struck a chord which vibrated on every 
 heart, and was followed by crowds to the Ca- 
 pitol. Having thus set all the laws at defiance, 
 Scipio immediately quitted Rome, and retired to 
 his country seat at Liternum. The tribunes 
 wished to renew the prosecution, but Gracchus 
 ■wisely persuaded them to let it drop. Scipio never 
 returned to Rome. He passed his remaining days 
 in the cultivation of his estate at Litemum ; and 
 at his death is said to have requested that his 
 body might be buried there, and not in his un- 
 grateful country. The year of his death is equally 
 uncertain ; but he probably died in 1U3. Scipio 
 married Aemilia, the daughter of L. Aerailius 
 Paulus, who fell at the battle of Cannae, and by 
 her he had 4 children, 2 sons [Nos. 12, 13], and 
 2 daughters, the elder of whom married P. Scipio 
 Nasica Corculum [No. 17.], and the younger Tib. 
 Gracchus, and thus became the mother of the two 
 celebrated tribunes. [Corneli.-v.] — 11. L. Corn. 
 Scipio Asiaticus, also called Asiagenes or Asia- 
 genus, was the son of No. 8, and the brother of 
 the great Africanus. He served under his brother 
 in Spain ; was praetor in 1 93, when he obtained the 
 province of Sicily ; and consul in 190, with C. Lae- 
 lius. The senate had not much confidence in his 
 abilities, and it was only through tiie offer of his 
 brother Africanus to accompany him as a legate 
 that he obtained the province of Greece and the 
 conduct of the war against Antiochus. He de- 
 feated Antiochus at Mt. Sipylus, in 190, entered 
 Rome in triumph in the following year, and as- 
 sumed the surname of Asiaticus. The history of 
 his accusation and condemnation has been already 
 related in the life of his brother. He was a can- 
 didate for the censorship in 104, but was defeated 
 by the old enemy of his familj', M. Porcius Cato, 
 ■who deprived Asiaticus of his horse at the review 
 of the equites. It appears, therefore, that even as 
 late as this time an eques did not forfeit his horse 
 by becoming a senator. — 13. P. Corn. Scipio 
 Africanus, elder son of the great Africanus, was 
 prevented by his weak health from taking any part 
 in public affairs. Cicero praises his oratiuncnlae 
 and his Greek history, and remarks tliat, with the 
 greatness of his father's mind he possessed a larger 
 amount of learning. He had no son of his own, 
 but adopted the son of L. Aemilius Paulus [see 
 below, No. 15]. — 13. L. or Cn. Corn. Scipio 
 Africanus, younger son of the great Africanus. 
 He accompanied his father into Asia in 190, and 
 ■was taken prisoner by Antiochus. This Scipio 
 ■was a degenerate son of an illustrious sire, and 
 only obtained the praetorsliip, in 174, through 
 Cicereius, who had been a scriba of his father, 
 giving way to him. In the same year he was ex- 
 pelled from the senate by the censors. ^ 14. 1. 
 Com. Scipio Asiaticus, a descendant of No. li, 
 belonged to the Marian party, and was consul 83 
 with C. Norbanus. In this year Sulla returned 
 to Italy : Scipio was deserted by his troops, and 
 taken prisoner in his camp along with his son 
 Lucius, but was dismissed by Sulla uninjured. 
 He was, however, included in tlie proscription in 
 the following year (82), whereupon he fled to 
 Massilia, and passed there the remainder of his 
 
 SCIPIO. 
 
 685 
 
 life. His daughter was married to P. Sestius. 
 ^15. P. Com. Scipio Aemilianus Africanus 
 Minor, was the younger son of L. Aemiliua Paulus, 
 the conqueror of Miicedonia, and was adopted by 
 P. Scipio [No. 12], the son of the conqueror of 
 Hannibal. He was born about 185. In his 17tU 
 year he accompanied his father Paulus to Greece, 
 and fought under him at the battle of Pydna, 
 1()8. Scipio devoted himself with ardour to the 
 study of literature, and formed an intimate friend- 
 ship with Polybius, when the latter came to Rome 
 along with the other Achaean exiles in 167. 
 [Polybius.] At a later period ho also cultivated 
 the acquaintance of the philosopher Panaetius, 
 and he like^wise admitted the poets Lucilius and 
 Terence to his intimacy, and is said to have as- 
 sisted the latter in the composition of his come- 
 dies. His friendship with Laelius, whose tastes 
 and piusuits were so congenial to his own, has 
 been immortalised by Cicero''s celebrated treatise 
 entitled " Laelius sive de Amicitia.*" Although 
 thus devoted to the study of polite literature, 
 Scipio is said to have cultivated the virtues which 
 distinguished the older Romans, and to have made 
 Cato the model of his conduct. If we may believe 
 his panegyrists, he possessed all the simple virtues 
 of an old Roman, mellowed by the refining in- 
 fluences of Greek civilisation. Scipio first served 
 in Spain with great distinction as military tribune 
 under the consul L. LucuUus in 151. On the 
 breaking out of the 3rd Punic war in 149 he ac- 
 companied the Roman army to Africa, again with 
 the rank of military tribune. Here he gained 
 still more renown. By his personal bravery^ and 
 military skill he repaired, to a great extent, the 
 mistakes of the consul Manilius, whose anny on 
 one occasion he saved from destruction. He 
 returned to Rome in 148, and had already gained 
 such popularity that when he became a candidate 
 for the aedileship for the following year (147) he 
 was elected consul, although he was only 37, and 
 had not therefore attained the legal age. The 
 senate assigned to him Africa as his province, to 
 which he forthwith sailed, accompanied by his 
 friends Polybius and Laelius. He prosecuted the 
 siege of Carthage with the utmost vigour. The 
 Carthaginiaus defended themselves with the cou- 
 rage of despair, and the Romans were unable to 
 force their way into the city till the spring of the 
 following year (146). The inhabitants fought 
 from street to street, and from house to house, and 
 the work of destruction and butchery went on for 
 days. The fate of this once magnificent city 
 moved Scipio to tears, and anticipatinn- that a 
 similar catastrophe might one day befall Rome, he 
 repeated the lines of the Iliad (vi. 448), in which 
 Hector bewails the approaching fall of Troy. After 
 reducing Africa to the form of a Roman province, 
 Scipio returned to Rome in the same year, and 
 celebrated a splendid triumph on account of his 
 victory. The surname of Africanus, which he had 
 inherited by adoption from the conqueror of Han- 
 nibal, had been now acquired by him by his own 
 exploits. In 142 Scipio was censor, and in the 
 administration of the duties of his ofiice he at- 
 tempted to repress the growing luxury and immo- 
 rality of his contemporaries. His efforts, however, 
 were thwarted by his colleague Mummius, who 
 had himself acquired a love for Greek and Asiatic 
 luxuries. In 139 Scipio was accused by Ti, Clau- 
 dius Asellus of majestas. Asellus attacked him 
 
6G6 SCIPIO. 
 
 out of private animosit}-, because he had been 
 deprived of his horse, and reduced to the condition 
 of an aerarian by Scipio in his censorship, Scipio 
 was acquitted, and the speeches which he delivered 
 on the occasion obtained great celebiity, and were 
 held in high esteem in a later age. It appears to 
 have been after this event that Scipio was sent, on 
 an embassy to Egypt and Asia to attend to the 
 Roman interests in those countries. The long 
 continuance of the war in Spain again called Scipio 
 to the consulship. He was appointed consul in his 
 absence, and had the province of Spain assigned to 
 him in 134. His operations were attended with 
 siiccess ; and in 183 he brought tlie war to a con- 
 clusion by the capture of the city of Numantia 
 after a long siege. He now received the surname 
 of Niiraantinus in addition ti that of Africanus. 
 During his absence in Spain Tib. Gracchus had 
 been put to death. Scipio was married to Seni- 
 pronia, tlie sister of the fallen tribune, but he bad 
 no sympathy with his reforms, and no sorrow for 
 his fate. Upon his return to Rome in 132, he 
 did not disguise his sentiments, and when asked 
 in the assembly of the tribes by C. Papirius Carbo, 
 the tiibune, what he thought of the death of Tib. 
 Gracchus, he boldly replied that he was justly 
 slain {jure caesum). The people loudly expressed 
 their disapprobation; whereupon Scipio proudly 
 bad them be silent. He now took the lead in 
 opposing the popular party, and endeavoured to 
 prevent the agrarian law of Tib. Gracchus from 
 being carried into effect. In order to accomplish 
 this object, he proposed in the senate (129), that 
 all d'sputes respecting the lands of tlie allies should 
 be taken out of the hands of the commissioners 
 appointed under the law of Tib. Gracchus, and 
 should be committed to other persons. This 
 would have been equivalent to an abrogation of 
 the law; and accordingly Fulvius Flaccus, Pa- 
 pirius Carbo and C. Gracchus, tiie 3 cnmmission- 
 ers, offered the most vehement opposition to his 
 proposal. In the forum he was accused by Carbo 
 with the bitterest invectives as the enemy of the 
 people, and upon his again expressing his approval 
 of the death of Tib. Gracchus, the people shouted 
 out, " Down with the tyrant." In the evening 
 he went home with the intention of composing a 
 speech for the following day ; but next day he 
 was found dead in his room. The most contra- 
 dictov}' rumours were circulated respecting his 
 death, but it was generally believed that he was 
 murdered. Suspicion fell upon various persons; 
 his wife Sempronia and her motiier Cornelia were 
 suspected by some ; Carbo, Fulvius, ;md C. Grac- 
 chns by others. Of all these Carbo was most 
 generally believed to have been guilty, and is 
 expressly mentioned as the murderer by Cicero. 
 The general opinion entertained by the Romans of 
 a subsequent age respecting Scipio is given by 
 Cicero in his work on the Republic, in which Scipio 
 ia introduced as the principal speaker. — 16, P. 
 Corn. Scipio Nasiea, that is, *' Scipio with the 
 pointed nnse," was the son of Cii. Scipio Calvus, 
 who fell in Spain in 211. [No. 9,] He is first 
 mentioned in 204 as a young man who vvas judged 
 by the senate to be the best citizen in the state, 
 and was tlierefore Bent to Ostia along with the 
 Roman matrons to receive the statue of the Idaean 
 Mother, which had been brought from Pessinus. 
 He was curnle aedile 19G ; piaetur in 194, when 
 he fought with success in Further Spain; and consul 
 
 SCIPIO. 
 191, when he defeated the Boii, and triumphed 
 over them on his return to Rnme. Scipio Nasica 
 was a celebrated jurist, and a house was given him 
 by the state in the Via Sacra, in order that he 
 might be more easily consulted. ^17. P. Com. 
 Gciplo Nasica Corciilam, son of No. 16, inherited 
 from his father a love of jurisprudeiice. and became 
 so celebrated for his discernment and for his know- 
 ledge of the pontifical and civil law, that he received 
 the surname ol Corculum. He married a daughter 
 of Scipio Africanus the elder. He was consul for 
 the first time 162, but abdicated, together with his 
 colleague, almost immediately after they had en- 
 tered upon their office, on account of some fault in 
 the auspices. He was censor 159 with M. Popillius 
 Laenas, and was consul a 2nd time in 155, when 
 he subdued the Dalmatians, He was a firm up- 
 holder of the old Roman habits and manners, and 
 in his 2nd consulship he induced the senate to 
 order the demolition of a theatre, which was near 
 completion, as injurious to public morals. When 
 Cato repeatedly expressed his desire for the de- 
 struction of Carthage, Scipio, on the other hand, 
 declared that he wished for its preservation, since 
 the existence of such a rival would prove a useful 
 check upon the licentiousness of the multitude. 
 He was elected pontifex maximus in 150.— 13, P. 
 Com. Scipio Nasica Serapio, son of No. 17, is 
 chiefly known as the leader of the senate in the 
 murder of Tib. Gracchus. He was consul in 13H, 
 and in consequence of the severity with which he 
 and hia colleague conducted the levy of troops, 
 they were thrown into prison by C. Curiatius, 
 the tribune of the plebs. It was this Curiatins 
 who gave Nasica the nickname of Serapio, from 
 his resemblance to a person of low rank of this- 
 name; but though given him in derision, it after- 
 wards became his distinguishing surname. In 133, 
 when the tribes met to re-elect Tib. Gracchus to 
 the tribunate, and the utmost confusion prevailed 
 in the forum, Nasica called upon the consuls to 
 save the republic ; but as they refused to have 
 recourse to violence, he exclaimed, " As the consul 
 betrays the state, do you who wish to obey the- 
 laws follow me," and so saying he rushed forth from 
 the temple of Fides, where the senate was sitting, 
 followed by the greater number of the senators. 
 The people gave way before them, and Gracchus 
 was assassinated as he attempted to escape. In 
 consequence of his conduct on this occasion Nasica 
 became an object of such detestation to the people, 
 that the senate found it advisable to send him on a 
 pretended mission to Asia, although he was pontifex 
 maximus, and ought not, therefore, to have quitted 
 Italy. He did not venture to return to Rome, and 
 after wandering about from place to place, died 
 soon afterwards at Pergamum. — 19. P. Com. 
 Scipio Nasica, son of No. 18, was consul 111, and 
 died during his consulship. — 20. P. Corn. Scipio 
 Nasica, son of No. 19, praetor 94, is mentioned 
 hy Cicero as one of the advocates of Sex. Roscius 
 of Ameria. He married Licinia, the 2nd daughter 
 of L. Crassus, the orator. He had 2 sons, both ot 
 whom were adopted, one by his maternal grand- 
 father L. Crassus In his testament, and Is therefore 
 called L. Licinius Crassus Scipio ; and the other 
 by Q. Caecilius Metellus Pius, consul fiO, and is 
 therefore called Q. Caecilius Metellus Pius Scipio. 
 This Scipio became the father in-law of Cn. Pompey 
 the triumvir, and fell in Africa in 46. His life i3 
 given under Metellus, No. 15. — 21. Cxl. Com.. 
 
SCIRAS. 
 
 Scipio Hispallns, son of L. Scipio who is oti]}^ 
 known as a brother of the 2 Scipios who fell in 
 Spain. Hispallns was praetor 179, and consul 171. 
 —22. Cn. Com. Scipio Hispallus, son of No. 21, 
 was praetor, 139, when he published an edict that 
 all Chaldaeans (i.e. astrologers) should leave Rome 
 and Italy within 10 days. 
 
 Sciras or Sclerias (2Kipay, 2«\7jpias), of Ta- 
 rentum, was one uf the followers of Rhinthon in 
 that peculiar sort of comedy, or rather burlesque 
 tragedy, which was cultivated by the Dorians of 
 Magna Graecia, and especially at Tarentum. 
 [Rhinthon.] 
 
 Sciras {Sntpas), a surname of Athena, under 
 which she had a temple in the Attic port of Pha- 
 leron, and in the island of Salamis. The foun- 
 dation of the temple at Phaleron is ascribed by 
 Pausanias to a soothsayer, Scinis of Dodona, who 
 is said to have come to Attica at the time wlien 
 the Eieusinians were at war with Erechtheus. 
 
 Sciritis (SfCipiTis), a wild and mountainous 
 district in- the N. of Laconia, on the borders of 
 Arcadia, with a town called Scirus (SKipos), 
 which originally belonged to Arcadia. Its inha- 
 bitants, the Sciritae (^Kipirat), formed a special 
 division of the Lacedaemonian army. This body, 
 which in the time of the Peloponnesian war, was 
 600 in number, was stationed in battle at the 
 extreme left of the line, formed on march the 
 vanguard, and was usually employed on the most 
 dangerous kinds of service. 
 
 Sciron (J^icipcov or 'Xicdpuv)^ a famous robber 
 who infested the frontier between Attica and 
 Megaris. He not only robbed the travellers who 
 passed through the country, but compelled them, 
 on the Scironian rock to wash his feet, and kicked 
 them into the sea, while they were thus employed. 
 At the foot of the rock there was a tortoise, which 
 devoured the bodies of the robber's victims. He 
 was slain by Theseus. 
 
 Scironia Saxa {'Zicipoivioes ir^Tpai, also 5/a- 
 pdBes : Derveni Bouno), large rocks on the E. 
 coast of Megaris, between which and the sea there 
 was only a narrow dangerous pass, called the 
 Scironian road ij) '^KipcovT] or ^Kipcovls 656s : Kaki 
 Slxda). This road was afterwards enlarged by the 
 emperor Hadrian. The name of the rocks was 
 derived from the celebrated robber Sciron. 
 
 Scirri or Sciri, a people in European Sarmatia, 
 on the N. coast, immediately £. of the Vistula, in 
 the modern Curland and Samogiticn. The Sciri 
 afterwards joined the Huns; and to this people 
 belonged Odoacer, the conqueror of Italy. 
 
 Scirtoninm {S.Kiprd^viov)^ a town in the S. of 
 Arcadia, belonging to the district Aegytis, the 
 inhabitants of which removed to Megalopolis, upon 
 the foundation of the latter. 
 
 Scirtus (2/ct/jTos : JUlab)^ a river in Mesopo- 
 tamia, flowing past Edessa into a small lake near 
 Charrae. Its name, which signifies leaping, was 
 derived from its rapid descent in a series of small 
 cascades. 
 
 Sclerias. [Sciras.] 
 
 Scodra (Scodrensis: Scodar ov Saltan), one of 
 the most important towns in Illyricum, on the left 
 bank of the river Barbana, at the S. E. corner of 
 the Lacas Labeatis, and about 17 miles from tlie 
 coast. It was strongly fortified, and was the resi- 
 dence of the Illyrian king Gentius. It subse- 
 quently contained many Roman inhabitants. 
 
 SCOdrUS. [SCARDUS.] 
 
 bcuPAa. 
 
 687 
 
 Seoedisea, Scydisses, or Scordiscus {^koi^ 
 ^'latjs, 2ffi;5fcro'T)s, "^Kophlatcos : Dassim Dayh, or 
 Chambu-Bd Dagh), a mountain in the N. E. of 
 Asia Minor, dividing Pontus Cappadocius from 
 Armenia Minor, and forming a part of the same 
 range as M. Pnryades. 
 
 Scollis (S/coAAis : Sandameri), a rocky moun- 
 tain between Elis and Achaia, 3333 feet high, 
 which joins on the E. the mountain Lnmpea, 
 
 Scoloti (2/coAoTOi), the native name of the 
 Scythians, according to Herodotus, is in all proba- 
 bility the Greek form of Slave-nie or Sluve-nie, the 
 generic name of the Slavonian race. [Scythia.] 
 The later Greek writers call them 2ic\a€rii/oi. 
 
 Scolus (SrtwAos : 'ZkcoXios, 2/cuiAt€Uj). 1. An 
 ancient town in Boeotia, on the road from Thebes 
 to Aphidna in Attica, was situated on the N. 
 slope of Mt. Cithaeron and 40 stadia S. of the 
 river Asopus. — 2. A small place in Macedonia, 
 near Olynthus, 
 
 Scombraria [Islote), an island in front of the 
 bay, on the S. E. coast of Spain, which formed the 
 harbour of Carthago Nova. It received its name 
 from the scombri, or mackerel, taken off its coast, 
 from which the Romans prepared their garum. 
 
 Scomius Iffons {rh "SKOfxiov ^pos), a mountain 
 in Macedonia, which runs E. of Mt. Scardus, in 
 the direction of N. to S. towards Mt. Haemus. 
 
 Scopas (Skottoj). 1. An Aetolian, who held a 
 leading position among his countrymen at the 
 period of the outbreak of the war with Philip and 
 the Achaeans, b. c. 220. He commanded the 
 Aetolian army in the first year of the war ; and 
 he is mentioned again as general of the Aetolians, 
 when the latter people concluded an alliance with 
 the Romans to assist them against Philip ("211). 
 After the close of the war with Philip, Scopas and 
 Dorimachus were appointed to reform tlie Aetolian 
 constitution (204). Scopas had only undertaken 
 the charge from motives of personal ambition ; on 
 finding himself disappointed in this object, he with- 
 drew to Alexandria. Here he was received with 
 the utmost favour by the ministers of the young 
 king, Ptolemy V., and appointed to the chief com- 
 mand of the army against Antiochus the Great. 
 At first he was successful, but was afterwards 
 defeated by Antiochus at Panium, and reduced to 
 shut himself up within the walls of Sidon, where 
 he was ultimately compelled by famine to surrender. 
 Notwithstanding this ill success he continued in 
 high favour at the Egj'ptian court ; but havinc' 
 formed a plot in 296 to obtain by force the ciiie'f 
 administration of the kingdom, he was arrested and 
 put to death. — 2. A distinguished sculptor, was a 
 native of Paros, and appears to have belonged to 
 a family of artists in that island. He flourished 
 from B. c. 395 to 350. He was probably somewhat 
 older than Praxiteles, with whom he stands at the 
 head of that second period of perfected art which 
 is called the later Attic school (in contradistinction 
 to the earlier Attic school of Phidias), and which 
 arose at Athens after the Peloponnesian war. 
 Scopas was an architect and a statuary as well as 
 a sculptor. He was the architect of the temple of 
 Athena Alea, at Tegea, in Arcadia, which was com- 
 menced soon after b. c. 394. He was one of the 
 artists employed in executing the bas-reliefs, whicli 
 decorated the frieze of the Mausoleum at Hali- 
 carnassus in Caria, A portion of these bas-reliefs 
 is now deposited in the British Museum. Among 
 the single statues and groups of Scopas, the best 
 
688 
 
 SCOPAS. 
 
 kno\vn in modem times is his group of figures 
 representing the destruction of the sons and 
 daughters of Niobe. In Pliny's time the statues 
 stood in the temple of Apollo Sosianus. The 
 remaining statues of tjiis group, or copies of them, 
 are all in the Florence Gallen% with the exception 
 of the so-called Ilioneus, at Munich, which some 
 suppose to have belonged to the group. There is 
 a head of Niobe in the collection of Lord Yar- 
 borough, which has some claim to be considered 
 as the original. But the most esteemed of all 
 the works of Scopas, in antiquity, was his group 
 which stood in the shrine of Cn. Domitius in 
 the Flaminian. circus, representing Achilles con- 
 ducted to the island of Leuce by the divinities 
 of the seai It consisted of figures of Neptune, 
 Thetis, and Achilles, surrounded by Nereids, and 
 attended by Tritons, and by an assemblage of sea 
 monsters. 
 
 Scopas (S'coTTay : Aladan\ a river of Galatia, 
 falling into the Sangarius, from the E., at Julio- 
 polis. 
 
 Scordisci, a people in Pannonia Superior, are 
 sometimes classed among the Illyrians, but were 
 the remains of an ancient and powerful Celtic 
 tribe. They dwelt between the Savus and Dravus. 
 
 Scordiscus. [Scoedises.] 
 
 Scoti, a people mentioned, together with the 
 PiCTi, by the later Roman writers as one of the 
 the chief tribes of the ancient Caledonians. They 
 dwelt in the S. of Scotland and in Ireland ; and 
 from them the former country has derived its 
 name. 
 
 Scotitas (2K0TiTas), a woody district in the 
 N. of Laconia on the frontiers of Tegeatis. 
 
 Scotussa (2«(JTou(rtro ; 'ZKorovaaaXos)^ a very 
 ancient town of Thessaly, in the district Pelas- 
 giotis, near the source of the Onchestus, and not 
 lai- from the hills Cynoscephalae, where Flami- 
 niims gained his celebrated victory over Philip, 
 B.C. 197. 
 
 Scribonia, wife of Octavianus, afterwards the 
 ■emperor Augustus, had been married twice before. 
 By one of her former husbands, P. Scipio, she had 
 two children, P. Scipio, who was consul, B.C. 16, 
 and a daughter, Cornelia, who was married to 
 Paulus Aemilius Lepidus, censor b. c. 22. Scri- 
 bonia was the sister of L. Scribonius Libo, who 
 was the father-in-law of Sex. Pompey. Augustus 
 married her in 40, on the advice of Maecenas, 
 because he was then afraid that Sex. Pompey 
 •would form an alliance with Antony to crush him ; 
 but having renewed his alliance with Antony, 
 Octavian divorced her in the following year (3i)), 
 in order to marry Livia on the very day on which 
 she had borne him a daughter, Julia. Scribonia 
 long survived her separation from Octavian. In 
 A.D. 2 she accompanied, of her own accord, her 
 daughter Julia into exile, to the island of Pan- 
 -dateria. 
 
 Scribonius Curio. [Cuaio.] 
 
 Scribonius Larg-as. [Largus.] 
 
 Scribonius Libo. [Libo.] 
 
 Scribonius Proculus. [Proculus.] 
 
 Scultenna {Panaro), a river in Gallia Cispa- 
 dana, rising in the Apennines, and flowing to the E. 
 of Mutina into the Po. 
 
 Sciipi (C/iA«6), a town in Moesia Superior on 
 the Axius, and the capital of Dardania. It was 
 the residence of the archbishop of lllyricum, and 
 in the middle ages of the Servian kings. 
 
 SCYLITZES. 
 
 Scydisses. [Scoedises.] 
 
 Scylace (S/cuAo/c?;), or Scylaceion, an ancient 
 city on the coast of Mysia Minor, at the foot of 
 M. Olympus, said to have been founded by the 
 Pelasgians. 
 
 Scylacium, also Scylaceum, or Scylletitun 
 (^KvKa.Ki.ov^ 'Ziiv\aKe7ov^ ^Ku\K-f]Tiov : Squillace), 
 a Greek town on the E. coast of Bruttium, was 
 situated on 2 adjoining hills at a short distance 
 from the coast, between the rivers Caecinus and 
 Carcines. It is said to have been founded by the 
 Athenians. It belonged to the territory of Croton, 
 but was subsequently given by the elder Dionysius 
 to the Locrians, and came eventually into the pos- 
 session of the Romans. It had no harbour, whence 
 Virgil (^Aen. in. 553) speaks of it as navifragum 
 Sn/lacciim. From this town the Scylacius or 
 Scylleticus Sinus (S/cuAATjTi/cis K6\Tros) derived 
 its name. The isthmus which separated this bay 
 from the Sinus Hipponiates on the W. coast of 
 Bruttium, was only 20 miles broad, and formed 
 the ancient boundary of Oenotria. 
 
 Scylaz (2/:u\a|). L Of Caryanda in Caria, 
 was sent by Darius Hystaapis on a voyage of dis- 
 covery down the Indus. Setting out from the city 
 of Caspatyrus and the Pactyican district, Scylax 
 reached the sea, and then sailed W. through the 
 Indian Ocean to the Red Sea, performing the whole 
 vo3'age in 30 months. — 2. Of Halicamassus, a 
 friend of Panaetius, distinguished for his knowledge 
 of the stars, and for his political influence in bis own 
 state. — There is still extant a Pcriplus, containing 
 a brief description of certain countries in Europe, 
 Asia, and Africa, and bearing tlie name of Scylax of 
 Caryanda. This work has been ascribed by some 
 writers to the Scylax mentioned by Herodotus, 
 and by others to the contemporary of Panaetius 
 and Polybius ; but most modem scholars suppose 
 the writer to have lived in the first half of the 
 reign of Philip, the father of Alexander the Great, 
 about B. c. 350. It is clear from internal evi- 
 dence that the Periplus must have been composed 
 long after the time of Herodotus ; whilst, from its 
 omitting to mention any of the cities founded by 
 Alexander, sucli as Alexandria in Egypt, we may 
 conclude that it was drawn up before the reign of 
 Alexander. It is probable that the author prefixed 
 to his work the name of Scylax of Caryanda, on 
 account of the celebrity of this navigator. This 
 Periphis is printed by Hudson, in his Gcographi 
 Graeci JMivores, and by Klausen, attached to his 
 fragments of Hecataeus, Berlin, 1831. 
 
 Scylax (2Ki/Aa^: Choieiieh-Irmak), a river in 
 the S. W. of Pontus, falling into the Iris, between 
 Amasia and Gaziura. 
 
 Scylitzes or Scylitza, Joannes, a Byzantine 
 historian, surnamed, from his office, Curopalates, 
 flourished a. d. 1001. His work extends from 
 the death of Nicephorus I. (Oil), down to the 
 reign of Nicephorus Botaniotes (1078 — 1081). 
 The portion of tlie history of Cedrenus, which 
 extends from the death of Nicephorus I. (811) 
 to the close of the work (1057), is found almost 
 verbatim in the history of Scylitzes. Hence it 
 has been supposed that Scylitzes copied from 
 Cedrenus, and consequently the entire work of 
 Scylitzes has not been published separately, but 
 only the part extending from 1057 to 1080, which 
 has been printed as an appendix to Cedrenus. 
 [Cedrenus.] It is now, however, generally ad- 
 mitted that Cedrenus copied from Scylitzes. 
 
SCYLLA. 
 
 Scylla (2KiiA\a) and Cliarybdis, the names of 
 two rocks between Italy and Sicily, and only a 
 short distance from one another. In the one of 
 these rocks which was nearest to Italy, there was 
 a cave, in which dwelt Scylla, a daughter of Cra- 
 taeis, a fearful monster, bai-king like a dog, with 
 12 feet, and 6 long necks and heads, each of which 
 contained 3 rows of sharp teeth. The opposite 
 rock, which was much lower, contained an im- 
 mense fig-tree, under whicii dwelt Cliarybdis, who 
 thrice every day swallowed down the waters of 
 the sea, and tiirice threw them up again : both 
 were formidable to the ships which had to pass 
 between them. This is the Homeric account. 
 Later traditions give different accounts of Scylla's 
 parentage. Some describe her as a monster with 
 6 heads of different animals, or with only 3 lieads. 
 One tradition relates that Scylla was originally a 
 beautiful maiden, who often played with the 
 nymphs of the sea, and was beloved by the marine 
 god Glaucus. The latter applied to Circe for 
 means to make Scylla return his love; but Circe, 
 jealous of the fair maiden, threw magic herbs into 
 the well in which Scylla was wont to bathe, by 
 means of which the lower part of her body was 
 changed into the tail of a fish or serpent, sur- 
 rounded by dogs, while the upper part remained 
 that of a woman. Another tradition related that 
 Scylla was beloved by Poseidon, and that Amplii- 
 trite, from jealousy, metamorphosed her into a 
 monster. Hercules is said to have killed her, be- 
 cause she stole some of the oxen of Geryon ; but 
 Phorcys is said to have restored her to life. Virgil 
 {Aen. vi. 21)6) speaks of several Scyllae, and 
 places them in the lower world. Charybdis is de- 
 scribed as a daughter of Poseidon and Gaea, and 
 a voracious woman, who stole oxen from Hercules, 
 and was hurled by the thunderbolt of Zeus into 
 the sea. 
 
 Scylla, daughter of king Nisus of Megara, who 
 fell in love with Minos. For details see Nisus, 
 and Minos. 
 
 Scyllaeum {:SKv\\aioj/). 1. (Sclgih), a pro- 
 montory on the coast of Bruttium, at the N. entrance 
 to the Sicilian straits, where the monster Scylla 
 was supposed to live [Scylla], ^2. {Scilla or 
 Scitjlio\ a town in Bruttium, on the above-named 
 promontory. There are still remains of the ancient 
 citadel. ^3. A promontory in Argolis on the coast 
 of Troezen, forming, with the promontory of Su- 
 nium in Attica, the entrance to the Siironic gulf. 
 It is said to have derived its name from Scylla, 
 the daughter of Nisus. [Nisus.] 
 Scylleticus Siniis. [Scylacium.] 
 Scylletium. [Scylacium.] 
 Scyllis. [DiPOENUs.] 
 
 Scymnus {'2.icvfMvos\ of Chios, wrote a Periege- 
 sis, or description of the earth, which is referred 
 to by later writers. This work was in prose, and 
 consequently different from the Periegesis in Iam- 
 bic metre, which has come down to us, and which 
 many modern writers have erroneously ascribed to 
 Scymnus of Chios, The poem is dedicated to king 
 Nicomedes, whom some modern writers suppose to 
 be the same as Nicomedes III., king of Bithynia, 
 who died B. c. 74 ; but this is quite uncertain. 
 The best edition of the poem is by Meineke, 
 Berlin, 1846". 
 
 ScyiQB {^Kvpos : ^Kvptos: &;yro), an island in 
 the Aegacan sea, E. of Eubocji, and one of the 
 Sporades. It contained a town of the same name, 
 
 SCYTHIA. 
 
 ev.9 
 
 and a river called Cephissus. Its ancient inhabi- 
 tiints are said to have been Pclasgians, Carians, 
 and Dolopians. The island is frequently mentioned 
 in the stories of the mythical period. Here Thetis 
 concealed her son Achilles in woman's attire among 
 the daughters of Lycomedes, in order to save him 
 from the fate which awaited him under the walla 
 of Troy. It was here also that Pyrrhus, the son 
 of Achilles by Deidamia, was brought up, and it 
 was from this island that Ulysses fetched him to 
 the Trojan war. According to another tradition, 
 the island was conquered by Achilles, in order to 
 revenge the death of Theseus, who is said to have 
 been treacherously destroyed in Scjtos by Lyco- 
 medes. The bones of Theseus were discovered by 
 Cimon in Scyros, after his conquest of the island 
 in B. c. 476, and were conveyed to Athens, where 
 they were preserved in the Theseum. From this 
 time Scyros continued subject to Athens till the 
 period of the Macedonian supremacy ; but the 
 Romans compelled the last Philip to restore it to 
 Athens in 136. The soil of Scyros was unpro- 
 ductive ; but it was celebrated for its breed of 
 goats, and for its quarries of variegated marble. 
 
 Scythia {tj ^.KvOun), ri S/ci/Sia, Ion. ^KvBit], ?j 
 Tuv 2Ku0€wr x^PV-, Herod.: 2«i5ff7;y, Scythes, 
 Scytha, pi. :S.Kvdai, Scythae ; fem. ^kv91s^ Scythis, 
 Scythissa), a name applied to very different coun- 
 tries at different times. The Scythia of Herodotus 
 comprises, to speak generally, the S. E. parts of 
 Europe, between the Carpathian mountains and*- 
 the river Tanais {Don). The Greeks became- 
 acquainted with this country through their settle- 
 ments on the Euxine; and Herodotus, who had 
 himself visited the coasts of the Euxine, collectedv 
 all the information he could obtain about the- 
 Scythians and their country, and embodied the- 
 results in a most interesting digression, which 
 fonns the first part of his 4th book. The details, 
 for which there is not room in this article, must 
 be read in Herodotus. He describes the country 
 as a square of 4000 stadia (400 geog. miles) each 
 way, the W. boundary being the Ister {Danube) 
 and the mountains of the Agathyrsi ; the S. the 
 shores of the Euiine and Palus Maeotis, from the 
 mtjuth of the Ister to that of the Tanais, this side 
 being divided into 2 eq,ual parts, of 2000 stadia 
 each, by the mouth of the Borysthenes {Dnieper) ~; 
 the E. boundary was the Tana'ia, and on the N. . 
 Scythia was divided by desarts from the Melan- 
 chlaeni, Androphagi, and Budini. It corresponded' 
 to the S. part of Russia in Europe. The people- 
 who inhabited this region were called by tho- 
 Greeks 2;cu5ai, a word of doubtful origin, which' 
 first occurs in Hesiod ; but, in their own language, 
 'S,K6\oTot^ i.e. Slavonians. They were beli»ved 
 by Herodotus to be of Asiatic origin ; and his 
 account of tliem, taken in connection' with the 
 description given by Hippocrates of their physical 
 peculiarities, leaves no doubt that they were a 
 part of the great Mongol race, who have wandered, 
 from unknown antiquity, over the steppes of 
 Central Asia. Herodotus says further that they 
 were driven out of their abodes in Asia, N. oi' 
 the Araxes, by the Massagetae ; and that, mi- 
 grating into Europe, they drove out the Cimme- 
 rians. If this account be true, it can hardly but 
 have some connection with the irruption of the 
 Cimmerians into Asia Minor, in the reign of the 
 Lydian king Ardys, about b. c. 640. The Scy- 
 thians were a jiomad people, that is, shepherds 
 
690 
 
 SCYTHIA. 
 
 or ;t('rdsnien» who ]uid no fixed habitations, but 
 roamed over a vast tract of country at their plea- 
 sure, and according to the wants of their cattle. 
 They lived in a kind of covered waggons, which 
 Aeschylus describes as " lofty houses of wicker- 
 work, on well-wheeled chariots.'' They kept large 
 troops of horses, and were most expert in cavalry 
 exercis'es and archery ; and hence, as the Persian 
 king Darius found, when he invaded their country 
 (b.c. 507 ), it was almost impossible for an invading 
 army to act against them. They simply retreated, 
 waggons and all, before the enemy, harassing him 
 with their light cavalry, and leaving famine and 
 exposure, in their bare steppes, to do the rest. 
 Like all the Mongol race, they were divided into 
 several hordes, the chief of whom were called the 
 Royal Scythians ; and to these all the rest owned 
 some degree of allegiance. Tiieir government was 
 a sort of patriarchal monarchy or chieftainship. 
 An important modification of their habits had, 
 however, taken place, to a certain extent, before 
 Herodotus described them. The fertility of the 
 plains on the N. of the Euxlne, and the influence of 
 the Greek settlements at the mouth of tiie Borys- 
 thenes, and along the coast, had led the inhabitants 
 of this part of Scythia to settle down as cultivators 
 of the soil, and had brought them into commercial 
 and other relations with the Greeks. Accordingly, 
 Herodotus mentions 2 classes or hordes of Scy- 
 thians, who had thus abandoned their nomad 
 life ; first, on the W. of the Borysthenes, 2 tribes 
 of Hellenized Scythians, called Callipidae and 
 Alazones ; then, beyond these, " the Scythians 
 who are ploughers (5«u0ai apoTTjpes), who do not 
 grow their corn for food, but for sale;" these 
 dwelt about the river Hypanis (Boug) in the 
 region now called the Ukraine^ which is still, 
 as it was to the Greeks, a great com exporting 
 country. Again, on the E. of the Borj'sthenes 
 were " the Scythians who are husbandmen " 
 {^Kvdai yewpyol)^ i.e. who grew com for their 
 own consumption r these were called Borj-sthenitae 
 by the Greeks : their country extended 3 days* 
 journey E, of the Borj'sthenes to the river Pan- 
 TiCAPEs. Beyond these, to the E., dwelt " the 
 nomad Scythians (I'o/iaSej 2«:u0ai), who neither 
 sow nor plough at all." Herodotus expressly 
 states that the tribes E. of the Borysthenes were 
 not Scythian. Of the history of these Scythian 
 tribes there is little to state, beyond the tradition 
 already mentioned, that they migrated from Asia, 
 and expelled the Cimmerians ; their invasion of 
 Media, in the reign of Cyaxares, when they held the 
 supremacy of W. Asia for 28 years ; and the dis- 
 astrous expedition of Darius into their country. 
 In later times, they were gradually overpowered 
 by the neighbouring people, especially the Sar- 
 matians, who gave their name to the whole country. 
 [Sarmatia.] Meanwhile, the conquests of 
 Alexander and his successors in Central Asia had 
 made the Greeks acquainted with tribes beyond 
 the Oxus and the Jaxartes, who resembled the 
 Scythians, and belonged, in fact, to the same 
 great Mongol race, and to whom, accordingly, the 
 same name was applied. Hence, in writers of the 
 time of the Roman empire, the name of Scythia 
 denotes the whole of N. Asia, from the river Rha 
 ( Volga) on the W., which divided it from Asiatic 
 Sarmatia, to Serica on the E., extending to India 
 on the S. It was divided, by M. Imaus, into 2 
 parts, called respectively Scythia intra Imaum, 
 
 SECUNDUS. 
 i. e. on the N. W. side of the range, and Scythia 
 extra Imaum, on its S. K. side. Of the people of 
 this region nothing was known except some names ; 
 but the absence of knowledge was supplied by 
 some marvellous and not uninteresting fables. 
 
 Scythini {2,tcv6ivol), a people on the W. border 
 of Armenia, through whose countiy the Greeks 
 under Xeuophon marched 4 days' journey. Their 
 territory was bounded on the E. by the river Har- 
 pasus, and on the W. by the river Apsarus. 
 
 Scythinus {^kv67i'os), of Teos, an iambic poet, 
 turned into verse the great work of the philosopher 
 Heraclitua, of which a considerable fragment is 
 preserved by Stobaeus. 
 
 Scythopolia (2.icu66iro\is : 0. T. Bethshean : 
 Beisan, Ra.), an important city of Palestine, in 
 the S. E. of Galilee, according to the usual division, 
 but sometimes also reckoned to Samaria, sometimes 
 to Decapolis, and sometimes to Coele-Syria. It 
 stood on a hill in the Jordan valley, W. of the 
 river, and near one of its fords. Its site was fer- 
 tilised by numerous springs ; and to this advantage, 
 as well as to its being the centre of several roads, 
 it owed its great prosperity and its importance in 
 the history of Palestine. It is often mentioned in 
 0. T. history, in the time of the Maccabees, and 
 under the Romans. It had a mixed population of 
 Canaanites, Philistines, and Assyrian settlers; 
 Josephus adds Scythians, but this is perhaps an 
 error, founded on a false etymology of the name. 
 Under the later Roman empire, it became the seat 
 of the archbishop of Palaestina Secunda, and it 
 continued a flourishing city to the time of the first 
 Crusade. 
 
 Scythotatiri, Tatiri Scythae, or Tanroscy- 
 thae, a people of Sarmatia Europaea, just without 
 the Chersonesus Taurica, between the rivers Car- 
 cinites and Hypanis, as iar as the tongue of land 
 called Dromos Achilleos, 
 
 Sebaste (2eeafrT^=Augusta : 'S.cSaUT-rivSs). 1. 
 {Ayaslt, Ru.), a city on the coast of Cilicia Aspera, 
 b'.iilt for a residence by Archelaus, king of Cappa- 
 docia, to whom the Romans had granted the 
 sovereignty of Cilicia, and named in honour of 
 Augustus. It stood W. of the river Lamus, on a 
 small island called Eleousa, the name of which 
 appears to have been afterwards transferred to the 
 city. ^ 2. (Segikler), a city of Phrygia, N. W. of 
 Eumenia.^3. [Cabira.] This city was also 
 called 'ZeSda-TGia.^^. [Samaria.] 
 
 Sebastopolis {^^SaarSwoXis : Turkhal)^ a city 
 of Pontus, on the Iris, S. E. of Amasia, by some 
 identified with Gaziura. There were some other 
 places of the name, which do not require particular 
 notice. 
 
 Sebennytus (SeSeVj/uroy, tJ ^eSevvvriKij -no- 
 Air : Semennout^ Ru.), a considerable city of Lower 
 Egypt, in the Delta, on the W. side of the branch 
 of the Nile called after it the Sebennytic Mouth, 
 just at the fork made by this and the Phatnitic 
 Mouth, and S. of Busiris. It was the capital of 
 the Nomos Sebennytes or Sebennyticus. 
 
 Sebetlius {Maddalena\ a small river in Cam- 
 pania, flowing round Vesuvius, and falling into the 
 Sinus Puteolanus at the E. side of Neapolis. 
 
 Sebinus Lacus (Lago Seo or Tseo), a lake in 
 Gallia Cisalpina, formed by the river Ollius be- 
 tween the lakes Larius and Benacus. 
 
 Secnndus, Pompomus, a distinguished poet in 
 the reigns of Tiberius, Caligula, and Claudius. He 
 was one of the friends of Sejanus, and on the fall 
 
SEDETANT. 
 
 of that minister in a. d. 31 was thrown into prison, 
 where he remained till the accession of Caligula in 
 37, by whom he was released. He was consul in 
 41, and in the reign of Claudius commanded in 
 Germany, when he defeated the Chatti. Secun- 
 dua was an intimate friend of the elder Pliny, who 
 wrote his life in 2 books. His tragedies were the 
 most celebrated of his literary compositions. 
 
 Sedetani. [Kdetani.] 
 
 Sedigitus, Tolcatius, from wliose work Dc 
 Po'ciis A. Gellius (xv. 24) has preserved ] 3 Iambic 
 senarians, in which the principal Latin comic dra- 
 matists are enumerated in the order of merit. In 
 this "Canon," as it has been termed, the 1st 
 place is assigned to Caecilius Statius, the 2nd to 
 Plautus, the 3rd to Naevius, the 4th to Licinius, 
 the 5th to Attilius, the 6th to Terentius, the 7th 
 toTurpilius, the 0th to Trabea, the 9th to Luscius, 
 the 10th, " causa antiquitatis," to Ennius. 
 
 Sedulius, Coelius, of Seville, a Christian poet, 
 flourished about a. d. 450. Of his personal his- 
 tory we know nothing. His works are: — 1. 
 Paschale Carmen a. Mirahilium Divmorum Li- 
 bri v., in heroic measure. 2. Veieris et Ivovi 
 Testamenii Collatio, a sort of hymn containing a 
 collection of texts from the Old and New Testa- 
 ments, arranged in such a manner as to enable the 
 reader to compare the two dispensations. 3. Hym- 
 nus de Chi'isio, an account of the life and miracles 
 of Christ. 4. De Verbi Incarnatioiie^ a Cento 
 Virgilianus. The best editions are by Cellarius, 
 Hal. 1704 and 1739; by Arntzenius, Leovard. 
 1761 ; and by Arevalus, Rom. 1794. 
 
 Seduni, an Alpine people in Gallia Belgica, E. 
 of the lake of Geneva, in the valley of the Rhone, 
 in the modem Vallais. Their cliief town was 
 called Civitas Sedunorum, the modern Sion. 
 
 Sednsii, a German people, forming part of the 
 army of Ariuvistus, when he invaded Gaul, B.C. 
 58, They are not mentioned at a later period, 
 and consequently their site cannot be determined. 
 
 Segesama or Segisamo (Segisamonensis : Sa- 
 samo), a town of the Murbogi or Turmodigi in 
 Hispania Tarraconensis, on the road from Tarraco 
 to Asturica. 
 
 Segesta (Segestanus : nv,Alca7no Ru.),tbe later 
 Roman form of the town, called by the Greeks 
 Egesta or Aegesta ("Eyeo-ro, Aiyeo-ra, in Virg. 
 Acesta: 'Eyea-Taios, Alyea-raySs, AcestaeusJ, situ- 
 ated in the N. W. of Sicily, near the coast between 
 Panormus and Drepanum. It is said to have been 
 founded by the Trojans on 2 small rivers, to which 
 they gave the names of Simois and Scamander ; 
 hence the Romans made it a colony of Aeneas. 
 One tradition, indeed, ascribed to it a Greek 
 origin ; but in later times it was never regarded as 
 a Greek city. Its inhabitants were constantly en- 
 gaged in hostilities with Selinus ; and it was at 
 their solicitation that the Athenians were led to 
 embark in their unfortunate expedition against 
 Sicily. The town was taken by Agathocles, who 
 destroyed or sold as slaves all its inhabitants, 
 peopled the city with a body of deserters, and 
 changed its name into that of Bicaeopolis ; but 
 after the death of this tyrant, the remains of the 
 ancient inhabitants returned to the city and re- 
 sumed their former name. In the neighbourhood 
 of the city, on the road to Drepanum, were cele- 
 brated mineral springs, called Aquae Segestanae or 
 Aquae Pintianae. 
 
 Segestes, a Cheruacan chieftain, the opponent 
 
 SEJANUS. 
 
 691 
 
 of Arminius. Private injuries embittered their 
 political feud, for Arminius carried oif and forcibly 
 married the daughter of Segestes. In a. d, 9 Se- 
 gestes warned Quiiitilius Varus of the conspiracy 
 of Arminius, and other Cheruscan chiefs against 
 him ; but his warning was disregarded, and Varus 
 perished. In 14 Segestes was forced by his tribes- 
 men into a war with Rome; but he afterwards 
 made his peace with the Romans, and was allowed 
 to reside at Narbonne. 
 
 Segetia, a Roman divinity, who, together with 
 Setia or Seja and Semonia, was invoked by the 
 early Italians at seed time, for Segetia, like the 
 two other names, is connected with seru and segps, 
 
 Segni, a German people in Gallia Belgica, be- 
 tween the Treveri and Eburones, the name of 
 whom is still preserved in the modern town of 
 Sinei or Sic/7iei. 
 
 Segobriga, the chief town of the Celtiberi,- in 
 Hispania Tarraconensis, S.W. of Caesaraugiista, pro- 
 bably in the neighbourhood of the modem Priego. 
 
 Segontia or Seguntia, a town of the Celtiberi, 
 in Hispania Tarraconensis, 16 miles from Caesar- 
 augasta. 
 
 Segovia. 1. {Segovia), a town of the Arevaci, 
 on the road from Emerita to Caesaraugusta. A 
 magnificent Roman aqueduct is still extant at Se- 
 govia. —2. A town in Hispania Baeticaon the Flu- 
 men Silicense, near Sacili. 
 
 Segusiaui, one of the most important peoples in 
 Galiia Lugdunensis, bounded by the Allobroges on 
 the S., by the Sequani on the E., by the Aedui on 
 the N., and by the Arverni on the W. In the 
 time of Caesar they were dependent on the Aedui. 
 In their territory was the town of Lugdunum, the 
 capital of the province. 
 
 Segusio i^Susa), the capital of the Segusini and 
 the residence of king Cottius, was situated in. 
 Gallia Transpadana, at the foot of the Cottian Alps. 
 The triumphal arch, erected at this place by 
 Cottius in honour of Augustus, is still extant. 
 
 Seius Strabo. [Sejanus.] 
 
 Sejanus, Aelius, was born at Vulsiuii, in 
 Etruria, and was the son of Seius Strabo, who was 
 commander of the praetorian troops at the close of 
 the reign of Augustus, A. d. 14. In the same 
 year Sejanus was made the colleague of his father 
 in the command of the praetorian bands; and upon 
 his father being sent as governor to Egypt, he 
 obtained the sole command of these troops. He 
 ultimatel}' gained such influence over Tiberius, 
 that this suspicious man, who was close and re- 
 served to all mankind, opened his bosom to Sejanus, 
 and made him his confidant. For many years he 
 governed Tiberms ; but not content with this high 
 position, he formed the design of obtaining the 
 imperial power. With this view he sought to 
 make himself popular with the soldiers, and gave 
 posts of honour and emolument to his creatures 
 and favourites. With the same object he resolved 
 to get rid of all the members of the imperial family. 
 He debauched Livia, the wife of Drusus, the son 
 of Tiberius ; and by promising her marriage and a 
 participation in the imperial power, he was enabled 
 to poison Drusus with her connivance and assist- 
 ance (23). An accident increased the credit of 
 Sejanus, and confirmed the confidence of Tiberius. 
 The emperor, with Sejanus and others, was feast- 
 ing in a natural cave, between Amyclae, which 
 was on the sea coast, and the hills of Fundi. The 
 entrance of the cave suddenly fell in, and crushed 
 
 vv 9 
 
€92 SELENE. 
 
 some of the slaves ; and all the piiests, in alarm, 
 tried to make their escape, Sejanus, resting hie 
 knees on the couch of Tiberius, and placinjr his 
 shoulders under the faliinrr rock, protected his 
 master, and was discovered in this posture by the 
 soldiers who came to their relief. After Tiberius 
 had shut liimself up in the island of Capreae, Se- 
 janus had full scope for his machinations ; and the 
 death of Livia, the mother of Tiberius (29), was 
 followed by the banishment of Agrippina and her 
 sons Nero and Drusus. Tiberius at last be^n to 
 suspect the designs of Sejanus, and felt that it was 
 time to rid himself of a man who was almost more 
 than a rival. To cover his schemes and remove 
 Sejanus from about him, Tiberius made him joint 
 consul with himself, in 31. He then sent Ser- 
 torius Macro to Rome, with a commission to tike 
 the conmiand of the praetorian cohorts. Macro, 
 after assuring himself of the troops, and depriving 
 Sejanus of his usual guard, produced a letter from 
 Tiberius to the senate, in which the emperor ex- 
 pressed his apprehensions of Sejanus. The consul 
 Regulus conducted him to prison, and the people 
 loaded him with insult and outrage. The senate 
 on the same day decreed his death, and he v/as 
 immediately executed. His body was dragged 
 about the streets, and finally thrown into the 
 Tiber. Many of the friends of Sejanus perished 
 at the same time; and his son and daughter 
 shared his fate. 
 
 Selene CXeX-fivij), called Luna by the Romans, 
 ■was the goddess of the moon, or the moon per- 
 sonified as a divine being. She is called a 
 daughter of Hyperion and Thia, and accordingly 
 a sister of Helios (Sol) and Eos (Aurora) ; but 
 others speak of her as a daughter of Hyperion by 
 Euryphaessa, or of Pallas, or of Zeus and Latona. 
 She is also called Phoebe, as the sister of Phoebus, 
 the god of the sun. By Endymion, whom she 
 loved, and whom she sent to sleep in order to kiss 
 him, she became the mother of 50 daughters ; and 
 to Zeus she bore Pandia, Ersa, and Nemea. Pan 
 also is said to have had connexion with her in the 
 shape of a white ram. Selene is described as a 
 very beautiful goddess, with long wings and a 
 golden diadem. She rode, like her brother Helios, 
 across the heavens in a chariot dra^vn by two 
 ■white horses. In later times Selene was identified 
 ■with Artemis or Diana, and the worship of the 
 two became amalgamated. In works of art, how- 
 ever, the two divinities are usually distinguished ; 
 the face of Selene being more full and round, her 
 figure less tall, and always clothed in a long robe ; 
 Ler veil forms an arch over her head, and above 
 it there is the crescent. At Rome Luna had a 
 temple on the Aventine. 
 
 Selene. [Cleopatra, No. 9,] 
 
 Selencia, and rarely Seleucea (SeXeuVeia : 2e- 
 XevKeus : Seleucensis, Seleucenns), the name of 
 several cities in Asia, built by Selcucus I., king 
 of Syria. 1. S. ad Tigrm(-7f inl rov TiypTjTos 
 •jTorafiou^ irphs Ttypei, airo Ti7p(o?), also called S. 
 Babylonia (2. tj ev Ba€v\wvL)^ S. Assyriae, and S. 
 Parthorum, a great city on the conhnes of Assyria 
 and Babylonia, and for a long time the capital of 
 W. Asia, until it was eclipsed by Ctesiphon. 
 Its exact site has been disputed; but the most 
 probable opinion is that it stood on the W. bank 
 of the Tigris, N. of its juncrion with the Royal 
 Canal, opposite to the mouth of the river Delas 
 or Silla(£)ia;tt), and to the spot where Ctesiphon 
 
 SELEUCIA. 
 
 was afterwards built by the Parthians. It was a 
 little to the S- of the modern city of Bagdad, 
 Perhaps a better site could not be found in W. 
 Asia, It commanded the navigation of the Tigris 
 and Euphrates, and the whole plain of those two 
 rivers ; and it stood at the junction of all the chief 
 caravan roads by which the traffic between E. and 
 W. Asia was carried on. In addition to these 
 advanUiges, its people had, by the gift of Seleucus, 
 the government of their own affairs. It was built 
 in the form of an eagle with expanded wings, and 
 was peopled by settlers from Assyria, Mesopo- 
 tamia, Babylonia, Syria, and Judaea, It rapidly 
 rose, and eclipsed Biibylon in wealth and splen- 
 dour. Even after the Parthian kings had becoms- 
 masters of the banks of the Tigris, and had fixed 
 their residence at Ctesiphon, Seleacia, though de- 
 prived of much of its importance, remained a very 
 considerable city. In the reign of Titus, it had, 
 according to Pliny, 600,000 inhabitants. It was 
 burned by Trajan in his Parthian expedition, and 
 again by L. Verus, the colleague of M. Aurelius 
 Antoninus, when its population is given by dif- 
 ferent authorities as 300,000 or 400,000. It was 
 again taken by Severus ; and from this blow it 
 never recovered. In Julian's expedition it was 
 found entirely deserted. ^ 2. S. Plena (2. ITiepta, 
 7J iv Tliep'K^^ 17 irphs 'A^'Tioxfta, V Trphs ^aXdcrcra^ 
 7} iTTidaWaa-a-la, Ru,, called Sehukc.h or Kepse^ 
 near Suadeiah)^ a great city and fortress of Syria, 
 founded by Seleucus in April, B, c. 300, one month, 
 before the foundation of Antioch. It stood on the 
 site of an ancient fortress, on the rocks over- 
 hanging the sea, at the foot of M. Pieria, about 
 4 miles N. of the Orontes, and 12 miles W. of 
 Antioch. Its natural strength was improved by 
 every known art of fortification, to which were 
 added all the works of architecture and engineer- 
 ing required to make it a splendid city and a 
 great seaport, while it obtained abundant supplies 
 from the fertile plain between the city and Antioch. 
 The remains of Seleucus I. were interred at Se- 
 leucia, in a nvausoleum surrounded by a grove. In 
 the war with Egypt, which ensued upon the murder 
 of Antiochus II., Seleucia surrendered to Ptolemy 
 III. Euergetes (b, c. 246). It wns afterwards 
 recovered by Antiochus the Great (219). In 
 the war between Antiochus VIII. and IX. the 
 people of Seleucia made themselves independent 
 (109 or 108). Afterwards, having successfully 
 resisted the attacks of Tigranes for 14 years 
 (84- — 70), they were confirmed in their freednni 
 by Pompey, The city had fallen entirely into 
 decay by the 6th century of our era. There art; 
 considerable ruins of the harbour and mole, of the 
 walls of the city, and of its nocropolis. The sur- 
 rounding district was called Selkucis. — 3. S, ad 
 Belnm, a city of Syria, in the valley of the Orontes, 
 near Apamea. Its site is doubtful.— 4. S. Tracke- 
 otis {Selcfkch Ru.), an important city of Cilicia 
 Aspera, was built by Seleucus I. on the W. bank 
 of the river Calj-cadnus, about 4 miles from its 
 mouth, and peopled with the inhabitants of several 
 neighbouring cities. It had an oracle of Apollo, 
 and annual games in honour of Zeus Olvmpius. It 
 vied with Tarsus in power and splendour, and was 
 a free city under the Romans. It has remarkable 
 claims to renown both in political and literary 
 history : in the former, as the place where Trajan 
 and Frederick Barharossa died ; in the latter, as 
 the birthplace of the philosophers Athenaeus and 
 
SELEUCIS. 
 
 Xenarchus, of the sophist Alexander, the secretary 
 of M. Aurelius Antoninus, and of other learned 
 men. On its site are still seen the ruins of temples, 
 porticoes, aqueducts^ and tombs. — 5. S. in Meso- 
 potamia (i^iV), on the left bank of the Euphrates, 
 opposite to the ford of Zeugma, was a fortress of 
 considerable importance in ancient military history. 
 — 6. A considerable city of Margiana, built by 
 Alexander the Great, in a beautiful situation, and 
 called Alexandria ; destroyed by the barbarians, 
 and rebuilt by Antiochus I., who named it Seleucia 
 after his father Seleucus I. The Roman prisoners 
 taken at the defeat of Crassus by the Parthians 
 ■were settled here by king Orodes.— 7. S. inCaria 
 [Trallks], — There were other cities of the 
 name, of less importance, in Pisidia, Pamphylia, 
 Palestine, and Elyma'is, 
 
 Seleucis (2eA€u/cts). 1. The most beautiful and 
 fertile district of Syria, containing the N.W. part 
 of the country, between M. Amanus on the N., the 
 Mediterranean on the W,, the districts of Cyr- 
 rliestice and Chalybonitis on the N.E., the desert 
 •on the E., and Coelesyria and the mountains of 
 Lebanon on the S. It included the valley of the 
 lower Orontes, and contained the 4 great cities of 
 Antioch, Seleucia, Laodicea, and Aparaea, whence 
 it was also called Tctrapolis. In later times, the 
 name was confined to the small district N. of the 
 Orontes ; the S. part of the former Seleucis being 
 •divided into Cassiotis, W. of the Orontes, and 
 Apamene, E. of the river. «— 2. A district of Cap- 
 padocia. — 3. A name which Seleucus I. endea- 
 voured to give to the Caspian Sea, in memory of a 
 Toyaije of exploration made round it by liis command. 
 
 Seleucus (2eA€u/cos), the name of several kings 
 of Syria. I. Surnamed Nicator, the founder of 
 the Syrian monarchy, reigned b. c, 312 — 280. 
 He was the son of Antiochus, a Macedonian of 
 distinction among the officers of Philip II. , and 
 ■was bom about 358. He accompanied Alexander 
 on liis expedition to Asia, and distinguished him- 
 self particularly in the Indian campaigns. After 
 the deatji of Alexander (323) he espoused the 
 «ide of Perdiccas, "^^hom he accompanied on his 
 expedition against Egypt ; but he took a leading 
 part in the mutiny of the soldiers, which ended in 
 the death of Perdiccas (321). In the 2nd par- 
 tition of the provinces which followed, Seleucus 
 obtained the wealthy and important satrapy of 
 Babylonia. In the war between Antigonus and 
 Eumenes, Seleucus afforded efficient support to the 
 former; but after the death of Eumenes (316), 
 Antigonus began to treat the other satraps as his 
 subjects. Thereupon Seleucus fled to Egypt, where 
 he induced Ptolemy to unite with Lysimachus and 
 Cassander in a league against their common enemy. 
 In the war that ensued Seleucus took an active 
 part. At length, in 312, he recovered Babylon; 
 and it is from tliis period, that the Syrian mo- 
 narchy is commonly reckoned to commence. This 
 era of the Seleucidae, as it is termed, has been 
 detennined by chronologers to the Ist of October, 
 312. Soon afterwards Seleucus defeated Nicanor, 
 the satrap of Media, and followed up his victory 
 by the conquest of Susiana, Media, and some 
 adjacent districts. For the next few years he 
 gradually extended his power over all the eastern 
 provinces which had formed part of the empire of 
 Alexander, from the Euphrates to the banks of 
 the Oxus and the Indus. In 306 Seleucus fol- 
 Jowcd the example of Antigonus and Ptolemy, by 
 
 SELEUCUS. 
 
 69$ 
 
 formally assuming the regal title and diadem. In 
 302 he joined the league formed for the second 
 time by Ptolemy, Lysimachus, and Cassander, 
 against their common enemy Antigonus. The 
 united forces of Seleucus and Lysimachus gained 
 a decisive victory over Antigonus at Ipsus (301), 
 in wliich Antigonus himself was slain. In the 
 division of the spoil, Seleucus obtained the largest 
 share, being rewarded for his services with a 
 great part of Asia Minor (which was divided 
 between him and Lysimachus) as well as with 
 the whole of Syria, from the Euphrates to the 
 Mediterranean. The empire of Seleucus was no'w 
 by far the most extensive and powerful of those 
 which had been formed out of the dominions of 
 Alexander. It comprised the whole of Asia, from 
 the remote provinces of Bactria and Sogdiana to 
 the coasts of Phoenicia, and from the Paropamisus 
 to the central plains of Phrj-gia, where the bound- 
 ary which sepai'ated him from Lysimachus is not 
 clearly defined. Seleucus appears to have felt the 
 difficulty of exercising a vigilant control over so 
 extensive an empire, .ind accordingly, in 293, he 
 consigned the government of all the provinces be- 
 yond the Euphrates to his son Antiochus, upon 
 whom he bestowed tlie title of king, as well as the 
 hand of his own youthful wife, Stratonice, for 
 whom the prince had conceived a violent attach- 
 ment. In 2118, the ambitious designs of Demetrius 
 (now become king of Macedonia) once more aroused 
 the common jealousy of his old adversaries, and 
 led Seleucus again to unite in a league with Pto- 
 lemy and Lysimachus against him. After De- 
 metrius had been driven from his kingdom by 
 Lysimachus, he transported the seat of war into 
 Asia Minor, but he was compelled to surrender to 
 Seleucus in 20G. The Syrian king kept Demetrius 
 in confinement till 3 years afterwards, but during 
 the whole of that time treated him in a friendly 
 and liberal manner. For some time jealousies had 
 existed between Seleucus and Lysimachus ; but 
 the immediate cause of the war between the 2 
 monarchs, which tei^minated in the defeat and 
 death of Lysimachus (281), is related in the life 
 of the latter, Seleucus now crossed the Helles- 
 pont in order to take possession of the throne of 
 Macedonia, which had been left vacant by the 
 death of Lysimachus ; but he had advanced no 
 farther than Lysimachia, when he was assassinated 
 by Ptolemy Ceraunus, to whom, as the son of his 
 old friend and ally, he had extended a friendly 
 protection. His death took place in the beginning 
 of 280, only 7 months after that of Lysimachus, 
 and in the 32nd year of his reign. He was in his 
 78th year. Seleucus appears to have carried out, 
 with great energy and perseverance, tlie projects 
 originally formed by Alexander himself, for the 
 Hdleiiisaiion of his Asiatic empire ; and we find him 
 founding, in almost every province, Greek or Ma- 
 cedonian colonies, which became so many centres 
 of civilisation and refinement. Of these no less 
 than IG are mentioned as bearing the name of 
 Antiochia after his father ; 5 that of Laodicea, 
 from his mother ; 7 were called alter himself Se- 
 leucia ; 3 from the name of his first wife, Apamea ; 
 and one Stratonicea, from his second wife, the 
 daughter of Demetrius. Numerous other cities, 
 whose names attest their Macedonian origin — 
 Beroea, Edessa, Pella, &c. — likewise owed their 
 first foundation to Seleucus. ^11. Surnamed Cal- 
 linicus (24G— 226*), was the eldest son of Antio- 
 
694 
 
 SELEUCUS. 
 
 chxis II, by his first wife Laodice. The first mea- 
 sure of his administration, or rather that of his 
 mother, was to put to death his stepmother Bere- 
 nice, together with her infant son. This act of 
 cruelty produced the most disastrous effects. In 
 order to avenge his sister, Ptolemy Euergetes, 
 king of Egypt, invaded the dominions of Seleucus, 
 and not only made himself master of Antioch and 
 the whole of Syria, but carried his arms unop- 
 posed beyond the Euphrates and the Tigris. During 
 these operations Seleucus kept wholly aloof ; but 
 when Ptolemy had been recalled to his own domi- 
 nions by domestic disturbances, he recovered pos- 
 session of the greater part of the provinces which 
 he had lost. Soon afterwards Seleucus became 
 involved in a dangerous war with his brother An- 
 tiochus Hierax, who attempted to obtain Asia 
 Minor as an independent kingdom for himself. 
 This war lasted several years, but was at length 
 terminated by the decisive defeat of Antiochus, 
 who was obliged to quit Asia Minor and take re- 
 fuge in Egypt. Seleucus undertook an expedition 
 to the East, with the view of reducing the revolted 
 provinces of Parthia and Bactrin, which had availed 
 themselves of the disordered state of the Syrian 
 empire to throw off its yoke. Pie Avas, however, 
 defeated by Arsaces, king of Parthia, in a great 
 battle which was long after celebrated by the Par- 
 thians as the foundation of their independence. 
 After the expulsion of Antiochus, Attalus, king of 
 Pergamus, extended his dominions over the greater 
 part of Asia Minor ; and Seleucus appears to have 
 been engaged in an expedition for the recovery of 
 these provinces, when he was accidentally killed 
 by a fall from his horse, in the 21st year of his 
 reign, 226. He left 2 sons, who successively 
 ascended the throne, Seleucus Ceraunus and An- 
 tiochus, afterwards sm-uamed the Great. His own 
 surname of Callinicus was probably assumed after 
 his recovery of the provinces that had been overrun 
 by Ptolemy.— in. Surnamed Ceraunus (226 — 
 223), eldest son and successor of Seleucus II. The 
 surname of Ceraunus wag given him by the sol- 
 diery, apparently in derision, as he appears to have 
 been feeble both in mind and body. He was assas- 
 sinated by 2 -of his officers, after a reign of only 3 
 years, and was succeeded by his brother, Antio- 
 chus the Great. ^ IV. Surnamed Pbilopator (187 
 — 175), was the son and successor of Antiochus the 
 Great. The defeat of his father by the Romans, 
 and the ignominious peace which followed it, had 
 greatly diminished the power of the Syrian mon- 
 archy, and the reign of Seleucus was in conse- 
 quence feeble and inglorious, and was marked by 
 no striking events. He was assassinated in 175 
 by one of his own ministers. He left 2 children : 
 Demetrius, who subsequently ascended the throne ; 
 and Laodice, married to Perseus, king of Macedo- 
 nia. —V. Eldest son of Demetrius II., assumed 
 the royal diadem on learning the death of his 
 lather, 125 ; but his mother Cleopatra, who had 
 berself put Demetrius to death, was indignant at 
 hearing that her son had ventured to take such a 
 step without her authority, and caused Seleucus 
 also to be assassinated. — Yl. Surnamed Epi- 
 pliaues, and also Nicator (.05 — 93) was the eldest 
 of the 5 sons of Antiochus VIII. Grypus. On the 
 death of his father, in 95, he ascended the throne, 
 and defeated and slew in battle his uncle Antiochus 
 Cyzicenus, who had laid claim to the kingdom. 
 But shortly after Seleucus was in his turn defeated 
 
 SELLI. 
 
 by Antiochus Eusebes, the son of Cyzicenus, and 
 expelled from Syria, He took refuge in Cilicia, 
 where he established himself in the city of Mop- 
 suestia ; but in consequence of his tyranny, he was 
 burned to death by the inhabitants in his palace. 
 
 Selge (SeATTj : ^eXyevs : Siirk ? Ru.), one of the 
 chief of the independent mountain cities of Pisidia, 
 stood on the S. side of M. Taurus, on the Eury- 
 medon, just where the river breaks through thft 
 mountain chain. On a rock above it was a citadel 
 named KecrffeSioj', in which was a temple of Hem. 
 Its inhabitants, who were the most warlike of all 
 the Pisidians, claimed descent from the Lacedae- 
 monians, and inscribed the name AaKsBaificvv on 
 their coins. They could bring an army of 20,000 
 men into the field, and, as late as the 5th century, 
 we find them beating back a horde of Goths. In a 
 valley near the city, in the heart of lofty mountains, 
 grew wine and oil and other products of the most 
 luxuriant vegetation, 
 
 Selinus {'2^\ivovs 'OvvTos, contraction of o-eA.i- 
 vSeis from areAifov "parsley"). 1. A small river 
 on the S.W. coast of Sicily, flowing by the town 
 of the same name. —2. (Crestena), a river of Elis, 
 in the district Triphylia, near Scillns, flowing into 
 the Alpheus W. of Olympia.— 3. ( Vostiiza), a river 
 of Achaia, rising in Mt. Eryraanthus.^4. A tribu- 
 tary of the Caicus in Mysia, flowing by the town 
 of Pergamum, — 4. {'XeKivovurior, ^eAivovcrios : 
 nr, Castet vetrano, Ru.), one of the most important 
 towns in Sicily, situated upon a liill on the S.W. 
 coast, and upon a river of the same name. It was 
 founded by the Oorians from Megara Hyblaea on 
 the E. coast of Sicily, b. c. 628. It soon attained 
 great prosperity ; but it was taken by the Cartha- 
 ginians in 409, when most of its inhabitants wert? 
 slain or sold as slaves, and the greater part of the 
 city destroyed. The population of Selinus must at 
 that time have been very considerable, since we 
 are told that 16,000 men fell in the siege and con- 
 quest of the town, 5000 were carried to Carthage 
 as slaves, 2600 fled to Agrigentum, and many 
 others took refuge in the surrounding villages. The 
 Carthaginians however allowed the inhabitants to 
 return to Selinus in the course of the same year, 
 and it continued to be a place of secondary im- 
 portance till 249, when it was again destroyed by 
 the Carthaginians and its inhabitants transferred to 
 Lilybaeum. The surrounding country produced 
 excellent wheat. East of Selinus on the road to 
 Agrigentum, were celebrated mineral springs called 
 Aquae Selinuntiae, subsequently Aquae Lahodae or 
 Labodes^ the modem Baths ofSciacca. There are 
 still considerable ruins of Selinus. ^5. (Selenti), a 
 town in Cilicia, situated on the coast and upon a 
 rock which was almost entirely surrounded by the 
 sea. In consequence of the death of the emperor 
 Trajan in this town, it was for a long time called 
 Trajanopolis. 
 
 Sellasia {^eWauia or ZSeA.atri'a), a town in 
 Laconica, N. of Sparta, was situated near the river 
 Oenus, and commanded one of the principal passes 
 leading to Sparta. Here the celebrated battle was 
 fought between Cleomenes III. and Antigonus 
 DoHon, B.C. 221, in which the former was defeated. 
 
 Selleis (2€A\^«is). 1. A river in EHs, on which 
 the Homeric Ephyra stood, rising in mount Pholoe 
 and falling into the sea, S. of the Peneus. — 3. A 
 river near Sicyon. ^3. A river in Troas near 
 Arisbe, and a tributary of the Rhodius. 
 
 Selli or Helli. [Dodona.] 
 
SELYMBRIA. 
 
 Selymbria or Selybria {t7}\vfx€pla^ StjAu^pfa, 
 Dor. ^a\afx€pia: ':S7}\vp.Spiav6s : Selivria\ an im- 
 portant town in Thrace, situated on the Propontis. 
 It was a colony of the Megarians, and was founded 
 earlier than Byzantium. It perhaps derived its 
 name from its founder Selys and theThracian word 
 Bria, a town. It continued to be a place of con- 
 siderable importance till its conquest hy Philip, 
 the father of Alexander, from which time its de- 
 cline may be dated. Under the later emperors it 
 was called Eudoxiupolis, in honour of Eudoxia, 
 the wife of Arcadiua; but it afterwards recovered 
 its ancient name. 
 
 Semechonitis or Samachonitis Lacus (Se^e- 
 X<^viTis, 'Sfi^a.xw'iri^ and -nOiv Ki/xpt] ; 0- T. 
 Waters of Merom : Nahr-el-Huleh\ a small lake 
 in the N. of Palestine, the highest of the 3 formed 
 by the Jordan, both branches of wliich fall into its 
 N. end, while the river flows out of its S, end in 
 one stream. The valley in which it lies is enclosed 
 on the W. and E. by mountains belonging to the 
 two ranges of Lebanon, forming a position which 
 has been of military importance both in ancient 
 and modern times, especially as the great Damascus 
 road crosses the Jordan just below the lake. Ac- 
 cording to the division of Palestine under the 
 Roman empire, it belonged to Galilee, but in earlier 
 times, under the Syrian kings, it was reckoned to 
 Coeiesyria. 
 
 Semele (2e^e^'^), daughter of Cadmus and 
 Harmonia, at Thebes, and accordingly sister of Ino, 
 Agave, Autonoe, and Folydorus. She was beloved 
 by Zeus. Heia, stimulated by jealousy, appeared 
 to her in the form of her aged nurse Bcroe, and 
 induced her to ask Zeus to visit her in the same 
 splendour and majesty with which he appeared to 
 Hei-a. Zeus warned her of the danger of her re- 
 quest ; but as he had sworn to grant whatever she 
 desired, he was obliged to comply with her prayer. 
 He accordingly appeared before her as the god of 
 thunder, and Semele was consumed by the light- 
 ning ; but Zeus saved her child Dionysus, with 
 whom she was pregnant. Her son afterwards car- 
 ried her out of the lower world, and conducted her 
 to Olympus where she became immortal under the 
 name of Thyone. 
 
 Semiramis (2ejUtpa^ij) andNinus (Nri/os),the 
 mythical founders of the Assyrian empire of Ninus 
 or Nineveh. Ninus was a great warrior, who built 
 the town of Ninus or Nineveh, about b. c. 218'2, 
 and subdued the greater part of Asia. Semiramis 
 was the daughter of the fish-goddess Derceto of 
 Ascalon in Syria by a Syrian youth ; bnt being 
 ashamed of her frailty, she made away with the 
 youth, and exposed her infant daughter. But the 
 child was miraculously preserved by doves, who 
 fed her till she was discovered by the shepherds 
 of the neighbourhood. She was then brought up 
 by the chief shepherd of the royal herds, whose 
 name was Sinimas, and from whom she derived 
 the name of Semiramis. Her surpassing beauty 
 attracted the notice of Onnes, one of the king's 
 friends and generals, who married her. He subse- 
 quently sent for his wife to the arm}^ where the 
 Assyrians were engaged in the siege of Bactra, 
 which they had long endeavoured in vain to take. 
 Upon her arrival in the camp she planned an at- 
 tack upon the citadel of the town, mounted the 
 walls with a few brave followers, and obtained 
 possession of the place, 'Ninus was so charmed 
 by her bravery and beauty, that he resolved to 
 
 SENECA. 
 
 695 
 
 make her his wife, whereupon her unfortunate 
 husband put an end to his life. By Ninus Semi- 
 ramis had a son, Ninyas, and on the death of Ninus 
 she succeeded him on the throne. According to 
 another account, Semiramis had obtained from her 
 husband permission to rule over Asia for 5 days, 
 and availed herself of this opportunity to cast tlie 
 king into a dungeon, or, as is also related, to put 
 him to death, and thus obtained the sovereign 
 power. Her fame threw into the shade that of 
 Ninus ; and later ages loved to tell of her marvel- 
 lous deeds and her heroic achievements. She built 
 numerous cities, and erected many wonderful build- 
 ings ; and several of the most extraordinary works 
 in the East, which wereextant inalaterage, and the 
 authors of which were unknown, were ascribed by 
 popular tradition to this queen. In Nineveh she 
 erected a tomb for her husband, 9 stadia high, and 
 10 wide ; she built the city of Babylon, with all 
 its wonders; and she constructed the hanging gar- 
 dens in Media, of which later writers give us such 
 strange accounts. Besides conquering many nations 
 of Asia, she subdued Egypt and a great part of 
 Ethiopia, but was unsuccessful in an attack which 
 she made upon India. After a reign of 42 years 
 she resigned the sovereignty to her son Ninyas, 
 and disappeared from the earth, taking her flight 
 to heaven in the form of a dove. The fabulous 
 nature of this narrative is apparent. It is probable- 
 that Semiramis was originally a Syrian goddess, 
 perhaps the same who was worshipped at Ascalon 
 under the name of Astarte, or the Heavenly Aphro- 
 dite, to whom the dove was sacred. Hence the 
 stories of her voluptuousness, which were current 
 even in the time of Augustus (Ov. Am. i. 5. II). 
 
 Semnones, more rarely Sennones, a Geiinan 
 people, desciibed by Tacitus .is the most powerful 
 tribe of the Suevic race, dwelt beween the rivers 
 Viadus {Oder) and Albis {Elha)^ from the Riesen- 
 gebirge in the S. as far as the country around 
 Frankfurt on the Oder and Potsdam in the N. 
 
 Semo Sancus. [Sancus.] 
 
 Sempronia. 1. Daughter of Tib. Gi-acchus, cen- 
 sor B. c. 169, and sister of the 2 celebrated tribunes, 
 married Scipio Africanus minor. ^3. Wife of D. 
 Junius Brutus, consul 77, was a woman of great 
 personal attractions and literary accomplishments, 
 but of a profligate character. She took part in 
 Catiline's conspiracy, though her husband was not 
 privy to it. 
 
 Sempronia Gens, was of great antiquity, and 
 one of its members, A. Sempronius Atratinils, ob- 
 tained the consulship as early as B. c. 497, 12 years 
 after the foundation of the republic. The Sem- 
 pronii were divided into many families, of which 
 the Atratini were patrician, but all the others 
 were plebeian : their names are Asellio, Blaesus, 
 Gracchus, Sophus, Tuditanus. 
 
 Sena (Senensis). 1. {Senigaglia)^ sumamed 
 Gallica, and sometimes called Senogallia, a town 
 on the coast of Umbria, at the mouth of the small 
 river Sena, was founded by the Senones, a Gallic 
 people, and was made a colony by the Romans 
 after the conquest of the Senones, b. c. 283. In 
 the civil war it espoused the Marian party, and 
 was taken and sacked by Pompey.^2. {Skna)^ a 
 town in Etruria and a Roman colony, on the road 
 from Clusium to Florentia, is only mentioned in 
 the times of the emperors. 
 
 Seneca. 1. M. Annaeus, the rhetorician, was 
 born at Corduba {Cordova) in Spain, about B.C. 61- 
 
 Y V 4- 
 
695 
 
 SENECA. 
 
 Seneca "wns at Rome in the early period of the 
 power of Augustus, for he says that he had seen 
 Ovid declaiming before Arellius Fuscus. He after- 
 wards returned to Spain, and married Helvia, by 
 ■whom lie had 3 sons, L. Annaeua Seneca,- L. An- 
 naeus Mela or Mella, the father of the poet Lucan, 
 and M. Novatiis. Novatus was the eldest son, and 
 took the name of Junius Gallic, upon being adopted 
 by Junius Giillio. Seneca was ricli, and he belonged 
 to the equestrian class. At a later period Seneca re- 
 turned to Rome, where he resided till his death, 
 which probably occurred near the end of the reign 
 of Tiberius. Two of Seneca's works have come 
 down to us. 1. Controvei'siaruin LiLridecci}!, which 
 he addressed to his '6 sons. The 1st, 2nd, 7th, 
 8th, and 10th books only are extant, and these are 
 somewhat mutilated : of the other books only frag- 
 ments remain. These Controversiae are rhetorical 
 exercises on imaginary cases, filled with common- 
 places, such as a man of large verbal memory and 
 great reading carries about with him as his ready 
 money. 2. Siuxsoriarum Lifjcr, which is probably 
 not complete. We may collect from its contents 
 what the subjects were on which the rhetoricians 
 of that age exercised their wits : one of them is, 
 " Shall Cicero apologise to M. Antonius ? Shall he 
 agree to burn his Philippics, if Antonius requires 
 it?'* Another is, " Shall Alexander embark on 
 the ocean?" If there are some good ideas and 
 apt expressions in these puerile declamations, they 
 have no value where they stand ; and probably 
 most of them are borrowed. No merit of form can 
 compensate for worthlcssness of matter. Tlie best 
 edition of these works is by A. Schottus, Heidel- 
 berg, 1C03, frequently reprinted. — 2. L. Annaeua, 
 the philosopher, the son of the preceding, was born 
 at Corduba, probably a few years b. c, and brought 
 to Rome by his parents when he was a child. 
 Though he was naturally of a weak body, he was 
 a hard student from his youth, and he devoted 
 iimself with great ardour to rhetoric and philo- 
 sophy. He also soon gained distinction as a pleader 
 of causes, and he excited the jealousy and hatred 
 of Caligula by the ability with which he conducted 
 ■a case in the senate before the emperor. In the 
 first year of the reign of Claudius (a. d. 41), Seneca 
 was banished to Corsica, nn account of his intimacy 
 ■with Julia, the niece of Claudius, of whom Messa- 
 lina was jealous. After 8 3'ear.s' residence in Cor- 
 sica, Seneca was recalled (49) by the influence of 
 Agrippina, who had just married her uncle the 
 emperor Claudius. He now obtained a praetorship, 
 and was made the tutor of the young Domitius, 
 afterwards the emperor Nero, who was the son of 
 Agrippina by a former husband. On the accession 
 of his pupil to the imperial throne (54) after the 
 death of Claudius, Seneca became one of the chief 
 advisers of the 3'oung emperor. He exerted liis 
 influence to check Nero's vicious propensities, but 
 at the same time he profited from his position to 
 amass an immense fortune. He supported Nero in 
 his contests with his mother Agrippina, and was 
 not only a party to the death of the latter (GO), 
 but he wrote the letter whicli Nero addressed to 
 the senate in justification of the murder. After 
 the death of his mother Nero abandoned himself 
 without any restraint to his vicious propensities ; 
 and the presence of Seneca soon became irksome to 
 him, while the wealth of the philosopher excited 
 the emperor's cupidity. Burrus, the praefcct of 
 the praetorian guards, who had always been a firm 
 
 SENECA. 
 
 supporter of Seneca, died in G3. His death broke 
 the power of Seneca ; and Nero now fell into the 
 hands of persons who were exactly suited to his 
 taste. Tigellinus and Fennius Rufus, who suc- 
 ceeded Burrus in the command of the praetorians, 
 began an attack on Seneca. His enormous wealth, 
 his gardens and villas, more magnificent than those 
 of the emperor, his exclusive claims to eloquence, 
 and his disparagement of Nero's skill in driving 
 and singing, were all urged a;^inst him ; and it 
 was time, they said, for Nero to get rid of a 
 teacher. Seneca heard of the charges against him : 
 he was rich, and he knew that Nero wanted money. 
 He asked the emperor for permission to retire, and 
 oflfered to surrender all that lie had. Nero afl^ected 
 to be grateful for his past services, refused the 
 proffered gift, and sent him away with perfidious as- 
 surances of his respect and affection, Seneca now 
 altered his mode of life, saw litile company, and 
 seldom visited the city, on the ground of feeble 
 health, or being occupied with his philosophical 
 studies. The conspiracy of Piso (65) gave the 
 emperor a pretext for putting his teacher to death, 
 though there was not complete evidence of Seneca 
 being a party to the conspiracy. Seneca was at 
 the time returning from Campania, and had rested 
 at a villa 4 miles from the city. Nero sent a tri- 
 bune to him with the order of death. "Witliout 
 showing any sign of alarm, Seneca cheered his 
 weeping friends by reminding them of the lessons 
 of philosophy. Embracing his wife Pompeia Pau- 
 lina, he prayed her to moderate her grief, and to 
 console herself for the loss of her husband by tlie 
 reflection that he had lived an honourable life. 
 But as Paulina protested that she would die with 
 )iim, Seneca consented, and the same blow opened 
 the veins in the arms of both. Seneca's body was 
 attenuated by age and meagre diet ; the blood 
 would not flow easily, and he opened the veins in 
 Ills logs. His torture was excessive ; and to save 
 himself and his wife the pain uf seeing one another 
 suffer, he bade her retire to her chamber. His 
 last words were taken down in writing by persons 
 who were called in for the purpose, and were after- 
 wards published. Seneca's torments being still 
 prolonged, he took hemlock from his friend and 
 physician. Statins Annaeus, but it had no effect. 
 At last he entered a warm bath, and as he 
 sprinkled some of the water on the slaves nearest 
 to him, he said, that he made a libation to Jupiter 
 the Liberator. He was then taken into a vapour 
 stove, where he was quickly suffocated. Seneca 
 died, as was the fashion among the Romans, with 
 the courage of a stoic, but with somewhat of a 
 theatrical affectation which detracts from the dig- 
 nity of the scene. Seneca's great misibrtune was 
 to have known Nero ; and though we cannot say 
 that he was a truly great or a truly pood man, his 
 character will not lose by comparison with that of 
 nuiny others who have been placed in equally diffi- 
 cult cii'cumstances. — Seneca's fame rests on his 
 numerous writings, of which the following are 
 extant: — 1. De /ra, in 3 books, addressed to 
 Novatus, probably the earliest of Seneca's works. 
 In the 1st book he combats what Aristotle says of 
 Anger in his Ethics. 2. Ve C'onsohtione ail Hel- 
 viam Matrevi Liber, a consolatory letter to his 
 mother, written during his residence in Corsica, 
 It is one of his best treatises. 3. De Comolatione 
 ad Polyhium Libcr^ also'written in Corsica. If it 
 is the work of Seneca, it does him no credit. Poly- 
 
SENECA. 
 
 bias was the powerful freednmn of Chiudius, and 
 the Consolatio Ja iiitendcd to comfort him on the 
 occasion of the loss of his hrother. But it also con- 
 tains adulation of the emperor, and maiiy expres- 
 sions unworthy of a. true stoic, or of an honest 
 man. 4. Li/jerde Consokitiove ad Marcium^ written 
 after his return from exile, was designed to console 
 Marcia for the loss of her son. Marcia was the 
 daughter of A. Cremutius Cordus. 5. Z>e Frovi- 
 dentin Libet\ or Quare bonis viris mala accidani 
 cum sit Providentiaj is addressed to the younger 
 Lucilius, procurator of Sicily. The question that 
 is here discussed often engaged the ancient philo- 
 sophers: the stoical solution of the difficulty is 
 that suicide is the remedy when misfortune has 
 become intolerable. In this discourse Seneca says 
 that he intends to prove " that Providence hath a 
 power over all things, and that God is always pre- 
 sent with us." 6. De Animi Tranquillitate, ad- 
 dressed to Serenus, probably written soon after 
 Seneca''3 return from exile. It is in the form of a 
 letter rather than a treatise: the object is to dis- 
 cover the means by which tranquillity of mind can 
 be obtained. 7. De Constantla Sapientis seu quod 
 in sapientem non cadit ijtjui-ia, also addressed to 
 Serenus, is founded on the stoical doctrine of the 
 impassiveness of the wise man. 8. De Clementia 
 ad Neronem Caesarem Lihri duo, written at the 
 beginning of Nero's reign. There is too much of 
 the flatterer in this ; but the advice is good. The 
 2nd book is incomplete. It is in the 1st chapter of 
 this 2nd book that the anecdote is told of Nero's 
 unwillingness to sign a sentence of execution, and 
 his exclamation, " I would I could neither read nor 
 ■write." 9. De Brevitate Vitae ad Faulinum Libet\ 
 recommends the proper employment of time and 
 the getting of wisdom as the chief purpose of life. 
 10. De Vita Beata ad GalHonem^ addressed to his 
 brother, L. Junius Gallio, is probably one of tlie 
 later works of Seneca, in which he maintains the 
 stoical doctrine that there is no happiness without 
 virtue ; but he does not deny that other things, as 
 health and riches, have their value. The conclusion 
 of the treatise is lost. 1 1. De Olio aut Secessu Sa- 
 pieniis^ is sometimes joined to No. 1 0. 12. DeBene- 
 ficiis Lihri septem^ addressed to Aebucius Liberalis, 
 is an excellent discussion of the way of conferring a 
 favour, and of the duties of the giver and of tlie 
 receiver. The handling is not very methodical, 
 but it is very complete. It is a treatise which all 
 persons might read with profit. 13. Epistolaead 
 Lucilium, 124 in number, are not the correspond- 
 ence of daily life, like that of Cicero, but a collec- 
 tion of moral maxims and remarks without any 33-3- 
 teraatic order. They contain much good matter, 
 and have been favourite reading with many distin- 
 guished men. It is possible that these letters, and 
 indeed many of Seneca's moral treatises, were 
 ■written in the latter part of his life, and probably 
 after he had lost the favour of Nero. That Seneca 
 sought consolation and tranquillity of mind in lite- 
 rary occujjation Is manifest. 14. Apocolocipitosis, is 
 a satire against the emperor Claudius. The word 
 is a play on the term Apotheosis or deification, and 
 as equivalent in meaning to Pumpkinification, or the 
 reception of Claudius among the pumpkins. The 
 subject was well enough, but the treatment has no 
 great merit ; and Seneca probably had no other 
 object tlian to gratify his spite against tiie em- 
 peror. 15. Quaestionum Naturalium Lihri septem^ 
 addressed to Lucilius Junior, is not a systematic 
 
 SENONES. 
 
 697 
 
 work, but a collection of natural facts from various 
 writers, Greek and Roman, many of wliich are 
 curious. The Ist book treats of meteors, the 2nd 
 of thunder and lightning, the 3rd of water, the 4th 
 of hail, snow, and ice, the 5th of winds, the 6th of 
 earthquakes and the sources of the Nile, and the 
 7 th of comets. Moral remarks are scattered through 
 the work ; and indeed the design of the whole ap- 
 pears to be to find a foundation for ethic, the chief 
 part of philosophy, in the knowledge of nature 
 (Physic). 16. IVagoediae, 10 in number. They 
 are entitled Hercules Furens, Thyestes, Thebaic or 
 Phoenissae^ Hippolytus or Phaedra, Oedipus, Tro- 
 ades or Hecuba, Medea, Agamemnon, Hercules 
 Oeiaeus, and Octavia. The titles themselves, with 
 the exception of the Oclavia, indicate sufficiently 
 what the tragedies are, Greek mythological subjects 
 treated in a peculiar fashion. They are written 
 in Iambic senarii, interspersed with choral parts, in 
 anapaestic and other metres. The subject of tlie 
 Octavia is Nero's ill-treatment of his wife, hia 
 passion for Poppaea, and the exile of Octavia. 
 These tragedies are not adapted, and certainly 
 were never intended for the stage. They were 
 designed for reading or for recitation after the 
 Roman fashion, and they bear the stamp of a rhe- 
 torical age. They contain many striking passages, 
 and have some merit as poems. Moral sentiments 
 and maxims aboimd, and the style and character of 
 Seneca are as conspicuous here as in his prose 
 works. — The judgments on Seneca's writings have 
 been as various as the opinions about his character ; 
 and both in extremes. It has been said of him 
 that he looks best in quotations ; but this is an 
 admission that there is something worth quoting, 
 wliich cannot be said of all writers. That Seneca 
 possessed great mental powers cannot be doubted. 
 He had seen much of human life, and he knew 
 well what man was. His philosophy, so far as he 
 adopted a system, was the stoical, but it was 
 rather au eclecticism of stoicism than pure stoicism. 
 His style is antithetical, and apparently laboured ; 
 and when there is much labour, there is generally 
 affectation. Yet his language is clear and forcible; 
 it is not mere words: there is thought always. It 
 would not be easy to name any modern writer who 
 has treated on moi-ality, and has said so much tliat 
 is practically good and true, or has treated the 
 matter in so attractive a way. The best editions 
 of Seneca are by J. F. Gronovlus, Leiden, 1649 — 
 1658, 4 vols. 12ino.; by Ruhkopf, Leipzig, 1797 — 
 181 1, 5 vols. 8vo.; and the Bipont edition, Strasa- 
 burg, 1009, 5 vols. 8vo. 
 
 Senecio, Herennius, was a native of Baetica in 
 Spain, where he served as quaestor. He was put 
 to death by Domitian on the accusation of Melius 
 Carus, in consequence of his having written the 
 life of Ilelvidius Priscus, which he composed at 
 the request of Fannia, the wife of Helvidius. 
 
 Senia (Senensis: Segna or Zengg), a Roman 
 colony in Libumia in Illyricum, on the coast, and 
 on the road from Aquileia to Siscia. 
 
 Senones, a powerful people in Gallia Lugdu- 
 nensis, dwelt along the upper course of the Sequana 
 {Seine), and were bounded on the N. by the Pari- 
 sii, on the W. by the Carautes, on the S. by the 
 Aedui, and on the E. by the Lingones and Mandu- 
 bii. Their chief town was Agendicum, afterwards 
 called Senones {Sens). A portion of this people 
 crossed the Alps about e. c. 400, in order to settle 
 in Italy; and as the greater part of Upper Italy 
 
698 
 
 SENTINUM. 
 
 ■was already occupied by other Celtic tribes, the 
 Senones were obliged to penetrate a considerable 
 distance to the S., and took up their abode on the 
 Adriatic sea between the rivers Utis and Aesis 
 (between Ravenna and Ancona), after expelling 
 the Umbrians. In this country they founded the 
 town of Sena. They extended their ravages into 
 Etruria; and it was in consequence of the inter- 
 ference of the Romans while they were laying 
 siege to Clusium, that they marched against Rome 
 and took the city, b. c. 390. From this time we 
 £nd them engaged in constant hostilities with the 
 Romans, till they were at length., completely sub- 
 dued and the greater part of them destroyed by 
 the consul Dolabella, 2G3. 
 
 Sentinuni (Sentinas, Sentlnatia : nr. Sassofer- 
 rato, Ru.), a fortified town in Umbria, not far 
 from the river Aesis. 
 
 Sentius Satuminus. [Saturninus.] 
 
 Sepias {^Tj-rnds : St.George), a promontory in the 
 S.E. of Thessaly in the district Magnesia, on which 
 a great part of the fleet of Xerxes was wrecked. 
 
 Seplasia, one of the principal streets in Capua, 
 where perfumes and luxuries of a similar kind 
 were sold, 
 
 Sepphoris {^.eTrcpicpis ■ SefuHeh)^ a city of Pa- 
 lestine, in the middle of Galilee, about half-way 
 between M. Carmel and the lake of Tiberias, was 
 an insignificant place, until Herod Antipas fortified 
 it, and made it the capital of Galilee, under the 
 name of Diocaesarea. Tt was the scat of one of 
 the 5 Jewish Sanhedrim; and continued to flourish 
 until the 4th century, when it was destroyed by 
 the Caesar Gallus, on account of a revolt of its 
 inhabitants. 
 
 Septem Aquae, a place in the territory of the 
 Sabini, near Reate. 
 
 Septem Fratres ('ETrra ad&\(poi: Jebel Zaiout^ 
 i. e. Apes' HiU)^ a mountain on the N. coast of 
 Mauretania Tingitana, at the narrowest part of the 
 Fretum Gaditanum {Straits of Gibraltar) j con- 
 nected by a low tongue of land with the promon- 
 tory of Abvla, which is also included under the 
 modem name. 
 
 Septem Maria, the name given by the ancients 
 to the lagoons formed at the mouth of the Po by 
 the frequent overflows of this river. Persons 
 usually sailed through these lagoons from Ravenna 
 to Altinum. 
 
 Septempeda (Sep temp edanus : San Severino), a 
 Roman municipiiun in the interior of Picenum, on 
 the road from Auximum to Urbs Salvia. 
 
 Septimius Geta. [Get a,] 
 
 Septimius Serenus. [Serenus.] 
 
 Septimius Severus. [Sever us.] 
 
 Septimius Titius, a Roman poet, whom Horace 
 (i. 3. 9 — 14) represents as having ventured to quaflF 
 a draught from the Pindaric spring, and as having 
 been ambitious to achieve distinction in tragedy. 
 In this passage Horace speaks of him under the 
 name of Titius ; and he is probably the same indi- 
 vidual with the Septimius who is addressed in the 
 6th ode of the 2nd book, and who is introduced in 
 the 9th epistle of the Ist book. 
 
 Sequana (Seine), one of the principal rivers of 
 Gaul, rising in the central parts of that country, 
 and flowing through the province of Gallia Lug- 
 dunensis into the ocean opposite Britain. It is 346 
 miles in length. Its principal affluents are the 
 Matrona (Marne), Esia (O^se) with its tributary 
 the Axona {Aisne) and Incaunus {Yonne). This 
 
 SERENUS. 
 
 river has a slow current, and is navigable beyond 
 Lutetia Parisiorum {Paris). 
 
 Sequani, a powerful Celtic people in Gallia 
 Belgica, separated from the Helvetii by Mon& 
 Jurassns, from the Aedui J)y the Arar, and from 
 the province Narbonensis by the Rhone, inhabit- 
 ing the country called Franclie Couipie. and Bur- 
 gundy. In the later division of the provinces of 
 the empire, the country of the Sequani formed a 
 special province under the name of Maxima Sequa- 
 norum. They derived their name from the river 
 Sequana, which had its source in the N. W. fron- 
 tiers of their territory ; but their country was 
 chiefly watered by the rivers Arar and Dubis. 
 Their chief town was Vesontio {Besanc^on). They 
 were governed by kings of their own, and were 
 constantly at war with the Aedui. 
 
 Sequester, Vibius, the name attached to a glos- 
 sary which professes to give an account of the geo- 
 graphical names contained in the Roman poets. 
 The tract is divided into 7 sections : — 1. Fluniina. 
 2. Fontes. 3. Lacus. 4. Nemora, 5. Paludes. 
 6. Monies. 7. Gentes. To which in some MSS, 
 an 8th is added, containing a list of the seven 
 wonders of the world. Concerning the author per- 
 sonally we know nothing ; and he probably lived 
 not earlier than the middle of the 5th century. The 
 best edition is by Oberlinus, Argent. 177C. 
 
 Sera. [Serica.] 
 
 Serapio, a surname of P. Cornelius Scipio Na- 
 sica, consul B.C. 138. [Scipio, No. 18.] 
 
 Serapion (SepaTriwv), aphysician of Alexandria, 
 who lived in the 3rd century B.C. He belonged to- 
 the sect of the Empiriei, and so much extended and 
 improved the system of Philinus, that the invention 
 of it is by some authors attributed to him. Sera- 
 pion wrote against Hippocrates with much vehe- 
 mence ; but neither this, nor any of his other works, 
 are now extant. He is several times mentioned 
 and quoted by Celsus, Galen, and others. 
 
 Serapis or Sarapis {'Zdpa-wis)^ an Egyptian 
 divinity, whose worship was introduced into Greece 
 in the time of the Ptolemies, His worship was 
 introduced into Rome together with that of Isis- 
 [For details, see Isis.] 
 
 Serdica or Sardica, an important town in 
 Upper Moesia, and the capital of Dacia Interior, 
 situated in a fertile plain near the sources of the 
 Oescus, and on the road from Naissus to Philippo- 
 polis. It was the birthplace of the emperor 
 Maximianus ; it was destroyed by Attila, but was 
 soon afterwards rebuilt ; and it bore in the middle 
 ages the name of Triaditza. Its extensive ruins 
 are to be seen S. of Sophia. Serdica derived its 
 name from the Thraclan people Serdi. 
 
 Serena, niece of Theodosius the Great, foster- 
 mother of the emperor Honorius, and wife of Sti- 
 licho. 
 
 Serenus, Annaeus, one of the most intimate 
 friends of the philosopher Seneca, who dedicated to 
 him his work De Tranquillitate and De Constantia. 
 He was praefectus vigilum under Nero, and died in 
 consequence of eating a poisonous kind of fungus. 
 
 Serenus, Q. Sammonicus (or Samonicus), en- 
 joyed a higb reputation at Rome, in the early part 
 of the 3rd century after Christ, as a man of taste 
 and varied knowledge. As the friend of Geta, by 
 whom his compositions were studied with great 
 pleasure, he was murdered while at supper, by 
 command of Caracalla, A. d. 212, leaving behind 
 him many learned works. His son, who bore the 
 
SKRENUS. 
 same name, was the preceptor of the younger Gor- 
 diaii, and bequeathed to his pupil the magnificent 
 library which he had inherited from his father. A 
 medical poem, extending to 115 hexameter lines, 
 has descended to us under the title Q. Sereni Sam- 
 monid de Afedieina praecepta saluberrima, or Prae- 
 cepta de Afedieina pat-vo preiio parabili, which is 
 usually ascribed to the elder Saramonicus. It con- 
 tains a considerable amount of information, ex- 
 tracted from the best authorities, on natural history 
 and the healing art, mixed up with a number of 
 puerile superstitions, the whole expressed in plain 
 and almost prosaic language. The best edition is 
 that of Burmann, in his Pottae Latini Minores 
 (4to. Leid. 1731, vol. ii. pp. 187—308). 
 
 Serenas, A. Septimius, a Roman lyric poet, 
 wlio exercised his muse chiefly in depicting the 
 charms of the country and the delight of rural pur- 
 suits. His works are lost, but are frequently 
 quoted by the grammarians. 
 
 Seres. [Sertca.] 
 
 Sergia Gens, patrician. The Sergii traced their 
 descent from the Trojan Sergestus (Virg. Aen. v. 
 121). The Sergii were distinguished in the early 
 history of the republic, and the first member of the 
 gens who obtained the consulship was L. Sergius 
 Fidenas, in b. c. 437. Catiline belonged to this 
 gens. [Catilina.] The Sergii bore also the sur- 
 names of Esquilinus, Fidenas^ Orata, Paultts, Plan- 
 cus, and Situs ; but none of them are of sufficient 
 importance to require a separate notice. 
 
 Sergius, a grammarian of uncertain date, but 
 later than the 4th century after Christ, the author 
 of 2 tracts ; the 1st entitled I?i primam Donati 
 Editioncm Commentarium ; the 2nd, Jn secundam 
 Donati Editionem Oommentaria. They are printed 
 in the (Jrammaticae Laiinae auctores antiqui of 
 Putschius (Hannov. 1605, pp. 1816—1838), 
 
 Serica [ti 27?pi/c^, '2.7\pes ; Seres, also rarely in 
 the sing. 2^p, Ser), a country in the extreme E. of 
 Asia, famous as the native region of the silkwoim, 
 wliich was also called ffiip ; and hence the adjec- 
 tive ' sericus' for silken. The name was known to 
 the W. nations at a very early period, through the 
 use of silk, first in, W. Asia, and afterwards in 
 Greece. It is clear, however, that, until some 
 time after the commencement of our era, the name 
 had no distinct geographical signification. Serica 
 and Seres were simply the unknown country and 
 people in the far East, from whom the article of 
 commerce, silk, was obtained. At a later period, 
 some knowledge of the country was obtained from 
 the traders, the results of which are recorded by 
 Ptolemy, who names several positions that can be 
 identified with reasonable probabilitj'-, but the 
 detailed mention of which does not fall within the 
 object of this work. The Serica of Ptolemy cor- 
 responds to the N. W. part of China^ and the 
 adjacent portions of Thibet and Chinese Tartary. 
 The capital, Sera, is supposed by most to be 
 Singan, on the Hoang-lio^ but by some Peking. 
 The country was bounded, according to Ptolemy, 
 on the N. by unknown regions, on the W. by 
 Scythia, on the S. and S. E. by India and the 
 Sinae. The people were said by some to be of 
 Indian, by others of Scythian, origin, and by 
 others to be a mixed race. The Great Wall of 
 China is mentioned by Ammianua Marcellinus 
 under the name of Aggeres Serium. 
 
 Seriphus {'X^pKpos '. 'Xepi(f>ios : SeipJio), an 
 island in the Aegean sea, and one of the Cyclades, 
 
 SERTORIUS. 
 
 699 
 
 lying between Cythnus and Siphnus. It was a 
 small rocky island about 12 miles in circum- 
 ference. It is celebrated in mythology aa the 
 island where Danae and Perseus lauded after 
 they liad been exposed by Acrisius, where Per- 
 seus was brouglit up, and where he afterwards 
 turned the inhabitants into stone with the Gor- 
 gon''s head, Seriphus was colonised by lonians 
 from Athens, and it was one of the few islands 
 which refused submission to Xerxes. At a later 
 time the inhabitants of Seriphus were noted for 
 their poverty and wretchedness ; and for this 
 reason the island was employed by the Roman 
 emperors as a place of banishment for state crimi- 
 nals. The ancient writers relate that the frogs in 
 Seriphos were mute. 
 
 Sermyla (Sep/AuAij : '2,epfj.v\ios), a town in 
 Macedonia on the isthmus of the penin&ula Si- 
 thonia. 
 
 Serranus, Atilius. Serranus was originally 
 an agnomen of C. Atilius Regulus, consul u, c. 257, 
 but afterwards became the name of a distinct 
 family of the Atilla gens. Most of the ancient 
 writers derive the name from severe, and relate 
 that Regulus received the surname of Serranus, 
 because he was engaged in sowing when the news 
 was brought him of his elevation to the consulship 
 (Virg. ^ere. vi. 845). It appears, however, from 
 coins, that Saranus is the proper form of the name, 
 and some modem writers think that it is derived 
 from Saranura, a town of Umbria.— 1. C, praetor, 
 B.C. 218, the 1st year of the 2nd Punic war, and 
 was sent into northern Italy. At a later period of 
 the year he resigned his command to the consul 
 P. Scipio. He was an unsuccessful candidate for 
 the consulship for 216.^2. C, curule aedile 193, 
 with L. Scribonius Libo. They were the 1st 
 aediles who exhibited the Megalesia as ludi sce- 
 nici. He was praetor 185.'^ 3. A, praetor 192, 
 when he obtained, as his province, Macedonia 
 and the command of the fleet. He was praetor a 
 2nd time in 173. He was consul in 170.^4. M., 
 praetor 174, when he obtained the province of 
 Sardinia. — 5. M., praetor 152, in Further Spain, 
 defeated the Lusitaui.^6. Sex., consul 136.— 
 7. C, consul 106 with Q. Servilius Caepio, the 
 year in which Cicero and Pompey were bom. 
 Although a " stultissimus homo," according to 
 Cicero, he was elected in preference to Q. Catulus. 
 He was one of the senators who took, up arms 
 against Satuminus in 100. — 8. Sex., sumamed 
 Gavianns, because he originally belonged to the 
 Gavia gens. He was quaestor in 63 in the consul- 
 ship of Cicero, who treated him with distinguished 
 favour ; but in his tribunate of the plebs, 57, he 
 took an active part in opposing Cicero*s recal from 
 banishment. After Cicero's return to Rome he 
 put his veto upon the decree of the senate restoring 
 to Cicero the site on which his house had stood, but 
 he found it advisable to withdraw his opposition. 
 
 Serrhium (iSe'/S^eioi/), a promontory of Thrace 
 in the Aegaean Sea, opposite the island of Samo- 
 thrace, with a fortress of the same name upon it. 
 
 Q. Sertorins, one of the most extraordinary 
 men in the later times of the republic, was a native 
 of Nursia, a Sabine village, and was born of ob- 
 scure but respectable parents. He served under 
 Marius in the war against theTeutones; and before 
 the battle of Aquae Sextiae {Aix), B.C. 102, he 
 entered the camp of the Teutones in disguise as a 
 spy, for which hazardous undertaking his intrepid 
 
700 
 
 SERVILIA. 
 
 character and some knowledge of the Gallic Inn- 
 guage well qualified liim. He also served as tri- 
 bunus militura in Spain under T. Didius (97). 
 He was quaestor in 91, and had before this time 
 lost an eye in battle. On tlie outbreak of the 
 civil war in 88, he declared himself against the 
 party of the nobles, though he was by no means an 
 admirer of liis old commander, C. Marius, whose 
 character he well understood. He commanded one 
 of the 4 armies which besieged Rome under Ma- 
 rius and Cinna. He was however opposed to the 
 bloody massacre which ensued after Marius and 
 Cinna entered Rome ; and he was so indignant at 
 the horrible deeds committed by the slaves, whom 
 Marius kept as guards, that he fell upon them in 
 their camp, and speared 4000 of them. In 83 
 Sertorius was praetor, and either in this year or 
 the following he went into Spain, which had been 
 assigned to him as his province by the Marian 
 party. After collecting a small body of troops in 
 Spam, he crossed over to Maui'etania, where he 
 gained a victory over Paccianus, one of Sulla's 
 generals. In consequence of his success in Africa, 
 he was invited by the Lusitani, who were exposed 
 to the invasion of the Romans, to become their 
 leader. He gained great influence over the Lusi- 
 tanians and the other barbarians in Spain, and 
 Boon succeeded in forming an army, which for 
 some years successfully opposed all the power of 
 Rome. He also availed himself of the superstitious 
 character of the people among whom he was, to 
 strengthen his authority over them. A fawn was 
 brought to him by one of the natives as a present, 
 which soon became so tame as to accompany him 
 in his walks, and attend him on all occasions. 
 After Sulla had become master of Italy, Sertorius 
 Tvas joined by many Romans who had been pro- 
 scribed by the dictator ; and this not only added 
 to his consideration, but brought him many good 
 officers. In 79 Metellus Pius was sent into Spain 
 with a considerable force against Sertorius ; but 
 Metellus could effect nothing against the enemy. 
 He was unable to bring Sertorius to any decisive 
 battle, but was constantly harassed by the guerilla 
 warfare of the latter. In 77 Sertorius was joined 
 by M. Perpenia with 53 cohorts [Perperna]. 
 To give some show of form to his formidable power, 
 Sertorius established a senate of 300, into which 
 no provincial was admitted ; but to soothe the 
 more distinguished Spaniards, and to have some 
 security for their fidelitj*, he establiahed a school at 
 Huesca {Osca\ in Aragon, for the education of 
 their children in Greek and Roman learning. The 
 continued want of success on the part of Metellus 
 induced the Romans to send Pompey to his assist- 
 ance, but with an independent command. Pompey 
 arrived in Spain in 76 with 30,000 infantry and 
 1000 cavalry, but even with this formidable force 
 he was unable to gain any decisive advantages over 
 Sertorius. For the next 5 years Sertorius kept 
 both Metellus and Pompey at bay, and cut to 
 pieces a large number of their forces. Sertorius 
 "was at length assassinated in 72 at a banquet by 
 Perperna and some other Roman officers, who had 
 long been jealous of the authority of their com- 
 mander. 
 
 Servilxa. 1. Daughter of Q. Servilius Caepio 
 and the daughter of Livia, the sister of the cele- 
 brated M. Livius Drusus, tribune of the plebs, 
 E. c. 91. Servilia was married twice ; first to M. 
 ■Junius Brutus, by whom she became the mother 
 
 SESOSTRIS. 
 
 of the murderer of Caesar, and secondly to D. Ju- 
 nius Silanus, consul 62. She was the favourite 
 mistress of the dictator Caesar ; and it is reported 
 that Brutus was her son by Caesar. This tale 
 however cannot be true, as Caesar was only 15 
 years older than Brutus, the former having been, 
 born in 100, and the latter in 85. She survived 
 both her lover and her son. After the battle of 
 Philippi, Antony sent her the ashes of her son.^ 
 2. Sister of the preceding, was the 2nd wife of 
 L. Lucullus, consul 74. She bore Lucullus a son, 
 but, like her sister, she v/as faithless to her hus- 
 band ; and the latter, after putting up with her 
 conduct for some time from regard to M. Cato Uti- 
 censis, her half-brother, at length divorced her. 
 
 Servilia Gens, was one of the Alban houses 
 removed to Rome by Tullus Hostilius. This gens 
 was very celebrated during the early ages of the 
 republic, and it continued to produce men of influ- 
 ence in the state down to the imperial period. It 
 was divided into numerous families, of which the 
 most important bore the names of: — Ahala, Cae- 
 pio, Casca, Glaucta, Rullus, Vatia. 
 
 Serrins Haurus Honoratus, or 3ernus ]!£a- 
 rius Honoratus, a celebrated Latin grammarian, 
 contemporary with Macrobius, who introduces him 
 among the dramatis personae of the Saturnalia. 
 His most celebrated production was an elaborate 
 commentary upon Virgil. This is, nominally at 
 least, still extant ; but from the widely diiferent 
 forms which it assumes in different MSS. it is 
 clear that it must have been changed and inter- 
 polated to such an extent by the transcribers of the 
 middle ages, that it is impossible to determine how 
 much belongs to Serviua and how much to later 
 hands. Even in its present condition, however, it 
 is deservedly regarded as the most important and 
 valuable of all the Latin Scholia. It is attached 
 to many of the earlier editions of Virgil, but it 
 will be found under its best form in the edition of 
 Virgil by Burmann. We possess also the following 
 treatises bearing the name of Servius : — 1. In 
 secundam Donaii Ediiio7iem hiterpretatio. 2. De 
 Ratioiie ultimai-um Syllaharum ad Aqidlinum Li- 
 ber. 3. Ars de centum Mebis s. Ceniimetrum, 
 
 Servius Tullius. [Tullius.] 
 
 Sesamus (STjo-a^uciy), a little coast river of 
 Paphlagonia, with a town of the same name : both, 
 called afterwards Amastris. 
 
 Sesostria (SeVwcrTpis), the name given by the 
 Greeks to the great king of Egypt, who is called 
 in Manetho and on the monuments Ramses or 
 Ramesses. Ramses is a name common to several 
 kings of the I8th, 19th, and 20th dynasties; but 
 Sesostris must be identified with Ramses, the 3rd 
 king of the 19th dynasty, the son of Seti, and the 
 father of Menephthah. Sesostris was a great con- 
 queror. He is said to have subdued Ethiopia, 
 the greater part of Asia, and the Tliracians in 
 Europe; and in all the countries which he con- 
 quered he erected stelae^ on which he inscribed 
 his own name. He returned to Egypt after an 
 absence of 9 years, and the countless captives 
 whom he brought back with him were employed 
 in the erection of numerous public works. Memo- 
 rials of Rarases-Sesostris still exist throughout the 
 whole of Egypt, from the mouth of the Nile to 
 the south of Nubia. In the remains of his palace- 
 temple at Thebes we see his victories and conquests 
 represented on the walls, and we can still trace 
 there some of the nations of Africa and Asia whom 
 
SESTIANAE. 
 
 lie subdued. The name of Sesnstris is not found 
 on monuments, and it was probably a popular sur- 
 name given to the great hero of the 19lh dynasty, 
 and borrowed from Sesostris, one of the renowned 
 kings of the 12th dynasty, or perhaps from Sesor- 
 thus, a king of the 3rd dynasty. 
 
 Sestianae Arae (G. Villano), tlie most W.-ly 
 promontory on the N. coast of Hispania Tarraco- 
 nensis in Gallaecia, with 3 altars consecrated to 
 Augustus. 
 
 Sestinum (Sestinas, -atis : Sesiitio), a town in 
 Umbria on the Apennines, near the sources of the 
 Pisaunis. 
 
 Sestius. [Sextius.] 
 
 Sestlis (27jffT(is : S^crTtos : lalova), a toivn 
 in Thrace, situated at the narrowest part of the 
 Hellespont opposite Abydos in Asia, from which 
 it was only 7 stadia distant. It was founded by 
 the Aeolians. It was celebrated in Grecian poetry 
 on account of t!ie loves of Leander and Hero 
 [Leander], and in history on account of the 
 bridge of boats which Xerxes here built across the 
 Hellespont. Sestus was always reckoned a place 
 of importance in consequence of its commanding 
 to a great extent the passage of the Hellespont. 
 It was for some time in the possession of the Per- 
 sians, but was retaken by the Greeks, B. c. 478, 
 after a long siege. It subsequently formed part 
 of the Athenian empire. 
 
 Setabis. [Saetabis.] 
 
 Sethon CZeddv), a priest of Hephaestus, made 
 himself master of Egypt after the expulsion of 
 Sabacon, king of the Ethiopians, and was suc- 
 ceeded by the Dodecarchia, or government of the 
 12 chiefs, which ended in the sole sovereignty of 
 Psammitichus. Herodotus relates (ii. 141) that 
 in Sethon's reign Sanacharibus, king of the Ara- 
 bians and Assyrians, advanced against Egypt, at 
 which Sethon was in great alarm, as he had in- 
 sulted the waiTior class, and deprived them of 
 their lands, and they now refused to follow him to 
 the war. But the god Hepliaestus came to his 
 assistance; for while the two annies were encamped 
 near Pelusium, the field-mice in the night gnawed 
 to pieces the bow-strings, the quivers, and the 
 shield-handles of the Assyrians, who fled on the 
 following day with great loss. The recollection of 
 this miracle was perpetuated by a statue of the 
 king in the temple of Hephaestus, holding a mouse 
 in his hand, and saying, " Let every one look at 
 me and be pious." This Sanacharibus is the Sen- 
 nacherib of the Scriptures, and the destruction of 
 the Ass3'rians at Pelusium is evidently only another 
 version of the miraculous destruction of the Assy- 
 rians by the angel of the Lord, when they had ad- 
 vanced against Jerusalem in the reign of Hezekiah. 
 According to the Jewish records, this event hap- 
 pened in B.C. 711. 
 
 Setia ( Setinus : Sezza or Sesse), an ancient 
 town of Latium in the E. of the Pontine Marshes, 
 originally belonged to the Volscian confederacy, 
 but was subsequently taken by the Romans and 
 colonised. It was here that the Romans kept the 
 Carthaginian hostages. It was celebrated for the 
 excellent wine grown in the neighbourhood of tlie 
 town, which was reckoned in the time of Augustus 
 the finest wine in Italy. 
 
 Severus, M. Aurelius Alexander, usually 
 called Alexander Severus, Roman emperor, a . d. 
 
 222 235, the son of Gessius Marcianus and Julia 
 
 Mamaea, and first cousin of Elagabaliis, was bom 
 
 SEVERUS. 
 
 70! 
 
 at Arce, in Phoenicia, in the temple of Ale.^ander 
 the Great, to which his parents had repaired for 
 the celebration of a festival, the 1st of October, 
 A. D. 205. His original name appears to have been, 
 Alemcuius Bassianus, the latter appellation having 
 been derived from his maternal grandfather. Upon 
 the elevation of Elagabaliis, he accompanied his 
 mother and the court to Rome, a report having 
 been spread abroad that he also, as well as the 
 emperor, was the son of Caracalla. In 221 he was 
 adopted by Elagabalus and created Caesar. The 
 names Alexianus and Bassianus were laid aside, 
 and those of M. Aurelius Aleaander substituted ; 
 M. Aurelius in virtue of his adoption ; Alexander 
 in consequence, as was asserted, of a direct reve- 
 lation on the part of the Syrian god. On the death 
 of Elagabalus, on the 1 1 th of March, a. d. 222, 
 Alexander ascended the throne, adding Severus ti> 
 his other designations, in order to mark more ex- 
 plicitly the descent which he claimed from the 
 father of Caracalliu After reigning in peace some 
 years, during which he reformed many abuses in 
 the state, he was involved in a war with Arta- 
 xerxes, king of Persia, who had lately founded the 
 new empire of the Sassanidae on tlie ruins of the- 
 Parthiaii monarch}'. Alexander gained a gi-eat 
 victory over .4.rtaxerxes in 232 ; but he was unable 
 to prosecute his advantage in consequence of intel- 
 ligence having reached him of a great movement 
 among the German tribes. He celebrated a tri- 
 umph at Rome in 233, and in the following year 
 (234) set out for Gaul, which the Germans were 
 devastating ; but before he had made any progress 
 in the campaign, he was waylaid by a small band, 
 of mutinous soldiers, instigated, it is said, by Max- 
 iminus, and slain, along with his mother, in the 
 early part of 235, in the 30th year of his age, and 
 the l4th of his reign. Alexander Severus was- 
 distinguished by justice, wisdom, and clemency in 
 all public transactions, and by the simplicity imd 
 purity of his private life. 
 
 Severus, A. Caeclna. [Caecina.] 
 
 Severus, Cassius, a celebrated orator and 
 satirical writer in the time of Augustus and Tibe- 
 rius, was born about B. c. 50 at Longula, in La- 
 tium. He was a man of low origin and dissolute 
 character, but was much feared by the severity of 
 his attacks upon the Roman nobles. He must 
 i have commenced his career as a public slanderer 
 very early, if he is the person against whom the 
 6th epode of Horace is directed, as is supposed by 
 many ancient and modern commentators. Towards 
 the latter end of the reign of Augustus, Severua 
 was banished by Augustus to the island of Crete 
 on account of his libellous verses ; but as he still 
 continued to write libels, he was removed by Tibe- 
 rius in A. D. 24 to the desert island of Seriphos, 
 where he died in great poverty in tlie 25th year 
 of his exile, .a. d. 33. 
 
 Severus, Cornelius, the author of a poem en- 
 titled Bellairi Siculum, was contemporary with 
 Ovid, by whom he is addressed in one of the 
 Epistles written from Pontus. 
 
 Severus, Flaviua Valerius, Roman emperor, 
 A. D. 306—307. He was proclaimed Caesar bv 
 Galerius in 305 ; and on the death of Constantius 
 Clilorus, in the following year, he was further pro- 
 claimed Augustus by Galerius. Soon afterwards 
 he \yas sent against Maxentius, who had assumed 
 the imperial title at Rome. The expedition how- 
 ever was unsuccessful; and Severus having sur- 
 
702 
 
 S'EVERUS. 
 
 rendered at Ravenna, was taken prisoner to Rome 
 and compelled to put an end to his life. 
 
 Severus, Libius, Roman emperor a. d. 461 — 
 465, was a Liicanian by birth, and owed his acces- 
 sion to Ricimer, who placed him on the throne after 
 the assassination of Majorian. During his reign 
 the real government was in the hands of Ricimer. 
 Severus died a natural death. 
 
 Severus, L. Septimius, Roman emperor a. d. 
 193 — 211, was born 146, near Leptis in Africa. 
 After holding various important military commands 
 under M. Aurelius and Commodus, he was at 
 length appointed commander-in-chief of the army 
 in Pannonia and lUyria. By this army he was 
 proclaimed emperor after the death of Pertinax 
 (193). He forthwith marched upon Rome, where 
 Julianus had been made emperor by the praetorian 
 troops. Julianus was put to death upon his arrival 
 before the city. [Julianus.] Severus then turned 
 his arms against Pesct-nnius Niger, who had been 
 saluted emperor by the eastern legions. The 
 struggle was brought to a close by a decisive battle 
 near Issus, in which Niger was defeated by Severus, 
 and having been shortly afterwards taken prisoner 
 was put to death by order of the latter (194). 
 Severus then laid siege to Byzantium, which re- 
 fused to submit to him even after the death of 
 Niger, and which was not taken till 196. The 
 city was treated with great severity by Severus. 
 Its walls were levelled with the earth, its soldiers 
 and magistrates put to death, and the town itself, 
 deprived of all its political privileges, made over to 
 the Perinthians. During the continuance of this 
 siege, Severus had crossed the Euphrates (19.5) and 
 anbdued the Mesopotamian Arabians. He returned 
 to Italy in 196, and in the same year proceeded to 
 Gaul to oppose Albinus, who had been proclaimed 
 emperor by the troops in that country. Albinus 
 was defeated and slain in a terrible battle fought 
 near Lyons on the 19th of February, 197. Severus 
 returned to Rome in the same year ; but after re- 
 maining a short time in the capital, he set out for 
 the East in order to repel the invasion of the Par- 
 thians, who were ravaging Mesopotamia. He 
 crossed the Euphrates early in 198, and commenced 
 a series of operations which were attended with 
 brilliant results. Seleucia and Babylon were 
 evacuated by the enemy ; and Ctesiphon was taken 
 and plundered after a short siege. After spending 
 3 years in the East, and visiting Arabia, Palestine, 
 and Egypt, Severus returned to Rome in 202. For 
 the next 7 years he remained tranquilly at Rome ; 
 but in 208 he went to Britain with his sons Cara- 
 calla and Geta. Here he carried on war against 
 the Caledonians, and erected the celebrated wall, 
 which bore his name, from the Solway to the mouth 
 of the Tyne. After remaining 2 years in Britain 
 he died at Eboracum (York) on the 4th of February, 
 211, in the 65th year of his age, and the 18th of 
 his reign. 
 
 Severus, Sulpicius, chiefly celebrated as an ec- 
 clesiastical historian, was a native of Aquitania, 
 and flourished towards the close of the 4th century 
 under Arcadius and Plonorius. He was descended 
 from a noble family, and was originally an advocate ; 
 but he eventually became a presbyter of the church, 
 and attached himself closely to St. Martin of 
 Tours. The extant works of Severus are: — 1. 
 Hisioria Sacra, an epitome of sacred history, ex- 
 tending fj-om the creation of the world to the con- 
 Buiahip of Stilicho and Aurelianus, a. d. 400. 2. 
 
 SEXTUS. 
 
 Vila S. Afaiiini Turonensis, 3. Tres Epistolae. 
 
 A. Dialogi duo^ containing a review of the dissensions 
 which had arisen among ecclesiastics in the East 
 regarding the works of Origen. 5. Epidolae Sex. 
 The best edition of the complete works of Severus 
 is by Hieronymus de Prato, 4to. 2 vols. Veron. 
 1741 — 1754. 
 
 Seuthes (Styfliji), the name of several kings of 
 the Odrysians in Thrace. Of these the most im- 
 portant was the nephew of Sitalces. whom he suc- 
 ceeded on the throne in 424. Daring a long reign 
 he raised his kingdom to a height of power and 
 prosperity, which it had never previously attained. 
 
 Sextia or Sestia Gens, plebeian, one of whose 
 members, namely, L. Sextius Sextinus Lateranus, 
 was the first plebeian who obtained the consulship, 
 
 B. c. 366. 
 
 Sextiae Aquae. [Aquae Sextiae.] 
 
 Seztius or Sestius. 1. P., quaestor b. c. 63, 
 and tribune of the plebs 57. In the latter year 
 he took an active part in obtaining Cicero's recal 
 from banishment. Like Milo, he kept a band of 
 armed retainers to oppose P. Clodius and his par- 
 tizans ; and in the following year (56) he was 
 accused of Vis on account of his violent acts during 
 his tribunate. He was defended by Cicero in an 
 oration still extant, and was acquitted on the 14th 
 of March, chiefly in consequence of the powerful 
 influence of Pompey. In 53, Sextius was praetor. 
 On the breaking out of the civil war in 49, Sextius 
 first espoused Pompey's party, but he afterwards 
 joined Caesar, who sent liim, in 48, into Cappa- 
 docia. He was alive in 43, as appears from Cicero^'s 
 correspondence. — 2. L., son of the preceding by 
 his first wife, Postumia. He served under M. Bru- 
 tus in Macedonia, but subsequently became the 
 friend of Augustus. One of Horace's odes is ad- 
 dressed to him. — 3, T., one of Caesar's legates in 
 Gaul, and afterwards governor of the province of 
 Numidia, or New Africa, at the time of Caesar's 
 death (44). Here he carried on war against Q. 
 Cornificius, who held the province of Old Africa, 
 and whom he defeated and slew in battle. 
 
 Sextius Calviuus. [Calvinus.J 
 
 Sextus Empuricus, was a physician, and re- 
 ceived his name Empiricus from belonging to the 
 school of the Empirici, He was a contemporary of 
 Galen, and lived in the first half of the 3rd century 
 of the Christian aera. Nothing is known of his 
 life. He belonged to the Sceptical school of philo- 
 sophy. Two of his works are extant : — 1. Tlv^pd>- 
 viai 'TTTOTurrwcrcts ^ aKetrTiKo. viTO(j.vf}fiaTa, contain- 
 ing the doctrines of the Sceptics in 3 books. 2. 
 ripin T0V7 fxa$T^fj.ariKOvs avrtp^rjriKoiy against the 
 Matheraatici, in 11 books, is an attack upon all 
 positive philosophy. The first 6 books are a re- 
 futation of the 6 sciences of grammar, rhetoric, 
 geometr}', arithmetic, astrology, and music. The 
 remaining 5 books are directed against logicians, 
 physical philosophers, and ethical writers, and 
 form, in fact, a distinct work, which may be viewed 
 as belonging to the 'TTrorvirfaffeis. The two works 
 are a great repository of doubts ; the language is as 
 clear and perspicuous as the subject will allow. 
 Edited by Fabricius, Lips. 1718. 
 
 Sextus Rufus. 1. The name prefixed to a work 
 entitled De Regionihis Urhis Romae, published by 
 Onuphrius Panvinius at Frankfort in 1558. This 
 work is believed by the best topographers to have 
 been compiled at a late period, and is not regarded 
 as a document of authority. — 3. Sextus Eufus is 
 
SIBAE. 
 
 also the name prefixed to an abridgment of Roman 
 History in 28 short chapters, entitled Breviarium 
 de Vidoriis et Frovhiciis Populi Romania and ex- 
 ecuted by command of the emperor Valens, to 
 whom it is dedicated. This work is usually printed 
 with the larger editions of Eutropius, and of the 
 minor lloman historians. There are no grounds 
 for establishing a connexion between Sextiis Rufus 
 the historian and the author of the work, De Re- 
 ^ionibus. 
 
 Sibae or Sibi (Stfiai, Sifiot), a rude people in 
 the N. W. of India (in the /V;ya6), above the 
 confluence of the rivers Hydaspes {Jclum) and 
 Acesines {Chenah\ who were clothed in skins and 
 jirmed with clubs, and whom therefore the soldiers 
 of Alexander regarded, whether seriously or in 
 jest, as descendants of Hercules. 
 
 Sihyllae (Si'fiuAXoi), the name by which several 
 prophetic women are designated. The first Sibyl, 
 from whom all the rest are said to have derived 
 their name, is called a daughter of Dardanus and 
 Neso. Some authors mention only 4 Sibyls, the 
 Erythraean, the Samian, the Egyptian, and the 
 Sardian ; but it was more commonly believed that 
 there were 10, namely, the Babylonian, the Li- 
 byan, the Delphian (an elder Delphian, who was a 
 danghter of Zeus and Lamia, and a younger one), 
 the Cimmerian, the Eiythraean (also an elder and 
 a younger one, the latter of whom was called He- 
 rophile), the Samian, the Cumaean (sometimes 
 identified with the Erythraean), the Hellespontian, 
 or Trojan, the Phrygian, and the Tiburtine. The 
 most celebrated of these Sibyls is the Cumaean, 
 who is mentioned under the names of Herophile, 
 Demo, Phemonoe, Deiphobe, Demophile, and Amal- 
 thea. She was consulted by Aeneas before he 
 descended into the lower world. She is said to 
 have come to Italy from the East, and she is the 
 one who, according to tradition, appeared before 
 king Tarquinius, offering bim the Sibylline books 
 for sale. Respecting the Sibylline books, see Diet 
 ofAntiq. art. Siln/Uini Lihri. 
 
 Sicamhri. [Sygambri.] 
 
 Sicani, Siceli, Siceliotae. [Sicilia.] 
 
 Sicarii (i. e. 0550551^5), the name given by the 
 Romans to certain savage mountain tribes of the 
 Lebanon, who were, like the Thugs of India, 
 avowed murderers by profession. In the same 
 mountains there existed, at the time of the 
 Crusades, a branch of the fanatic sect called 
 Assassins, whose habits resembled those of the 
 Sicarii, and whose name the Crusaders imported 
 into Europe ; but these were of Arabian origin. 
 
 Sicca Veneria (prob. Al-Kaff)^ a considerable 
 city of N. Africa, on the frontier of Nuraidia and 
 Zeugitana, built on a hill near the river Bagradas. 
 It derived its name from a temple of Venus, in 
 which the goddess was worshipped with rites 
 peculiar to the corresponding eastern deity Astarte, 
 whence it may be inferred that the place was a 
 Phoenician settlement. 
 
 Sichaeas, also called Acerbas. [Acerbas.] 
 
 ^cilia {Sicily), one of the largest islands in the ; 
 Mediterranean Sea. It was supposed by the an- , 
 cients to be the same as the Homeric island Tkri- 
 nacia (©ptj/o/cfo), and it was therefore frequently 
 called Thrinacia, Trinacia, or Trinacris, a name 
 which was believed to be derived from the tri- 
 angular figure of the island. For the same reason 
 the Roman poets called it Triq^uetra. Its more 
 UBsal name came from its later inhabitants, the 
 
 SICILIA. 
 
 703 
 
 Siceli, whence it was called Slcelia (Si/ccAfa), 
 which the Romans changed into Sicilia. As the 
 Siceli also bore the name of Sicani, the island was 
 also called Sicania {^iKavia), Sicily is separated 
 from the S. coast of Italy by a narrow channel 
 called Fretum Siculum. sometimes simply Eretum 
 (nop0/A<Js), and also Scyllaeum Fretum, of which 
 the modern name is Faro di Messina. The sea on 
 the E. and S. of the island was also called Mare 
 Siculum. The island itself is in the shape of a 
 triangle. The N. and S. sides are about 175 
 miles each in length, not including the windings of 
 the coast; and the length of the E, side is about 
 115 miles. The N. W. point, the Prom. Lily- 
 haeum, is about 90 miles from C. Bon on the coast 
 of Africa ; the N. E. point, Prom. Pe/orus., is about 
 3 miles from the coast of Calabria in Italy ; and 
 the S. E. point. Prom. Pachynus, is 60 miles from 
 the island of Malta. Sicily formed originally 
 part of Italy, and was torn away from it by some 
 volcanic eruption, as the ancients generally be- 
 lieved. A range of mountains, which are a conti- 
 nuation of the Apennines, extends throughout the 
 island from E. to W. The general name of this 
 mountain-range was Nebrodi Montes {Madonia\ 
 of which there were several offshoots known by 
 different names. Of these the most important 
 were, the celebrated volcano Aetna on the E. side 
 of the island, Eryx {St. Giuliano) in the extreme 
 W. near Drepanum, and the Heraei Montes 
 {Monti Sort) in the S. running down to the pro- 
 montory Pachynus. A large number of rivers 
 flow down from the mountains, but most of them 
 are dry, or nearly so, in the summer. The soil of 
 Sicily was very fertile, and produced in antiquity 
 an immense quantity of wheat, on which the popu- 
 lation of Rome relied to a great extent for their 
 subsistence. So celebrated was it even in early 
 times on account of its com, that it was repre- 
 sented as sacred to Demeter (Ceres), and as the 
 favourite abode of this goddess. Hence it was in 
 this island that her daughter Persephone (Proser- 
 pina) was carried away by Pluto. Besides com 
 the island produced excellent wine, saffron, honey, 
 almonds, and the other southern fruits. The earli- 
 est inhabitants of Sicily are said to have been the 
 savage Cyclopes and Laestrygones ; but these are 
 fabulous beings, and the first inhabitants men- 
 tioned in history are the Sicani {^iKavoi)^ or 
 Siculi (2iK€AoO, who crossed over into the island 
 from Italy. Some writers, indeed, regard the 
 Sicani and Siculi as two distinct peoples, supposing 
 the latter only to have migrated from Italy, and 
 the former to have been the aboriginal inhabitants 
 of the country ; but there is no good reason for 
 making any distinction between them. They ap- 
 pear to have been a Celtic people. According to 
 Thucydidea their original settlement was on the 
 river Sicanus in Iberia ; but asThucydldes extends 
 Iberia as far as the Rhone, it is probable that 
 Sicanus was a river of Gaul, and it may have been 
 the Sequana, as some modern writers suppose. 
 The ancient writers relate that these Sicani, being 
 hard pressed by the Ligyes (Ligures), crossed the 
 Alps and settled in Latium ; that, being driven 
 out of this country by the Aborigines with the help 
 of Pelnsgifins, they migrated to the S. of the penin- 
 sula, where they lived for a considerable time along 
 with the Oenotrians ; and that at last they crossed 
 over to Sicily, to which they gave their name. 
 They spread over the greater part of the island, 
 
704 
 
 SICILIA. 
 
 tut in later times were found chiefly in the interior 
 and in the N. part; some of the most important 
 towns belonging to them were Herbita, Agyrium, 
 Admnum, and Enna. The next immigrants into 
 the island were Cretans, who are said to have 
 come to Sicily under their king, Minos, in pursuit 
 of Daedalus, and to have settled on the S. coast in 
 the neighbourhood of Agrigentum, where they 
 founded Minoa (afterwards Heraclea Minoa). 
 Then came the Elymaei, a small band of fugitive 
 Trojans, who are said to have built Entella, Eryx, 
 and Egesta. These Cretans and Elymaei, how- 
 ever, if indeed they ever visited Sicily, soon 
 became incorporated with the Siculi. The Phoe- 
 nicians likewise at an early period formed settle- 
 ments, for the purposes of commerce, on all the 
 coasts of Sicily, but more especially on the N. and 
 N. W. parts. They were subsequently obliged to 
 retire from the greater part of their settlements 
 before the increasing power of the Greeks, and to 
 confine themselves to IMotya, Solus, and Panormus. 
 But the most important of all the immigrants into 
 Sicily were the Greeks. The first body of Greeks 
 who landed in the island were Chalcidians from 
 Euboea, and Megarians led by the Athenian 
 Thucles. These Greek colonists built the town of 
 Naxus, B. c. 73.5. They were soon followed by 
 other Greek colonists, who founded a number of 
 very flourishing cities, such as Syracnse in 734, 
 Leontini and Catana in 730, Megara Hybla in 
 726, Gela in 6fl0, Selinus in C2C, Agrigentum in 
 .579, etc. The Greeks soon became the ruling 
 race in the island, and received the name of Sice- 
 liotae (SiweAiwrai) to distinguish them from the 
 earlier inhabitants. At a later time the Cartha- 
 ginians obtained a firm footing in Sicily. Their 
 first attempt was made in 480 ; but they were 
 defeated by Gelon of Syracuse, and obliged to retire 
 with great loss. Their 2nd invasion in 409 was 
 more successful. They took Selinus in this year, 
 and 4 years afterwards (405) the powerful city of 
 Agrigentum, They now became the permanent 
 masters of the W. part of the island, and were 
 engaged in frequent wars with Syracuse and the 
 other Greek cities. The struggle between the 
 Carthaginians and Greeks continued, with a few 
 interruptions, down to the 1st Punic war ; at 
 the close of which (24 1 ) the Carthaginians were 
 obliged to evacuate the island, the W. part of which 
 now passed into the hands of the Romans,and was 
 made a Roman province. The E. part still con- 
 tinued under the rule of Hieron of Syracuse as an 
 ally of Rome ; but after the revolt of Syracuse in 
 the 2nd Punic war, and the conquest of that city 
 by Marcellus, the whole island was made a Roman 
 province, and was administered by a praetor. 
 Under the Roman dominion more attention was 
 paid to agriculture than to commerce ; and conse- 
 quently the Greek cities on the coast gradually 
 declined in prosperity and in wealth. The inlia- 
 bitants of the province received the Jks Latii from 
 Julius Caesar; and Antony conferred upon them, 
 in accordance, as it was said, with Caesar's will, 
 the full Roman franchise. Augustus, after his 
 conquest of Sex. Pompey, who had held the island 
 for several years, founded colonies at Messana, 
 T.iuromenium, Catana, Syracuse, Thermae, and 
 Panormus. On the downfal of the Roman em- 
 pire, Sicily formed part of the kingdom of the 
 Ostrogoths; but it was taken from them by Beli- 
 sarins in a. d. 536, and annexed to the Byzantine 
 
 SICYONIA. 
 
 empire. It continued a province of this empire 
 till 1J28, when it was conquered by the Saracens. 
 — Literature and the arts were cultivated with 
 great success in the Greek cities of Sicily. It was 
 the birthplace of the philosophers Empedocles, Epi- 
 charmus, and Dicaearchus ; of the niathematician 
 Archimedes ; of the physicians Herodicus and 
 Acron ; of the historians Diodorus, Antiochus, 
 Philistus, and Timaeus ; of the rhetorician Gor- 
 gias; and of the poets Stesichorus and Theocritus. 
 
 Sioima. [Neapolis, No. S.] 
 
 SiciniuB. 1. L. Sioinius Bellutus, the leader 
 of the plebeians in their secession to the Sacred 
 Mount in B, c. 494. He was chosen one of the 
 first ti-ibunes. — 2. 1. Sioinius Deutatus, called 
 by some writers the Roman Achilles. He is said 
 to have fought in 120 battles, to have slain 8 of 
 the enemy in single combat, to have received 45 
 wounds on the front of his body, and to have ac- 
 companied tlie triumphs of 9 generals, whose vic- 
 tories were principally owing to his valour. He was 
 tribune of the plebs in 454. He was put to death 
 by the decemvirs in 450, because he endeavoured 
 to persuade the plebeians to secede to the Sacred 
 Mount. The persons sent to assassinate him fell 
 upon him in a lonely spot, but he killed most of 
 them before they succeeded in despatching him. 
 
 Sicinus (StKivos ; 2iKtWT7;y : SikiTio)^ a small 
 island in the Aegaean sea, one of the Sporades, 
 between Pholegandrus and los, with a town of 
 the same name. It is said to have been originally 
 called Oenoe from its cultivation of the vine, but 
 to have been named Sicinus after a son of Tlioas 
 and Oenoe. It was probably colonised by the 
 lonians. During the Persian war it submitted to 
 Xerxes, but it afterwards formed part of the Athe- 
 nian maritime empire, 
 
 SicSris {Segre), a river in Hispania Tarraco- 
 nensis, which had its source in the territory of the 
 Cerretani, divided the Ilergetes and Lacetani, 
 flowed by Ilerda, and after receiving the river 
 Cinga (Cimd), fell into the Iberus, near Octogesa. 
 
 Sicilli, [Sicilia,] 
 
 SiciUnm Fretum, Siciilum Hare, [Sicilia.] 
 
 Siciilus Flaccns, [Flaccu.s.] 
 
 Sl^cyoma (SiKuufta), a small district in the 
 NE. of Peloponnesus, bounded on the E. by the 
 territory of Corinth, on the W, by Achaia, on the 
 S. by the territory of Phlius and Cleonae, and on 
 the N, by the Corinthian gulf. The area of the 
 country was probably somewhat less than 100 
 square miles. It consisted of a plain near the sea 
 with mountains in the interior. Its rivers, which ran 
 in a N.E.-ly direction, were Sythas on the frontier 
 of Achaia, Helisson, Selleis, and Asopus in the in- 
 terior, and Nemea on the frontier of the territory 
 of Corinth. The land was fertile, and produced 
 excellent oil. Its almonds and its fish were also 
 much prized. Its chief town was Sioyon (2iku»>' : 
 SiKi/iii/ios), which was situated a little to the W. 
 of the river Asopus, and at the distance of 20, or, 
 according to others, 12 stadia from the sea. The 
 ancient city, which was situated in the plain, was 
 destroyed by Demetrius Poliorcetea, and a nev/ 
 city, which bore for a short time the name of De- 
 metrias, was built by him on the high ground 
 close to the Acropolis. The harbour, which, ac- 
 cording to some, was connected with the city by 
 means of long walls, was well fortified, and formed 
 a town of itself, Sicyon was one of the most an- 
 cient cities of Greece. It is said to have been 
 
SID A. 
 originally called Aegialea or Aeplali {Alyi(x\eia, 
 AlytaXoi), after an ancient kiuj;. Ae};i.ileus ; to 
 have been subsequently nami'd Meeone (^Mtjkw;/??). 
 and to have been finally called Sicyoii fi-oin iiii 
 Athenian of this name. Sicvon Is repre>.ented by 
 Homer aa forming part of tlit* empire of Agamem- 
 non ; but on the invasion of Peloponnesus it be- 
 came subject to Phalces, the son of Temeniia. and 
 was henceforward a Dorian state. The ancient 
 inhabitiints, however, were formed into a 4th tribe 
 called Aegiuleis, which possessed eqmil rights with 
 the 3 tribes of the Hylleis, Pamphyli, and Dy- 
 manatae, into which the Dorian conquerors were 
 divided. Sicyon, on account of the small extent 
 of its territory, never attained much political im- 
 portance, and was generally dependent either on 
 Argos or Sparta. At the time of the 2nd Messe- 
 nian war it became subject to a succession of 
 tyrants, who administered their power with mo- 
 deration and justice for 100 years. The first of 
 these tyrants, was Andreas, who began to rule 
 B.C.676. He was followed in succession by Myron. 
 Aristonymus. and Clisthenes, on whose death, about 
 576, a republican form of government was esta- 
 blished. Clisthenes had no male children, but 
 only a daughter, Agariste, who was married to the 
 Athenian Megacles. In the Persian war the 
 Sicyoni'UissentlSships to the battle of tialamis,and 
 300 hoplites to the battle of Phitaea. In the in- 
 terval between the Persian and the Peloponnesian 
 wars, the Sicyonians were twice defeated and their 
 country laid waste by the Athenians, first under 
 Tolmides in 456, and again under Pericles in 454. 
 In the Peloponnesian war they took part witii the 
 Spartans. From this time till the Macedonian 
 supremacy their history requires no special men- 
 tion ; but in the middle of the 3rd century Sicvon 
 took an active part in public affairs in consequence 
 ©fits being the native town of Aratus, who united 
 it to the Achaean league in 251. Under the 
 Romans it gradually declined ; and in the time of 
 Pausanias. in the 2nd century of the Christian era, 
 many of its public buildings were in ruins. — 
 Sicyon was for a long time the cb ief seat of Grecian 
 art. It gave its name to one of the great schools 
 of painting, which was founded by Eupompus, and 
 which produced Pamphilus and Apelles. It is albo 
 »aid to have been the earliest school of statuary in 
 Greece, which was introduced into Sicyon by Di- 
 poenus and Scyllis from Crete about 560; but its 
 earliest native artist of celebrity was Canachus. 
 LysippUB was also a native of Sicyon. The town 
 was likewise celebrated for the taste and skill dis- 
 played in the various articles of dress made by its 
 inhabitants, among which we find mention of a 
 particular kind of shoe, which was much prized in 
 all parts of Greece. 
 
 Sida, Side (Si'Stj, SiSiTTjy, and SiS^tt^s, Sidites 
 aud Sidetes). 1. {Eski Adalia, Ru.), a city of 
 Pamphylia, on the coast, a little W. of the river 
 Melas. It was an Aeolian colony from Cyme in 
 Aeolis, and was a chief seat of the worship of 
 Athena, who is represented on its coins holding a 
 pomegranate (o"/S7j)a8 the emblem of the city. In 
 the division of the provinces under Constantine. it 
 was made the cnpital of Pamphylia Prima. -^ 2. 
 The old name of Polemonium, from which a flat 
 district in the N.E. of Pontns Polemoniacus, along 
 the coast, obtiiined the name of Sidene (2(57)*'^). 
 
 Sideuus. [Polemonium.] 
 
 Sidtcini, an Ausonian people in the N. W. of 
 
 SIDONIUS, 705 
 
 Campania and on the borders of Samniura, who, 
 being hard pressed by the Samnites, united them- 
 selves to the Cunipaniiins. Their chief town was 
 Titan um. 
 
 Sidon, gen, oeIs (5t5wi', gen. 5iSwi/oj, SiStSx/oy, 
 0. T. Tsidon or, in the Engli>h form. ZiHon : 
 SiSwJ', SiSoinos, 2i5dwoj, Sidonius: Saida^ Ru.), 
 foi a long time the most powerful, and probably 
 the most ancient, of the cities of Phoenice. As 
 early as the conquest of Canaan by the Israelites, 
 it is called * Great Zidon' (Joshua, xi. 8.). It 
 stood in a plain, about a mile wide, on the coast of 
 the Mediterranean, 200 stadia (20 geog. miles) N. 
 of Tyre, 400 stadia (40 geog. miles) S. of Berytus, 
 GQ miles W. of Damascus, and a day's journey 
 N. W.of the fiourceof the Jordan at Paneas. It had 
 a fine double harbour, now almost filled with sand ; 
 and was strongly fortified. It was the chief seat 
 of the maritime power of Phoenice, until eclipsed 
 by its own colony, Tyre [Tvitt/sJ ; and its power 
 on the land side seems to have extended over all 
 Phoenice, and at one period (in the time of the 
 Judges) over at least a part of Palestine. In the 
 time of David and Solomon, Sidon appears to 
 have been subject to the king of Tyre. It pro- 
 bably regained its former rank, as the fiist of the 
 Plioenician cities, by its submission to Shalmanezer 
 at the time of the Assyrian conquest of Syria, for 
 we find it governed by its own king under the 
 Babylonians and the Persians. In the expedition 
 of Xerxes against Greece, the Sidonians furnished 
 the best ships in the whole fleet, and their king 
 obtained the highest place, next to Xerxes, in the 
 couTicil, and above the king of Tyre. Sidon re- 
 CL'ived the great blow to her prosperity in the 
 reiirn of Artaxerxes III. Ochua, when the Si- 
 donians, having taken part in the revolt of Phoe- 
 nice and Cyprus, and being betrayed to Ochus by 
 tiieir own king, Tennes, burnt themselves with 
 their city, b. c. 351. The city was rebuilt, but 
 the fortifications were not restored, and the place 
 was, therefore, of no further importance in military 
 hiatoiy. It shared the fortunes of the rest of 
 Phoenice, and under the Romans it retained 
 much of its commercial importance, which it has 
 not yet entirely lost. In addition to its commerce, 
 Sidon was famed for its manufactures of glass, the 
 invention of which was said to have been made in 
 Plioenicla. 
 
 SIdoiuus Apollinaris, whose full name was 
 C. SoUius Sidonius ApoiUnaris^ was bom at Lug- 
 dunum {Lyons) about a. d. 431. At an early age 
 he married Papianilla, the child of Flavius Avitus; 
 and upon the elevation of his father-in-law to the 
 imperial dignity (456), he accompanied him to 
 Rome, and celebrated his consulship in a poem still 
 exUint. Avitus raised Sidonius to the rank of a 
 senator, nominated him prefect of the city, and 
 caused his statue to be placed among the effigies 
 which graced the library of Trajan. The downfal 
 of Avitus threw a cloud over the fortunes of Sido- 
 nius, who having been shut up in Lyons, and 
 having endured the hardships of the siege, pur- 
 chased pardon by a complimentary address to the 
 victorious Majorian. The poet was not only for- 
 given, but was rewarded with a laurelled bust, and 
 with the title of count. After passing some years 
 in retirement during the reign of Severus, Sidonius 
 was despatched to Rome (467) in the character of 
 ambassador from the Arverni to Anthemius, and 
 on this occasion delivered a third panegyric in 
 
706 
 
 SIDUS. 
 
 honour of a third prince, which proved not less 
 Buccessful than liia former efforts, for he was now 
 raised to the rank of a patrician, again appointed 
 prefect of tlie city, and once more honoured with 
 a statue. But a still more remarkable tribute was 
 Boon afterwards rendered to his talents ; for al- 
 though not a priest, the vacant see of Clermont in 
 Auvergne was forced upon his reluctant acceptance 
 (472) at the death ofthe^^bishop Eparchius. During 
 the remainder of his life he devoted iiimself to the 
 duties of his sacred office, and especially resisted 
 with energy the progress of Arianism, He died in 
 482, or, according to others, in 484. The extant 
 works of Sidoniiis are ; — 1. Carmina, 24 in number, 
 composed in various measures upon various subjects. 
 Of these the most important are the 3 panegjiics 
 already mentioned. 2. Epistolarum LiJrri IX.^ 
 containing 147 letters, many of them interspersed 
 with pieces of poetry. They are addressed to a 
 wide circle of relatives and friends upon topics con- 
 nected with politics, literature, and domestic occur- 
 rences, but seldom touch upon ecclesiastical matters. 
 The writings of Sidonius are characterised by great 
 subtlety of thought, expressed in phraseology 
 abounding with harsh and violent metaphors. 
 Hence he is generally obscure ; but his works 
 throughout bear the impress of an acute, vigorous, 
 and highly cultivated intellect. The best edition 
 of his works is that of Sirmond, 4to. Paris, 1652. 
 Sidus (5i5oi)s, -ovvTOi : "S-iZovvrios)^ a fortified 
 place in the territory of Corinth, on the bay of 
 Cenchreae, and a little to the E. of Crommyon. It 
 was celebrated for its apples, 
 
 Sidussa (2t5oOo'o-a), a small place in Lydia, 
 belonging to the territory of the Ionian city of 
 Erj'thra. 
 
 Sidyma [rh. liiZv^a; Turioorcar Hisar, Ru.), a 
 town in the interior of Lycia, on a mountain, N. of 
 the mouth of Xanthus. 
 
 Siga (2i7a), a considerable sea-port town of 
 Mauretania Caesariensis, on a river of the same 
 name, the mouth of which opened into a large bay, 
 which formed the harbour of the town. Its site 
 has not been identified with certainty. 
 
 Sigeum [Yenislieri)^ the N.W. promontory of 
 the Troad, of Asia Minor, and of all Asia, and 
 the S. headland at the entrance of the Hellespont, 
 opposite to the Prom. Mastusiura (C. Helles), at 
 the extremity of the Thracian Chersonese, It is 
 here that Homer places the Grecian fleet and 
 camp during the Trojan war. Near it was a sea- 
 port town of the same name, which was the object 
 of contention between the Aeolians and the 
 Athenians, in the war in which Pittacus distin- 
 guished himself by his valour, and in which 
 Alcaeus lost his shield. [Pittacus: Alcaeus.] 
 It was afterwards the residence of the Pisistra- 
 tidae, when they were expelled from Athens. It 
 was destroyed by the people of Ilium soon after 
 the Macedonian conquest. 
 
 Signia (SIgninus : Segni), a town in Latinm on 
 the E, side of the Volscian mountains, founded by 
 Tarquinius Priscus. It was celebrated for its 
 temple of Jupiter Urius, for its astringent wine, 
 for its pears, and for a particular kind of pavement 
 for the floors of houses, called opus Signinum^ con- 
 sisting of plaster made of tiles beaten to powder 
 and tempered with mortar. There are still re- 
 mains of the polygonal walls of the ancient town. 
 
 Sigrium {'S.iyp'.ov ; Sigri), the W. promontory 
 of the island of Lesbos. 
 
 SILANUS. 
 
 Sila Silva {Sila\ a large forest in Bruttium on 
 the Apennines, extending S. of Consentia to the 
 Sicilian straits, a distance of 700 stadia. It was 
 celebrated for the excellent pitch which it yielded. 
 
 Silanion (2iAaj/iwy), a distinguished Greek 
 statuary in bronze, was an Athenian and a con- 
 temporary of Lyeippus, and flourished 324. The 
 statues of Silanion belonged to 2 classes, ideal and 
 actual portraits. Of the former the most celebrated 
 was his dying Jocasta, in which a deadly paleness 
 was given to the face by the mixture of silver with 
 the bronze. His statue of Sappho, which stood in 
 the prytaneuvi at Syracuse in the time of Verres, is 
 alluded to by Cicero in terms of the highest praise, 
 
 SHanus, Junius. 1. M., was praetor 212, In 
 210 he accompanied P. Scipio to Spain, and served 
 under him with great distinction during the whole 
 of the war in that country. He fell in battle against 
 the Boii in 1 96, fighting under the consul M. Mar- 
 cellus. — 2. D., sumamed Manlianus, son of the 
 jurist T. Manlius Torquatus, but adopted by a D. 
 Junius Silanus. He was praetor 142, and obtained 
 Macedonia as his province. Being accused of extor- 
 tion by the inhabitants of the province, the senate 
 referred the investigation of the charges to his own 
 father Torquatus, who condemned his son, and 
 banished him from his presence ; and when Sila- 
 nus hanged himself in grief, his father would not 
 attend his funeral. — 3. M., consul 109, fought in 
 this year against the Cimbri in Transalpine Gaul, 
 and was defeated. He was accused in 104, by the 
 tribune Cn. Domitius Ahenobavbus, in consequence 
 of this defeat, but was acquitted. — 4. D., step- 
 father of M. Brutus, the murderer of Caesar, having 
 married his mother Servilia. He was elected consul 
 in 63 for the following year ; and in consequence 
 of his being consul designatus, he was first asked 
 for his opinion by Cicero in the debate in the senate 
 on the punishment of the Catilinarian conspirators. 
 He was consul 62, with L, Licinius Murena, along 
 with whom he proposed the Lex Licima Julia. ^ 
 5- M., son of No. 4 and of Servilia, served in Gaul 
 as Caesar's legatus in 53. After Caesar's murder 
 in 44, he accompanied M. Lepidus over the Alps ; 
 and in the following year Lepidus sent him with a 
 detachment of troops into Cisalpine Gaul, where he 
 fought on the side of Antony. He was consul in 
 25. He had two sisters, one married to M. Lepidus, 
 the triumvir, and the other to C. Cassius, one 
 of Caesar's murderers. — 6. M., consul 19, with 
 L. Norbanus Balbus. In 33 his daughter Claudia 
 was married to C. Caesar, afterwards the emperor 
 Caligula. Silanus was governor of Africa in the 
 reign of Caligula, but was compelled by his father- 
 in-law to put an end to his life. Julius Graecinus, 
 the father of Agricola, had been ordered by Cali- 
 gula to accuse Silanus, but he declined the odious 
 task. — 7. App., consul A. d. 28 with P. Silius 
 Nerva. Claudius soon after his accession gave to 
 Silanus in marriage Domitia Lepida, the mother of 
 his wife Messalina,and treated him otherwise with 
 the greatest distinction. But shortly afterwards, 
 having refused the embraces of Messalina, he was 
 put to death by Claudius, on the accusations of 
 MesBalina and Narcissus. The first wife of Silanus 
 was Aemilia Lepida, the proneptis or great- 
 grand-daughter of Augustus. ^8. M., son of No. 7, 
 consul 46. Silanus was proconsul of Asia at the 
 succession of Nero in 54, and was poisoned by 
 command of Agrippina, who feared that he might 
 avenge the death of his brother [No. 9], and that 
 
SILARUS. 
 
 nis descent from Augustus niiglit lead him to lie 
 preferred to the youtliful Neio. — 9. L., also a son 
 of No, 7, vviiB betrothed to Octavia, the daughter 
 of the emperor Claudius ; but when Octavia was 
 married to Nero in 48, Silanus knew that his fate 
 was seiilfd, and therefore put an end to his life. — 
 10. D. Junias Torquatus Silanus, probably also 
 a son of No. 7, was consul 53. He was compelled 
 by Nero in 54 to put an end to hia life, beciiuse he 
 had boasted of being descended from Augustus. 
 ^ U. L. Junius Torquatus Silanus, son of No. 
 8, and consequently the ainepos^ or great-great- 
 great frrandson of Augustus. His descent from 
 Augustus rendered him an object of suspicion to 
 Nero. He was accordingly accused in 65 ; was 
 sentenced to banishment ; and was shortly after- 
 wards put to death at Barium in Apulia. 
 
 Silarus [Silaro)^ a river in lower Italy, forming 
 the boundary between Lucania and Campania, 
 rises in the Apennines, and, after receiving the 
 Tanager {Megri) and Calor {Calore)^ falls into tiie 
 Sinus Paestanus a little to the N. of Paestum. 
 Its water is said to have petrified plants. 
 
 Silenus (2eiAr7(/(Js). 1. (Mythological). It is 
 remarked in the article Satyri that the older Satyrs 
 were generally termed Sileni ; but one of these 
 Sileni is commonly the Silenus, who always accom- 
 panies the god, and whom he is said to have brought 
 up and instructed. Like the other Satyrs he is 
 called a son of Hermes ; but others make him a 
 son of Pan by a nymph, or of Gaea. Being the 
 constant companion of Dionysus, he is said, like 
 the god, to have been born at Nysa. Moreover, 
 he took part in the contest with the Gigants, and 
 slew Enceladus. He is described as a jovial old 
 man, with a bald head, a puck nos?, fat and round 
 like his wine bag, which he always carried with 
 him, and generally intoxicated. As he could not 
 trust his own legs, he is generally represented 
 riding on an ass, or supported by other Satyrs. In 
 every other respect he is described as resembling 
 his brethren in their love of sleep, wine, and music. 
 He is mentioned along with Marsyas and Olympus 
 as the inventor of the flute, which he is often seen 
 playing ; and a special kind of dance was called 
 after him Silenus, while he himself is designated 
 as the dancer. But it is a peculiar feature in his 
 character that he was conceived also as an inspired 
 prophet, who knew all the past and the most dis- 
 tant future, and as a sage who despised all the gifts 
 of fortune. When he was drunk and asleep, he 
 was in the power of mortals who might compel 
 him to prophesy and aing by surrounding him with 
 chains of flowers. ^2. (Literary). A native of 
 Calatia, and a writer upon Roman history. — 3. 
 It was probably a different writer from the last 
 who is quoted several times by Athenaeus and 
 others as the author of a work on foreign words. 
 
 Silicense Flumen, a river in Hispania Baetica 
 in the neighbourhood of Corduba, probably the 
 Gruadiijnz, or a tributary of the latter. 
 
 C. Silius Italicus, a Roman poet, was born 
 ahout A. D. 25. The place of his birth is uncer- 
 tain, as is also the import of his surname Italicus. 
 From his early years he devoted himself to oratory 
 and poetry, taking Cicero as his model in the former, 
 and Virgil in the latter. He acquired great repu- 
 tation as an advocate, and was afterwards one of 
 the Centumviri. He was consul in 68, the yearin 
 which Nero perished ; he was admitted to familiar 
 intercourse with Vitellius, and was subsequently 
 
 SILVAN US. 
 
 707 
 
 proconsul of Asia. . His two favourite residences 
 were a mansion near Puteoli, formerly the Academy 
 of Cicero, and the house in the vicinity of Naples 
 once occupied by Virgil ; and here he continued to 
 reside until he had completed his 75th year, when, 
 in consequence of the pain caused by an incurable 
 disease, he starved himself to death. The great 
 work of Silius Italicus was an heroic poem in 17 
 books, entitled Punica, which has descended to us 
 entire. It contains a narrative of the events of the 
 2nd Punic war, from the capture of Saguntum to 
 the ti-iumph of Scipio Africanus. The materials 
 are derived almost entirely from Livy and Polybiue. 
 It is a dull heavy performance, and hardly deserves 
 the name of a poem. The best editions are by 
 Dralcenborch, 4to. Traj. ad Rhen. 1717 and Ru- 
 perti, 2 vols. 8vo. Goeiting. 1795. 
 
 Silo, Q. Pompaedius, the leader of the Marai 
 in the Social War, and the soul of the whole 
 undertaking. He fell in battle against Q. Metellus 
 Pius, B. c. 88, and with his death the war came to 
 an end. 
 
 Silo (2iAto, SijXoj, 27?X«V, 2t\ovv: 0. T. Shi- 
 loh and Shilon : Seilun^ Ru.), a city of Palestine, 
 in the mountains of Ephraim, in the district after- 
 wards called Samaria ; important as the seat of the 
 sacred ark and the tabernacle from the time of 
 Joshua to the capture of the ark in the time of 
 Eli, after which it seems to have fallen into insig- 
 nificance, though it is occasionally mentioned in 
 the 0. T. 
 
 Siloah, Siloam (SiAwa, 2iA.wa^: O.T. Shiloah : 
 Siloalt)^ a celebrated fountain in the S. E. of 
 Jerusalem, just without the city, at the S. entrance 
 of the valley called Tyropoeon, between the hills 
 of Zion and Moriah. It is remarkable for the ebb 
 and flow of its waters at the diiFerent seasons. 
 
 SUailis {XiK(Ti\is : Najjar Selseleh or Jehd Sel- 
 seleJiy Ru.), a fortified station in Upper Egypt, on 
 the W. bank of the Nile, S. of Apollinopolia the 
 Great. The name signifies the Rock or Hill of a 
 Chain^ and is derived from the circumstance of the 
 river flowing here in a ravine so narrow, that a 
 chain can easily be stretched across it, to command 
 the navigation. 
 
 Siliire3, a powerful people in Britain, inhabiting 
 South Wahs^ long offered a formidable resistance 
 to the Romans, and were the only people in the 
 island who at a later time maintained their inde- 
 pendence against the Saxons. 
 
 Silvanus, a Latin divinity of the fields aud 
 forests, to whom in the earliest times the Tyrrhe- 
 nian Pelasgians are said to have dedicated a grove 
 and a festival. He is also called the protector of 
 the boundaries of fields. In connection with 
 woods {sylvesiris deus)^ he especially presided over 
 plantations, and delighted in trees growing wild ; 
 whence he is represented as carrying the trunk of 
 a cypress. Respecting his connection with cy- 
 press, moreover, the following story is told. Sil- 
 vanus, or, according to others, Apollo, once killed 
 by accident a hind belonging to the youth Cypa- 
 rissus, with whom the god was in love : the youth 
 in consequence died of grief, and was metamor- 
 phosed into a cypress. Silvanus is further de- 
 scribed as the divinity protecting the flocks of 
 cattle, warding off wolves, and promoting their 
 fertility. Being the god of woods and flocks, he 
 is also described as fond of music ; the syrinx was 
 sacred to him, and he is mentioned along with 
 the Pans and Nymphs. Later writers even iden- 
 
 zz 2 
 
708 
 
 SILVIUM. 
 
 tified Silvaniis with Pnn, Fannus, Inims, and 
 Aegipan. In thn Latin poets, as well as in 
 works of art, he always appears as an old man, 
 but as cheerful and in love with Pomona. The 
 sacrifices offered to him consisted of grapes, corn- 
 ears, milk, meat, wine, and pigs. 
 
 Silvium (Silvinus), a town of the Peucetii in 
 Apulia on the borders of Lucania, 20 miles S. E, 
 of Venirsia. 
 
 Silvius, the son of Ascanius, is said to have 
 been so cilled because he was born in a wood. 
 All the succeeding kings of Alba bore the cog- 
 nomen Silvius. The series of these mythical kings 
 is given somewhat differently by Livy, Ovid, and 
 Dionysius, as the following list will show : — 
 Livy. Ovid. Dionysius. 
 
 1. Aeneas. Aeneas. Aeneas. 
 
 2. Ascanius. Ascanius. Ascanias. 
 
 3. Silvius. Silvius. Silvius. 
 
 4. Aeneas Silvius. Aeneas Silvius. 
 
 5. Latiniis Silvius. Latinus. Latinus Silvius. 
 
 6. Alba. Alba. Alba. 
 
 7. Atys. Epytua. Capetus. 
 
 8. Capys. Capys. Capys Silvius. 
 
 9. Cnpetus. Ciipetug. Calpetus. 
 
 10. Tiberinus. Tiberinus. Tiberinns. 
 
 11. Agrippa. Pi-emulus. Agrippa. 
 
 12. Romulus Silvius. Acrota. Alladins. 
 
 13. Aventinus. Aventinus. Aventinus. 
 
 14. Proca. Palatinus. Procas. 
 
 15. Amulius. Amullus. Amulius. 
 
 ^ Simmias (^ifx^xias). 1. Of Thebes, first the 
 disciple of the Pythagorean philosopher Philolaiis, 
 and afterwards the friend and disciple of Socrates, 
 at whose death he was present, having come from 
 Thebes, with his brother Cebes. The two brothers 
 are the principal speakers, besides Socrates him- 
 self, in the Phaedon. Simmias wrote 2;i dialogues 
 on philosophical subjects, all of which are lost.— 
 2. Of Rhodes, a poet and grammarian of the 
 Alexandrian school, flourished about B. c. 300. 
 The Greek Anthology contains 6 epigrams ascribed 
 to Simmias, besides 3 short poems of that fantastic 
 species cjilled griplii or carmina figuraia^ that is, 
 pieces in which the lines are so arranged as to 
 make the whole poem resemble the form of some 
 object; those of Simmias are entitled, from their 
 forms, the Wings {7rr4p\ryes\ the Egg ij^^v)^ and 
 the Hntdtei (7^e'^ercus). 
 
 Simois. [Troas.] As a mytbological per- 
 sonage, the river-god Simois is the son of Oceanus 
 and Tethys, and the father of Astyochus and 
 Jlieromneme. 
 
 Simoa (2f/iwi/). 1. One of tlic disciples of 
 Socrates, and by trade a leather-cutter. Socrates 
 was accustomed to visit his shop, and converse 
 with him on various subjects. These conversa- 
 tions Simon afterwards committed to writing, in 
 33 dialogues, all of which are lost.— 2. Of Ae- 
 gina, a celebrated statuary in bronze, who flou- 
 rished about B.C. 475. 
 
 Simoaides (Simwj/iStjj). 1. Of Amorgos, was 
 the 2nd, both in time and in reputation, of the 3 
 principal iambic poets of the early period of Greek 
 hterature, namely, Archilochus, Simoiiides, and 
 Hippoiiax. He was a native of Sauios, whence 
 he led a colony to the neighbouring island of 
 Amorgos. where he founded 3 cities, Minoa. Aegi- 
 %lu3, and Arcesinc, in the first of which he fixed 
 his own abode. He fiourished about b. c. 664. 
 SImonides was most celebrated for his iambic 
 
 SIMPLICIUS. 
 
 poema, which were of 2 species, gnomic and sa- 
 tirical. The most importHUt of his extant frag- 
 ments is a satire upon women, in which he derives 
 the various, though generally bad, qualities of 
 women from the variety of their origin ; thus the 
 uncleanly v/oman is formed from the swine ; the 
 cunning woman, from the fox j the t.alkative 
 woman, from the dog, and so on. The best sepa- 
 rate edition of the fragments of Simonides of 
 Amorgos is by Welcker, Bonn, lOI-io. — 2. Of 
 Ceos, one of the most celebrated lyric poets of 
 Greece, was the perfecter of the Elegy and Epi- 
 gram, and the rival of Lasus and Pindar in the 
 Dithyramb and the Epinician Ode. He was bom 
 at lulis, in Ceos, B. c. 556, and was the son of Leo- 
 prepes. He appears to have been brought up to 
 music and poetry as a profession. From his native 
 island he proceeded to Athens, probably on the 
 invitation of Hipparchus, who attached him to his 
 society by great rewards. After remaining at 
 Athens some time, probably even after the ex- 
 pulsion of Hippias, he went to Thessaly, where 
 he lived under the patronage of the Aleuads and 
 Scopnds. He afterwards returned to Atliens, and 
 soon had the noblest opportunity of employing his 
 poetic powers in the celebration of the great events 
 of the Persian wars. In 489, he conquered 
 Aeschylus in the contest for the prize which the 
 Athenians offered for an elegy on those who fell 
 at Marathon. Ten years later, he composed the 
 epigrams which were inscribed upon the tomb of 
 the Spartans who fell at Thermopylae, as well as 
 an encomium on the same heroes ; and he also 
 celebrated the battles of Artemisium and Salamis, 
 and the great men who commanded in them. He 
 had completed his 80th year, when his long 
 poetical career at Athens was crowned fay the 
 victory which he gained with the dithyrambic 
 chorus (477), being the 56th prize which he had 
 carried off. Shortly after this he was invited to 
 Syracuse b}' Hiero, at whose court he lived till 
 his death in 467. Simonides was a great fa- 
 vourite with Hiero, and was treated by the tyrant 
 with the greatest munificence. He still continued, 
 when at Syracuse, to employ his muse occasion- 
 ally in the service of other Grecian states. Simo- 
 nides is said to have been the inventor of the 
 mnemonic art and of the long vowels and double 
 letters in the Greek alphabet. He made literature 
 a profession, and is said to have been the first 
 who took money for his poems ; and the reproach 
 of avarice is too often brought against him by his 
 contemporary and rival, Pindar, as well as by 
 subsequent writers, to be altogether discredited. 
 The chief characteristics of the poetry of Simo- 
 nides were sweetness (whence his surname of 
 Melicertes) and elaborate finish, combined with 
 the truest poetic conception and perfect power of 
 expression ; though in originality and fervour he 
 was far inferior, not only to the early lyric poets, 
 such as Sappho and Alcaeus, but also to his con- 
 tempiirary Pindar. He was probably both the 
 most prolific and the most generally popular of all 
 the Grecian lyric poets. The general cliaracter of 
 liis dialect is the Epic, mingled with Doric and 
 Aeolic forms. The best edition of his fragments 
 in a separate form is by Schueidewin, Bmns. 1835. 
 Simplicius (2i/xTrA(K/oi), one of the Inst philo- 
 sophers of the Neo-Platonic school, was a native of 
 Cilicia and a disciple of Ammonius and Damascius. 
 In consequence of the persecutions, to which the 
 
SIMYRA. 
 
 pagnn philosophers were exposed in the reign of 
 Justinian, Simplicius was one of the 7 philosoph«rs 
 ■who took refuge at the court of the Persian king 
 Chosroes. These philosophers returned home about 
 A. D. 533, in consequence of a treaty of peace con- 
 cluded between Chosroes and Justinian, in which 
 the former had stipulated that the philosophers 
 should be allowed to return without risk, and to 
 practise the ritea of their paternal faith. Of the 
 subsequent fortunes of the 7 philosophers we learn 
 nothing ; nor do we know where Simplicius lived 
 and taught. Simplicius wrote commentaries on 
 several of Aristotle's works. His commentaries 
 on the Categories, on the De Coelo, on the Physica 
 AuscuHaiio^ and on the De Anima are extant. In 
 explaining Aristotle, Simplicius endeavours to show 
 that Aristotle agrees with Plato even on those 
 points which the former controverts ; but though 
 he attaches himself too much to the Neo-Platonists, 
 his commentaries are marked by sound sense and 
 real learning. He also wrote a commentary on the 
 Enchiridion of Epictetus, which is likewise extant. 
 
 Simyra (ra %iJ.vpa\ Zamura or Sumor^)^ a 
 fortress on the coast of Phoenice, between Or- 
 thasias and the mouth of the Eleutherus, of no 
 importance except as being the point from which 
 the N. part of Lebanon was usually approached. 
 
 Siuae (2?rat), tlie E.-most people of Asia, of 
 wliom nothing but the name was known to the 
 W. nations, till about the time of Ptolemy, who 
 describes their country as bounded on the N. by 
 Sericn, and on the S. and W. by India extra 
 Gangera. It corresponded to the S. part of 
 China and the E. part of the Burmese peninsula. 
 The detailed description of the knowledge of the 
 ancient geographers concerning it does not fall 
 within the province of this work. 
 
 Sin^ or Sina (LXX. 2i»'a: Jebel-ei-Tur), a 
 cluster of dark, lofty, rocky mountains in the S. 
 angle of the triangular peninsula enclosed between 
 the 2 heads of the Red Sea, and bounded on the 
 N. by the deserts on the borders of Egypt and 
 Palestine. The name, which signifies a reyion of 
 broken and cleft rocks'^ is used in a wider sense for 
 the whole peninsula, which formed a part of 
 Arabia Petraea, and was peopled, at the time of 
 the Exodus, by the Amalekites and Midianites, 
 and afterwards by the Nabathaean Arabs. On 
 the other hand, the name is applied, in a narrower 
 sense, to one particular ridge in the Sinaitic group 
 of mountains running N. and S., and terminated 
 by 2 summits, of which the one on the N. is called 
 Horeb^ and the one on the S. Sinai or Jcbcl A/usa, 
 i. e. Moses'' Mount. From the latter mime, assigned 
 by tradition, it has usually, but too hastily, been 
 inferred that the S. summit was that on which 
 God gave the law to Moses, The fact seems, 
 however, to be that Sinai and Horeb in the 0. T. 
 are both general names for the whole group, the 
 former being used in the first 4 honks of Moses, 
 and the latter in Deuteronomy ; and that the sum- 
 mit on which the law was given was pi'obably 
 that on the N., or the one usually called Horeb. 
 
 Sinda (2iV5a: SiJ'Set;?, Sindensis). 1. A city 
 of Pisidia, N. of Cibyra, near the river Caularis. 
 ^3,3. [SiNDi.] 
 
 Sindi {tivBoi). 1. A people of Asiatic Sar- 
 inatia, on the E, coast of th« Euxine, and at the 
 foot of the Caucasus. They prubahly dwelt in 
 and about the peninsula of Tamun (between the 
 Sea of Azov and the Black Sea), and to the S. of 
 
 SINOPE, 
 
 709 
 
 the river Hypanis (Kouban). They had a capital 
 called Sinda {Anapa9) with a harbour {2tvBiKhs 
 \ilJi'fjv). Their country is called 2ivBiicfi. They 
 are also mentioned by the names of Sindones and 
 Sindiani ^ 3. A people on the E. coast of India 
 extra Gangera (in Cochin China)^ also called 
 Sindae (2it/5at), and with a capital city, Sinda. 
 
 Sindice. [Sindi.] 
 
 Sindomana {Sehwun7), a city of India, on the 
 lower course of the Indus, near the island of Pat- 
 talene. 
 
 Sindns (2iV5os), a town in the Macedonian 
 district of Mygdonia on the Thermaic gulf, and at 
 the mouth of the Echedorus. 
 
 Singara (ra Xiyyafja: Sinjar?)^ a strongly 
 fortified city and Roman colony in the interior of 
 Mesopotamia, 84 Roman miles S. of Nisibis. It 
 lay in a dry plain, at the foot of M. Singaras 
 (Swjar), an E. prolongation of M. Masius. It 
 was the scene of the defeat of Constantius by 
 Sapor, through which the place was lost to the 
 Romans. 
 
 Sine^duntun {Bdgrad), a town in Moesia Su- 
 perior at the confluence of the Savus and the 
 Danube, was a strong fortress, and the head- 
 quarters of a legion, 
 
 Singiticus Sinus. [Singus.] 
 
 Singua (2*7705 : 'XvyyoXos)^ a town in Mace- 
 donia on the E. coast of the peninsula Sithonia, 
 which gave its name to the Sinus Singiticus, 
 
 Sinis or Slnnis (^ivis or Xivvis)^ son of Poly- 
 pemon, Pemon or Poseidon by Sylea, the daughter 
 of Corinthus. He was a robber, who frequented 
 the isthmus of Corinth, and killed the travellers 
 whom he captured, by fastening them to the top 
 of a fir-tree, which he curbed, and then let spring 
 up again. He himself was killed in this manner 
 by Theseus. The name is connected with a-ivofiai^ 
 
 Sinon {^Ivwi/), son of Aesimus, or according to 
 Virgil (Aen. ii. 79) of Sisyphus, and grandson of 
 Autolycus, was a relation of Ulysses, whom he 
 accompanied ft) Troy. After the Greeks had con- 
 structed the wooden horse, Sinon mutilated his 
 person, in order to make the Trojans believe that 
 he had been maltreated by the Greeks, and then 
 allowed himself to be taken prisoner by the Trojans. 
 He informed the Trojans that the wooden horse had 
 been constructed as an atonement for the Palladium 
 which had been carried off by the Greeks, and 
 that if they would drag it into their own city, 
 Asia would gain the supremacy over Greece. The 
 Trojans believed the deceiver and dragged the 
 horse into the city ; whereupon Sinon in the dead 
 of night let the Greeks out of the horse, who thus 
 took Troy. 
 
 Sinope CXivunrrj : Si^wireyy, Sinopensis : S'{- 
 wo/je, Sinouh, Ru.), the most important of all the 
 Greek colonies on the shores of the Euxine, stood 
 on the N. coast of Asia Minor, on the W. head- 
 land of the great bay of which the delta of the 
 river Halys forms the E. headland, and a little E. 
 of the N.-most promontory of Asia Minor. Thus 
 placed, and built on a peninsula, the neck of which 
 formed 2 fine harbours, it had every advantage for 
 becoming a great maritime city. Its foundation 
 was referred mythically to the Argonaut Auto- 
 lycus, who was worshipped in the city as 11 
 hero, and had an oracle ; but it appears in'history 
 as a very early colony of the Milesians. Having 
 been destroyed in the invasion of Asia by the 
 , Cimmerians, it was restored by a new colony from 
 
no STNTICA. 
 
 Miletii3, E. c. 632, and snon becnme the greatest 
 commerciiil city on the Euxine. Se\eriil colonies 
 were established by tlie Sinopians on the adjiicent 
 coasts, the cliief of which were Cotyoni. Trapezua, 
 and Cer.isus. Its territory, c:iiled Sin5pis (Si- 
 ('wTT'S, also ^ivww7ris)^ extended to the banks of 
 the Halys. It remained an independent state 
 till it W.13 taken by Pharnaces I., king of Pontus. 
 It was the birthplace and residence of Mithridates 
 the Great, who enlarged and beautitied it. After 
 an obstinate resistance to the Romans under Lu- 
 cullus, it was taken and plundered, and proclaimed 
 a free city. Shortly before the murder of Julius 
 Caesar, it was colonised by the name of Julia 
 Caesarea Felix Sinope, and remained a flourishing 
 cit3', though it never recovered its former import- 
 ance. At the time of Constantine, it had declined 
 so much as to be ranked second to Amasia. In 
 addition to its commerce, Sinope was greatly 
 enriched by its fisheries. It was the native city 
 of the renowned cynic philosopher Diogenes, of 
 the comic poet DiphiUis, and of the historian 
 Baton. 
 
 Sintica, a district in Macedonia, inhabited by 
 the Thracian people Sinti, extended E. of Cres- 
 tonia and N. of Bisaltia as far as the Strymon and 
 the lake Prasias. Its chief town was Heraclea 
 Sintica. The Sinti were spread over other parts 
 of ancient Thrace, and are identified by Strabo 
 with the Sintians (StVries) of Homer, the ancient 
 inhabitants of Lemnos. 
 
 Slnuessa (Sinuessanus : Rocca di Mandragone)^ 
 the last city of Latium on the confines of Cam- 
 pania, to which it originally belonged, was situated 
 on the sea-coast and on the Via Appia, in the 
 midst of a fertile country. It was colonised by 
 the Romans, together with the neighbouring town 
 of Mintumae, B. c. 296. It possessed a good har- 
 bour, and was a place of considerable commercial 
 importance. In its neighbourhood were celebrated 
 warm baths, called Aquae Sinuessanae. 
 
 Sion. [Jerusalem.] 
 
 Siphnus (2t<ffos: "Sii^vios: Siplino)^ an island 
 in the Aegaean sea, forming one of ttie Cyclades, 
 S. E. of Seriphus. It is of an oblong form, and 
 about 40 miles in circumference. Its original 
 name was Merope ; and it was colonised by lonians 
 from Athens. In consequence of their gold and 
 silver mines, of whic' the remains are still visible, 
 the Siphnians attain 1 great prosperity, and were 
 regarded in the time of Herodotus as the wealthiest 
 of the islanders. Their treasury at Delphi, in 
 which they deposited the tenth of the produce of 
 their mines, was equal in wealth to that of any 
 other Greek state. Their riches, however, exposed 
 them to pillage ; and a party of Samian exiles in 
 the time of Polycrates invaded the island, and 
 compelled them to pay 100 talents. Siphnus was 
 one of the "itvf islands which refused tribute to 
 Xerxes; and one of its ships fought on the side 
 of the Greeks at Salamis. At a later time the 
 mines were less productive ; and Pausanias relates 
 that in consequence of the Siphnians neglecting to 
 send the tithe of their treasure to Delphi, the god 
 destroyed their mines by an inundation of the sea. 
 The moral character of the Siphnians stood low, 
 and hence to act like a Siphnian {^i(pvi6.(uv) be- 
 came a term of reproach. 
 
 Sipontum or Sipuntum (Sipontinus : Siponto), 
 called by the Greeks Sipu9 {2nrovs, -ovyTos), an 
 ancient town in Apulia, in the district of Daunia, 
 
 SIRENES. 
 
 on the S. slope of Mt. Garganus, and on the coast. 
 It is said to have been fnunded by Diuniede, and 
 was of Greek origin. It was colonised by the 
 Romans, under whom it became a place of some 
 coninierci;iI importance. The inhabit;iiit3 were re- 
 moved from the town by king Manfred in the 
 13th century, in consequence of the unhealthy 
 nature of the locality, and were settled in the 
 neighbouring town of Manfredonia, founded by 
 this monarch. 
 
 Sipylus {'2.iTrv\os : Sipuli-Dagh)^ a mountain 
 of Lydia, in Asia Minor, of volcanic formation, 
 and rent and splinted by frequent earthquakes. 
 It is a branch of the Tmolus, from the main chain 
 of which it proceeds N. W. along the course of the 
 river Hermus, as far as Magnesia and Sipylura. 
 It is mentioned by Homer. The ancient capital 
 of Maeonia was said to have been situated in the 
 heart of the mountain chain, and to have been 
 called by the same name ; but it was early swal- 
 lowed up by an earthquake, and its site became a 
 little lake called Sale or Saloe, near which was a 
 tumulus, supposed to be the grave of Tantalus, 
 The mountain was rich in metals, and many 
 mines were worked in it. 
 
 Siracene {'2,ipaK-T}ui\). 1. A district of Hyr- 
 cania. ^ 2. A district of Armenia Major. ^ 
 
 3. [SlRACENI.] 
 
 Siraceni, Siraci, Siraces (2ipoK7ji/o(, Sipajfoi, 
 Sipa/cer), a powerful people of Sarmatia Asiatica, 
 dwelt in the district of Siracene, E, of the Palus 
 Maeotis, as far as the river Rha {Volga). The 
 Romans were engaged in a war with them in 
 A. D. 50. 
 
 Sirhonis Lacus (Sip^on'tSor Xi/xptj, aft. ^ipSco- 
 vis \ifj.vT] and ^ipSwv : Sakakat Bardowal), a large 
 and deep lake on the coast of Lower Egypt, E. of 
 M. Ca^ius. Its circuit was 1000 stadia. It was 
 strongly impregnated with asphaltus. A con- 
 nection (called rh eKpeyna) existf^d between the 
 lake and the Mediterranean ; but this being stopped 
 up, the lake grew continually smaller by evapo- 
 ration, and it is now nearly dry. 
 
 Sirenes (Sei/sijvey), sea-nymphs who had the 
 power of charming by their songs all who heard 
 them. When Ulysses came near the island on the 
 beach of wliich the Sirens were sitting, and en- 
 deavouring to allure him and his companions, he 
 stuffed the ears of his companions with wax, and 
 tied himself t^o the mast of his vessel, until he was 
 so far off that he could no longer hear their song. 
 According to Homer, the island of the Sirens was 
 situated between Aeaea and the rock of Scylla, near 
 the S, W. coast of Italy ; but the Roman poets place 
 them on the Campanian coast. Homer says nothing 
 of their number, but later writers mention both their 
 names and number; some state that they were 2, 
 Aglaopheme and Thelxiepla; and others, that there 
 were 3, Pisinoe, Aglaope, and Thelxiepia, or Par- 
 thenope, Ligla, and Leucosia. They are called 
 daughters of Phorcus, of Achelous and Sterope, of 
 Terpsichore, of Melpomene, of Calliope, or of Gaea. 
 The Sirens are also connected with the legends of 
 the Argonauts and the rape of Persephone. When 
 the Argonauts sailed by the Sirens, the latter began 
 to sing, but in vain, for Orpheus surpassed them ; 
 and as it had been decreed that they should live 
 only till some one hearing their song should pass 
 by unmoved, they threw themselves into the sea, 
 and were metam^irphnsed into rocks. Later poets 
 represent them as provided with wings, which they 
 
SIRENUSAE. 
 are aaid to have received at their own request, in 
 order to be able tn search after Persephone, or as 
 a punishment from Demeter for not having assisted 
 Persephone, or from Aphrodite, because they 
 wished to remain virgins. Once, however, tliey 
 allowed tliemselves to be prevailed upon by Hera 
 to enter into a contest with the Muses, and being 
 defeated, were deprived of tlieir wings, 
 
 Sirenusae, called by Virgil (Aen. v. 864) Si- 
 renum scopuli, 3 small uninhabited and rocky 
 islands near the S. side of the Prom. Misenum, otf 
 the coast of Campania, which were, according to 
 tradition, the abode of the Sirens. 
 
 Slris. 1. (Sinno), a river in Lucania flowing 
 into the Tarentine gulf, memorable for the victory 
 which Pyrrhus gained on its banks over the Ro- 
 mans. — 2. {Torre di Se7ma), an ancient Greek 
 town in Lucania at the mouth of the preceding 
 river. Its locality was unhealthy ; and after the 
 foundation of the neighbouring town of Heraclea 
 by the Tarentines, the inhabitants of Siris were 
 removed to the new to\vn, of which Siris now be- 
 came the harbour. 
 
 Sirmio (Sirmione)^ a beautiful promontory on 
 the S. shore of the Lacus Benacus {Lugo di Garda)^ 
 on which Catullus had an estate. 
 
 Smnium {Miirovitz), an important city in 
 Pannonia Inferior, was situated on the left bank 
 of the Savus. It was founded by the Taurisci, 
 and under the Romans became the capital of Pan- 
 nonia, and the head-quarters of all their operations 
 in their wars against the Dacians and the neigh- 
 bouring barbarians. It contained a large manu- 
 factory of arms, a spacious forum, an imperial 
 palace, etc. It was the residence of the admiral 
 of the first Flavian fleet on the Danube, and the 
 birthplace of the emperor Probus. 
 
 SisapozL {Almaden in the Sierra Morena\ an 
 important town in Hispania Baetica N. of Corduba, 
 between the Baetis and Anas, celebrated for its 
 silver mines and cinnabar. 
 
 Siscia {Sissek), called Segesta by Appian, an 
 important town in Pannonia Superior, situated 
 upon an island formed by the rivers Savus, Co- 
 lapis, and Odra, and on the road from Aemona to 
 Sirmium. It was a strongly furtified place, and 
 was conquered by Tiberius in the reign of Au- 
 gustus, from which time it became the most im- 
 portant town in all Pannonia, It was probably 
 made a colony by Tiberius, and was colonized 
 anew by Septiraius Severus. At a later time its 
 importance declined, and Sirmium became the chief 
 town in Pannonia. 
 
 Sisenna, L. Cornelius, a Roman annalist, was 
 praetor in the year when Sulla died(B. c. 78), and 
 probably obtained Sicily for his province in 77- 
 From the local knowledge thus acquired he was 
 enabled to render good service to Verres, whose 
 cause he espoused. During the piratical war (67) 
 he acted as the legate of Pompey, and having been 
 despatched to Crete in command of an army, 
 died in that island at the age of about 52. His 
 great work, entitled Historiae^ extended to at least 
 14 or ]y books, which contained the history of bis 
 own time. Cicero pronounces Sisenna superior as 
 an historian to any of his predecessors. In addition 
 to his Hisiortae, Sisenna translated the Milesian 
 fables of Aristides, and he also composed a com- 
 mentary upon Plautus. 
 
 Sisygambis {^KTvyatxSis), mother of Darius 
 Codomannus, the last king of Persia, fell into the 
 
 SITHONIA. 
 
 711 
 
 hands of Alexander, after the battle of Trsus, b. c. 
 333, together with the wife and daughters of 
 Darius. Alexander treated tliese capti ves with 
 the greatest generosity and kindness, and displayed 
 towards Sisygambis, in particular, a reverence and 
 delicacy of conduct, wliich is one of the brightest 
 ornaments of his character. On her part, Sisy- 
 gambis became so strongly attached to her con- 
 queror, that she felt his death as a blow not less 
 severe than that of her own son; and overcome by 
 this long succession of misfortunes, put an end to 
 her own life by voluntary starvation. 
 
 Sisyplms (SiVu^os), son of Aeolus and Enarete, 
 whence he is called Aeolides. He was niarried to 
 Merope, a daughter of Atlas or a Pleiad, and be- 
 came by her the father of Glaucus, Ornytion (or 
 Porphyrion), Thcrsander and Halnms. In later 
 accounts he is also called a son of Autolj'cus, and 
 the father of Ulysses by Anticlea [Anticlea]; 
 whence we find Ulysses sometimes called Sisy 
 phides. He is said to have built the town ot 
 Ephyra, afterwards Corinth. As king of Corintii 
 he promoted navigation and commerce, but he was 
 fraudulent, avaricious, and deceitful His wicked- 
 ness during life was severely punished in the lower 
 world, where he had to roll up hill a huge marble 
 block, which as soon as it reached the top always 
 rolled down again. The special reasons for this - 
 punishment are not the same in all authors ; some 
 relate that it was because he had betrayed the 
 designs of the gods ; others because he attacked 
 travellers, and killed them with a huge block of 
 stone; and others again because he had betrayed 
 to Asopus, that Zeus had carried off Aegina, the 
 daughter of the latter. The more usual tradition 
 related that Sisyphus requested his wife not to 
 bury him, and that, when she complied with hia 
 request, Sisyphus in the lower world complained 
 of this seeming neglect, and obtained from Pluto 
 or Persephone, permission to return to the upper 
 world to punish his wife. He then refused to 
 return to the lower world, until Hermes carried 
 him off by force; and this piece of treachery is said 
 to have been the cause of his punishment. 
 
 Sitace or Sittace (Sitcikt;, 'Xirra.KT] : Eshi- 
 Bagdad^ Ru.), a great and populous city of Baby- 
 lonia, near but not on the Tigris, and 8 parasangs 
 within the Median wall. Its probable site is 
 marked by a ruin called the Tower of Nimrod. It 
 gave the name of Sittacene to the district on the 
 lower course of the Tigris E. of Babylonia and N. W. 
 of Susiana. 
 
 Sitalces (SitoAkt^s), king of the Thracian tribe 
 of the Odrysians, was a son of Teres, whom he 
 succeeded on the throne. He increased his do- 
 minions by successful wars, so that they ultimately 
 comprised the whole territory from Abdera to the 
 mouths of the Danube, and from Byzantium to the 
 sources of the Strymon. At the commencement of 
 the Peloponnesian war he entered into an alliance 
 with the Athenians, and in 429 he invaded Ma- 
 cedonia with a vast army, but was obliged to retire 
 through failure of provisions. 
 
 Sithonia {XiBfavia)^ the central one of the 3 
 peninsulas running out from Chalcidice in Mace- 
 donia, between the Toronaic and Singitic gulfs. 
 The Thracians originally extended over the greater 
 part of Macedonia ; and the ancients derived the 
 name of Sithonia from a Thracian king Sithon. 
 We also find mention of aThracian people. Sithonii, 
 on the shores of the Pontus Euxinus ; and the 
 
 7 z 4. 
 
712 
 
 SITIFI. 
 
 poets frequently use Sithovis and SWhonius in the 
 general sense of Thracian. 
 
 Sitifl {XiTKpa: Sefj/, Ru.), an inland city of 
 Mauretania Caesariensis, on the holders of Nu- 
 niidia, stood upon a hiil, in an extensive and h^-au- 
 tiful plain. It first became an important place 
 under the Romans, who made it a colony ; and, 
 upon the Bubdivision of M. Caesariensis into 2 pro- 
 vinces, it was made the capital of the eastern pro- 
 vince, which was called after it Mauretania Siti- 
 fensis. 
 
 Sitonea, a German tribe in Scandinavia, belong- 
 ing to the race of the Suevi. 
 
 Sittace, Sittacene. [Sitace.] 
 
 Sittius or Sitiua, P., of NucerLi in Campania, 
 ■was connected with Catiline, and went to Spain in 
 B. c. 64, from which country he crossed over into 
 jVlauretania in the following year. It was said 
 that P. Sulla had sent him 'nto Spain to excite an 
 insurrection against the Roman government ; and 
 Cicero accordingly, when he defended Sulla, in 62, 
 ■was obliged to deny the truth of tlie charges that 
 had been brought against Sittius. Sittius did not 
 return to Rome. His property in Italy was sold 
 to pay his debts, and he continued in Africa, where 
 he fought in the wars of the kings of the country. 
 He joined Caesar when the latter came to Africa, 
 in 46, to prosecute the war against the Pompeian 
 party. He was of great service to Caesar in this 
 war, and at its conclusion was rewarded by Caesar 
 with the western part of Numidia, where he settled 
 down, distributing the land among his soldiers. 
 After the death of Caesar, Arabic, the son of 
 Masinissa, returned to Africa, and killed Sittius 
 by stratagem. 
 
 Siuph. (2ioi5^), a city of Lower Egypt, in the 
 Saitic nome, onlv mentioned bv Herodotus (ii, 
 172). 
 
 Smaragdaa Mons (2.fidpaySos opos : Jehel Za- 
 hurah)^ a mountain of Upper Egypt, near the 
 coast of tiie Red Sea, N. of Berenice, The ex- 
 tensive emerald mines, from which it obtained its 
 name, were worked under the ancient kings of 
 Egypt, under the Ptolemies, and under the Ro- 
 mans. They seem to have been exhausted, as 
 only very few emeralds are now and then found 
 in the neighbourhood. 
 
 Smerdis (2^€/i5is), the son of Cyrus, was mur- 
 dered by order of his brother Canibyses. The 
 death of Smerdis was kept a profound secret ; and 
 accordingly, when the Persians became weary of 
 the tyranny of Cambyses, one of the Magians, 
 named Patizithes, who had been left by Cani- 
 byses in charge of his palace and treasures, availed 
 himself of the likeness of his brother to the de- 
 ceased Smerdis, to proclaim this brother as king, 
 representing him as the younger son of Cyrus. 
 Cambyses heard of the revolt in Syria, but he died 
 of an accidental wound in the thigh, as he was 
 mounting his horse to march against the usurper. 
 The false Smerdis was acknowledged as king by 
 the Persians, and reigned for 7 months without 
 opposition. The leading Persian nobles, however, 
 were not quite free from suspicion ; and this sus- 
 picion was increased by the king never inviting 
 any of them to the palace, and never appearing in 
 public. Among the nobles who entertained these 
 fl'ispicions was Otanes, whose daughter Phai^dima 
 had been one of the wives of Cambyses, and had 
 been transferryd to his successor. The new king 
 had some years before been deprived of his ears 
 
 SMYRNA. 
 
 by Cyrus for some offence ; and Otanes persuaded 
 his daughter to ascertain whether her master had 
 really lost his ears. Phaedima found out that 
 such was the fact, and communicated the decisive 
 inf'ommtion to her father. Otanes thereupon 
 formed a conspiracy, and in tonjunction with 6 
 other noble Persians, succeeded in forcing his way 
 into the palace, where they slew the false Smerdis and 
 his brother Patizithes in the 8th month of their 
 reign, 521. The usurpation of the false Smerdis 
 was an attempt on the part of the Medes, to whom 
 the Magians belonged, to obtain the supremacy, of 
 which they had been deprived by Cyrus. The 
 assassination of the false Smerdis and the accession 
 of Darius H\'staspis again gave the ascendancy to 
 the Persians ; and the anniversary of the day on 
 which the Magians were massacred, was comme- 
 morated among the Persians by a solemn festival, 
 called Magophonia, on which no Magian was 
 allowed to show himself in public. The real 
 nature of the transaction is also shown by the 
 revolt of the Medes which followed the accession 
 of Darius. 
 
 Smilis {'2,}xt\is)^ fion of Euclides, of Aegina, a 
 sculptor of the legendary period, whose name ap- 
 pears to be derived from c/liiAtj, a knife for carving 
 wood^ and afterwards a sculptor''s chisel. Smilis is 
 the legendary head of the Aeginetan school of 
 sculpture, just as Daedalus is the legendary head 
 of the Attic and Cretan schools. 
 
 Smintheus (Xfj.ivdevs\ a surname of Apollo, 
 which is derived by some from (TfxivQos^ a mouse, 
 and by others from ihe town of Sminthe in Troas, 
 The mouse was regarded by the ancients as in- 
 spired by the vapours arising from the earth, and 
 as the symbol of prophetic power. In the temple 
 of Apollo at Chryse there was a statue of the god 
 by Scopas, with a mouse under its foot, and on 
 coins Apollo is represented carrying a mouse in his 
 hands. Temples of Apollo Smintheus and festivals 
 (Sminthia) existed in several parts of Greece. 
 
 Smyrna (2/iupj'a), or Myrrha. For detai's 
 see Adonis. 
 
 Smyrna and in many MSS. Zmyma {^^ivpva. : 
 Ion. ^nvpviq : Suupyoios, Smymaeus ; Smyrna^ 
 Turk. Izmir)j one of the most ancient and flou- 
 rishing cities of Asia Minor, and the only one ofi 
 the great cities on its W. coast which has sur- 
 vived to this day, stood in a position alike remark- 
 able for its beauty and for other natural advantages. 
 Lying just about the centre of the "W. coast of 
 Asia Minor ; on the banks of the little river 
 Meles, at the bottom of a deep bay, the Sinus 
 Hermaeus or Smymaeus {G. of Smyrna)^ which 
 formed a safe and immense harbour for the largest 
 ships up to the very walls of the city ; at the foot 
 of the rich slopes of Tmolus and at the entrance tO' 
 the great and fertile valley of the Hennus, in 
 which lay the great and wealthy city of Sardis ; and 
 in the midst of the Greek colonies on the E. shore 
 of the Aegean ; it was marked out by nature as 
 one of the greatest emporiums for the trade be- 
 tween Europe and Asia, and has preserved that 
 character to tlie present day. There are various 
 accounts of its origin. The most probable is that 
 which represents it as an Aeolian colony frum 
 Cyme. At an early period it fell, by a stratagem, 
 into the hands of the Innians of Colophon, and 
 remained an Ionian city from that time fortli : this 
 appears to have happLMied befnre 01. 23. (n c. 61)8). 
 As to the time wiien it became a member of the 
 
SMYRNA. 
 
 Panionic confederacy, we have only a very un- 
 trustworthy nccouut, which refers its .idinission to 
 the reign of Attjilus, king of Pcrganiiis. Its early 
 history is also very obscure. There is an accmuit 
 in Strabo, that it was destroyed by the Lydiaii 
 king Sadvattes, and that its inhabitants were 
 compelled to live in scattered villages, until after 
 the Macedonian conquest, when the city was 
 rebuilt, 20 stadia from its former aite, by Anti- 
 gonus ; but this is inconsistent with Pindar's 
 mention of Smyrna as a beautiful city. Thus 
 much is clear, however, that, at some period the 
 old city of Smyrna, which stood on the N. E. side 
 of the Hermaean Gulf, was abandoned ; and, that 
 it was succeeded by a new city, on the S. E. side 
 of the same gulf (the present site), which is said 
 to have been built by Antigonus, and which was 
 enlarged and beautitied by Lysimachus. This 
 new city stood partly on the sea-shore and partly 
 on a hill called Mastusia. It had a magnificent 
 harbour, with such a depth of water that the 
 largest ships could lie alongside the quays. The 
 streets were paved with stone, and crossed one 
 another at right angles. The city soon became 
 one of the greatest and most prosperous in the 
 world. It was especially favoured by the Romans 
 on account of the aid it rendered tliem in the 
 Syrian and Mithridatic wars. It was the seat of a 
 •onventus juridicus. In the Civil Wars it was 
 taken and partly destroyed by Dolabella, but it soon 
 recovered. It occupies a distinguished place in 
 the early history of Christianity, as one of the only 
 two among the 7 churches of Asia which St. John 
 addresses, in the Apocalypse, without any admix- 
 ture of rebuke, and as the scene of tlie labours and 
 martyrdom of Polycarp. In the years a. d. 178 
 — 180, a succession of earthquakes, to which the 
 city has always been much exposed, reduced it 
 almost to ruins ; but it was restored by the em- 
 peror M. Antoninus. In the successive wju-s 
 under the Eastern empire it was frequently much 
 injured, but always recovered ; and, under the 
 Turks, it has survived repeated attacks of earth- 
 quake, fire, and plague, and still remains the great- 
 est commercial city of the Levant. There are but 
 few ruins of the ancient city. In addition to all 
 her other sources of renown Smyrna stood at the 
 head of the cities which claimed the birth of 
 Homer. The poet was worshipped as a hero in a 
 magnificent building called the Homereum {'Ofx-f}- 
 petoy). Near the sea-shore there stood a magnifi- 
 eent temple of Cybele, whose head appears on the 
 coins of the city. The other divinities chiefly wor- 
 shipped here were Nemesis and the nymph Smyrna, 
 the heroine eponymus of the plate, who had a 
 shrine on the banks of the river Meleg. 
 
 Smyrna Trachea. [Ephesus.J 
 
 Smyrnaeus Sinus {'Xfxvpva.'mv kSkttos, 'Xixvp- 
 paiKhs kSKttos: G. of Tsmir or Smyrna)^ the great 
 gulf on the W. coast of Asia Minor, at the bottom 
 of which Smyrna stands. Its entrance lies be- 
 tween Pr. Melaena (C. Kara Biirnu) on the W., 
 and Phocaea (Fokia) on the E. Its depth w;is 
 reckoned at 350 stiidia. It received the river 
 Hermus, whence it was called Hermtus Sinus 
 I^Epfieios kAttos). It is sometimes also called 
 MeKriTou K(JA7ros, from the little river Meles, on 
 which Old Smyrna stood. 
 
 Soanes (Scares), a powerful people of the Cau- 
 casus, governed by a king who could bring 200,000 
 soldiers into tiie field. The mountain streams of 
 
 SOCRATES. 
 
 715 
 
 the country contained gold, which was separated 
 by collecting the water in sheepskins, whence the 
 matter-of fact interpreters derived the legend of the 
 golden fleece. According to Strabo, the habits of 
 the people were such that they stood in remark- 
 able need of other ** washintrs." They are also 
 called Suanl and Snanocolchi (^ovavoiy Zovavo- 
 K(JAx'")' S'l'd their land Suania [^uvaila). 
 
 Socrates (2,Q)KpdTTjs). 1. The celebrated Athe- 
 nian philosopiier, was born in the demus Alopece, 
 in the immediate neighbourhood of Atht-ns, B.C. 
 469. His father Sophroniscus was a statuary ; 
 his mother Phaenarete was a midwife. In his 
 youth he followed the profession of his father, and 
 attained sufficient proficiency to have executed the 
 group of clothed Gnices which was preserved in 
 the Acropolis, and was shown as his work down 
 to the time of Pausanias. The personal qualities 
 of Socrates were marked and striking. His phy- 
 sical constitution was healthy, robust, and en- 
 during to an extraordinary degree. He was capable 
 of bearing fatigue or hardship, and inditferent to 
 heat or cold, in a measure which astonished all his 
 companions. He went barefoot in all seasons of 
 the year, even during the winter campaign at Po- 
 tidaea, under the severe fiosts of Thrace ; and the 
 same homely clothing sufficed for him in winter aa 
 well as in summer. His ugly physiognomy ex- 
 cited the jests both of his friends and enemies, 
 who inform us that he had a fiat nose, thick lips, 
 and prominent eyes like a satyr or Silenus. Of 
 the circumstances of his life we are almost wholly 
 ignorant: he served as an hoplite at Potidaea, De- 
 lium, and Amphipolis with great credit to himself. 
 He seems never to have filled any political office 
 until 406, in which year he wat a member of the 
 senate of Five Hundred, and one of the Prytanes, 
 when he refused, ou the occasion of the trial of the 
 6 generals, to put an unconstitutional question to 
 the vote, in spite of all personal hazard. He dis- 
 played the same moral courage in refusing to obey 
 the order of the Thirty Tyrants for the apprehen- 
 sion of Leon the Salaminian. — At what time 
 Socrates relinquished his profession as a stiituarv 
 we do not know ; but it is certain that all the 
 middle and later part of his life at least was de- 
 voted exclusively to the self-Impoaed tnsk of teach- 
 ing; excluding all other business, public or pri- 
 vate, and to the neglect of all means of fortune. 
 But he never opened a school, nor did he, like the 
 sophists of his time, deliver public lectures. Every- 
 where, in the market-place, in the gj'mnasia, and 
 in the workshops, he sought and found opportuni- 
 ties for awakening and guiding, in boys, youth, 
 and men, moral consciousness and the impulse after 
 self-knowledge respecting the end and value of our 
 actions. His object, however, was only to aid them 
 in developing the germs of knowledge which were 
 already present in them, not to communicate to them 
 ready-made knowledge ; tind he therefore professed 
 to practise a kind of mental midwifery, just as his 
 mother Phaennrete exercised the corresponding cor- 
 poreal art. Unweariedly and inexorably did he 
 tiglit against all false appearance and conceit of 
 knowledge, in order to pave the way for correct 
 knowledge. Consequently to the mentally proud 
 and the mentally idle he appeared an intolerable 
 borw. and often experienced their bitter Initred and 
 calunuiy. This was proliably the reason why he 
 was selected by Aristophanes, and the other comic 
 writers, to be attacked as a general representatives 
 
7U 
 
 SOCRATES. 
 
 of philosophical and rhetorical teaching ; the more 
 so, as his marked and repulsive physiognomy ad- 
 mitted so well of being imitated in the mask which 
 the actor wore. The audience at the theatre 
 would more readily recognise the peculiar figure 
 wliicli they were accustomed to see every day in 
 the market-place, than if Prodicua or Protagoras, 
 whom most of them did not know by sight, had 
 been brought on the stage ; nor was it of much 
 importance either to them or to Aristophanes, 
 whether Socrates was represented as teaching what 
 he did really teach, or something utterly different. 
 Attached to none of the prevailing parties, So- 
 crates found in each of them his friends and his 
 enemies. Hated and persecuted by Critias, Cha- 
 ricles, and others among the Thirty Tyrants, who 
 had a special reference to hira in the decree which 
 they issued, forbidding the teaching of the art of 
 oratory, he was impeached after their banishment 
 and by their opponents. An orator named Lycon, 
 and a poet (a friend of Thrasybulus) named Male- 
 tug, had united in the impeachment with the 
 powerful demagogue Anytus, an embittered anta- 
 gonist of the sophists and their system, and one of 
 the leaders of the band which, setting out from 
 Phyle, forced their way into the Piraeus, and 
 drove out the Thirty Tyrants. The judges also 
 are described as persons who had been banished, 
 and who had returned with Thrasybulus. The 
 chief articles of impeachment were, that Socrates 
 was guilty of corrupting the youth, and of despising 
 the tutelary deities of the state, putting in their 
 place other new divinities. At the same time it 
 had been made a matter of accusation against him, 
 that Critias, the most ruthless of the Tyrants, had 
 come forth from his school. Some expressions of 
 his, in which he had found fault with the demo- 
 cratical mode of electing by lot, had also been 
 brought up against him ; and there can be little 
 doubt that use was made of his friendly relations 
 with Theraraenes, one of the most influential of the 
 Thirty, with Plato's uncle Charmides, who fell by 
 the side of Critias in the struggle with the popu- 
 lar party, and with other aristncrata, in order to 
 irritate against him the party which at that time 
 ■was dominant. The substance of the speech which 
 Socrates delivered in his defence is probably pre- 
 served by Plato in the piece which goes under the 
 name of "the "Apology of Socrates." Being con- 
 demned by a majority of only 6 votes, he ex- 
 presses the conviction that he deserved to be main- 
 tained at the public cost in the Prytaneum, and 
 refuses to acquiesce in the adjudication of impri- 
 sonment, or a large fine, or banishment. He will 
 assent to nothing more than a fine of 60 minae, on 
 the security of Plato, Crito, and other friends. 
 Condemned to death by tiie judges, who were in- 
 censed by this speech, by a majority of 80 votes, 
 he departs from them with the protestition, that 
 he would rather die after such a defence tnan live 
 after one in which he should have endeavoured to 
 excite tiieir pity. The sentence of death cniild not 
 be carried into execution until after the return of 
 the vessel which had been sent to Delos on the 
 periodical Theoric mission. The 30 days which 
 intervened between its return and the condemna- 
 tion of Socrates were devoted by him to poetic 
 attempts (the first he had made in his life), and to 
 his usual conversiitiou with his fiiends. One of 
 these conversiitions, on tlie duty of ohedieiice to 
 Ihe laws, Plato has reported in the C?-ilo, po called 
 
 SOCRATES, 
 after the faithful follower of Socrates, who had en- 
 deavoured without success to persuade him to 
 make liis escape. In another, imitated or worked 
 up by Plato in the PJiaedo^ Socrates immediately 
 before he drank the cup of hemlock developed the 
 grounds of his immovable conviction of the inimor- 
 tiility of the soul. He died with composure and 
 cheerfulness in his 70th year, B.C. 399. Three 
 peculiarities distinguished Socrates: — 1. His long 
 life passed in contented poverty and in public dia- 
 lectics, of which we have already spoken. 2. His 
 persuasion of a special religious mission. He had 
 been accustomed constantly to hear, even from his 
 ch ildhood, a divine voice — interfering, at mo- 
 ments when he was about to act, in the way of 
 restraint, but never in the way of instigation. 
 Such prohibitory warning was wont to come upon 
 him very frequently, not merely on great, but even 
 on small occasions, intercepting what he was about 
 to do or to say. Though later writers speak of 
 this as the Daemon or Genius of Socrates, he him- 
 self does not personify it, but treats it merely as a 
 "divine sign, a prophetic or supernatural voice." 
 He was accustomed not only to obey it implicitly, 
 but to speak of it publicly and familiarly to others, 
 so that the fact was well known both to his friends 
 and to his enemies. 3. His great intellectual ori- 
 ginality, both of subject and of method, and his 
 power of stirring and forcing the germ of inquiry 
 and ratiocination in others. He was the first who 
 turned his thoughts and discussions distinctly to 
 the subject of ethics, and was the first to proclaim 
 that " the proper study of mankind is man." With 
 the philosophers who preceded him, the subject of 
 examination had been Nature, or the Kosmos as 
 one undistinguishable whole, blending together 
 cosmogony, astronomy, geometry, physics, meta- 
 physics, &c. In discussing ethical subjects So- 
 crates employed the dialectic method, and thus 
 laid the fouudation of formal logic, which was 
 afterwards expanded by Plato, and systematised 
 by Aristotle. The originality of Socrates is shown 
 by the results he achieved. Out of his intellec- 
 tual school sprang, not merely Plato, himself a 
 host, but all the other leaders of Grecian specu- 
 lation for the next half-century, and all those who 
 continued the great line of speculative philosophy 
 down to later times. Euclid and the Megaric 
 school of philosophers' — Aristippus and the Cy- 
 renaic Antisthenes and Diogenes, the first of those 
 called the Cynics — all emanated more or less 
 directly from the stimulus imparted by Socrates, 
 though each followed a different vein of thought. 
 Ethics continued to be what Socrates had first 
 made them, a distinct branch of philosophy, along- 
 side of which politics, rhetoric, logic, and other 
 speculations relating to man and society, gradually 
 aiTunged themselves ; all of them more popular, as 
 well as more keenly controverted, than physics, 
 which at that time presented comparatively little 
 charm, and still less of attainable certainty. There 
 can be no doubt that the individual influence of 
 Socrates pemianently enlarged the horizon, im- 
 proved the method, and multiplied the ascendant 
 minds, of the Grecian speculative world, in a man- 
 ner never since paralleled. Subsequent philoso- 
 phers may hnve had a more elaborate doctrine, 
 and a larjrer number of disciples who imbibed 
 their idt-as ; but none of them applied the same 
 stimulaiiug mmhod with the same efficacy, and 
 none of them struck out of other minds that fire 
 
SODOMA. 
 
 which seta light to original thought. — (A great 
 part of this article is taken from Mr. Grote's 
 account of Socrates in his History of Greece.)^ 
 2. The ecclesiastical historian, was bom at Con- 
 stantinople about A. D. 379. He was a pupil of 
 Amnionius and Helladius, and followed the profes- 
 sion of an advocate in his native city, whence he is 
 sumamed Scholasticus. The Ecclesiastical HistoTy 
 of Socrates extends from the reign of Constantine 
 the Great, 306, to that of the younger Theodoaius, 
 439. He appeara to have been a man of less 
 bigotry than most of his contemporaries, and the 
 very difficulty of determining from internal evi- 
 dence some points of his religious belief, may be 
 considered as arguing his comparative liberality. 
 His history is divided into 7 books. His work is 
 included in the editions of the ancient Greek eccle- 
 siastical historians by Valesiua, Paris, 1668 ; re- 
 printed atMentz, 1677 ; by Reading, Carab.1720. 
 Sodoma, gen.-orumand -ae, also -um, gen. -i,and 
 -i, gen, -Oram {rh. l,6'6ofia : 5o5o/iiT7jy, Sodomita), a 
 very ancient city of Canaan, in the beautiful valley 
 of Siddim (■^ 2o5o^Ttis), closely connected with Go- 
 morrha, over which and the other 3 ''cities of the 
 plain,^^ the king of Sodom seems to have had a 
 sort of supremacy. In the book of Genesis we 
 find these cities as subject, in the time of Abra- 
 ham, to the king of Elam and liis allies (an indi- 
 cation of the early supremacy in W. Asia of the 
 masters of the Tigris and Euphrates valley), and 
 their attempt to cast off the yoke was the occasion 
 of the first war on record. (Gen. xiv.) Soon after- 
 wards, the abominable sins of these cities called 
 down the divine vengeance, and they were all de- 
 steoyed by fire from heaven, except Zoar, which 
 was spared at the intercession of Lot. The beau- 
 tiful valley in which they stood was overwhelmed 
 by the Jordan and converted into the Dead Sea, 
 whose bituminous waters still bear witness to the 
 existence of the springs of asphaltus ("slime- 
 pits " in our version) of which the valley of Sid- 
 dim was full. It used to be assumed that, before 
 the destruction of the cities of the plain, the Jor- 
 dan flowed on into the Red Sea ; but this has 
 been shown to be, if not physically impossible, 
 most improbable. There was probably always a 
 lake which received the waters both of the Jordan 
 and the river which still flows into the S. end of 
 the Dead Sea ; and the nature of the change 
 seems to have consisted in the enlargement of this 
 lake by a great depression of the whole valley. 
 The site of Sodom was probably near the S. ex- 
 tremity of the lake, 
 
 Soeniis or Soaemias, Julia, daughter of Julia 
 Maesa, and mother of Elagabahis, either by her 
 husband Sextus Varius Marcellus, or, according to 
 the report industriously circulated with her own 
 consent, by Caracalla. After the accession of her 
 son, she became his chosen counsellor, and seems 
 to have encoumged and shared his follies and enor- 
 mities. She took a place in the senate, which 
 then, for the first time, witnessed the intrusion of 
 a woman, and was herself the president of a sort of 
 female parliament, which held its sittings in the 
 Quirinal, and published edicts for the regulation of 
 all matters connected with the morals, dress, eti- 
 quette, and equipage of the matrons. She was 
 slain by the praetorians, in the arms of her son, on 
 the 11 th of March, a. d. 222. 
 
 Sogdiana (t) ^oy^iavi) or 'ZovyUavT] : Old Per- 
 sian, Sughda:2(i75ioi, 'S.oyUavoi, 2ou75mvoi : parts 
 
 SOLTNUS. 715 
 
 of Turkestan dLTidi Bokhara^ including the district still 
 called Soud), the N.E. province of the ancient 
 Persian Empire, separated on the S. from Bactriana 
 and Margiaiia by the upper course of the Oxua 
 {Jihaun) ; on the E. and N. from Scytliia by the 
 Sogdii Comedarum and Oscii M. {Kara- Dagli, 
 Alatan and Ak Tayli) and by the upper course ot 
 the Jazartes {SihouTi) ; and bounded on the N.W. 
 by the great deserts E. of the Sea of Aral. The 
 S, part of the country was fertile and populous. 
 It was conquered by Cyrus, and afterwards by 
 Alexander, both of whom marked the extreme 
 limits of their advance by cities on the Jaxariea, 
 Cyrescbata and Alexandreschata. After the Ma- 
 cedonian conquest, it was subject to the kings, first 
 of Syria, and then of Bactria, till it was overrun 
 by the barbarians. The natives of the country 
 were a wild warlike people of ihe great Arian race, 
 resembling the Bactrians in their character and 
 customs. 
 
 Sogdlanus {'2,oy'8ta.v6i)^ was one of the illegiti- 
 mate sons of Artaxerxes I. Longimanus. The 
 latter, on his death in b. c, 425, was succeeded by 
 his legitimate son Xerxes II., but this monarch, 
 after a reign of only 2 months, was murdered by 
 Sogdianus, who now became king. Sogdianus, 
 however, was murdered in his turn, after a reign 
 of 7 months, by his brother Ochus. Ochus reigned 
 under the name of Darius II. 
 
 Sogdii Montes. [Sogdiana], 
 
 Sol. [Helios.] 
 
 Soli or Soloe (2oAoi). 1. (Ethnic, SoXeifr, So- 
 lensis : Mezeilu^ Ru.), a city on the coast of Cilicia, 
 between the rivers Lamus and Cydnus, said to 
 have been colonised by Argives and Lydians from 
 Rhodes. It was a flourishing city in the time of 
 Alexander, who fined its people 200 talents for 
 their adhesion to the Persians. The city was de- 
 stroyed by Tigranes, who probably transplanted 
 the inhabitants to Tigranocerta. Pompey restored 
 the city after his war with the pirates, and peopled 
 it with the survivors of the defeated bands ; and 
 from this time forth it was called Fompeiopolis 
 (no^TrTji'ouTToAis). It was celebrated in literary 
 history as the birthplace of the Stoic philosopher 
 Chrysippus, of the comic poet Philemon, and of 
 the astronomer and poet Aratus. Its name has 
 been curiously perpetuated in the grammatical word 
 solecism (soloecismus), which is said to have been 
 first applied to the corrupt dialect of Greek spoken 
 by the inhabitants of this city, or, as some say, of , 
 Soli in Cyprus. — 2. (Ethnic, 'S,6Ktos : Aliyora, in 
 the valley of Solea^ Ru.), a considerable sea-port 
 town in the W. part of the N. coast of Cyprus, on 
 a little river. According to some, it was a colony 
 of the Athenians; while others ascribed its erection 
 to a native prince acting under the advice of Solon, 
 and othtTs to Solon himself; the last account is 
 doubtless an error. It had temples of Isis and 
 Aphrodite, and there were mines in its vicinity. 
 
 Solicinium, a town in Roman Germany (the 
 Agri Decumates) on the mountain Pirus, where 
 Valentinian gained a victory over the Alenianni in 
 A. D. 369, probably in the neighbourhood of the 
 modern Heidelberg. 
 
 Solinus, C. Jiilius, the author of a geographical 
 compendium, divided into .^7 chapters, ctinianiing a 
 brief sketch of the world as known to the ancients, 
 diversified by historical notices, remarks on the 
 origin, habits, religious rites and social condition o\ 
 various nations enumerated. The arrangement, 
 
716 SOUS. 
 
 and frequently the very words, are derived from 
 the Natural History of Pliny, but little knowledge, 
 care, or judgment, are displayed in tlie selection. 
 We know nothing of S'dinus himself, but he 
 must have lived after the reign of Alexander Se- 
 yerus, and before that of Coiistiintiiie. He may 
 perhiips be plnced about a. d. *238. We learn from 
 the first of "2 prefatory addtesses, thnt ;ui edition of 
 the work Iiad already passed into circulation, in an 
 imperfect sLnte, without the consent or knowledge 
 of the author, under the appellation CoUedanea Re- 
 rum MevKirahilhiw^ while on the 2nd, revised, cor- 
 rected, and published by himself, he bestowed the 
 more ambitious title of Polyhhtor ; and hence we 
 find the treatise designated in several MSS. as C. 
 Jzdii Solini G'ramniuiici Polykistov ab ipso ediius et 
 recogiiilus. The most notable edition is tliat of Sal- 
 masius, published at Utrecht in 1609, prefixed to 
 his " Plinianae Exercitationes," the whole form- 
 ing 2 large folio volumes. 
 
 Solis Pons. [Oasis. No. 3.] 
 
 Eo L3 Lacus {Ki/iyTj 'HeMoio), a lake in the far 
 E., from which, in the old mythical system of the 
 world, the sun arose to make his daily course 
 through heaven. Some of the matter-of-fact expo- 
 sitors identified it with the Caspian Sea. Another 
 lake of the same name was imagmed by some of 
 the poets in the far W., into which the sun sank 
 at nitrht. 
 
 S51is Mons, [Solois.] 
 
 Solis Promontorium {&Kpa 'HKiov Upa : lias 
 Anjir)^ a promontory of Arabia Felix, near the 
 middle of the Persian Gulf. 
 
 Soloe. [Soli]. 
 
 Solois (2oA(iets : C. Caniinj Arab. Ras el Hou- 
 dik\ a promontory running far out into the sea, in 
 the S. part of the W. coast of Mauretania. He- 
 rodotus believed it to be the W.-most headland of 
 all Libya. Upon it was a Phoenician temple of 
 Poseidon. The later geographers under the 
 Romans mention a Mons SoUs ('HA.iou Spos)^ 
 which appears to be the same spot, its name being 
 probably a corruption of the Greek name. 
 
 Soloa (SoAoif), the celebrated Athenian legis- 
 lator, was bom about b. c. 638. His father Exe- 
 cestides was a descendant of Codrus, a.nd his mother 
 was a cousin of the mother of Pisistratus. Exe- 
 cestides had seriously crippled his resources by a 
 too prodigal expenditure ; and Solon consequently 
 found it either necessary or convenient in his 
 youth to betake himself to the life of a foreign 
 trader. It is likely enough that while necessity 
 compelled him to seek a livelihood in some mode 
 or other, his active and inquiring spirit led him to 
 select that pursuit which would furnish the amplest 
 means for its gnitification. Solon early distin- 
 guished himself by his poetical abilities. Ills first 
 effusions were in a somewhat light and amatory 
 stiTiin, which afterwards gave way to the more 
 dif^nified and earnest purpose of inculcating pro- 
 found reflections or sage advice. So widely indeed 
 did his reputation spread, that he was ranked as 
 one of the famous 7 sages, and his name appears 
 in all the lists of the 7. The occasion which first 
 brought Solon prominently forward as an actor on 
 the political stage, was the contest between Athens 
 and Megara respecting the possession of Salamis. 
 The ill success of the attempts of the Athenians to 
 make themselves masters of the island, had led to 
 the enactment of a law forbidding tlie writing or 
 Baying anything to urge the Athenians to renew 
 
 SOLON. 
 
 the contest. Solon, indignant at this dishonourable 
 renunciation of their claims, hit upon the device of 
 feigning to be mad ; and causing a report of his 
 condition to be spread over the city, he rushed into 
 the agora, and there recited a short elegiac poem of 
 100 lines, in which he called upon the Athenians 
 to retrieve their disgrace and reconquer tiie lovely 
 island. Pisistratus (who, however, must have been, 
 extremely young at the time) came to the support 
 of his kinsman ; the pusillanimous law was re- 
 scinded ; war was declared ; and Solon himself 
 appointed to conduct it. The Megariana were 
 driven out of the island, but a tedious war ensued, 
 which was finally settled by the arbitration of 
 Sparta. Both parties appealed, in support of their 
 claim, to the authority of Homer ; and it was cur- 
 rently believed in antiquity that Solon had surrep- 
 titiously hiserted the line (//. li. 558) which speaks 
 of Ajax as ranging his ships with the Athenians. 
 The Spartans decided in favour of the Athenians, 
 about B. c. 596. Solon himself, probably, wag 
 one of those who received grants of land in Sala- 
 mis, and this may account for his being termed a 
 Salaminian. Soon after these events (about 595) 
 Solon took a leading part in promoting hostilities 
 on behalf of Delphi against Cirrha, and was the 
 mover of the decree of the Amphictyons by which 
 war was declared. It does not appear, however, 
 what active part he took in the war. According 
 to a common story, which however rests only on 
 the authority of a late writer, Solon hastened the 
 surrender of the town by causing the waters of the 
 Plistus to be poisoned. It was about the time of 
 the outbreak of this war, that, in consequence of 
 the distracted state of Attica, which was rent by 
 civil commotions, Solon was called upon by all 
 parties to mediate between them, and alleviate the 
 miseries that prevailed. He was chosen archon 
 594, and under that legal title was invested with 
 Tmlimited power for adopting such measures as the 
 exigencies of the state demanded. In fulfilment of 
 the task entrusted to him, Solon addressed himself 
 to the relief of the existing distress. This he effected 
 with the greatest discretion and success by his 
 celebrated disburdening ordinance {<T€i(rd)^9eia), a 
 measure consisting of various distinct provisions, 
 calculated to relieve the debtors with as little in- 
 fringement as possible on the claims of the wealthy 
 creditors. The details of this measure, however, 
 are involved in considerable uncertainty. We 
 know that he depreciated the coinage, making the 
 mina to contain 100 drachmae instead of 73 ; that 
 is to say, 73 of the old drachmae produced 100 of 
 the new coinage, in which obligations were to be 
 discharged ; so that the debtor saved rather more 
 than a fourth in every payment. The success of the 
 Seisachtheia procured for Solon such confidence and 
 popularity that he was further charged with the 
 task of entirely remodelling the constitution. As 
 a preliminary step, he repealed all the laws of 
 Draco except those relating to bloodshed. Our 
 limits only allow us to glance at the principal 
 features of the constitution established by Solon. 
 This constitution was based upon the timocratic 
 principle, that is, the title of citizens to the honours 
 and offices of the slate was regulated by their 
 wealth. All the citizens were distributed into 4 
 classes. The 1st class consisted of those who had 
 an annual income of at least 500 medimiii of dry 
 or liquid produce (equivalent to 500 drachmae, a 
 luedimntTs being reckoned at a drachma), and were 
 
SOLON. 
 
 called Penlacosiomedimni. The 2nd class consisted 
 of those whose incomes ranged between 300 and 
 500 medimni or dmchmae, and were called Hippeis 
 ('iTTTreTs, 'iTTTnjy), from their being able to keep a 
 horse, and bound to perform military service as 
 caTalry. The 3rd class consisted of those whose 
 incomes varied between 200 and 300 medimni or 
 drachmae, and were termed Zeugitae {Zeir/lraC). 
 The 4th cl;iss included all whose property fell 
 short of 200 medimni or drachmae, and bore the 
 name of TJtetes. The first 3 classes were liable to 
 direct taxation, in the form of a graduated income 
 tax, A direct tax, however, was an extraordinary, 
 and not an annual payment. The 4th class were 
 exempt from direct taxes, but of course they, as 
 well as the rest, were liable to indirect taxes. To 
 Solon was ascribed the institution of the Boule 
 ($ov\'T}), or deliberative assembly of Four Hundred, 
 100 members being elected from each of the 4 
 tribes. He greatly enlarged the functions of the 
 Ecclesia (eKKXijtrfo), which no doubt existed be- 
 fore his time, though it probably possessed scarcely 
 more power than the assemblies which we find de- 
 scribed in the Homeric poems. He gave it the 
 right of electing the archons and other magistrates, 
 and, what was even more important, made the 
 archons and magistrates accountable directly to it 
 when their year of office was expired. He also 
 gave it what was equivalent to a veto upon any 
 proposed measure of the Boule, though it could 
 not itself originate any measure. Besides the 
 arrangement of the general political relations of 
 the people, Solon was the author of a great variety 
 of special laws, which, do not seem to have been 
 arranged in any systematic manner. Those re- 
 lating to debtors and creditors have been already 
 referred to. Several had for their object the en- 
 couragement of trade and manufactures. Foreign 
 settlers were not to be naturalised as citizens un- 
 less they carried on some industrious pursuit. If 
 a father did not teach his son some trade or pro- 
 fession, the son was not liable to maintain his 
 father in his old age. The council of Areopagus 
 had a general power to punish idleness. Solon 
 forbade the exportation of all produce of the Attic 
 soil except olive oil. He was the first who gave 
 to those who died childless the power of disposing 
 of their property by will. He enacted several 
 laws relating to marriage, especially with regard to 
 heiresses. The rewards which he appointed to be 
 giTen to victors at the Olympic and Isthmian 
 games are for that age unusually large (.500 
 drachmae to the former and 100 to the latter). 
 One of the most curious of his regulations was that 
 which denounced atimia against any citizen, wlio, on 
 the outbreak of a sedition, remained neutral. The 
 laws of Solon were inscribed on wooden rollers 
 (i|oi/€s) and triangular tablets (Kupfieis), and were 
 set up at first in the Acropolis, afterwards in the 
 Prytaneum. The Athenians were also indebted 
 to Solon for some rectification of the calendar. 
 It is said that Solon exacted from the people a 
 solemn oath, that they would observe iiis laws 
 without alteration for a certain space — 10 years 
 according to Herodotus — 100 years according to 
 •ther accounts. It is related that he was himself 
 aware that he had been compelled to leave many 
 imperfections in his system and code. He is said 
 to have spoken of his laws as being nnt the best, 
 but the best which the Athenians would have re- 
 ceived. After he had completed his task, being, 
 
 SOPATER, 
 
 ri7 
 
 we are told, greatly annoyed and tro'ibled by those 
 who came to him with all kinds of complaints, 
 suggestions or criticisms about his laws, in order 
 that he might not himself have to propose any 
 change, he absented himself iVom Athi'us for ten 
 years, after he had obtained the oath above re- 
 ferred to. He first visited Egypt ; and from thence 
 proceeded to Cyprus, where he was received witli 
 great distinction by Philocyprus, king of the little 
 town of Aepea. Solon persuaded the king to re- 
 move from the old site, and build a new town on 
 the plain. The new settlement was called Soli, in 
 honour of the illustrious visitor. He is further 
 said to have visited Lydia; and his interview with 
 Croesus was one of the most celebrated stories in 
 antiquity. [Croesus.] During the absence of 
 Solon the old dissensions were renewed, and shortly 
 after his arrival at Athens, the supreme power 
 was seized by Pisistratus. The tyrant, after his 
 usurpation, is said to have paid considerable court 
 to Solon, and on various occasions to have solicited 
 his advice, which Solon did not withhold. Solon 
 probably died about 558, two years after the over- 
 throw of the constitution at the age of tJO. There 
 was a story current in antiquity that, by his own 
 directions, his ashes were collected and scattered 
 round the island of Salamis. Of the poems of 
 Solon several fragments remain. They do not 
 indicate any great degree of imaginative power, 
 but their style is vigorous and simple. Those that 
 were called forth by special emergencies appear to 
 have been marked by no small degree of energy. 
 The fragments of these poems are incorjwrated in 
 the collections of the Greek gnomic poets ; and 
 there is also a separate edition of them by Bach, 
 Lugd. Bat. 1825. 
 
 Solus (2oAot;s, -otJcTo?, contr. of SoAcJeis: 5o- 
 \tvr'ivQs\ called Soluntum (Solentinus) by the 
 Romans, an ancient town on the N. coast of Sicily 
 between Panormus and Thermae. 
 
 Solyma (ra 2oAyjuo), 1. {Takfalu-Daph\ the 
 mountain range which runs parallel to the E. coast 
 of Lycia, and is a S. continuation of M. Climax. 
 Sometimes the whole range is called Climax, and 
 the name of Sulyma is given to its highest peak.^ 
 2. Another name of Jerusalem. 
 
 SolymL [Lvcia.] 
 
 Somnus (iJtti/os), the personification and god of 
 sleep, is described as a brother of Death (^cij'aToy, 
 mors)^ and as a son of Night. In works of art. 
 Sleep and Death are represented alike as two 
 youths, sleeping or holding inverted torches in 
 their hands. [Mors.] 
 
 Sontius {Isonzo\ a river in Venetia in the N. 
 of Italy, rising in the Carnic Alps and falling into 
 the Sinus Terjestinus E. of Aquileia. 
 
 Sopater (SciTrorpos). 1. Of Paphos, a writer 
 of parody and buriesque {<pKvapoypd(pos)y who 
 flourished from B.C. 323 to2iJ3. — 2. Of Apamea, 
 a distinguished sophist, the head for some time of 
 the school of Plotiims, was a disciple of lanibli- 
 chus, after whose death (before a. d. 330) he 
 went to Constauiinople. Here he enjoyed the 
 favour and personal iriendship of Constantine, who 
 afterwards, however, put him to death (between 
 A. D. 330 and 3-i7) from the motive, as was alleged, 
 of giving ii proof of the sincerity of his own con- 
 version to Christianity. There are several gram- 
 matical and rhetiiricitl works extant under the 
 name of Sopater, but the best critics ascribe these 
 to a younger Sopater, mentioned below. — 3. The 
 
718 
 
 SOPHENE. 
 
 younger sophist, of Apamea, or of Alexandria, is 
 supposed to have lived about 200 years later than 
 the former. Besides his extant works already 
 ^liided to, Photius has preserved an extract of a 
 work, entitled the Historiail Extracts {iK\oy^\ 
 which contained a vast variety of facts and fig- 
 ments, collected from a great number of authors. 
 The remains of his rhetorical works are contained 
 in Wake's RJieiores Graeci, 
 
 Sophene I Soj^tj;/??, later ^oj(paj/i}vq) a district of 
 Armenia Major, lying between the mngps of Anti- 
 tauius and Masius ; separated from Melitene in 
 Armenia Minor by the Euphrntes, from Mesopo- 
 tamia by the Antitaums, and from the E. part of 
 Armenia Major by the river Nymphius. In the 
 time of the Greek kings of Syria, it formed, to- 
 gether with the adjacent district of Acilisene, an 
 independent W. Armenian kingdom, which was 
 Bubdued and united to the rest of Armenia by 
 Tigi-anes. 
 
 Sophilus {2(i(pi\os), a comic poet of the middle 
 comedy, was a native of Sicyon or of Thebes, and 
 flourished about b. c. 348. 
 
 ^ Sophocles {2o<poK\^s). 1. The celebrated tra- 
 gic poet, was bom at Colonus, a village little more 
 than a mile to the N. W. of Athens, b. c. 495. 
 He was 30 years younger than Aeschylus, and 15 
 years older than Euripides. His father's name 
 was Sophilus, or Sophillus, of whose condition in 
 life we know nothing for certain; but it is clear that 
 Sophocles received an education not inferior to 
 that of the sons of the moat distinguished citizens 
 of Athens. To both, of the two leading branches 
 of Greek education, music and gymnastics, he was 
 carefully trained, and in both he gained the prize 
 of a garland. Of the skill which he had attained 
 in music and dancing in his 16tli year, and of the 
 perfection of his bodily form, we have conclusive 
 evidence in the fact that, when the Athenians 
 were assembled in solemn festival around the 
 trophy which they had set up in Salamis to cele- 
 brate their victory over the fleet of Xerxes, So- 
 phocles was chosen to lead, naked and with lyre 
 in hand, the chorus which danced about the trophj', 
 and sang the songs of triumph, 4B0. His first 
 appearance as a dramatist took place in 468, under 
 peculiarly interesting circumstances ; not only from 
 the fact that Sophocles, at the age of 27, came for- 
 ward as the rival of the veteran Aeschylus, whose 
 supremacy had been maintained during an entire 
 generation, but also from the character of the 
 judges. The solemnities of the Great Dionysia 
 were rendered more imposing by the occasion of 
 the return of Cimon from his expedition to Scyros, 
 bringing with him the bones of Theseus. Public 
 expectation was so excited respecting the approach- 
 ing dramatic contest, and party feeling ran so high, 
 that Apsephion, the Archon Eponymus, whose 
 duty it was to appoint the judges, had not yet 
 ventured to proceed to the final act of drawing the 
 lots for their election, when Cimon, with his 9 
 colleagues in the command, having entered the 
 theatre, the Archon detained them at the altar, 
 and administered to them the oath appointed for 
 the, judges in the dramatic contests. Their de- 
 cision was in favour of Sophocles, who received 
 the first prize ; the second only being awarded to 
 Aeschylus, who was so mortified at his defeat that 
 he left Athens and retired to Sicily-. From this 
 epoch Sophocles held the supremacy of the Athe- 
 nian stage, until a formidable rival arose in Euri- 
 
 SOPHOCLES. 
 
 pides, who gained the first prize for the first time 
 in 441. The year 440 is a most important era in 
 the poefs life. In the spring of that year he 
 brought out the earliest of his extant dramas, the 
 Antigone^ a play which gave the Athenians such 
 satisfaction, especially on account of the p litical 
 wisdom it displayed, that they appninced him one 
 of the ten siraiegi^ of whom Pericles was the chief, 
 in the war agninst Samos. It would seem that in 
 this war Sophocles neither obtained nor sought for 
 any miiiUiry reputation : he is represented as good- 
 humouredly repeating the judgment of Pericles 
 concerning him, that he understood the making of 
 poetry, but not the commanding of an army. 
 The family dissensions which troubled his last 
 year?, are connected with a weil-knovvn and beau- 
 tiful story. His family consisted of two sons, 
 lophon, the offspring of Nicostrate, who was a 
 free Athenian woman, and Ariston, his son by 
 Theoris of Sicyon; and Ariston had a son named 
 Sophocles, for whom his grandfather showed the 
 greatest affection. lophon, who w ts by the laws 
 of Athens his father's rightful heir, jealous of his 
 love for the young Sophocles, and apprehending 
 that Sophocles purposed to bestow upon his grand- 
 son a large proportion of his property, is said to 
 have summoned his father before the Phratores, 
 who seem to have had a sort of jurisdiction in family 
 affairs, on the charge that his mind was affected 
 by old age. As his only repl3', Sophocles ex- 
 claimed, *■* If I am Sophocles, I am not beside 
 myself; and if I am beside myself, I am not So- 
 phocles;" and then he read from his Oedipus at 
 Colonus, which was lately written, but not yet 
 brought out, the magnificent parot^os, beginning — 
 
 whereupon the judges at once dismissed the case, 
 and rebuked lophon for his undutiful conduct. 
 Sophocles forgave his son, and it is probable that 
 the reconciliation was referred to in the lines of the 
 Oedipus at Colonus^ where Antigone pleads with 
 her father to forgive Polynices, as other fathers 
 had been induced to forgive their bad children 
 (vv. 1192, foil.). Sophocles died soon afterwards 
 in 406, in his 90th year. All the various accounts 
 of his death and funeral are of a fictitious and 
 poetical complexion. According to some writers 
 he was choked by a grape ; another writer related 
 that in a public recitation of the Antigone he sus- 
 tained his voice so long without a pause that, 
 through the weakness of extreme age, he lost his 
 breath and his life together ; while others ascribed 
 his death to excessive joy at obtaining a victory. 
 By the universal consent of the best critics, both 
 of ancient and of modem times, the tragedies of 
 Sophocles are the perfection of the Greek drama. 
 The subjects and style of Sophocles are human, 
 while those of Aeschylus are essentially heroic. 
 The latter excite terror, pit}', and admiration, as 
 we view them at a distance ; the former bring those 
 same feelings home to the heart, with the addition 
 of sympathy and self-application. No individual 
 human being can imagine himself in the position 
 of Prometheus, or derive a personal warning from 
 the crimes and fate of Clytemnestra ; but every one 
 can, in feeling, share the self-devotion of Antigone 
 in giving up her life at the call of frsiternal piety, 
 and the calmness which comes over the spirit of 
 Oedipus when he is reconciled to the gods. In 
 Aeschylus, the sufferers are the victims of an in- 
 exorable destiny ; but Sophocles brings more pro- 
 
SOPHONISBA. 
 
 minently into view those faults of their own, which 
 form one element of the destiny of which they are 
 the victims, and is more intent upon inculcating, as 
 the lesson taught by their woes, that wise calmness 
 and moderation, in desires and actions, in pro- 
 sperity and adversity, which the Greek poets and 
 philosophers celebrate under the name of aw(ppo~ 
 crwrj. On the other hand, he never descends to 
 that level to which Euripides brought down the 
 art, the exhibition of human passion and suiTering 
 for the mere purpose of exciting emotion in the 
 spectators, apart from a moral end. The difference 
 between the 2 poets is illustrated by the saying of 
 Sophocles, that "" he himself represented men as 
 they ought to be, but Euripides exhibited them as 
 they are/' The number of plays ascribed to So- 
 phocles was 130. He contended not only with 
 Aeschylus and Euripides, but also with Choerilus, 
 Aristias, Agathon, and other poets, amongst whom 
 was his own son lophon ; and he carried off the 
 first prize 20 or 24 times, frequently the 2nd, and 
 never the 3rd. It is remarkable, as proving his 
 growing activity and success, that, of his 113 
 dramas, 81 were brought out after his 54th year, 
 and also that all his extant dramas, which of course 
 in the judgment of the grammarians were his best, 
 belong to this latter period of his life. The 7 ex- 
 tant tragedies were probably brought out in the 
 following chronological order: — Antigone^ Electra^ 
 Tracldniae, Oedipus Tyrannus^ Ajax^ Philoctetes^ 
 Oedipus at Colonus : the last of these was brought 
 out, after the death of the poet, by his grandson. 
 Of the numerous editions of Sophocles, the most 
 useful one for the ordinary student is that 
 by Wunder, Gothae et Erfurdt, 1831—1846, 2 
 Tols. 8vo. — 2. Son of Ariston and grandson of 
 the elder Sophocles, was also an Athenian tragic 
 poet. The love of his grandfather towai'ds him 
 has been already mentioned. In 401 he brought out 
 the Oedipus at Colonus oi his grandfather; but he 
 did not begin to exhibit his own dramas till 396. 
 
 Sophonisba, daughter of the Carthaginian gene- 
 ral, Haadrubal, the son of Gisco. Slie had been 
 betrothed by her father, at a very early age, to 
 the Numidian prince Masinissa, but at a subse- 
 quent period Hasdrubal being desirous to gain 
 over Syphax, the rival monarch of Numidia, to 
 the Carthaginian alliance, offered him the hand of 
 his daughter in marriage. The beauty and accom- 
 plishments of Sophonisba prevailed over the in- 
 fluence of Scipio : Syphax married her, and from 
 that time became the zealous supporter and ally of 
 Carthage. Sophonisba, on her part, was assiduous 
 in her endeavours to secure his adherence to the 
 cause of her countrymen. After the defeat of 
 Syphax, and the capture of his capital city of 
 Cirta by Masinissa, Sophonisba fell into the hands 
 of the conqueror, upon whom, linwever, her beauty 
 exercised so powerful an influence, that he deter- 
 mined to marry her himself. Their nuptials were 
 accordingly celebrated without delay, but Scipio 
 (who was apprehensive lest she should exercise 
 the same influence over Masinissa which she had 
 previously done over Syphax) refused to ratify 
 this arrangement, and uphraidini; Masinissa with 
 his weakness, insisted on tlie immediate surrender 
 of the princess. Unable to resist this command, 
 the Numidian king spared her the humiliation of 
 captivity, by sending her a bowl of pnison, which 
 she drank without hesitation, and thus put an end 
 to her own life. 
 
 SOKANUS. 719 
 
 Sophron (ScJSt/i/jwc) of Syracuse, was the prin- 
 cipal writer of that pecies uf composition tailed 
 the Mime (fufios), which was one of the nume- 
 rous varieties of the Dorian Comedy. He flou- 
 rished about B.C. 460 — 420. When Sophron is 
 called the inventor of mimes, the meaning is, that 
 he reduced to the form of a literary composition a 
 species of amusement which the Greeks of Sicily, 
 who were pre-eminent for broad humour and mer- 
 riment, had practised from time immemorial at 
 their public festivals, and the nature of which was 
 very similar to the performances of the Spartan 
 Deiceleaiae. Such mimetic performances prevailed 
 throughout the Dorian states under various names. 
 One feature of the Mimes of Sophron, which 
 formed a marked distinction between them and 
 comic poetry, was the nature of their rhythm. There 
 is, however, some difficulty in determining whether 
 they were in mere prose, or in mingled poetry and 
 prose, or in prose with a peculiar rhythmical move- 
 ment but no metrical arrangement. With regard to 
 the substance of these compositions, their character, 
 so far as it can be ascertained, appears to have 
 been ethical ; that is, the scenes represented were 
 those of ordinarj' life, and the language employed 
 was intended to bring out more clearly the charac- 
 ters of the persons exhibited in those scenes, not 
 only for the amusement but also for the instruc- 
 tion of the spectators. Plato was a great admirer 
 of Sophron ; and the philosopher is said to have been 
 the first who made the Mimes known at Athens, 
 The serious purpose which was aimed at in the 
 works of Sophron was always, as in the Attic 
 Comedy, clothed under a sportive form ; and it can 
 easily be imagined that sometimes the latter ele- 
 ment prevailed, even to the extent of obscenity, as 
 the extant fragments and the parallel of the Attic 
 Comedy combine to prove. The best collection of 
 the fragments of Sophron is by Ahrens, De G)'aecae 
 Livgitae. Dia.le.ctis. 
 
 Sophroniscus. [Socrates.] 
 
 Sophus, P. Sempronius, tribune of the plebs, 
 B.C. 310, and consul 304, is mentioned as one of 
 the earliest jurists, and is said to have owed his 
 nam« of Sophus or Wise to his great merits. 
 
 Sopianae (Fun/kirchen)^ a town in Pannonia 
 Inferior, on the road from Mnrsa to Vindobona, 
 the birth-place of the emperor Maximinus. 
 
 Sora. 1. ( So ran us : Sara), a town in Latium, 
 on the right bank of the river Liris and N. of 
 Arpinum, with a strongly fortified citadel. It was the 
 most N.-Iy town of the Volsci in Latium, and after- 
 wards joined the Samnites ; but it was conquered 
 by the Romans, and was twice colonised by them, 
 since the inhabitants had destroyed the first body 
 of colonists. There are still remains of the poly- 
 gonnl walls of the ancient town.^2. A town in 
 Paphlagonia of uncertain site. 
 
 Soracte {Monte di S. Oresle\ a celebrated 
 mountain in Etruria, in the territory of the Falisci, 
 near the Tiber, about 24 miles from Rome, but 
 the summit of which, frequently covered with 
 snow, was cleariy visible from the city. {Vides ui 
 alia stet nive carididum Soracte, Hor. Carm. i. 9.) 
 The whole mountain was sacred to Apollo, and on 
 its summit was a temple of this god. At the 
 festival of Apollo, celebrated on this mountain, 
 the worshippers passed over burning embers with- 
 out receiving any injury. (Virg. Aen. xi. 785, seq.) 
 
 Soranug. 1. A Sabine divinity, usually iden- 
 tified with Apollo, worshipped on Mt. Soracte. 
 
720 SORDICE. 
 
 [SoJiACTE.J —2. The name of Severn! ph3-sicians, 
 of whom the most celebrated seems to hn.ve been a 
 native of Epbesus, and to bave practised his pro- 
 fession first at Alexandria, and afterwards at Rome, 
 in tbe reigns of Trajan and Hadrian, a. d. 98 — 130. 
 There ore several medical works still extant under 
 the name of Soranus, but whether they were 
 written by the native of Ephesus cannot be deter- 
 mined. 
 
 Sordice {Eiang de Lencaie)^ a lake in Gallia 
 Narbonensis, at the foot of the Pyrenees, formed 
 by the river Sordis. 
 
 Sordones or Sordi, a small people in Gallia 
 Narbonensis, at the foot of the Pyrenees, whose 
 chief town was Ruscino. 
 
 Sosibius (SaxTigmy), a distinguished Lacedae- 
 monian grammarian, who flourished in the reign of 
 Ptolemy Philadelphus (about B.C. 251), and was 
 contemporary with Callimachus. 
 
 Sosigenes (SwiriyeViis), the peripatetic philoso- 
 pher, was the astronomer employed by Julius 
 Caesar to superintend the correction of the calen- 
 dar (b, c. 46). He is called an Egyptian, but may 
 be supposed to have been an Alexandrian Greek. 
 (See jkct. of Anliq. art. Ca/endarium.) 
 
 Sosiphanes (Swcri^aiajs), the son of Sosicles, of 
 Syracuse, was one of the 7 tragedians who were 
 called the Tragic Pleiad. He was born at the 
 end of the reign of Philip, and flourished B. c. 284. 
 . Sositheus (2aKri6eos), of Syracuse or Athens, 
 or Alexandria in the Troad, was a distinguished 
 tragic poet, one of the Tragic Pleiad, and the an- 
 tagonist of the tragic poet Homer. He flourished 
 about B. c. 284. 
 
 SosixLS. 1. C, quaestor B. c. 66, and praetor 
 49. He was afterwards one of Antony's principal 
 lieutenants in the East. He was appointed by 
 Antony, in 38, governor of Syria and Cilicia in the 
 place of Ventidius. Like his predecessor in the 
 government, he carried on the military operations 
 in his province with great success. In 37, he ad- 
 vanced against Jerusalem along with Herod, and 
 after hard fighting became master of the city, and 
 placed Plerod upon the throne. In return for 
 these services, Antony obtained for Sosius the 
 honour of a triumpli In 34, and the consulship in 
 32. Sosius commanded the left wing of Antony's 
 fleet at the battle of Actium. He was afterwards 
 pardoned by Octavian, at the intercession of L. 
 Amintius. — 2. Thename of two brothers (Sosii), 
 booksellers at Rome in the time of Horace. They 
 were probably freedraen, perhaps of the Sosius 
 mentioned above. 
 
 Sospita, that is, the " saving goddess,'* was a 
 surname of Juno at Lanuvjum and at Rome, in 
 both of which places she had a temple. Her wor- 
 ship was very ancient in Latium and was trans- 
 planted from Lanuvimn to Rome. 
 
 Sosthenes (2w(T0eV7)j), a Macedonian officer of 
 noble birth, who obtained the supreme direction of 
 affairs during the period of confusion which followed 
 the invasion of the Gauls. He defeated the Gauls 
 in 280. He is included by the chronologers among 
 the kings of Macedonia ; but it is very doubtful 
 ivhetlier he ever assumed the royal title. 
 
 Sostratus ('S.wcrTparos)^ the name of at least 4, 
 if not 5, Grec an artists, who have been frequently 
 confounded with one another.— 1. A statuary in 
 bronze, the sister's son of Pythagoras of Khegium, 
 and his disciple, flourished about B.C. 424.-2. 
 Of Chios, theinstmctorof Pantias, flourished about 
 
 SOZOMENUS. 
 
 B. c. 400.^3. A statuary in bronze, whom Pliny 
 mentions as a contemporary of Lysippns, at 01. 
 114, B. c 323. the date of Alexander's death. It 
 is probable, however, that he was identical with 
 the following.«^4. The son of Dexiphanes, of Cni- 
 dus, was one of the great architects who flourished 
 during and after the life of Alexander the Great. 
 He built for Ptolemy I., the son of Lagns, the 
 celebrated Pharos of Alexandria. He also em- 
 bellished his native city, Cnidus, with a work 
 which was one of the wonders of ancient archi- 
 tecture, namely, a portico, or colonnade, supporting 
 a terrace, which served as a promenade. —5. An 
 engraver of precious stones, whose name appears on 
 several very beautiful cameos and intaglios. 
 
 Sosua (Swffoy), of Pergnmus, a worker in mo- 
 saic, and, according to Pliny, the most celebrated 
 of all who practised that art. 
 
 Sotades (SwtcJStjs). 1. An Athenian comic 
 poet of the Middle Comedy, who must not be con- 
 founded with the more celebrated poet of Maro- 
 nea. — 2. A native of Maronea in Thrace, flourished 
 at Alexandria about b. c. 280. He wrote lasci- 
 vious poems (called (pKvaKes or /ciraiSot) in the 
 Ionic dialect, whence they were also called ^IwvikoI 
 ?^6yoi. They were also called Sotadean poems 
 (SwTaiSeia off^ara). It would seem that Sotades 
 carried his lascivious and abusive satire to the ut- 
 most lengths ; and the freedoms which he took at 
 last brought him into trouble. According to Plu- 
 tiirch, he made a vehement and gross attack on 
 Ptolemy Philadelphus, on the occasion of his mar- 
 riage with his sister Arsinoe, and the king threw 
 him into prison, where he remained for a longtime. 
 According to Athenaeus, the poet attacked both 
 Lysimachus and Ptolemy, and, having fled from 
 Alexandria, he was overtaken at Caunus by Pto- 
 lemy's general Patroclus, who shut him up in a 
 leaden chest and cast him into the sea. 
 
 Soter (2wT?jp), i. e. ''the Saviour" (Lat. &r- 
 vator or Sospes)^ occurs as the surname of several 
 divinities, especially of Zeus. It was also a sur- 
 name of Ptolemaeus I., king of Egypt, as well as 
 of several of the other later Greek kings. 
 
 Sotion {Jt,<tniuy). 1. A philosopher, and a native 
 of Alexandria, who flourished at the close of the 
 third century b. c. He is chiefly remarkable aa the 
 author of a work (entitled AiaSoxai) on the suc- 
 cessive teachers in the different philosophical 
 schools. ^2. A philosopher, and also a native of 
 Alexandria, who lived in the age of Tiberius. He 
 was the instructor of Seneca, who derived from 
 him his admiration of Pythagoras. It was perhaps 
 this Sotion who was the author of a treatise on 
 anger, quoted by Stobaeua. ^ 3. A Peripatetic 
 philosopher, mentioned by A. Gellius, is probably 
 a different person from either of the preceding. 
 
 Sottiates or Sotiates, a powerful and warlike 
 people in Gallia Aquitanica, on the frontiers of 
 Gallia Narbonensis, were subdued by P. Ciiissus, 
 Caesar's legate, after a hard-fought battle. The 
 modem Sos probably represents the ancient town 
 of this people. 
 
 Sozomenua (SwC'^^ecor), usually called Sozo- 
 meii in English, was a Greek ecclesiastical histo- 
 rian of the 5th century. He was probably a native 
 of Bethelia or Bethel, a village near Gaza in Pales- 
 tine. His parents were Christians. He priictised 
 as an advocate at Constantinople, whence he is 
 surnnmed Scholast'icus ; and he was still engaged 
 in his profession when he wrote his history. His 
 
SOZOPOLIS. 
 ecclesiastical liistory, winch is extant, is in 9 
 books, and is dedicated to the emperor Theo- 
 dosius II. It commences witii the reign of Con- 
 Btantine, and comes down a little later thiin the 
 death of Honurins, a. d. 423. The work ia in- 
 complete, and breiiks off in the middle of a chapter. 
 The author, we know, had proposed to biinu' it 
 down to 439, the year in which the history of So- 
 crates ends. Sozomen excels Socrates in style, 
 but is inferior to the latter in soundness of judg- 
 ment. The history of Sozomen is prinU^d along 
 with tlie other Greek ecclesiastical historians. 
 [Socrates.] 
 
 Sozopolis, aft. Susnpolis (2a>f((7roA.(s, SctffoJ- 
 TToKts i Susu, Ru.), a considerable city of Pisidia. 
 in a plain surrounded by mountains, N. of 
 Terraessus. 
 
 Sparta (^TrapTT/, Dor. SirapTa: 27rctpTiaT7)s, 
 Spartiiltes, SparUmus) also called Lacedaemon 
 {AaKeBaifiUf : AaKidaifx6fios^ Lacedaemonius), the 
 capital of Laconica and the chief city of Pelopon- 
 nesus, was situated on the right bank of the 
 Eurotas {In}, about 20 miles from the sea. It 
 stood on a p'ain which contained within it several 
 rising grounds and hills. It was bounded on the 
 E. by the Eumtas, on theN.W. bj' the small river 
 Oenus (Kelcsit/a\ and on the S.E. by the small 
 river Tisia {AIayula\ both of which streams fell 
 into the Eurotas. The plain in which Sparta stood 
 ■was shut in on the E. by Mt. Menelaium, and on 
 the W. by Mt. Taygetus ; whence the city is 
 called by Homer "the hollow Lacedaemon." It 
 was of a circular form, about G miles in circum- 
 ference, and consisted of several distinct quarters, 
 ■which were originally separate villages, and which 
 were never united into one regular town. Its site 
 is occupied by the modern villages of Magula and 
 FsyJchiko ; and the principal modern town in the 
 neighbourhood is Mistra, which lies about 2 miles 
 to the W. on the slopes of Mt. Taygetus. During 
 the flouribhing times of Greek independence, Sparta 
 was never surrounded by walls, since the bravery 
 of its citizens, and the difficulty of access to it, 
 were supposed to render such defences needless. 
 It was first fortified by the tyrant Nabis ; but it 
 did not possess regular walls till the time of the 
 Romans. Sparta, unlike most Greek cities, had 
 no proper Acropolis, but this name was only given 
 to one of the steepest hills of the town, on the 
 summit of which stood the temple of Athena Po- 
 liuchos, or Chalcioecus. Five distinct quarters of 
 the city are mentioned : 1. Pitane {Tlniivq \ Ethnic 
 niTaraTTjs), which appears to have been the most 
 importjmt part of the city, and in which was 
 situated the Agora, containing the council-house of 
 the senate, and the offices of the public magistrates. 
 It was also surrounded by various temples and 
 other public buildings. Of these, the most splendid 
 was the Persian Stoa or portico, originally built of 
 the spoils taken in the Persiaii war, and enlarged 
 and adorned at later times. A part of the Agoru 
 was called the Chorus or dancing place, in which 
 the Spartan youths performed dances in honour of 
 ApoUo. 2. Lininae (Ai/xvai), a suburb of the city, 
 on the banks of the Eurotas, N.E. of Pitiuie, was 
 originally a hollow spot covered with water, 3. 
 Mesoa or Afessoa (Meffffo, Mecra6a: Eth. Meo"- 
 aoaTTfs), also by the side of the Eurotas, S. E, of the 
 preceding, containing the Dromns and the Plata- 
 nistas, which was a spot nearly surrounded with 
 water, and so called from the plane-trees growing 
 
 SPARTA. 
 
 721 
 
 there. 4.Ci/nosura {Kuv6(rovpa: Kuvoffovpe^s"), in 
 the S.W. of the city, and S. of Pitiine. 5. Aegidae 
 ( Ai-yciSai), in the N.W. of the city, and W. of 
 Pitjine. — The two principal streets of Sparta ran 
 from the Agora to the extreme end of the city : 
 these were. 1. Aphetae or Aphetais ('Ai^eroi, *A0e- 
 ra'ts 6c. <55<Js), extending in a S.E.-ly direction, 
 past the temple of Dictynna, and the tombs of the 
 Eurypuntidaejand '2. Shias {'S.Kidi)^ running nearly 
 parallel to the preceding one, but further to the E., 
 and which derived its name from an ancient place 
 of assembly, of a circular form, called Skias. The 
 most important remains of ancient Sparta are the 
 ruins of the theatre, which was near the Agora. — 
 Spiirta is said to have been founded bj' Lacedaemon, 
 a son of Zeus and Taygete, who married Sparta, 
 the daughter of Eurotas, and called the city after 
 the name of his wife. His son Amyclas is said to 
 have been the founder of Amyclae, which was for 
 a long time a more important town than Sparta 
 itself. In the mythical period, Argos was the 
 chief city in Peloponnesus, and Sparta is repre- 
 sented as subject to it. Here reigned Menelaus, 
 the younger brother of Agamemnon ; and by the 
 marriage of Orestes, the son of Agamemnon, with 
 Hennione, the daughter of Menelaus, the two 
 kingdoms of Argos and Sparta became united. 
 Tile Dorian conquest of Peloponnesus, which, ac- 
 cording to tradition, took place 80 years after the 
 Trojan war, made Sparta the capitd of the country. 
 Laconica fell to the share of the 2 sons of Aristo- 
 demus, Eurysthenes and Procles, who took up their 
 residence at Sparta, and ruled over the kingdom 
 conjoinjly. The old inhabitants of the country 
 maintained themselves at Amyclae, which was 
 not conquered for a long time. After the com- 
 plete subjugation of the country we find three 
 distinct classes in the popuhition: the Dorian 
 conquerors, who resided in the capital, and who 
 were called Spartiatae or Spartans; the Perioeci or 
 old Achaean inhabitants, who became tributary to 
 the Spartans, and possessed no political rights; and 
 the Helots, who were also a portion of the old 
 Achaean inhabitants, but were reduced to a state 
 of slaver}'. From various causes the Spartans be- 
 came distracted by intestine quarrels, till at length 
 Lycurgiis, who belonged to the royal family, was 
 selected by all parties to give a new constitution to 
 the state. The date of Lycurgus is uncertain; but 
 it is impossible to place it later tlian B. c. 825. 
 The constitution of Lycurgue, which is described 
 in a separate article [Lycurgus], laid the foun- 
 dation of Sparta's greatness. She soon became ag- 
 gressive, and gradually extended lier sway over 
 the greater part of Peloponnesus. In b. c. 743 the 
 Spartans attacked Messenia, and after a war of 
 20 years subdued this country, 723. In QV>h the 
 Messenians again took up arms, but at the end of 
 17 years were again completely subdued; and their 
 country from this time forward became an int.-gral 
 portion of Laconia, [For details see Messenia.] 
 After the close of the 2nd Messenian war the 
 Spartans continued their conquests in Peloponnesus. 
 Tiiey defeated the Tegeans, and wrested the dis- 
 trict iif Thyreae from the Argives. At the time of 
 the Persian invasion, they were confessedly the 
 first people in Greece ; and to them was granted 
 hy unanimous consent the chief command in the 
 war. But after the final defeat of the Persians 
 the haughtiness of Pausanias disgusted most of the 
 Gretk states, particularly the lonians, and led 
 
 » A 
 
722 
 
 SPARTA C US. 
 
 theni to transfer the supremncy to Athens (477). 
 From this time the power of Athens steadily in- 
 creased ; and Sparta possessed little influence out- 
 side of the Peloponnesus. The Spjirtans, however, 
 made several attempts to check ihe rising greatness 
 of Athens; and their jealousy of the latter led at 
 lenjith to the Peloponnfsian war (431). This 
 war ended in the overthrow of Athens, and the 
 restoration of the supremacy of Sparta over the 
 rest of Greece (404). But the Spartans did not 
 retain this supremacy more than 30 years. Their 
 decisive defeat by theThebans under Kpaminondas 
 at the battle of Leuctra (371) gave the Spartan 
 power a shock from which it never recovered ; and 
 the restoration of the Messenians to their country 
 2 years afterwards completed the humiliation of 
 Sparta. Thrice was the Spartan territory invaded 
 by the Thebans; and the Spartan women saw for 
 the first time the watch-fires of an enemy^s camp. 
 The Spartans now finally lost their supremacy over 
 Greece, but no other Greek state succeeded to 
 their power ; and about 30 years afterwards the 
 greater part of Greece was obliged to yield to 
 Philip of Macedon. The Spartans, however, kept 
 haughtily aloof from the Macedonian conqueror, 
 and refused to take part in the Asiatic expeditii)n 
 of his son Alexander the Great. Under the later 
 Macedonian monarchs the power of Sparta still 
 further declined; the institutions of Lycurg^is were 
 neglected, luxurj' crept into the state, the number 
 of citizens diminished, and the landed property 
 became vested in a few families. A^is endeavoured 
 to restore the ancient institut'ons of Lycurgus; but 
 he perished in the attempt (240). Clenmenes II L, 
 who began to reign 236, was more successful. He 
 succeeded in putting the Ephors to death, and 
 overthrowing the existing government (225) ; and 
 he then made a redistribution of the landed pro- 
 pert}', and augmented the number of the Spartan 
 citizens by admitting some of the Perioeci to this 
 honour. His reforms infused new blood into the 
 state ; and for a short time he carried on war with 
 success against the Achaeans. But Aratus, the 
 general of the Achaeans, called in the assistance of 
 Antigonus Doson, the king of Macedonia, who de- 
 feated Cleomenes at the decisive battle of Sellasia 
 (221), and followed up his success by the c;ipture 
 of Sparta. Sparta now sank into insigniticance. 
 and was ruled b}"^ a succession of native tynmts til! 
 at length it was compelled to abolish its peculiar 
 institutions, and to join the Achaean league. 
 Shortly afterwards it fell, with the rest of Greece, 
 under the Roman power. 
 
 Spartacus, the name of several kings of the 
 Cimmerian Bosporus. 1. Succeeded the dynasty 
 of the Archeanactidae in B.C. 438, and reigned 
 until 431. He was sncceedi'd by his son Seleiicus. 
 — 2. Began to reijjn in 427 and reigned 20 years. 
 He was succeeded in 407 by hii» son Satyrus, — 
 3. Succeeded his father Leucon in 3.t3, and died, 
 leaving his kingdom to his son Parysades, in 348. 
 ^4. Son of Eunielus, began to reign in 304, and 
 reigned 20 years. 
 
 Spartacus, by birth a Thracian, was succes- 
 sively a shepherd, a soldier, and a chief of banditti. 
 On one of his predatory expeditions he was taken 
 prisoner, and sold to a trainer of gladin tors. In 73 he 
 was a member of the company of Lentulus, and was 
 detained in his school at Ca|iua, in readiness for the 
 games at Rome. He persuaded his I'ellnw-prisoners 
 to make an attempt to gain their freedom. About 
 
 SPES. 
 
 70 of them broke out nf the school of Lentulus, 
 and took refuge in the craterof Vesuvius. Spartacus 
 \\ as chosen leailer, and was soon joined by a number 
 of runaway slaves. They were blockaded by C.Clau- 
 dius Pulcher at the head of 3000 men, but Spar- 
 tacus attacked the besiegers and put them to flight. 
 His numbers rapidly increased, and for 2 years (b.c. 
 73 — 71) he defeated one Roman army after an- 
 other, and laid waste Italy from the foot of the 
 Alps to the southernmost c. mer of the peninsula. 
 After both the consuls of 72 had been defeated by 
 Spartacus, M, Licinius Crassus, the praetor, was 
 appointed to the conmiand of the war. Crassus 
 ciirried on the contest, with vigour and success, and, 
 after gaining several advantages over the enemy, at 
 length defeated them on the river Silarus in a de- 
 cisive battle, in which Spartacus was slain. The 
 character of Spartiicus has been maligned by the 
 Roman writers. Cicero compares the vilest of his 
 contemporaries to him : Horace speaks of him as a 
 common rubber ; none recognise his greatness, but 
 the terror of his name survived to a late period of 
 the empire. Accident made Spartacus a shepherd, 
 a freebooter, and a gladiator ; nature formed him a 
 hero. The excesses of liis followers he could not 
 always repress, and his efforts to restrain them often 
 cost him his popularity. But he was in himself 
 not less mild and just than he was able and 
 valiant. 
 
 Spartarius Campus. [Carthago Nova.] 
 Sparti (STraproi from tTTreipw), the Sown-Men, 
 is the name given to the armed men who sprang 
 from the dragon's teeth sown by Cadmus, and who 
 were believed to be the ancestors of the 5 oldest 
 families at Thebes. 
 
 Spartianus, Aelius, one of the Scriptnres FTis- 
 toriae Auffvstae, lived in the time of Diocletian and 
 Constantine, and wrote the biographies of, 1. Ha- 
 drianus and Aelius Verus ; 2. Didius Jullanns ; 
 3. Severus ; 4. Pescennius Niger ; 5. Canicalla ; 
 f). Geta. For the editions of Spartianus see Capi- 
 
 TOI.INUS. 
 
 Spartolus (STrapreuXor), a town in the Mace- 
 donian peninsula of Chalcidice, N. of Olynthus. 
 
 Spauta (STTdUTa: L. of Urmi)^ a large snlt- 
 lake in the W. of Media, whose waters were 
 singularly bitter and acrid. It was also called 
 Matiaiia (^MctTiai'Tj Ai/x^tj) from the name of the 
 people who dwelt around it, 
 
 Spercheus (27rep;^ei(Jy : E/ladha), a river in 
 the S. of Thessaly, which rises in Mt, Tymphrestus, 
 runs in an E.-ly direction through the territory of 
 the Aenianes and through the district Mails, and 
 falls into the innennost corner of the Sinus Mali- 
 acns. As a river-god Spercheus is a son of 
 Oceanus and Ge, and the father of Menesthius l»y 
 Polydora, the daughter of Peleus. To this god 
 Peleu.s dedicated ihe hair of his son Achilles, in 
 order that he might return in safety from the 
 Trojan war. 
 
 Spes, the personification of Hope, was worshipped 
 at Rome, where she had several temples, the must 
 ancient of which had been built in u c. 354. by 
 the consul Atilius Calatinns, near the I'orta Car- 
 mentalis. The Greeks also worshipped the pereo- 
 nification of Hope. E/pis^ and they relate the beau- 
 tiful allegnrj', that when Epimethens opened the 
 vessel brought to him by Pandora, from which all 
 manner of evils were scattered over the earth, 
 Hope alon^ remained behind. Hope was n-pre- 
 aented in works of art as a youthful figure, lightly 
 
SPEUSIPPUS. 
 
 walking in full attire, holding in her right hand a 
 flower, and with the left lifting up her garment. 
 
 SpeusippUB (2ir6i(n7r7ros), the philosoplier, was 
 a native of Athens, and the son of Eurymedon and 
 Potone, a sister of Plato. He accompanied his 
 imcle Plato on his third journey to Synicuse, whei-e 
 he displayed considerable ahiiit}'- and prudence. 
 He succeeded Plato as president of the Academy, 
 but was at the he?.-! of the school for only H 
 years (b. c. 347 — 3^^). He died, as it appears. 
 of a lingering paralytic illness. He wrote several 
 "works, all of which are lost, in which he developed 
 the doctrint-s of his greiit master. 
 
 Sphacteria. [Pylos, No. 3.] 
 
 Sphaeria (Si^mpfa ; Foros)^ an island off the 
 coast of Troezen in Argniis, and between it and 
 the island of Calauria, with the latter of which it 
 was connected by means of a sand-bank. Here 
 Sphaerus, the charioteer of Pelops, is said to have 
 been buried. 
 
 Sphaerus ("Xtpaipos)^ a Stoic philosopher, studied 
 first under Zt-no of Citium, and afterwards under 
 Cleanthes. He lived at Alexandria during the 
 reigns of the first two Ptolemies. He also taught 
 at Lacedaerann, and was believed to have had con- 
 siderable influence in moulding the character of 
 Cleomenes. He was in repute among the Stoics 
 for the accuracy of his definitions. He was the 
 author of si-veml works, all of wliich are lost 
 
 Sphendale {^pevhdKij : SfpecSoA-eus), a demus 
 in Atticii belonging to the tribe Hippothoontis, on 
 the frontiers of Boeotia between Tanngra and 
 Decelea. 
 
 Sphettus (Si^TjTTfJy : Stf^Txios), a demus in 
 the S. of Attica, near the silver mines of Sunium, 
 belonging to the tribe Acamantis. 
 
 Sphinx (2^17!, gen. I,(piyy6s), a she-monster, 
 daughter of Orthus and Chimaera, born in tlie 
 country oftlie Arimi, or of Typhon and Echidna, 
 or lastly of Typhon and Chiniaei-a. She is said to 
 have proposed a riddle to theThebans, and to have 
 murdered ail who were unable to guess it. Oedi- 
 pus solved it, whereupon the Sphinx slew herself 
 [For detiiils see Oedipus,] The legend appears 
 to have come from Egypt, but the figure of the 
 Sphinx is represented somewhat differently in 
 Greek mythology and art. The Egyptian Sphinx 
 is the figure of a lion without win^s in a lying atti- 
 tude, the upper part of the body being that of a 
 human being. The Sphinxes appear in Egypt to 
 have been set up in avenues forming the approaches 
 to temples. The common idea of a Greek Spliinx, 
 en the other hand, is that of a winged body of a 
 lion, the breast and upper piirt beinj,' the figure of 
 a woman. Greek Sphinxes, moreover, are not 
 always represented in a lying attitude, but appear 
 m different positions, as it might suit the fancy of 
 the sculptor or poet. Thus they appear with the 
 face of a maiden, the breast, feet, and claws of a 
 lion, the tail of a serpent, aiid the wings of a bird. 
 Sphinxes were frequently introduced by Greek 
 artists, as ornaments of architectural works. 
 
 Spina. 1. {Sfrinazzino), a town in Gallia Cis- 
 padana, in the territory of the Lingones, on the 
 most S.-ly of the mouths of the Po, which was 
 called after it Ostium Spineticiim. It was a very 
 ancient town, said to liave been founded by the 
 Greeks, but in the time of Strabo had ceased to 
 be a place of any importance. — 2. {Spijio% a town 
 in Gallia Transpadana on the river Addua. 
 
 Spinthanis {Sirludapos), of Heraclea on the 
 
 STASINUS. 723 
 
 Pontus, a tragic poet, contemporary with Aristo- 
 phanes, who designates him as a barbarian and a 
 Phrygian. He was also ridiculed by the other 
 comic poets. 
 
 Spolatum. [Salona]. 
 
 Spoletium or Spoletum (Spoletinus : Spoleto), 
 a town in Umbria 011 the Via Klaminia, colonised 
 by the Romans B.C. '242. It suffered severely in 
 the civil wars between Sulla and Mariu?. At a 
 later time it was taken by Tutilas ; but its walls, 
 which had been destroyed by the Goths, were 
 restored by Narses. 
 
 Sporadea (STopaSes, sc. vricroi^ from a-n-eipuj), a 
 group of scattered islands in the Aegaean sea off 
 the island of Crete and the W. coast of Asia 
 Minor, so called in opposition to the Cj'clades, 
 which lay in a circle around Delos. The division, 
 however, between tliese 2 groups of islands was 
 not well defined ; and we find some of the islands 
 at one time described as belonging to theSporades, 
 and at another time as V)elonging to the Cyciades. 
 
 Spurinna, Vestritius. il The haruspex who 
 warned Caesar to beware of the Ides of March. It 
 is related that, as Caesar was going to the senate- 
 house on the fatal day, he said to Spurinna in jest, 
 "■ Well, the Ides of March are come,"' upon which 
 the seer replied, " Yes, they are come, but they 
 are not past." ^2. A Ri)min general, who fought 
 on the side of Otho against the VitelUan troops in 
 the N. of Italy. In the reign of Trajan he gained 
 a victory over the Bruuteri. Spurinna lived upon 
 terms of the closest friendship with the younger 
 Pliny, from whom we learn that Spurinna com- 
 posed lyric poems. There are extant 4 odes, or 
 rather fragments of odes, in Choriambic measure, 
 ascribed to Spurinna, and which were first pub- 
 lished by Barthius in 1G13. Their genuineness 
 however is very doubtful. 
 
 Spurinus, Q. Petillius. praetor urbanus in b. c. 
 181, in which year the books of king Nunia Pom- 
 pilius are said to have been discovered upon the 
 estiite of one L. Petillius. Spurinus obtained pos- 
 session of the books, and upon his representation to 
 the senate that they ought not to be read and pre- 
 served, the senate ordered them to be burnt. 
 [NuMA.] Spurinus was consul in 176, and fellin 
 battle against the Ligurians. 
 
 Staoiae (Stabianua : Castell a Mare di Slabia), 
 an ancient town in Campania between Pnmpeii 
 and Surrentura, which was destroyed by Sulla in 
 the Social War, but which continued to ^ixist as a 
 small place down to the great eruption of Vesuvius 
 in A. D. 79, when it was overwhelmed along with 
 Pompeii and Herculaneum. It was at Stabiae 
 that the elder Pliny perished. 
 
 Stagirus, subsequently Stagira (Srayeipos-, ri 
 ^rdyeipa^ i] ^rayeipa : SrayeipiTijr ; SluiTo), 
 a town of Macedonia in Chalcidice, on the Stry- 
 monic gulf and a little N. of the isthmus which 
 unites the promontory of Athos to Chalcidice. It 
 was a colony of Andros, was foimded b. c. 656, 
 and was originally called Orthagoria. It is cele- 
 brated as the birth-place of Aristotle, and was in 
 consequence restored by Philip, by whom it had 
 been destroyed. 
 
 Staphylus (2Td(puKos)^ eon of Dionysus and 
 Ariadne, or of Theseus and Ariadne, and was one 
 of the Argonauts. By Chrysnthemis he became the 
 father of 3 daughters, Molpadia, Rhoeo, and Par- 
 theniis, 
 
 Stasinufl {'Xrao'lvcs), of Cyprus, an epic poet, 
 
724 STATIELLI. 
 
 to whom some of the ancient writers attrihuted the 
 poem of the Epic Cycle, entitled Ctiprla (Kwpia). 
 In the earliest historical period of Gieek littrature 
 the Ciffiria was accepted williout questinn as a woik 
 of Homer ; and it is not till we come down to the 
 times of Athenaeus and the grammarians, that we 
 find any mention of Stasinus. Stasinus was said 
 to be the son-in-law of Homer, who, acconling to 
 one story, compus^-d the Cyprla aiid gave it to 
 Stasinus as his daugliter's marriage portion ; mani- 
 festly an attempt tu reconcile the two different ac- 
 connts. which ascribed it to Homer and Stasinns. 
 The Ctipria was the first, in the order of the events 
 contained in it, of the poems of the Epic Cycle re- 
 lating to the Trojan war. It embraced the period 
 antecedent to the beginning of the Iliad, to which 
 it was designed to form an introduction. 
 
 Statielli, Statiellatea, or Statiellenaea, a 
 small tribe in Ligiiria, S. of the Po, whose chief 
 town w;is Statiellae Aquae {Acqui) on the road 
 from Genua to Placentia. 
 
 StatiUa Messalina. [Messalina.] 
 
 Statilitts Taurus. [Taurus.] 
 
 Statira (Srareipa). L Wife of Artaxerxes 
 II., king of Persin, was poisoned by Parysatis, the 
 mother of the king, who was a deadly enemy of 
 Statira. ^2. Sister and wife of Darius III., cele- 
 brated as the most beautiful woman of her time. 
 She was taken prisoner by Alexander, together 
 with her mother-in-law Sisygambis and her 
 daughters, after the battle of Issus, b. c. 333. 
 They were all treated with the utmost respect by 
 the conqueror, but Statira died shortlj- before the 
 battle of Arheia, 331.^3. Also called Barsine, 
 elder daughter of Darius III, [Barsine.J 
 
 Statius Murcus. [Murcus.] 
 
 Statius, P. Papinius, was born at Neapolis, 
 about A. D, 61, and was the son of a distinguJsht^d 
 grammarian. He accompanied his father to Rome, 
 where the latter acted as the preceptor of Do- 
 mitian, who held him in high honour. Under the 
 skilful tuition of his father, the young Statius 
 speedily rose to fame, and became peculiarly re- 
 nowned for the brilliancy of his extemporaneous 
 effusions, so that he gained the prize three times 
 in the Alban contests; but having, after a long 
 career of popularity, been vanquished in the quin- 
 quennial games, he retired to Neapolis, the place 
 of his nativity, along with his wife Claudia, whose 
 virtues he frequently commemorates. He died 
 about A. D. dQ. It has been inferred from a 
 passage in .Juvenal (vii, 82), that St;Uius, in his 
 earlier years jit least, was forced to struggle with 
 poverty ; but he appears to have profited by the 
 patronage of Domitian {Silv. iv. '2), whom he ad- 
 dresses in strains of the most fulsome adulation. 
 The extant works of Statius are : — I. Silvarum 
 Libn v., a collection of 32 occasional poems, many 
 of them of considerable length, divided into 5 
 books. To each book is prefixed a dedicntion in 
 prose, addressed to some friend. The metre chiefly 
 employed is the heroic hexameter, but four of the 
 pieces'fi. 6, ii. 7, iv. 3, 9), are in Phalaecian hen- 
 decasyllabics, one {iv. 5) in the Alcnic, and one 
 (iv, 7) in the Sapphic stanza. 2. ThehaUos Li- 
 bri XIL, an heroic poem in 12 books, embodying 
 the ancient legends with regard to the expedition 
 of the Seven against TJjcbes. 3. AckilleidoH 
 Libri 11.^ an heroic poi*m breaking off abruptly. 
 According to the original plan, it would have 
 comprised a complete history of the exploits of 
 
 STEPHANU3. 
 
 Achilles, but was probably never fini-ihed. Statins 
 may justly claim the praise of standing in the 
 foremost rank among the heroic poets of the Silver 
 Age. Pie is in a great measure free from extrava- 
 giince and pompous pretensions ; but, on the other 
 hand, in no portion of h's works do we find the 
 impress of high natural talent and imposing power. 
 The pieces which fonn the Silvae, although evi- 
 dently thrown off in haste, produce a much more 
 pleasing effect than the ambitious poems of the 
 Thebaid or the Achilleid. Tiie best editions of 
 the Sih<Le are by Markhmd, Lond. 1728. and by 
 Sillig, Dresd. 1827. The best edition of the com- 
 plete works of Statins is by Lemuire, 4 vols. 
 8vo., Paris, 182.5— 1830. 
 
 Statonia (Statoniensis), a town in Etruria, and 
 a Roman Praefectura, on the river Albinia, and on 
 the Lacus Statoniensis, in the neighbourhood of 
 which were stone quarries, and excellent wine 
 was grown. 
 
 Stator, a Roman surname of Jupiter, describing 
 him as staying the Romans in their flight from ain 
 enemy, and generally as preserving the existing 
 order of things. 
 
 Stectorium (^T^KTri^iav. Ajwum Kara-IIisar ?), 
 a city of Great Phrygia, between Peltae and Syn- 
 nadia. 
 
 Stentor (StcVtw/j), a herald of the Greeks in 
 the Trojan war, whose voice was as loud as that 
 of 50 other men together. His name has become 
 proverbial for any one shouting with an unusually 
 loud voice. 
 
 Steutoris Lacus. [ITebrus] 
 
 Stenyclems (^TivvK\T)pos, Dor. ^reyvKXapos ; 
 'ZT€vuK\7]ptos), a town in the N. of Mesaenia, 
 which was the residence of the Dorian kings of 
 the country. After the time of the 3rd Messenian 
 war the town is no longer mentioned ; but its 
 name continued to be given to an extensive plaia 
 in the N. of Alessenia. 
 
 Stephane or -is (Srecfai/T;, 2Te^afts: Stefanio), 
 a sea -port town of Paphlagonia, on the coast of the 
 Mariandyni. 
 
 Steph.aaU3 CXriipafos). 1. An Athenian comic 
 poet of the New Comedy, was probably the son of 
 Antiphanes, some of whose plays he is said to 
 have exhibited. — 2. Of Byziunium, the author of 
 the geographical lexicon, entitled EthTtica{*'E.OfiKd), 
 of which unfortunately we only possess an epitome. 
 Stephanus was a grammarian at Constantinople, 
 and lived after the time of Arcadius tmd Ho- 
 norius, and before that of Justinian II. His work 
 was reduced to an epitome by a certain Hermo- 
 laus, who dedicated his abridgment to the em- 
 peror Justinian II. According to the title, the 
 chief object of the work was to specify the gentile 
 names derived from the several names of places 
 and countries in the ancient world. But, while 
 this is done in every article, the amount of inform- 
 ation givL-n went fur beyond this. Nearly every 
 article in the epitome contains a reference to some 
 ancient writer, as an authority for the name of 
 the place ; but in the original, as we see from the 
 extant fragments, there were considerable qimta- 
 tions from the ancient authors, besides a number 
 of verj' interesting particulars, topocraphical. his- 
 torical, mythological, and others, thus the work 
 was not m.'rely what it professed to be, a lexicon 
 of a speciiil branch of technical grammar, but a 
 valnahle dictionary of geoi-raphy. How great 
 would have been its value to us, if it had come 
 
STERCULIUS. 
 down to us ummitilaled, mny be seen by any one 
 who compares the extJint fragments of llie original 
 with the correspondini^ articles in the epitimie. 
 These fragments, however, are unfortunately very 
 scanty. Tlie best editions of the Epitome of 
 Stephanns are by Dlndorf, Lips. 1 8"25, &c., 4 vols. ; 
 by Weatermaini, Lips. 1}J31), 8vo. ; and by Mei- 
 neke, Berlin, 1849. 
 
 Sterciilius, Stercutius, or Sterquilinus, a 
 surname of Satiirnus, derived from Stcrcu.Sy manure, 
 because he had promoted agriculture by teaching 
 the people the use of manure. This seems to have 
 been the original meaning, though some Romans 
 state tliat Sterculius was a surname of Picumnus, 
 the son of Faunus, to whom likewise improve- 
 ments in agriculture are ascribed. 
 
 Sterope (SrepoTrrj), one of the Pleiads, wife of 
 Oenomaus. and daughter of Hippodamla. 
 
 Steropes. [Cyclopes.] 
 
 Stesicliorus (^Trifflxopos)^ of Himfra in Sicily, 
 a celebrated Greek poet, contemporary with Sappho, 
 Alcaeus, Pittacus, and Phalaris, is said to have 
 been born b. c. 632, to have flourished about 608, 
 and to have died in 552 at the age of 80. Of the 
 events of hia life we have only a few obscure ac- 
 counts. Like other great poets, his birth is fabled to 
 have been attended by an omen; a nightingale 
 sat upon the babe'^s lips, and sung a sweet strain. 
 He is said to have been carefully educated at 
 Ca tana, and afterwards to have enjoyed the friend- 
 ship of Phalaris, the tyrant of Agrigentum. Many 
 writers relate the fable of his being miraculously 
 struck with blindness after writing an attack upon 
 Helen, and recovering his sight when he had com- 
 posed a Palinodia. He is said to have been buried 
 at Catana by a gate of the city, which was called 
 after him the Stesichorean gate. Stesichonis was 
 one of the 9 chiefs of lyric poetry recognised by 
 the ancients. He stands, with Alcman, at the 
 head of one branch of the lyric art, the choral 
 poetry of the Dorians. He was the first to break 
 the monotony of the strophe and antistrophe by 
 the introduction of the epode, and his metres were 
 much more varied, and the structure of his strophes 
 more elaborate, than those of Alcman. His odes 
 contained all the essential elements of tlie perfect 
 choral poetry of Pindar and the tragedians. The 
 subjects of his poems were chiefly heroic ; he 
 tninsferred tlie subjects of the old epic poetry to 
 the lyric form, dropping, of course, the continuous 
 narrative, and dwelling on isolated adventures of 
 his heroes. He also composed poems on other 
 subjects. His extant remains may be classified 
 under the following heads : — 1. Mythical Poems. 
 2. Hymns, Encomia, Epithalamia, Paeans. 3. 
 Erotic Poems, and Scholia. 4. A pastoral poem, 
 entitled Daphnis. 5. Fables. _ 6. Elegies. _ The 
 dialect of Stesichorus was Dorian, with an inter- 
 mixture of the epic- The best edition of his frag- 
 ments is by Kleine, Berol. 1828. 
 
 Stesimbrotus (2T7;o-i>epoTos), of Thasos, a 
 rbapsodist and historian in the time of Cimon and 
 Pericles, who is mentioned with praise by Plato 
 and Xcnophon, and who wrote a work upon Homer, 
 the title of which is not known. He also wrote 
 some historical works. 
 
 Stheneboea {'ZOevieoia), called Antea by many 
 
 writers, was a daughter of the Lycian king lobates, 
 
 and the wife of Protrtus. Respecting her love for 
 
 Bellerophon, see Bkllebophontks. 
 
 Sttenelus (SeeVeAos). 1. Son of Perseus and 
 
 STILPO. 
 
 726 
 
 Andromeda, king of Mycenae, and husband of 
 Nicippe, by whom he becamn the father of Alciuoe, 
 Medusa, and Eurystheus. The latter, as the great 
 enemy of Hercules [Hercules], is called by Ovid 
 Slhenele'iiis ho8/ts. ^ 3. Sou of Androgeos and 
 grandson of Minos. He accompanied Hercules 
 from Pares on his expedition against the Amazons, 
 and together with his brother Alcaeus he was ap- 
 pointed by Hercules ruler of Thasos. ^3. Son of 
 Actor, likewise a companion of Hercules in his 
 expedition against the Anuizons ; but he died and 
 was buried in Paphlagonia, where he afterwards 
 apjieared to the Argonauts. ^4. Sim of Capaneus 
 and Evadne, belonged to the family of the Anaxa- 
 goridae in Argos, and was the father of Cylarabes ; 
 but, according to others, his sou's name was Co- 
 metes. He was one of the Epigoni, by whom 
 Thebes was taken, and he commanded the Argives 
 under Diomedes, in the Trojan war, being the 
 faithful friend and companion of Diomedes. Ho 
 was one of the Greeks concealed in the wooden 
 horse, and at the distribution of the booty, he was 
 said to have received an image of a three-eyed 
 Zeus, which was in after-limes shown at Argos. 
 His own statue and tomb also were believed to 
 exist at Argos. — 5. Father of Cycnus, who was 
 metamorphosed into a swan. Hence we find the 
 swan called by Ovid Sthencleis vohicris and SUiene- 
 leia proles. ^ 6. A tragic poet, contemporary with 
 Aristophanes, who attacked him in the Wasps. 
 
 Stheno. [Gorgonks.] 
 
 Stilicho, son uf a Vandal captain under the 
 emperor Valens, became one of the most distin- 
 guished generals of Theodosius I, On the death 
 of Theodoaius, a.d. 395, Stilicho became the real 
 ruler of the West under the emperor Honorius ; 
 and his power was strengthened by the death of 
 his rival Rufinus [Rupinus]. and by the marriage 
 of his daughter Maria to Honorius. His militarj' 
 abilities saved the Western empire ; and after 
 gaining several victories over the barbarians, he 
 defeated Alaric at the decisive battle of PoUentia, 
 403, and compelled liim to retire from Italy. In 
 405 he gained another great victory over Rada- 
 gaisus, who had invaded Italy at the head of a 
 formidable host of barbarians. These victories 
 raised the ambition of Stilicho to so high a pitch, 
 that he aspired to make himself master of the 
 Roman empire ; but he was apprehended and put 
 to death at Ravenna in 408. 
 
 Stilo, L. Aelius Praeconinus, a celebrated Ro- 
 man grammarian, one of the teachers of Varro and 
 Cicero. He received the surname of Praeconinus, 
 because hia father liad been a praeco, and that of 
 Stilo on account of his compositions. He belonged 
 to the aristocratical party, and accompanied Q. Me- 
 tellus Nuniidicus into exile in B. c. 100. He wrote 
 Commentaries on the Songs of the Salii and on the 
 Twelve Tables, a work De Proloquils^ &c. lie and 
 his son-in-law, Sit. Claudius, may be regarded as 
 the founders of the study of grammar at Rome. 
 Some modern writers suppose that the work on 
 Rhetoric ad C. Hereimium, which is printed in 
 the editions of Cicero, is tiie work of this Aelius, 
 but this is mere conjecture. 
 
 StUpo (STiATrojf), a celebrated philosopher, was 
 a native of Megara, and tau^lit philosophy in his 
 native town. According to one account, lie engaged 
 in dialectic encounters with Diodnrus Cronus at the 
 court of Ptoleniaeus Soter ; while, according to 
 another, he did not comply with the invitation of 
 
 3 A H 
 
726 
 
 STIMULA. 
 
 the king to visit Alexandria, He acquired a great 
 repucation ; and so high was the esteem in which 
 he was held, that Demetrius, the son of Antigonus, 
 spared liis house at the capture of Megara, He is 
 said to have surpassed his contemporaries in in- 
 ventive power and dialectic art, and to have inspired 
 almt>3t all Greece with a devotion to the Megarian 
 philosophy. He seems to have made the idea of 
 virtue the especial object of his consideration. He 
 maiiitainsd that the wise man ought not only to 
 overcome ever}-- evil, but not even to be affected 
 by any. 
 
 Stimiila, the name of Semele, according to the 
 pronunciation of the Romans. 
 
 Stiria (,2T6ipia: 'Zreipievs : Ru. on the bay 
 Porlo Raftl\ a demus in Attica, S. E. of Braaron, 
 belonging to the tribe Pandionis, to which there 
 was a road from Athens called Sreipia/cTj o5tir. 
 It was the birth-place of Theramenes and Thra- 
 sybnjus. 
 
 Stobaeus, Joannes ('Iwavi/Tjy h Srogaios), de- 
 rived his surname apparently from being a native 
 of Stohi in Macedonia. Of his personal history 
 we know nothing. Even the age in which he 
 lived cannot be fixed with accuracy; but he must 
 have been later than Hierncles of Alexandria, 
 whom he quotes. Probably he did not live very 
 long after iiim, as iie quotes no writer of a later 
 date. We are indebted to Stobaeus for a very 
 valuable collection of extnicts from earlier Greek 
 writers. Stobaeus was a man of extensive reading, 
 in the course of which he noted down the most 
 interesting passages. The materials which he had 
 collected in this way he arranged, in the order of 
 subjects, for the use of his son Septimius. This 
 collection of extracts has come down to us, divided 
 into 2 distinct works, of which one bears the title 
 of 'E/cAo7al <^v<JiKoX BiaKsKTiKoi Kal i]diK{ii {Ec- 
 loffoe Physicae^ etc.), and the other the title of 
 ^KvdoKdyiov {Fioi-ileginin or Sei-mones). The Ec- 
 logue consist for the most part of extracts convey- 
 ing the views of earlier poets and prose writers on 
 points of physics, dialectics, and ethics. The Flo- 
 rileyium^ or >^ermo7ies^ is devoted to subjects of a 
 moral, political, and economical kind, and maxims 
 of practical wisdom. Each chapter of the Eclngae 
 and Sermones is headed by a title describing its 
 matter. Tlie extracts quoted in illustration begin 
 usually with passages from the poets, after whom 
 come historians, orators, philosophers and phy- 
 aicians. To Stobaeus we are indebted for a large 
 proportion of the fragments that remain of the lost 
 works of poets. Euripides seems to have been an 
 especial favourite with him. He has quoted above 
 500 passages from him in the Sermones 150 from 
 Sophrcles, and above 200 fmm Menander. In 
 extiactiiig from prose writers, Stobaeus sometimes 
 quotes verbatim, sometimes gives only an epitome 
 of the passjige. The best edition of the Ecluga- 
 is by Heeren, Gotting. 1792 — 1801, 4 vols, ttvo., 
 and of the Florilegium by Gaisford, Oxon. 1{J22, 
 4 vols. five. 
 
 Stobi {'2,r6Soi\ l.roSaio'i), a town of Mace- 
 donia, and the most important place in the district 
 Paeonia, was probably situated on the river Eri- 
 gon, N. of Thessalonica and N. E. of Heraclea. 
 It wiis made a Roman colony and a municipium, 
 and under the later emperors wjis the capitjil of 
 the province Macedonia II. or Saluuiris. It was 
 destroyed at the end of the 4th century by the 
 Goths ; but it is still mentioned by the Byzantine 
 
 STRABO. 
 
 ■writers as a fortress under the name of Stypgum 
 {'SiTvireiov). Its site is unknown ; for the modem 
 huh, which is usually supposed to stand upon the 
 site of Stobi, lies too far to the N.E. 
 
 Stoechades Insulae {/. (THieres)^ a group of 
 5 small islands in the Mediterranean, off the coast 
 of Gallia Narbonensis and E. of Massilia, on which 
 the Massiliotes kept an armed force to protect 
 their trade against pirates. The 3 larger islands 
 were called Prote, Mese or Pomponiana, and 
 Hypaea, the modem Forquerolk, Port Croz^ and 
 Isle de Levant or du Tilan ; the two smaller ones 
 are probably the modern Ratoneixu and Promcgne. 
 
 Stoeni. a Ligurian people in the Maritime Alps, 
 conquered by Q. Marclus Rex B.C. IIU, before he 
 founded the colony of Narbo Martius. 
 
 Strabo, a cognomen in many Roman gentes, 
 signified a person who squinted, and is accordingly 
 classed with Paetns, though the latter word did 
 not indicate such a complete distortion of vision 
 as Strabo. 
 
 Strabo, the geographer, was a native of Amasia 
 in Poutus. The date of his birth is unknown, but 
 may perhaps be placed about B. c. 54. He lived 
 during the whole of the reign of Augustus, and 
 during the early part, at least, of the reign of 
 Tiberius. He is supposed to have died about 
 
 A. D. 24. He received a careful education. He 
 studied grammar under Aristodemus at Nysa in 
 Caria, and philosophy under Xenarchus of Seleucia 
 in Cilicia and Boethus of Sidon. He lived some 
 years at Rome, and also travelled much in various 
 countries. We learn from his own work that he 
 was with his friend Aelius Gallus in Egypt in 
 
 B. c. 24. He wrote an historical work {^IffropiKk 
 'TTroixv7jfj.aTa) in 43 books, which is lost. It began 
 where the history of Polybius ended, and was 
 probably continued to the battle of Actium. He 
 also wrote a work on Geography (FeorypaiJxKa), in 
 1 7 books, which has come down to us entire, with 
 the exception of the 7th, of which we have only a 
 meagre epitome. Strabo's work, according to his 
 own expression, was not intended for the use of all 
 persons. It was designed for all who had liad a 
 good education, imd particularly for those who 
 were engaged in the higher departments of admi- 
 nistration. Consistently with this view, his plan 
 does not comprehend minute description, except 
 when the place or the object is of great interest or 
 importance ; nor is his description limited to the 
 physical characteristics of each country ; it com- 
 prehends the important political events of which 
 each country has been the theatre, a notice of the 
 chief cities and the great men who have illustrated 
 them ; in short, whatever was most characteristic 
 and interesting in every country. His work forms 
 a striking contrast with the geography of Pioleray, 
 and the dry list of names, occasionally relieved by 
 something added to them, in the geographical por- 
 tion of the Natural History of Pliny. It is in 
 short a book intended for reading, and it may be 
 read ; a kind of historical geography. Strabo's 
 language is generally clear, except in those pas- 
 sages where the text has been corrupted ; it is 
 appropriate to the matter, simple and without 
 affecUition. The first 2 books of Strabo are an 
 introduction to his Geography, and contain his 
 views on the form and magnitude of the earth, 
 and other subjects connected with mathematical 
 geography. In the 3rd book he begins his de- 
 scription : he devotes 8 books to Europe ; 6 to 
 
STRABO. 
 Asia ; and the 17th and last to Ki.'ypt and Libya. 
 The beat editions of Simbo are by C;i!-aiihnii, 
 Geneva, 1.t87, and Pari . 16'20. fnl., — repiiiitcd 
 by Alnieloveen, Amsterdam, 1707, iiiid by Fal- 
 coner, Oxford, 1807, 2 vols. foi. — by Sielit-nkees. 
 and Tzschiicke, Lips. IHl !, 7 vols. livo. ; by Koiay, 
 Paris, li(15, seq. 4 vola. 8vo. ; and liy Kiauier, 
 Berlin, 1844. seq., of which only 2 vols, have yet 
 appeared. Thi3 last is by fur the best critical 
 edition. 
 
 Strabo, Pauniua. 1. C, consul b. c. 161 with 
 M. Villfrins Messala. In their consulship the 
 rhetoricians were expelled from Rome. ^2. C, 
 Bonof the preceding, consul 1'2"2. He owed liis 
 election to the consulship chiefly to the influence 
 of C. Gracchus, who was anxious to prevent his 
 enemy Opiniiiis from obtaliiing the office. But in 
 his consulship Fannius supported the aristocracy, 
 and took an active part in opposing the measures 
 of Gracchus. He spoke against the proposal of 
 Gracchus, who wislied to give the Roman fran- 
 chise to the Latins, in a speech which was re- 
 garded as a master-piece in the time of Cicero. 
 •--3. C, son-in-law of Laelius, and frequently con- 
 founded with No. 2. He served in Africa, under 
 Scipio Africanus, in 146, and in Spain under 
 Fabius Maximns in 142. He is introduced by 
 Cicero as one of the speakers both in his work 
 De Bepuiilica, and in his treatise De Amiciiia. 
 He owed his celebrity in literature to his History, 
 which was written in Lat<in, and of which Brutus 
 made an abridgement. 
 
 Strabo. Selus. [Sejanus.] 
 
 Stratocles (STpaTo/cAijs), an Athenian orator, 
 and a friend of the orator Lycurgus. He was a 
 virulentopponentof Di'mosthenes, whom he charged 
 with havnig accepted bribes I'rom Harpalus. Stra- 
 tocles especially distinguished himself by his ex- 
 travagant flattery of Demetrius. 
 
 Straton {"^rpdruy). 1 Son of Arcesilaus, of 
 Lampsacus, was a distinguished peripatetic phi- 
 losopher, and the tutor of Ptolemy Pliiladelphus. 
 He succeeded Theophrastus as head of the school 
 in B. c 28H, and, after presiding over it 18 years, 
 was succeeded by Lycon. He devoted him- 
 self especially to the study of natural science, 
 whence he obtained the appellation of Pkysicus. 
 Cicero, while speaking highly of his talents, blames 
 him for neglecting the most necessary part of phi- 
 losophy, that which has respect to virtue and 
 morals, and giving himself up to the investigation 
 of nature. Straton appears to have held a pan- 
 theistic system, the specific character of which 
 cannot, however, be determined. He seems to 
 have denied the existence of any god out of the 
 material universe, and to have held that every par- 
 ticle of matter has a plastic and seminal power, 
 but without sensation or intelligence; and that 
 life, sensation, and intellect, are but forms, acci- 
 dents, and affections of matter. Some modern 
 writers have regarded Straton as a forerunner of 
 Spinoza, while others see in his system an antici- 
 pation of the hypothesis of monads. ^■2. Of Sardia, 
 an epigrammatic poet, and the compiler of a Gnek 
 Antholog3% devoted to licentious subjects. [Pla- 
 IIUDES.]^3. A physician of Berytus in Phoe- 
 nicia, one of whose medical formulae is quoted by 
 Galen.— 4. Alao a physician, and a pupil of 
 Erasistratus in the 3rd century b- c, who appears 
 to have lived on very intimate terms with his 
 tutor. 
 
 STROPHIUS. 
 
 m 
 
 Stratonice i%TpaTov\KTi). L Wife of Antigo- 
 nus, king of ,A^ia, by whom she became the mother 
 of Demetrius Poliorcetes. — 2. Daughter of De- 
 metrius Polinrcetes iind Philn, the daughter of 
 Antipnter. In 300, at wliich time she could not 
 have been more tli;in 17 years of age, she was 
 married to Seleucus, king of Syria. Notwithstand- 
 ing the disparity of their ages, she lived in har- 
 mony with the idd king for some years, when it 
 was discovered that her step-son Antiochus was 
 deeply enamoured of her, and Seleucus, in order to 
 save the life of his son, which was endangered by 
 the violence of his passion, gave up Stratonice in 
 marriage to the young prince. She hore 3 children 
 to Antiochus: 1. Antiochus II., surnamed Theos ; 
 2. Apama, married to Magas, king of Cyrene; 
 and 3. Stratonice. -^ 3. Daughter of the preceding 
 and of Antiochus I., was married to Demetrius II,, 
 king of Macedonia. She quitted Demetrius in 
 disgust, on account of his second marriage with 
 Phthia, the daughter of Olympias, and retired to 
 Syria. Here she was put to death by her nephew 
 Seleucus II., against wliom bhe had attempted to 
 raise a revolt. ^4. Daughter of Antiochus II., 
 king of Syria, married to Ariarathes III., king of 
 Cappadocia. ^5. One of the favourite wives of 
 Mithridates the Great. 
 
 Stratonlcea (5T/)aToi/(K€m, SrpaToviKTj : Srpa- 
 ToviK€i;y, Stratonicens, Stratonicensia : Eski-Hisar, 
 Ru.), one of the chief inland cities of Caria, built 
 hy Antiochus I. Soter, who fortified it strongly, 
 imd named it in lionour of his wife Stratonice. It 
 stood E. of Mylasa and S. of Alabanda, near the 
 river Mars3'as, a S. tributary of the Maeander. 
 Lender the Romans it was a free city; and it was 
 improved by Hadrian. Near it stood the great 
 temple of Zeus Chrysaoreus, the centre of the na- 
 tional worship of the Carians. There is some 
 reason to believe that Siratonicea stood on the site 
 of a fiirmer city, called Idrias, and, still earlier, 
 Clirvsaniis. 
 
 Stratonis Turris. [Caesarka, No. 3.] 
 
 Strattis (STparru or SxpoTts), an Athenian 
 poet of the Old Comedy, floui'ished from b. c. 412 
 to 380. 
 
 Stratus (STpa-Tos). 1. {"XTpdnos : r\r. Lepenu 
 or Lepajion Ku.), the chief town in Acarnania, 
 10 stadia W. of the Achelous. Its territory was 
 called Stratice. It was a strongly fortified town, 
 and commanded the ford of the Achelous on the 
 high road from Aetolia to Acarnania. Hence it 
 was a place of military importance, and was at an 
 early period taken possession of by the AeioHans. 
 — 2. A town in Achaia, afterwards called Dyme. 
 ^3, A town in the W. of Arcadia in the territory 
 of Thelpusa, perhaps the same as the Homeric 
 Stratia. 
 
 Strongyle. [Naxos.] 
 
 Strongylion (STpo^yuAUr), a distinguished 
 Greek statuary, flourished during the last 30 or 40 
 years nf the Sih century B c. 
 
 Stropliades Insiilae (STpoefaSes), formerly 
 called Plotae (TlKwTal: Strofadia mid Striva/i), 
 2 islands in the Ionian sea, off the coast of Mes- 
 senia and S. of Zacynthns. Tlie Harpies were 
 pursued to these islands by the sons of Boreas ; 
 and it was from the circumstance of the latter 
 returiiiiiy from these islands after the pursuit, that 
 they are supposed to have obtained the name of 
 Stropliades. 
 
 Strophius (Srpiifpjos), king of Phocis, son of 
 ?, A 4 
 
728 STRUCHATE3. 
 
 Crissus and Antiphatia,a.nd husband of Cydragora, 
 Amixiliia or Astyochia, by whom he became the 
 father of Astydamia and Pylades. See Orestes. 
 
 Striicliates (STpouxares), a Mi^dian people, 
 mentiDiieJ only by Herodotus (i. 101). 
 
 Strymon {Struina^ by the Turks Karasu), an 
 important river in Macedonia, fonning the bound- 
 ary between that country and Thrace down to the 
 time of Philip. It rose in Mt. Scomius, flowed 
 first S. and then S R., passed through the lake 
 Prasias, and, immediately S. of Amphipolig, fell 
 into a bay of the Aeguean Sea, called after it 
 Strymoiucus Sinus. The numerous cranes on 
 its banks are frequently mentioned by ancient 
 writers. 
 
 StrymSnU C^Tpuixdfioi), the old name, accord- 
 ing to Herodotus, of the Bithynians, who migrated 
 into Asia Minor from the banks of the river Stry- 
 mon. Bithynia was sometimes called Strymonis. 
 
 Stubera, a town of Macedonia in the district 
 Paeonia, probably on the river Erigon. 
 
 Stymphalides. [Stvmphalus.J 
 
 Stymphalia (5ri/;x<^aAtr}. 1. A lake in Ar- 
 cadia. [Stymphalus.] ^ 2. a district in Mace- 
 donia, between Atlntanla and Eliraiotis. 
 
 StymplialTlS ^Sru^^aAor, 2.TVfi<f>T}\os : 2ru/i- 
 ipd\ios)^ a town in the N. E. of Arcadia, the ter- 
 ritory of which was bounded on the N. by Achaia, 
 on the E. by Sicyonia and Piiliasia, on the S. by 
 the territory of Mantinea, and on the W. by that 
 of Orchomenus and Pheneus. The district was 
 one of military importance, since it commanded 
 one of the chief roads from Arcadia to Argolis. 
 Its name is said to have been derived from Stym- 
 phalus, a son of Elatus and grandson of Areas. 
 The town itself was situated on a mountain of the 
 same name, and on the N. side of the lake Stym- 
 phalis (^Tv/KpiiKis : Zarahz)^ on wln'ch dwelt, 
 according to tradition, the celebrated birds, called 
 Stymphalides {^Tufj.<pa\i5es\. destroyed by Her- 
 cules. [For details, see p. 309, a,] From this 
 lake issued the river Stymphalus, which after a 
 short course disappeared under ground, and was 
 supposed to appear again as the river Erasinus in 
 Argolis. 
 
 Styra (ra ^rvpa : Srupeus : Stura\ a town in 
 Euboea on the S. W. coast, not far from Carystus, 
 and nearly opposite Marathon in Attica. The 
 inhabitants were originally Dryopes, though they 
 subsequently denied their descent from this people. 
 They took an active part in the Persian war, and 
 fought at Artemisium, Salamis and Plataea. They 
 afterwards became subject to the Athenians, and 
 paid a yearly tribute of 1200 drachmae. The 
 town was destroyed in the Lamian war by the 
 Athenian general Phaedrus ; and its territory was 
 annexed to Eretria. 
 
 Styx (Stu^), connected with the verb arvyiw^ 
 to hate or abhor, is the name of the principal river 
 in the nether world, around which it flows 7 times. 
 Styx is described as a daughter of Oceanus and 
 Tethys. As a nymph she dwelt at the entrance 
 of Hades, in a lofty grotto which was supported 
 by silver columns. As a river Styx is described 
 as a branch of Oceanus, flowing from its 10th 
 source ; and the river Cocytus again is a branch 
 of the Styx. By Pallas Styx became the mother 
 of Zelus (zeal), Nice (victory), Bia (strength), and 
 Cratos (power). She was the first of all the im- 
 moriab who took her children to Zeus, to assist 
 him against the Titans ; and, in return for this, 
 
 SUESSA. 
 
 her children were allowed for ever to live with 
 Zens, and Styx herself became thL* divinity by 
 whom the most solemn oaths were sworn. When 
 one of the gods had to take an oath by Styx, Iris 
 fetched a cup full of water from th;* S yx, and the 
 god, while taking the oath, poured out the water. 
 
 Styx (2ru^ : Mavra-?tena)^ a river in the N. 
 of Arcadia, near Noiiacris, descending from a high 
 rock, and falling into the Crathis. The ancients 
 believed that the water of this river was poisonous ; 
 and according to one tale Alexander the Great was 
 poisoned by it. It was said also to break all vessels 
 made of glass, stone, metal and any other material, 
 except of the hoof of a horse or a mule. 
 
 Suada, the Roman personification of persuasion, 
 the Greek Pliho (Il€t0w), also called by the di- 
 minutive Suadela. 
 
 Suagela (2ofa7«Aa), an ancient city of Caria. 
 near Myndus, was the burial-place of the old kings 
 of the country, 
 
 Suasa (Suasanus : S. Lorenzo), a municipium 
 in Umbria on the Sena. 
 
 Suastus. [Cho ^spes, No. 2]. 
 
 Sabertum or Sadertnm (Sndertanus: Sovretki)^ 
 a town in the interior of Etruria. 
 
 Sublaqueum (Sublacensis : Suhiaco), a small 
 town of the Aequi in Latium, on the Anio near 
 its source. Near it stood the celebrated villa of 
 Claudius and Nero (Villa Sublacensis) ; and from 
 it was derived the name of the Via Sublacensis, 
 which was a branch of the Via Tiburtina. 
 
 Sublicius Pons. [Roma, p. 649, b.] 
 
 Subur. 1. A town of the Laeetsmi in Hispania 
 Tarraconensis E. of Tarraco, described by some as 
 a town of the Cnaetani, and by others again as a 
 town of the Ilergetes — 2. {Svbu or Cubu)^ a 
 river in Mauretania Tingitana, flowing past the 
 colon3- Banasa into the Atlantic ocean. 
 
 Subura or Suburra. [Roma, p. 650, a ] 
 
 Subzupara {Zarvi), a town in Thrace on the 
 road from Philippopolis to Hadrianopolis. 
 
 Succabar {2ovxo-So.pp^i Ptol. : Mazuna ?), an 
 inland city of Mauretania Caesariensis. S.E. of the 
 mouth of the Chinalaph. It was a coloniii, and is 
 mentioned by Ammianus Marcellinus under th« 
 name of oppidum Sugar-barit;mum. 
 
 Succi or Succorum Angustiae. [Haemus.] 
 
 Sucro. 1. (JCdcar)^^ river in Hispania T;irraco- 
 nensis, rising in a S. branch of Mt. Idnbeda in 
 the territory of the Celtiberi, and falling S- of 
 Valentia into a gulf of the Mediterranean called 
 after it Sinus Sucronensis {Gulf of Valencia). ^^ 
 2. (CuUera), a town of the Edetani in Hispania 
 Tarraconensis, on the preceding river, and between 
 the Iberus and Carthago Nova. 
 
 Sudertum. ISubertum.] 
 
 Sudeti Montes, a range of mountains in the 
 S. E. of Germany, in which the Albis takes its rise. 
 
 Suel (Fuengirola)^ a town in Hispania Baetica 
 on the road from Malaca to Gades. 
 
 Suesaa Aurunca (Suessanus : Spssa^^ a town 
 of the Aurunci in Latium, E. of the Via Appia, 
 between Minturnae and Teanuin, on the W. slope 
 of Mons Massicus. It was situated in a beautiful 
 district called Vescinus ager^ whence it has been 
 supposed that the town itself was at one time 
 called Vescia. It was made a Roman colony in 
 the Samnite wars, but nnist have been afterwards 
 colonised afresh, since we find it called in inscrip- 
 tions CoL Julia Felix. It was the birthplace of 
 the poet Lucilius. 
 
SUESSA. 
 
 Suessa Pometia (Suessaims), also crvUed P6- 
 metia simply, an ancient and important town of 
 the Volsci in Latium, S. ot" Fonim Appii, con- 
 quered by the Romans under Tarqninius Priscus, 
 and tnken a second time and sacked by the consul 
 Servilius. It wiis one of the 23 cities situated in 
 the plain afterwards covered by the Pomptine 
 Marshes, which are said indeed to have derived 
 their naiue from this town. 
 
 Suessetani.a people in Hispania Tarraconensis, 
 mentioned in connection with the Sedetani, 
 
 Suessiones or Suessones^ a powerful people in 
 Gallia Belyica, who were reckoned llie bravest of 
 all the Belgic Gauls after the Bellovaci, and who 
 could bring 50.000 men into the field in Caesar's 
 time. Their king Divitiacus, shortly before Cae- 
 sar's arrival in the country, was reckoned the 
 most powerful chief in all Gaul, and had extended 
 his sovereignty even over Britain. The Suessiones 
 dwelt in an extensive and fertile country E. of the 
 Bellovaci, S. of the Veromandui, and W. of the 
 Remi. They possessed 12 towns, of which the 
 capital was Noviodunum, subsequently Augusta 
 Suessonum or Suessones (Soissons). 
 
 Sn^ssiila (SneBsulanus : Torre di Sessola), a 
 town in Samnium, on the S, slope of Mt. Tifata, 
 
 Suetonius PaxQinus. [Paulinus.] 
 
 C. Suetonius Tranquillus, the Roman his- 
 torian, was bom about the beginning of the reign 
 of Vespasian. His father was Suetonius Lenis, 
 who was a tribune of the 13th legion in the battle 
 of Bedriacum, in which Otho was defeated. Sue- 
 tonius practised as an advocate at Rome in the 
 reign of Trajan. He lived on intimate terms with 
 the younger Pliny, many of whose letters are ad- 
 dressed to him. At the request of Pliny Trajan 
 granted to Suetonius the jus irium liberorum, for 
 though he was married he had not 3 children, 
 which number was necessary to relieve him from 
 rarious legal disabilities. Suetonius was after- 
 wards appointed private secretary (MagisterEpisto- 
 larum) to Hadrian, but was deprived of this office 
 by the emperor, along with Septicius Clarus, the 
 Praefect of the Praetorians, on the ground of 
 associating with Sabina the emperor's wife, with- 
 out his permission. Suetonius wrote many works, 
 of which the only ones extant are : — Vttae Duo- 
 tiedm Caesarum^OT the 12 Emperors, of whom the 
 iirst is C. Julius Caesar and the last is Domitian ; 
 Liber de illustrious Grammaticis ; Liber dc claris 
 RJietorihus ; Viiae Terentii^ Horaiii^ Persii, Lu- 
 cani, Jucenalisy Plinii Majoris. His chief work 
 is his Lives of the Caesars. Suetonius does not 
 follow the chronological order in hia Lives, but he 
 ^oups together many things of the same kind. 
 His language is very brief and precise, sometimes 
 obscure, without any affectation of ornament. He 
 certainly tells a prodigious number of scandalous 
 anecdotes about the Caesars, but there was plenty 
 to tell about them ; and if he did not choose to 
 suppress those anecdotes which he believed to be 
 true, that is no imputation on his veracity. As a 
 great collection of facts of all kinds, the work on 
 the Caesars is invaluable for the historian of tliis 
 period. His judgment and his honesty have both 
 been attacked by some modern critics ; but we 
 are of 'pinion, that on both grounds a careful study 
 of his work will justify him. The friendship of 
 the younger Pliny is evidence in favour of his in- 
 teeritv. The treatise De illustnias Orammatids 
 and that De clans Riwtoribus aie probably ouly 
 
 SUIDAS. 
 
 729 
 
 parts of a larger work. Thej'' contain a few bio- 
 graphical and other notici^s, that are occasionally 
 useful. It has been conjectured that the few 
 scanty lives of the Latin poets, already enumerated, 
 belonged to a larger work De Poetis. If this 
 conjecture be true, the short notice of the elder 
 Pliny may not be by Suetonius. A work entitled 
 De Viris Illusiribus, which has been attributed 
 both to Suetonius and the younger Plinius, is now 
 imanimously assigned to Aurelius Victor. The 
 best editions of Suetonius are by P. Burmann, 
 Amsterdam, 173G, 2 vols. 4 to., and by Baum- 
 garten-Crusius, Lips. 1016, 3 vols. 8vo. 
 
 Suevi, one of the greatest and most powerful 
 peoples of Germany, or, more properly speaking, 
 the collective name of a great number of German 
 tribes, who were grouped together on account of 
 their migrator}' mode of life, and spoken of in oppo- 
 sition to the more settled tribes, who went under 
 the general name of Ingaevones. The Suevi are 
 described by all the ancient writers as occupying 
 the greater half of all Germany ; but the accounts 
 vary respecting tlie part of the country which they 
 inhabited. Caesar represents them as dwelling 
 E. of the Ubii and Sygambri, and W. of the Che- 
 rusci, and their country as divided into 100 
 cantons. Strabo makes them extend in an E.-ly 
 direction beyond the Albia, and in a S.-ly as far 
 as the sources of the Danube. Tacitus give.T tho 
 name of Suevia to tlie whole of the E. of Germany 
 from the Danube to the Baltic. At a later time 
 the collective name of the Suevi gnidualiy disap- 
 peared; and the different tribes of the Suevic 
 race were each called by their distinctive names. 
 In the 2nd half of the 3rd century, however, we 
 again find a people called Suevi, dwelling between 
 the mouth of the Main and the Black Forest, 
 whose name is still preserved in the modern 
 Suabia; but this people was only a body of bold 
 adventurers from various German tribes, who as- 
 sumed the celebrated name of the Suevi in conse- 
 quence of their not possessing any distinguishing 
 appellation. 
 
 Sufenas, M. Nonius, tribune of the plebs in 
 B.C. b^^ fought on Pompey's side at the battle of 
 Pharsalia. 
 
 Sufes {Sbiba), a city of N. Africa, in the Car- 
 thaginian territory (Byzacena). 
 
 Sufetiila {Sfaitla)^ a city of Byzacena, S. of 
 Siifes, of which its name is a diminutive. It be- 
 came, however, a much more important place, as a 
 chief centre of the roads in the interior of the 
 province of Africa. Its ruins are magnificent. 
 
 Suidas (2uwSas), a Greek lexicographer, of 
 whom nothing is known. No cerUiin conclusions 
 as to the age of the compiler can be derived from 
 passages in the work, since it may have received 
 numerous interpolations and additions. Eustathius, 
 who lived about the end of the 12th century of 
 the Christian era, quotes the Lexicon of Suidas ; 
 and there are passages in the Lexicon referring to 
 Michael Psellus. who lived at the close of the 11th 
 century. The Lexicon of Suid:is is a dictionary of 
 words arranged in alphabetical order, with some 
 few peculiarities of arrangement; but it contains 
 both words which are !ound in dictionaries of lan- 
 guages, and also names of persons and places, with 
 extracts from ancient Greek writers, gr.ininiariana, 
 achiiliaats, ami lexicographers, and some extracts 
 from later Greek writers. The names of persons 
 comprehend both persons who are mentioned in 
 
730. 
 
 SUIONES. 
 
 sacrgd and in profane history, which shows that if 
 the work ia by one hand, it is by a (."hmtian. No 
 well conceived plan hjia been the basis of this work : 
 it is incnniplete aa to the number of articles, and 
 exceedingly irregular and unequal in the exe- 
 cution. Some articles are pretty complete, others 
 contain no information at all. As to the bio- 
 graphical notices it has been conjectured that 
 Suidas or the compiler got them all from one source. 
 which, it is further supposed, may be the Onoma- 
 toloiros or Pinax of Hesychius of Miletus. The 
 Lexicon, though without merit as to its execution, 
 is vjiluable both for the literary history of an- 
 tiquity, for the explanation of words, and for tiie 
 citations from many ancient writers. The best 
 editions of the Lexicon are by Kuster, Cambridge, 
 1705, 3 vols, fo.; by Gaisford, Oxford, 1834, 
 3 vols. fo. ; and by Bernhardy, 4to. Halle, 1834. 
 
 Suiones, the general name of all the German 
 tribes inhabiting Scandinavia. 
 
 Suismontium, a mountain in Liguria. 
 
 Sulci (Sulcitanus: SulcT)^ an ancient town in 
 Sardinia, founded by the Carthaginians, and a 
 place of considerable maritime and commercial 
 importance. It was situated on a promontory on 
 the S.W. comer of the island. 
 
 Sulg'OS {Sor^ue)^ a river in Gaul, descending 
 from the Alps, and flowing into the Rhone near 
 Vindalura. 
 
 Sulla, Cornelius, the name of a patrician family. 
 This family was originally called Rufinus [Rufi- 
 NUs], and the first member of it who obtained the 
 name of Sulla was P. Cornelius Sulla, mentioned 
 below [No. I.] The origin of the name is un- 
 certain. Most modem writers suppose that it is 
 a word of the same signification as Rufus or Ru- 
 finus, and refers simply to the red colour of the 
 hair or the complexion; but it has been conjectured 
 with greater probability that it is a diminutive 
 of Sura, which was a cognomen in several Roman 
 gentes. It would be formed from Sura on the 
 same analogy as puella from pucra^ and ienellus 
 from tener. There is no authority for writing the 
 word Sylla, as is done by many modern writers. 
 On coins and inscriptions we always find Sula or 
 Sulla, never Sylla. 1. P., great grandfather of the 
 dictator Sulla, and grandson of P. Cornelius Rufi- 
 nus, who was twice consul in the Saranite wars. 
 [Rufinus, Cornelius.] His father is not men- 
 tioned. He wafl flainen dialis, and likewise praetor 
 urbanus and peregrinus in B.C. 21 "2, when he pre- 
 sided over the first celebration of the Ludi Apol- 
 linares. ^2. P., son of No. 1, and grandfather of 
 the dictator Sulla, was praetor in 1 116.^3. L., son 
 of No. 2, and father of the dictator Sulla, lived in 
 obacurity, and left his son only a slender fortune. 
 4. L. suniamed Felix, the dictator, was born in 
 138. Although his father left him only a small 
 property, his means were sufficient to secuie for 
 him a good education. He studied the Greek and 
 Roman literature with diligence and success, and 
 appears early to have imbibed that love for litera- 
 ture and art by which be was distinguished 
 throughout life. At the same time he prosecuted 
 pleasure with equal ardour, and his youth, as well 
 as his manhood, was disgmced by the most sensual 
 vices. Still his love of pleasure did not absorb all 
 hia time, nor did it emasculate his mind ; for no 
 Roman during the latter days of the republic, with 
 the except on of Julius Caesar, had a clearer judg- 
 ment, a keener discrimination of character, or a 
 
 SULLA. 
 
 firmer will. Tlie slender property of Sulla was 
 increased by the iibernlity of his step-mother and 
 of a courtezan named Nicnpnlis, both of whom left 
 him all their fortune. His means, though still 
 scanty for a Roman noble, now enabled him to 
 aspire to the honours of the state. He was quaestor 
 in 107, when he served under Marius in Africa. 
 Hitherto he had only been known fnr his prnfiigacy; 
 but he displayed both zeal and ability in the dis- 
 charge of his duties, and soon gained the appro- 
 bation of his commander, and the aflfections of the 
 si)Idiera. It was to Sulla that Jupurtha was deli- 
 vered by Bocchiis ; and the quaestor thus shared 
 with the consul the glory of bringing this war to a 
 conclusion. Sulla himself was so pniud of his 
 share in the success, that he had a seal ring en- 
 graved, representing the surrender of Jugnrtha, 
 which he continued to wear till the diiy of his 
 death. Sulla continued to serve under Marius 
 with great distinction in the campaigns against the 
 Cimbri and Teutones; but Marius becoming jealous 
 of the rising fame of his officer, Sulla left Miirius 
 in 102, and took a command under the colleague 
 uf Marius, Q. Catulus, who entnisted the chief 
 management of the war to Sulla, Sulla now re- 
 turned to Rome, where he appears to have lived 
 quietly for some years. He was praetor in 93, and 
 in the following year (92) was sent as pmpraetor 
 into Cilicia, with special orders from the senate to 
 restore Ariobarzanes to hia kingdom of Cappadocia, 
 from which he had been expelled by Mithridates. 
 Sulla met with complete success. He defeated 
 Gordius, the general of Mithridates, in Cappadocia, 
 and placed Ariobarzanes on the throne. The 
 enmity between Marius and Sulla now assumed a 
 more deadly form. Sulla's ability and increasing 
 reputation had already led the aristocmtical party 
 to look up to him aa one of their leaders; and thus 
 political animosity was added to private hatred. 
 In addition to this Marius and Sulla were both 
 anxious to obtain the command of the impending 
 war against Mithridates ; and the success which 
 attended Sulla's recent operations in the East had 
 increased his popularity, and pointed him out as 
 the most suitable person for this important com- 
 mand. About this time Bocchus erected in the 
 Capitol gilded figures, representing the surrender 
 of Jugurtha to Sulla, at which Marius was so en- 
 raged that he could scarcely be prevented from 
 removing them by force. The exasperation of both 
 parties became so violent that they nearly had 
 recourse to arms against each other ; but the 
 breaking out of the Social War hushed all private 
 quarrels for the time. Marius and Sulla both took 
 an active part in the war against the common foe. 
 But Marius was now advanced in years ; and he 
 had the deep mortification of finding that his 
 achievements were thrown into the shade by the 
 superior energy of his rival Sulla gained some 
 brilliant victories over the enemy, and took Bovi- 
 anum, the chief town of the Samnites. He was 
 electt'd consul fur 88, and received from the senate 
 the command of theMithridatic war. The events 
 which followed, — his expulsion from Rome by 
 Marius, his return to the city at the head of his 
 legions, and the proscription of Marius and his 
 leading adherents — are related in the life of 
 Marius. Sulla remained at Rome till the end of 
 the year, and set out for Greece at the beginning 
 of 87, in order to carry on the war against Mithri- 
 dates. He landed at Dyrrhachium, and forthwith 
 
SULLA. 
 
 marched Rgainst Athens, which had becnme the 
 bead-quiirterd of the Mithridatic cause in Greece. 
 After a htiiif and ohstinar-e siege, Athens was taken 
 by storm on the 1st of March in Kli, jmd wasuiveii 
 up to nipine and plunder. SuUa then imirched 
 against Archelaiis, tiie genem] of Mithridates, 
 whom he defeated in the neighbourhood of Chae- 
 ronea in Boeotia; and in the following year he 
 again gained a decisive victory over the same ge- 
 neral near Orcliomenus. But while Sulla was 
 carrying on the war with such success in Greece, 
 his enemies h.ad obtained the upper hand in Italy. 
 The consul Cinna, who had been driven nut of 
 Rome by his colleague Octavius, soon after Sulla's 
 departure from lUily, had entered it again with 
 Marius at the close of the year. Both Ciuna and 
 Marius were appointed consuls Mfi, and all the regu- 
 lations of Sulla were swept away. Sulla however 
 would not return to Italy till he had brought the 
 war against Mithridates to a conclusion. After 
 driving the generals of Mithridates out of Greece, 
 Sulla crossed the Hellespont, and early in 84 con- 
 cluded a peace with the king of Pontus. He now 
 turned his arms against Fimbria, who had been 
 appointed by the Marian party as his successor in 
 the command. But the troups of Fimbria deserted 
 their general, who put an end to his own life. 
 Sulla now prepared to return to Italy. After 
 leaving his legate, L. Licinius Murena, in command 
 of the province of Asia, with two legions, he set 
 sail with his own army to Athens. While pre- 
 paring for his deadly struggle in Italy, he did not 
 lose his interest in literature. He carried with 
 him from Athens to Rome tlie valuable library of 
 Apellicon of Teos, which contained most of the 
 works of Aristotle andTheoplirastus. [Apei.licon]. 
 He landed at Bm.idusiuni in the spring of 83. 
 The Marian party far outnumbered him in troops, 
 and had every prospect of victory. By bribery 
 and promises however Sulla gained over a large 
 number of the Marian soldiers, and he persuaded 
 many of the Itiilian towns to espouse his cause. 
 In the field his efforts were crowned by equal 
 Bucce-s; and he was ably supported by several of 
 the Roman nobles, who espoused his cause in 
 different parts of Italy. Of these one of the most 
 distinguished was the young Cn. Pompey, who 
 was at the time only 23 years of age. [Pompeius, 
 No. 10.] In the following year (82) the struggle 
 was brought to a close by the decisive battle 
 gained by Sulla over the Samnites and Lucanians 
 under Pontius Telesinus before the Colline gate of 
 Rome. This victory was followed by the surrender 
 of Praeneste and the death of the younger Marius, 
 who had taken refuge in this town. Sulla was 
 now master of Rome and Italy ; and he resolved 
 to take the most ample vengeance upon his ene- 
 mies, and to extirpate the popular party. One of 
 his first acts was to draw up a list of his enemies 
 who were to be put to death, called a Proscriptio. 
 It was the first instance of the kind in Roman 
 historv. All persons in this list were outlaws who 
 might be killed by any one with impimity, even 
 by slaves ; their property was confiscated to the 
 state, and was to be sold by public auction ; their 
 children and grandchildren lost their votes in the 
 comitia, and were excluded from all public offices. 
 Further, all who killed a proscribed person, received 
 two talents as a reward, and whoever sheltered 
 auch a person was punished with death. Terror 
 now reigned, not only at Rome, but throughout 
 
 SULLA. 
 
 731 
 
 Italy. Fresh lists of the proscribed constantly ap- 
 peared. No one was safe; for Sulla gratifiid hie 
 friends by placing in the fatal !it>ts their personal 
 enemies, or pcTsmis whose property was coveted by 
 his ailherents. The confiscated property, it is true, 
 belonged to the state, and had to be sold by public 
 auction, hut the friends and dependents of Sulla 
 purchased it at a nominal price, as no one dared to 
 bid against them. The number of persons who 
 perished by the proscriptions is stated differently, 
 but it appears to have amounted to many thousands. 
 At the commencement of these horrors Sulla had 
 been appointed dictator for as long a time as he 
 judged to be necessary. This was towards the 
 close of 81. Sulla's chief object in being invested 
 with the dictatorship was to carry into execution 
 in a legal manner the great reforms which he me- 
 ditated in the constitution and tiie administration 
 of justice. He had no intention of abolishing the 
 republic, and consequently he caused consuls to be 
 elected for the following year, and was elected to 
 the office himself in 80, while he continued to hold 
 the dictatorship. The general object of Sulla's 
 reforms was to restore, as far as possible, the 
 ancient Roman constitution, and to give back to 
 the senate and the aristocracy the power which 
 they had lost. Thus he deprived the tribunes of 
 the plebs of all real power, and abolished altogether 
 the legislative and judicial functions of tiie comitia 
 tributa. At the beginning of 81, he celebrated a 
 splendid triumph on account of his victory over 
 Mithridates. In a speech which he delivered to 
 the people at the close of the ceremony, he claimed 
 for himself the surname o( Felia:, as he attributed 
 his success in life to the favour of the gods. In 
 order to strengthen his power, Sulla established 
 military colonies throughout Italy. The inhabitants 
 of the Italian towns, which had fought against 
 Sulla, were deprived of the full Roman franchise, 
 and were only allowed to retain the commercium : 
 their land was confiscated and given to the soldiers 
 who had fought under him. 23 legions, or, ac- 
 cording to another statement, 47 legions received 
 grants of land in various parts of Italy. A great 
 number of these colonies was settled in Etruria, 
 the population of which was thus almost entirely 
 changed. Tliese colonies had the strongest interest 
 in upholding the institutions of Sulla, since any 
 attempt to invalidate the latter would have endan- 
 gered their newly-acquired possessions. Sulla like- 
 wise created at Rome a kind of body-guard for his 
 protection by giving the citizenship to a great 
 number of slaves, who had belonged to persona 
 proscribed by him. The slaves thus rewarded are 
 said to have been as many as 10,000. and were 
 called Cornelii after him as their patron. After 
 holding the dictatorship till the beginning of 79, 
 Sulla resigned this office, to the surprise of all 
 classes. He retired to his estate at Puteoli. and 
 there surrounded by the beauties of nature and art 
 he passed the remainder of his life in thoae literary 
 and sensual enjoyments in which he had always 
 taken so much pleasure. His dissolute mode of 
 life hastened his death. The immediate cause of 
 his death was the rupture of a blood-vessel, but 
 some time before he had been suffering from the 
 disgusting disease, which is known in modern times 
 by the name of Morbus Pediculosus or PhthiriasiB. 
 He died in 78 in the 60th year of his age. He 
 was honoured with a public funeral, and a monu-' 
 ment was erected to him in the Campus Martins 
 
732 
 
 SULLA. 
 
 tlie inscription nn wliich had bet^n cnmposerl by 
 himself. It stated that nonft of his friends ever 
 did liim a kindness, and none of his t-neniies n 
 wrnniT. without being- fully repaid. — Snila was 
 married 5 times: — L To Ilia or .Iuli:i, who bore 
 him a dauphter, married to Q. Pompeius Ru'us. 
 the son of Sulhi*s colleague in the consulship in 88. 
 2. To Alalia. 3. To Coelia. 4. To Caecilia Me- 
 tella, who bore him a son. who died before Sulla, 
 and likewise twins, a son and a daughter. 5. 
 Valeria, who bore him a daughter after his death. 
 Sulla wrote a history of his own life and times, 
 called Memoirs {'Tnofiv-qfiaTa). It was dedicated 
 to L. LucuUus, and extended to 2"2 books, the last 
 of which was finished by Sulla a few days before 
 liis death. He also wrote Fabulae Atellanae, and 
 the Greek Anthologj' contains a short epigram 
 ■which is asrribed to him. — 5. Faustus, son of 
 the dictator by his fourth wife Caecilia Metella, 
 and a twin brother of Fausta, was bom not long 
 before 88, the year in which his father obtained 
 hia first consulship. He and his sister received 
 the names of Faustus and Fausta respectively on 
 account of the good fortune of their father. At 
 the death of his father in 78, Faustus and his sister 
 were left under the guardianship of L. Luculius. 
 Faustus accompanied Pompey into Asia, and was 
 the first who mounted the walls of the temple of 
 Jerusalem in 63. In 60 he exhibited the gladia- 
 torial games which his father in his last will had 
 enjoined upon him. In 54 he wjia quaestor. In 
 52 he received from the senate the commission to 
 rebuild the Curia Hostilia, which had been burnt 
 down in the tumults following the murder of 
 Clodius, and which was henceforward to be called 
 the Curia Cornelia, in honour of Faustus and his 
 father. He married Pompey's daughter, and sided 
 with his father-in-law in the civil war. He was 
 present at the battle of Pharsalia, and subsequently 
 joined the leaders of his party in Africa. After 
 the battle ofThapsus in 46, he attempted to escape 
 into Mauretania, but was taken prisoner by P. 
 Sittius, and carried to Caesar. Upon hia arrival 
 in Caesar's camp he was murdered by the soldiers 
 in. a tumult. Faustus seems only to have resembled 
 his father in his extravagance. We know from 
 Cicero that he was overwhelmed with debt at the 
 breaking out of the civil war. ^6. P., nephew of 
 the dictator, was elected consul along with P. Au- 
 tronius Paetus for the year 65, but neither he nor 
 hia colleague entered upon the office, as they were 
 accused of bribery by L. Torquatus the younger, 
 and were condemned. It was currently believed 
 that Sulla was priry to both of Catiline*s con- 
 spiracies, and he was accordingly accused of this 
 crime by his former accuser, L. Torquatus, and by 
 C. Cornelius. He was defended by Hortensius 
 and Cicero, and the speech of the latter on his be- 
 half is still extant. He was acquitted ; but, inde- 
 pendent of the testimony of Sallust {Cat 17), his 
 guilt may almost be inferred from the embarrass- 
 ment of his advocate. In the civil war Sulla es- 
 poused Caesar's cause. He served under him as 
 legate in Greece, and commanded along with Caesar 
 himself the right wing at the battle of Pharsalia 
 (48). He died in 45. — 7. Serv., brother of No. 6. 
 took part in both of Catiline's conspiracies. Hia 
 guilt was 80 evident, that no one was willing to 
 defend him ; but we do not read tliat he was put 
 to death along with the other conspirators. 
 
 Salmo (Sulmocensis). 1. {Sulmona), a town 
 
 SULPICIUS. 
 
 of the Peligni in the country of the Sabines, 7 
 miles S. of Corfinium on the road to Capua, and 
 situated on 2 small mountain streams, the water of 
 which was exceedingly cold : hence we find the 
 town called by the poets ffelidus Sulmo. It is cele- 
 brated as the birthplace of Ovid. It was destroyed 
 by Sulla, but was afterwards restored, and is men- 
 tioned as a Roman colon}-. — 2. {Sermimeta)^ an 
 ancient town of the Volsci in Latluin on the 
 Ufens. which had disappeared in Pliny's time. 
 
 Solpicia, a Roman poetess who flourished 
 towards the close of the let century, celebrated for 
 sundry amatory eflFusions, addressed to her husband 
 Caleniia. Tiieir general character may be gathered 
 from the expressiims of Martial, Ausonius, and 
 Sidonius Apollinaris, by all of whom they are 
 noticed. There is extant a satirical poem, in 70 
 hexameters, on the edict of Domitian, by which 
 philosophers were banished from Rome and from 
 Italy, which is ascribed to Sulpicia by many modem 
 critics. It is generally appended to tho editions of 
 Juvenal and Persius. 
 
 SuIpicia Gens, was one of the most ancient 
 Roman gentea, and produced a succession of dis- 
 tinguished men, from the foundation of the republic 
 to the imperial period. The chief families of the 
 Sulpicii during the republican period bote the 
 names of: — Camehinus, Galba, Gallws, Ru- 
 Fus (given below), Saverrio, 
 
 SulpiciOB Apollinaris, a contemporary of A. 
 Geilius. was a learned grararaariau. There are 2 
 poems in the Latin Anthology, purporting to bo 
 written by Sulpicius of Carthage, whom some 
 identify with the above-named Sulpicius Apolli- 
 naris. One of these poems consists of 72 lines, 
 giving the argument of the 12 books of Virgil's 
 Aeneid, 6 lines being devoted to each book. 
 
 Sulpicius Eufus. 1. P., one of the most dis^ 
 tingnished orators of his time, was bora b. c. 
 124. He commenced public life as a supporter 
 of the ariatocratical party, and acquired great in- 
 fluence in the state by his splendid talents, while 
 he was still young. In 93 he was quaestor, and 
 in 89 he served as legate of the consul Cn. Pom- 
 peius Strabo in the Marsic war. In 88, he was 
 elected to the tribunate ; but he deserted the 
 aristocratical party, and joined Marius. The 
 causes of this sudden change are not expressly 
 stated ; but we are told that he was overwhelmed 
 with debt ; and there can be little doubt that he 
 was bought by Marius. Sulpicius brought forward 
 a law in favour of Marius and his party, of which 
 an account is given under Marius. When Sulla 
 marched upon Rome at the head of his army, 
 Miiriua and Sulpicius took to flight. Marius suc- 
 ceeded in making his escape to Africa, but Sul- 
 picius was discovered in a villa, and put to death. 
 — 2. P., probably son or grandson of the last, was 
 one of Caesar's legates in Gaul and in the civil 
 war. He was praetor in 48. Cicero addrease3 
 him in 45 as imperator. It appears that he was 
 at that time in lllyricmn, along with Vatinias. ^ 
 3. Serv., with the surname Lemoma,indicating the 
 tribe to which he belonged, was a coutemporarj' 
 and friend of Cicero, and of about the same age. 
 He first devoted himself to oratory, and he studied 
 this art with Cicero in his youth. He afterwards 
 studied law ; and he became one of the best jurists 
 as well as most eloquent orators of hiy age. He 
 was quaestor of the district of Ostia, in 74 ; curule 
 aedile 69; praetor Qo \ and consul 51 with M. 
 
3UMMANUS. 
 
 Claiuliiis Marcellus, He appears in Itave es|jniif,e(l 
 Caesiir'a side in the civil Wiir, and was appuiiited 
 by Cnesfir proconsul of Achaiii (46 or 45). He 
 died in 43 in tlie camp of M. Antony, having been 
 sent by tite senate on a mission to Antony, who 
 was besie;(ing Dec. Brutus in Miuina. Sulpicius 
 wrote a great number of legal works. He is ofti^n 
 cited by the jurists whose writings are excerpted 
 in tlie Digest; but there is no excerpt directly 
 from him in the Digest. He had numerous pupils, 
 the moat distinguished of whom were A. OHlius 
 and Alfenus Varus. There are extant in the col- 
 lection of Cicero's Epistles {ad Fam. iv, ) two 
 letters from Suipicius to Cicero, one of which is 
 the well-known letter of consolation on the death 
 of Tullia, the daughter of the orator. The same 
 book contains several letters from Cicero to Sul- 
 picius. He is also said to have written some erotic 
 poetry. — Sulpicius left a son Servius, who is fre- 
 quently mentioned in Caesar's correspondence. 
 
 Summaiius, a derivative form from summus^ the 
 highest, an ancient Roman or Etruscan divinity, 
 who was equal or even of higher rank than Jupiter. 
 In fact he may be regarded as the Jupiter of the 
 night; for as Jupiter was the god of heaven in the 
 bright d.iy, so Summanus was the god of the noc- 
 turnal heaven, and hurled his thunderbolts during 
 the right. Summanus had a temple at Rome near 
 the Circus Maximus, and there was a representa- 
 tion of him in the pediment of the Capitoline 
 temple. 
 
 Sunium (^ovviov : 'Xowifvs : C. Colonni\ a 
 celebrated promontory forming the S. extremity of 
 Attica, with a town of the same name upon it. 
 Here was a splendid temple of Atliena, elevated 
 300 feet above the sea, the columns of which are 
 still extant, and have given the modern name to 
 the promontory. It was fortified by tlie Athe- 
 nians in the Peloponnesian war, and remains of the 
 ancient walls, with the temple of Athena, are still 
 extan t. 
 
 Sunonensis Lacus {L. Sahanjah\ a lake in 
 Bithynia, between the Ascania Palus and the river 
 Sangarius, near Nicomedia. 
 Superbus, Tarquinius. [Tarquinius.] 
 Sura, Lentulus. [Lentulus, No. 9.] 
 Siira, L. Licinius, an intimate friend of Trajan, 
 and 3 times consul in a.d. 98, 102 and 107. On 
 the deatli of Sura, Trajan honoured him with a 
 public funeral, and erected batJis to perpetuate his 
 memory. Two of Pliny's letters are addressed to 
 bim. 
 
 Sixra {^oOpa : Surie)^ a town of Syria, in the 
 district Clialybonitis, on the Euphrates, a little W. 
 of Thapsacus, 
 
 Surani nr Suami (^ovpaj/ol\ a people of Sar- 
 jnatia Asiatica, near tlie Portae Caucasiae and the 
 river Rha. TJieir country contained many gold 
 mines. 
 
 Suxenas, the general of the Parthians, who de- 
 feated Crassus in b. c. 54. [CRASSuy.] 
 
 Surius {^oupios)^ a tributary of the Phasis in 
 Colchis, the \vater of which had tlie power of 
 forming petrifactions. At its confluence with the 
 Phasis stood a town named Surium CXovpwv). 
 The pliiiu through which it flows is still called 
 Suram, 
 
 Surrentini Colles. [SunRENTtJM,] 
 SuiTentum (yiirrt-ntinus : SoiTe/do),nn ancient 
 town of Caujpaiiiu opposite Caprcao, and t-itunteil 
 on the promontory {From. Minervae) separating 
 
 SUSIANA. 733 
 
 the Sinus Faestanus from the Sinus Puteolanus. 
 It was suhscqu'-ntly a Roman colony; and on the 
 hills {Hurrewini Colics) in its neighbourhood was 
 grown one of the best wines in Italy, which was 
 strongly n-connuended to convalescent.-, on accouiit 
 of its ihinness :nid wholesonieness. 
 
 SUaa, gt'H. -orum (to Souo-o : 0. T. Shualian : 
 SouVios. Susiaiius : Shns^ Rw.)» the winter resi- 
 dence of the Persian kings, stood in the district 
 Cissia of the province Susiana, on the E. bank of 
 the river Choaspes. Its name in old Persian s-g- 
 nifies At/y, and that flower is said to abound in 
 the plain in which the city stood. It was of a 
 quadrangular form, 120 (or, according to others, 
 200) stadia in circuit, and without fortifications ; 
 but it had a strongly fortified citadel, contaiiiing 
 tlie palace and treasury of the Persian kings. 
 The Greek name of this citadel, Memnnnice or 
 Memnoiiium, is perhaps a corruption of the 
 Aramaic Maaninorj^ a fortress; and this easy 
 confusion of terms gave rise to the fablo that 
 the city was founded by Tithonus, the father of 
 Memnon. An historical tradition ascribes its 
 eruction to Darius the son of H3-8taspes, but it 
 existed already in the time of Daniel. (Dan. 
 viii. 2.) (There is, however, a difficulty as to 
 the identification of the Sliushan of Daniel with 
 the Susa of the Greeks, and as to the true position 
 of the river Uhii or Eulaeus, which cannot be 
 discussed within the limits of this article.) The 
 climate of Susa was very hot, and hence the choice 
 of it for the winter palace. It was here that 
 Alexander and liis ;7eneral3 celebrated their 
 nuptials with the Persian princesses, B. c, 325. 
 The site of Susa is now marked by extensive 
 mounds, on which are found fragments of bricks 
 and broken pottery, with cuneiform inscriptions. 
 
 Susarion {luva-api^v)^ to whom the origin of 
 the Attic Comedy is ascribed, was a native of 
 Megnra, whence he removed into Attica, to tlie 
 village of Icaria, a place celebrated as a seat of tho 
 worship of Dionysus. This account agrees with 
 the claim which the Megarians asserted to tha 
 invention of comedy, and which was generjilly 
 admitted. Before the time of Susarion there was, 
 no doubt, practised, at Icaria and the other Attic 
 villages, that extempore jesting and buffoonery 
 which formed a nwirked feature of the festivals of 
 Dionysus ; but Susarion was the first who so regu- 
 lated this species of amusement, as to lay tlio 
 foundation of Comedy, properly sn called. The 
 Megaric comedy appears to have flourished, in its 
 full development, about B C. 600 and onwards; 
 and it was introduced by Susarion into Attic;\ 
 between 580 — 564. 
 
 Susiana, -e, or Susis (ij 'S.ovcriavT)^ if "Zovah: 
 nearly corre.'^ponding to Khuzistan)^ one of the 
 chief provinces of the ancient Persian empire, lay 
 between Babylonia and Persis, and between IVI, 
 Parachoatras and the head of the Persian Gnlf. 
 In ihis last direction, its coast extended fnmi the 
 junction of the Euphrates with the Tigris, to about 
 the mouth of the river Oroatis (71(6). It wjls 
 divided from Persis nn the S. E. and E. by a moun- 
 tainous tract, inhidiited by independent tribes, 
 who made even the klilgs o. Persia pay them for 
 a safe passage. The chief pass through theBO 
 mountains was called Susides or Persides Ponao 
 {'Z-jvaiZis TTuAai, ai irvXai a'l Ile^o-iSer, 2o»(Tia5cs 
 -ireTpai) : its position is uncertain ; perhapb it was 
 the pass of Kdahi Sefid, in the upper valley of the 
 
734 
 
 xSTTTRIUM. 
 
 Tab. On the N. it waa separated from Great 
 Mf liia by M. Charbanus, an E. branch of M. Za- 
 gTOB ; which contained the sources of the chief 
 rivers of Susiann, the Choaspes, the Copkatbs, 
 and the Eulaeus (the Pasitiuris cjime frnm the 
 mount^iins on the E.). On the W. it was divided 
 from Assyria by an imaginary line drawn S. from 
 near the Median pass in M. Zaiirns to the Tigris ; 
 and from Babylonia by the Tigris itself. The country 
 was moinitJiinous and cool m the N., and low and 
 very hot in the S.; and the coast along the Persian 
 Gulf was marshy. The mountains were inhabited 
 by various wild and independent tribes ; and the 
 plains by a quiet agricultural people, of the Semitic 
 race, called Susii or Susiani. 
 
 Sutrium {Sutrlnus: Sutri\ an ancient town of 
 Etruria on the E. side of the Saltus Ciniinius, and 
 on the mad from Vulsinii to Rome. It was taken 
 by the Romans at an early period ; and in b. c. 
 383, or 7 years after the capture of Rome by the 
 Gauls, it was m;ide a Roman colony. It was 
 celebrated for its fidelity to Rome, and was in 
 consequence besieged several times by the Etrus- 
 cans. On one occasion it was ol)iiged to surrender 
 to the Etruscans, but was retaken by Caniillus in 
 the same day, whence arose the proverb ire Su- 
 irium. There are still remains of the walls and 
 tombs of the ancient town. 
 
 Syag-er (2vaypo^)^ one of the alleged ante- 
 Homeric poets, is said to have flourished after Or- 
 pheus and Musaeus, and to have been the first 
 who sang the Trojan War. 
 
 Syagrus CSoaypo^ fi/fpa), the greatest pro- 
 montory of Arabia, is described differently by 
 different ancient writers, but is most probably to 
 be identified with the E.-mnst headland of the 
 whole peninsula, Ras~el-Had. 
 
 Sybaria (2u§apis). 1. {Coscile or Sihari), a 
 river in Lucania, flowing by the city of the same 
 name, and falling into the Cnithis. It derived its 
 name from the fountain Sybaris, near Biira, in 
 Achaia. ^2, (Su^apiTT??, Sybarita), a celebrated 
 Oreek town in Lucania, was sitnated between the 
 rivers Sybaris and Cnithis at a short distance from 
 the Tarentine gulf, and near the confines of Brut- 
 tium. It was founded B. c. 7-0 by Achaeans and 
 Troezenians, and soon attained an extraordinary 
 degree of prosperity and wealth. It carried on 
 an extensive commerce with Asia Minor and other 
 countries on the Mediterninean. and its inhabitants 
 became sn notorious for tlieir love of luxury and 
 ple:isurp, that their name was employed to indicate 
 any voluptuary. At the time of their highest 
 prosperity their city was 50 stidia, or upwards of 
 6 miles in circumference, and they exercised do- 
 minion over 25 towns, so that we are told they 
 ■were able to bring into the field 300,000 men, a 
 number however which appears incredible. But 
 their prosperity was of short duration. The 
 Achaeans having expelled the Troezenian part of 
 the population, the latter took refuge :it the neigh- 
 bouring city of Croton, the inhabitants of which 
 espoused their cause. In the war which ensued 
 between the 2 states, the Sybarites were com- 
 pletely conquered by theCmtoniates, who fulliiwed 
 Up their victory by the capture of Syliari.% which 
 they destroyed by turning the waters of the ri\'er 
 Cnithis against the town, u, c 510. The greater 
 number of the surviving Sybarites tonk refuge in 
 other Greek cities in Italy; but a few remained 
 near their ancient town, and tlieir descendauts 
 
 SYLVIUS. 
 
 formed part of the population of Thurii. which was 
 founded in 443 near Sybaris. [Thukil] 
 
 Sybota (to ^iiSura : 'S.v€6tlo% ; iiyvota\ a 
 number of small islands oif the coast of Epinis, 
 and opposite the pmniontory Leucinme in Corcyra, 
 with a harltour of the same name on the main 
 land. It was here that a naval battle was fought 
 between the Corcynieans and Corinthians, b. C. 
 432, just before the commencement of the Pelo- 
 ponnesian war. 
 
 Sychaeus or Sichaens, also called Acerbas. 
 
 [ACE-RB.AS.] 
 
 Sychar, Sychem. fNEAPOLis, No. 5.] 
 
 Syene {^oii>'T] ; ^vt]v'm]s and 2uT?i''^TT7y, Sy- 
 enites : Assouan^ Ru.), a city of Upper Egypt, 
 on the E. bank of the Nile, just below the First 
 Catanct. It has been in all ages the S. frontier 
 city of Kgypt towiirds Aethiopia, and under the 
 Romans it was kept by a garrison of 3 cohorts. 
 From its neighbourhood was obtained the fine red 
 granite called S^'enites lapis. It was also an 
 important point in the astronomy and geography 
 of the ancients, as it lay just under the tropic of 
 Cancer, and was therefure chosen as the place 
 tlirough which they drew their chief parallel of 
 latitude. Of course the sun was vertical to Syene 
 at the time of the summer solstice, and a well was 
 shown in wliich the refiection of the sun was then 
 seen at noon ; or, as the rhetorician Aristidea 
 expresses it, the disc of the sun covered the well 
 as a vessel is coveied by its lid. 
 
 Syennesis (ISweVi/ejisl, a common name of the 
 kings of Cilicia. Of these the most important 
 are: — 1. A king of Cilicia, who joined with 
 Labynetns (Nebuchadnezzar) in mediating be- 
 tween Cyaxares and Alyattes, the kings respect- 
 ively of Media and Lydiii, probably in b. c. 610. 
 — 2. Contemporary with Darius Hysuvspis, to 
 whom he was tributary. His daughter was married 
 to Pixodarus. — 3. Contemporary with Arta- 
 xerxes II. (Miiemon), ruled over Cilicia, when 
 the younger Cyrus marched through his country 
 in his expedition against his brother Artaxerxea. 
 
 Sygambri, Sugambri, Sigambri, Sycambri, 
 or Sicambri, one of the must powerful peoples 
 of Geruany at an early lime, belonged to the 
 Istaevones, and dwelt originally N. of the Ubii 
 on tlie Rhine, from whence they spread towards 
 the N. as far as the Lippe. The Sygambri are 
 mentioned by Caesar, who invaded their territory. 
 They were conqiiered by Tiberius in the reign of 
 Augustus, and a large number of them were trans- 
 planted to Gaul, where they received settlements 
 between the Maas and the Rhine as Roman sub- 
 jects. The portion of the Sygambri who remained 
 in Germany withdrew finther S.. probably to the 
 mountainous country in the neighbourhood of the 
 Taiinus, Shortly afterwards they disappear from 
 history, and are not mentioned again till the time of 
 Ptolemy, who places them much further N close to 
 the Bructeri and the Langobardi, somewhere be- 
 tween the Veclit and the Yasel. At a still later 
 period we find them forming an important part of 
 the confederacy known under the nauie of Franci. 
 
 Sylla. [Sulla.] 
 
 Syllium {'2.vKK<ov\ prob. Ru. near BolkassJtUy 
 N. of Lcijeluhkui)^ a strongly fortified town of 
 Piimphylia, on a mountain, 40 stadia (4 geog. 
 niilua) from the const, between Side and Aspendus. 
 
 Sylvanus. ISilvanoh.] 
 
 Sylvius. [SiLvius.J 
 
SYMAETHUS. 
 
 Symaethus {2vjj.at6os : Giaretla), a river on 
 the E. coast of Sicily and at the font of Mt. Aetnn, 
 forming the boundary between Leontini and Ca- 
 tana, oti which stood the town of Centuripae. 
 
 Syme (2uju^: Si'^uaioj, "Svfxevs'. Syni), a small 
 island off the S. W. coast of Caria, lay in the mouth 
 of the Sinus Dnndis to the W, of the promontory 
 of Cjnosseni.T,. It was one of the early Dorian 
 states, that existed in the S.W. of Asia Minor be- 
 fore the time of Homer. Its connection both with 
 Cnidus and with Rhodes, between which it lay, is 
 indicated by the tradition, that it was peopled by 
 a colony from Cnidus led by Cthonius, the son of 
 Poseidon and of Syme, the daughter of lalysus. 
 Some time after the Trojan war, the Carians are 
 said to have obtained possession of the island, but 
 to liave deserted it again inconsequence of a severe 
 drought. Its final settlement by the Dorians is 
 ascribed to the time of their great migration. The 
 island was reckoned at 35 miles in circuit. It bad 
 8 harbours and a town, which was also called 
 Syme. 
 
 Symmachus, Q. AiirenTis,a distinguished scho- 
 lar,statesnian, and orator in the latter half of the 4th 
 century of the Christian aera. By his example and 
 authority, he inspired fora time new life and vigour 
 into the literature of his country. Hewas educated 
 in Gaul ; and having discharged the functions of 
 quaestor and praetor, he was afterwards appointed 
 (a. d. 365) Corrector of Lucania and the Bruttii ; 
 and in 373 he was proconsul of Africa. His zeal 
 for the ancient religion of Rome checked for a 
 while the prosperous current of his fortunes, and 
 involved him in danger and disgrace. Having 
 been chosen by the senate to remonstrate with 
 Gratian on the removal of the altiir of victory 
 (38*2) from their council hall, and on the curtail- 
 ment of the sums annually allowed for the main- 
 tenance of the Vestal Virgins, and for the public 
 celebration of sncred rites, he was ordered by the 
 indignant emperor to quit his presence, and to 
 withdraw himself to a distance of 100 miles from 
 ■Rome. Nothing daunted by this repulse, when 
 appointed pniefect of the city (384) after the death 
 of his persecutor, he addressed an elaborate epistle 
 to ValentiniiuHis, again urging the restoration of 
 the pagan deities to their former honuurs. This 
 appliKition wiis resisted by St. Ambrose, and 
 was again unsuccessful. Symmachus afterwards 
 espoused the cause of the usurper Maximus (3iJ7) ; 
 bat he was pardoned by Theodosius and raised to 
 the consulship in 391. His personal character 
 seems to have been unimpeachable, as he per- 
 formed the duties of the high offices which he filled 
 in succession with a degree of mildness, firmness, 
 and intpfrrity, seldom found among statesmen in 
 that corrupt age. The extant works of Symma- 
 chus are: — ], Epislolarum Libri X.^ published 
 after his denth by his son. The last book con- 
 tahis his ofticial correspondence, and is chieily 
 ■composed of' the letters presented by him when 
 praefect of the city to the emperors under whom 
 he served. The rem;iining books comprise a mul- 
 titude of epistles, addressed to a wide circle of 
 relations, friends, and acquaintances. 2. Novem 
 Oratiojiuin Fraymenta^ published for the first time 
 by Mill from a palimpsest in the Anibrosian li- 
 brarv, Mediolan. Iitl5. The best editions of the 
 epistles are by Juretus, Paris, lb'04, and by Sci- 
 oppius, Mojinnt. IGOIS. 
 
 Synesius {JS,vv4aios)^ one of the most elegant 
 
 SYRACUSAE. 735 
 
 of the ancient Christian writers, was a native of 
 CjTene, and devoted himself to the study of Greek 
 literature, first in his own city, and afterwards at 
 Alexandria, where he heard Hypatia, He becitme 
 celebrated for his skill in eloquence and poetry, as 
 well as in philosophy, in which he was a follower 
 of Plato. About A. D. 397, he was sent by his 
 fellow-citizens of Cyrene on an embassy to Con- 
 stantinople, to present the emperor Arcadius with 
 a crown of gold ; on which occasion he delivered 
 an oration on the government of a kingdom (irtpl 
 ^atriAefas), which is still extant. Soon after this 
 he embraced Christianity, and in 410 was or- 
 dained bishop of Ptolema'is, the chief city of the 
 Libyan Pentapolis. He presided over his diocese 
 with energy and success for about 20 years, and 
 died about 430. His writings have been objects 
 of admiration both to ancient and modern scholars, 
 and have obtained for him the surname of Phi- 
 lo-^opher. The best edition of his works is by 
 More!, Paris, 1612: much improved and enlarged, 
 Paris, 16;^3,; reprinted, 1640. 
 
 Synnada, also Synnas {to. 1,vvvaZa: 'Zwva.Zevs^ 
 Syniiadensis: prob, Afiour-Kara-Hisur^ Ru,), a 
 city in the N. of Phrygia Salutaris, at first incon- 
 siderable, but afterwards a place of much import- 
 ance, and, from the time of Constantine, the capital 
 of Phrygia Salutaris. It stood in a fruitful plain, 
 planted with olives, near a mountain from which 
 was quarried the very celebrated Synnadic marble, 
 which was of a beautiful white, with red veins 
 and spots {"XvyvahiKhs \i6os, Si'nnadicus lapis, 
 called also Docimiticus, from a still nearer place, 
 Docimia), 
 
 Syphax (2y^a$), king of the Massaesy liana, 
 the westernmost tribe of the Numidians. His 
 history is related in the life of his contemporary 
 and rival, Ma.sinissa. Syphax was taken pri- 
 soner by Masinissa, B. c. 203, and was sent by 
 Scipin, under the charge of Laelius, to Rome. 
 Polybius states that he was one of the captives 
 who adorned the triumph of Scipio, and that he 
 died in confinement shortly after. Livy, on the 
 contrary, asserts that he was saved from that 
 ignominy by a timely death at Tibur, whither he 
 had been transferred from Alba. 
 Syraco. [Svracusae.J 
 
 Syraciisae {^vpaKouaai or SupctK-oo'trai, Ion, 
 '^.up'fiKouaaif also SupaK-oucrai, SupaKOUO"?; ; 2upa- 
 KoucTiOS, 2upa'f(io-ios, Svracusanus ; Sinicusa in 
 Italian, Syracnsp. in English), the wealthiest and 
 most pnpuluus town in Sicilj^ was situated on the 
 S. part of the R. coast, 400 stadia N. of the pro- 
 montory Plemmyriiim, and 10 stadia N. E. of the 
 mouth of the river Anapus, near the lake or marsh 
 called Syraco (Supa^cwJ, from which it derived its 
 name. It was founded B. c. 734, one year after 
 the foundation of Naxos, by a'colony of Corinthians 
 and other Dorians, led by Archias the Corinthian. 
 The town was orij.nnalIy confined to the island Or^ 
 tyj^ria lying immediately oif the coast ; but it after- 
 wards spread over the neighbouring mainland, and 
 at the time of its greatest extension under the 
 elder Dinnysius it consisted of 5 distinct towns, 
 each surrounded by separate walls. Some writers 
 indeed describe Syracuse as consisting of 4 towns, 
 but this simfily arises from the fact that Epipolae 
 was frequently not reckoned a portion of the city. 
 These 5 towns were, 1. Ortygia ('OpTuyia), fre- 
 quently called simply the Island (Naff.ijor Ntjo-oi), 
 an island of an oblung shape, about 2 miles in cir- 
 
736 
 
 SYRACUSAE. 
 
 cnmferencc, lying between the Great Harbour on 
 the W. and the Little Harbour on the K. It was, 
 as haa been already remarked, the portion of the 
 city first biiilt, and it containt^d the ciuidel or Acro- 
 polis, surrounded by double walls, whicli Timoleon 
 caused to be destroyed. In this island also was 
 the celebrated fountain of Arethusa. It was ori- 
 ginally separated from the mainland by a narrow 
 channel, which was subsequently filled up by a 
 causeway ; but this causeway must at a still later 
 time have been swept away, since we find in the 
 Roman period that the island was connected with 
 the mainland by means of a bridge. ^ 2 Achra- 
 dina ('AxpaSit-i]), occupied originally the high 
 ground of the peninsula N. of Ortygia, and was 
 surrounded on the N. and E. by the sea. The 
 lowerground between Achradina and Ortygia was at 
 first not included in the fortifications of either, but 
 was employed partly for religious processions and 
 partly for the burial of the dead. At the time of 
 the siege of Syracuse by the Athenians in the Pe- 
 loponnesian war (415), the city consisted only of 
 the 2 parts already mentioned, Ortygia forming 
 the inner and Achradina the outer city, but sepa- 
 rated, as explained above, by the low ground be- 
 tween the two. —3. Tyclie (Tiix^?), named after 
 the temple of Tyche or Fortune, was situated 
 N.W. of Achradina, in the direction of the port 
 called Trogiltis. At the time of the Athenian 
 siege of Syracuse it was only an unfortified suburb, 
 but it afterwards became the most populous part of 
 the city. In this quarter stood the gymnasium.^ 
 4, Neapolis (Nea-rdAis), nearly S. W. of Achra- 
 dina, was also, at the time of the Athenian siege of 
 Syracuse, merely a suburb and called Temenites, 
 from ha^nng within it the statue and consecrated 
 ground of Apollo Temenites. Neapolis contained 
 the chief theatre of Syracuse, which was the largest 
 in all Sicily, and many temples. ^5. Epipolae (at 
 'ETTiTToAat'), a space of ground rising above the 3 
 quarters of Achradina, Tyche, and Neapolis, which 
 gradually diminished in breadth as it rose higher, 
 until it ended in a small conical mound. This 
 rising ground was surrounded with strong walls by 
 the elder Dtonysius, and was thus included in Sy- 
 racuse, which now became one of the most strongly 
 fortified cities of the ancient world. The highest 
 point of Epipolae was called Eurytlus ( EupuTjAor), 
 on which stood the fort Labda/um (AdSSaXou). 
 After Epipolae had been added to the city, the 
 circumference of Syracuse was 180 stadia or up- 
 wards of 22 English miles ; and the entire popula- 
 tion of the city is supposed to have amounted to 
 500,000 souls, at the time of its greatest prosperity. 
 — Syracuse had 2 harbours. The Great Harbour, 
 still called Poiio Maggiore^ is a splendid bay 
 about 5 miles in circumference formed by the 
 island Ortygia and the promontory Plemmyrium. 
 The Small Harbour, also called Laccius {Aolkkios)^ 
 lying between Ortygia and Achradina, was capa- 
 cious enough to receive a large fleet of ships of 
 ■ft'''^r. — There were several stone quarries (i^aa^a- 
 viJoe) in Syracuse, which are frequently mentioned 
 by ancient writers, and In wliicli the ur, fortunate 
 Athenian prisoners were confined. These quarries 
 "were partly in Achradina on the descent from the 
 higher ground to the lower level towards Ortvcia. 
 and partly in Neapolis under the S. clilf of "Epi- 
 polae. Erom them was taken the stone of which 
 the city was built. On one side of those quarries 
 is the remarkable excavation, called tiie Ear of 
 
 SYRIA. 
 
 Dionyslus, in which it is said that this tyrant con- 
 fined the persons whom he suspected, and that be 
 was able from a little apartment above to overhear 
 the conversation of his captives. This tale how- 
 ever is clearly an invention. — The city was sup- 
 plied with water from an aqueduct, which wascon- 
 stmcted by Gelon and improved by Hieron. It 
 was brought through Epipolae and Neapolis to 
 Achradina and Ortygia. — The modern city of Sy- 
 racuse is confined to the island. The remaining 
 quarters of the ancient city are now uninhabited, 
 and their position marked only by a few ruins. 
 Of these the most important are the remains of the 
 great theatre, and of an amphitheatre of the Roman 
 period. — The government of Syracuse was origi- 
 nally an aristocracy ; and the political power was 
 in the hands of the landed proprietors called Geo- 
 raori or Gamori. In course of time the people, 
 having Increased in numbers and wealth, expelled 
 the Geomori and established a democracy. But 
 this form of government did not last long. Gelon 
 espoused the cause of the aristocratical party, and 
 proceeded to restore them by force of arms ; but 
 on his approach the people opened the gates to him, 
 and he was acknowledged without opposition 
 tyrant or sovereign of Syracuse, b. c. 485. Under 
 his rule and that of his brother Hieron, Syracuse 
 was raised to an unexampled degree of wealth and 
 prosperity. Hieron died in 467, and was succeeded 
 by his brother Thrasybnlus : but the rapacity and 
 cruelty of the latter soon provoked a revolt among 
 his subjects, which led to his deposition and the 
 establishment of a democratical form of government. 
 The next most important event in the history of 
 Syracuse was the siege of the city by the Athe- 
 nians, which ended in the total destruction of th* 
 great Athenian armament in 413. The democracy 
 continued to exist in Syracuse till 400, when the 
 elder Dionysius made himself tyrant of the city. 
 After a long and prosperous reign he was succeeded 
 in 367 by his son, the j'ounger Dionysius, who was 
 finally expelled by Timoleon in 343. A republican 
 form of government was again established ; but it 
 did not last long ; and in 317 Syracuse fell under 
 the sway of Agathocles. This tyrant died in 289 ; 
 and the city being distracted by factions, the Syra- 
 cusans voluntarily conferred the supreme power 
 upon Hiiiron II., with the title of king, in 270. 
 Hieron cultivated friendly relations with the Ro- 
 mans ; but oil his death in 216, at the advanced 
 age of 92, his grandson Hieronymua, who succeeded 
 him, espoused the side of the Carthaginians. A 
 Roman army under Marcellus was sent aiiainst 
 S^'nicuse ; and after a siege of 2 years, during 
 which Archimedes assisted his fellow-citizens by 
 the constnictitm of various engines of war [ A kchj- 
 MEDEs], the city was taken by Marcellus In 212, 
 From this time Syracuse became a town of the 
 Roman province of Sicily. 
 
 Syrgis (Supyis), according to Herodotus, a 
 great river of European Sarmatia, rising in the 
 country of the Thyssagetae, and flowing through 
 the land of the Maeotae into the Palus Maeotis. 
 It has not been identified with certainty. 
 
 Syria Dea (Si/ptij ,&€(Js), " the Syrian god- 
 dess,'' a name by which the Syrian Astarte or 
 Aphrodite is sometimes designated. This Astarte 
 was ii Syrian divinity, resembling iu many points 
 the Greek Aphrodite. It is not improbable that 
 the latter was oriainally the Syrian Astarte ; for 
 there can be no doubt that the worship of Aphro- 
 
SYRIA. 
 
 dite came from the East to Cyprus, and thence 
 was carried into the south of Greece. 
 
 Syria (?) Supio, in Aramaean Surja: Supos, 
 Syrus, and sometimes 2u^ioy, Syrtus : Soristan, 
 Arab. Esh-Sham^ i. e. the land on the left,, Syria),, 
 a country of W. Asia, lying along the E. end of 
 the Mediterranean Sea, between Asia Minor and 
 Egypt. In a wider sense the word was used for 
 the whole tract of country bounded by the Tigris 
 on the E., the mountains of Armenia and Cilicia 
 on the N., the Mediterranean on the W., and the 
 Arabian Desert on the S.; the whole of which was 
 peopled by the Aramaean branch of the great Se- 
 mitic (or Syro-Arabian) race, and is included in 
 the 0. T. under the name of Aram. This region 
 may be well described physically as the great tri- 
 angular depression of W. Asia encircled on the N. 
 and N.E. by the Taurus and its prolongation to 
 the S.E., or, iu other words, by the highlands of 
 Cilicia, Cappadocia, Armenia, and Aria; and sub- 
 siding on the S. and W. into the Mediterranean 
 and the Great Desert of Arabia. Even a wider 
 extent than this is often given to Syria, so as to 
 include the E. part of Asia Minor, as far as the 
 river Halys and the Euxine. The people were of 
 the same races, and those of the N. of the Taurus 
 in Cappadocia and Pontus are called White Syrians 
 [Leucosyr:] in contradistinction to the people of 
 darker complexion in Syria Proper, who are some- 
 times even called Black Syrians i^vpoi /xeKaves). 
 Even when the name of Syria is used in its ordi- 
 nary narrower sense, it ia often confounded with 
 Assyria, which only differs from Syria by having 
 the definite article prefixed. Again, in the nar- 
 rower sense of the name, Syria still includes 2 dis- 
 tricts which are often considered as not belonging 
 to it, namelj--, Phoenice and Palestine, and a 3rd 
 which is likevvise often considered separate, namely, 
 CoELEsYRTA ; but this last is generally reckoned a 
 part of Syria. In this narrower sense, then, Syria 
 ■was bounded on the W. (beginning from the S.) 
 by M. Hermon, at the S. end of Antilibanus, 
 whicli separated it from Palestine, by the range of 
 Libanus, dividing it from Phoenice, by the Medi- 
 terranean, and by M. Amanus, which divided it 
 from Cilicia; on the N. (where it bordered on 
 Cappadocia) by the main chain of M. Taurus, 
 almost exactly along the parallel of 38^ N. lat., 
 and striking the Euphrates just below Juliopolis, 
 and considerably above Samosata : hence the Eu- 
 phrates forms the E. boundary, dividing Syria, first 
 from a very small portion of Armenia, and then 
 from Mesopotamia, to about or beyond the 36th 
 parallel of N. lat., whence the S.E. and S. boun- 
 daries, towards Babylonia and Arabia, in the 
 Great Desert, are exceedingly indefinite. [Comp. 
 Arabia.] The W. part of the S. boundary ran 
 just below Damascus, being formed by the high- 
 lands of Trachonitis. The W. part of the country 
 was intersected by a series of mountains, running 
 S. from the Taurus, under the names of Amanus, 
 Pieria, Casius, Bargyj.us, and Libanus, and 
 Antiljbanus ; and the N. part, between the 
 Amanus and the Euphrates, was also mountainous. 
 The chief river of Syria was the Orontes, and 
 the smaller rivers Chalus and Chrysorrhoas 
 were also of importance. The valleys among the 
 moantains were fertile, especially in the N. part : 
 even the E., which is now merged in the great 
 desert of Arabia, appears to have had more nume- 
 rous and more extensive spaces capable of culti- 
 
 SYRIA, 
 
 737 
 
 vation, and supported great cities, the ruins of 
 which now stand in the midst of sandy wastes. — 
 In the earliest historical period, Syria contained a 
 number of independent kingdoms, of which Da- 
 mascus was the most powerful. These were sub- 
 dued by David, but became again independent at 
 the end of Solomon's reign ; from which time we 
 find the kings of Damascus sometimes at war 
 with the kings of Israel, and sometimes in alliance 
 with them against the kings of Judah, till the 
 reign of Tiglath-Pileser, king of Assyria, who, 
 having been invited by Ahaz, king of Judah, to 
 assist him against the united forces of Rezin, king 
 of Syria, and Pekah, king of Israel, took Damascus 
 and probably conquered all Syria, about b. c. 740. 
 Having been a part successively of the Assyrian, 
 Babylonian, Persian, and Macedonian empires, it 
 fell, after the battle of Ipsus (b. c, 301), to the 
 share of Seleucus Nicator, and formed a part of the 
 great kingdom of the Seleucidae, whose history 
 is given in the articles Seleucus, Antiochus, 
 Demetrius, &c. In this partition, however, 
 Coelesyria and Palestine went, not to Syria, but to 
 Egypt, and the possession of those provinces became 
 the great source of contention between the Pto- 
 lemies and the Seleucids. By the irruptions of 
 the Parthians on the E., and the unsuccessful war 
 of Antiochus the Great with the Romans on tlie 
 W., the Greek Syrian kingdom was reduced to the 
 limits of Syria itself, and became weaker and 
 weaker, until it was overthrown by Tigranes, 
 king of Armenia, B. c. 79. Soon afterwards, when 
 the Romans had conquered Tigranes as well as 
 Mithridates, Syria was quietly added by Pompey 
 to the empire of the republic and was constituted a 
 province, b. c, 64; but its N. district, Commagene, 
 was not included in this arrangement.. As the E. 
 province of the Roman empire, and with its great 
 desert frontier, Syria was constantly exposed to the 
 irruptions of the Parthians, and, after them, of the 
 Persians ; but it long remained one of the most 
 flourishing of the provinces. The attempt of Ze- 
 nobia to make it the seat of empire is noticed 
 under Palmyra and Zenobia. While the Roman 
 emperors defended this precious possession against 
 the attacks of the Persian kings with various suc- 
 cess, a new danger arose, as early as the 4th century, 
 from the Arabians of the Desert, who began to be 
 known under the name of Saracens; and, when the 
 rise of Mohammed had given to the Arabs that 
 great religious impulse which revolutionised the 
 E. World, Syria was the first great conquest that 
 they made from the E. empire, a. d. 632 — 63f>. 
 — In the time immediately succeeding the Mace- 
 donian conquest, Syria was regarded as consisting 
 of 2 parts; the N., including the whole country 
 down to the beginning of the Lebanon range, and 
 the S., consisting of Coelesyria in its more ex- 
 tended sense. The former, which was called Syria 
 Proper, or Upper Syria (tJ ^uic ^vpla, Syria Su- 
 perior), was divided into 4 districts or tetrarchies, 
 which were named after their respective capitals, 
 Seleucis, Antiochene, Laodicene, and Apamene. 
 Under the Romans it was divided into 10 districts, 
 named (mostly after their capital cities) Commagene, 
 Cyrrhestice, Pieria, Seleucis, Chalcidice, Cha^.ybo- 
 nitis, Palmyrene, Apamene, Cassiotis, and Laodl- 
 c6ne ; but the last ia sometimes included under 
 Cassiotis, (See the several articles.) Constantino 
 the Great separated from Syria the 2 N, districts, 
 namely, Commagene and Cyrrhestice, and erected 
 
738 
 
 SYRIAE PORTAE. 
 
 them into a distinct province, called Euphratensis 
 or Euphratesia ; and the rest of Syria was after- 
 wards divided by Theodosius II. into the 2 pro- 
 vinces of Syria Prima, including the sea-coast and 
 the country N. of Antioch, and having that city 
 for its capital ; and Syria Secunda, the district 
 along the Orontea, with Apamea for its cjipital : 
 the E. districts no longer formed a part of Syria, 
 but had fallen under the power of the Persians. 
 
 Syriae Portae (ai 2upiat TnJA.ai ; Pass ofBeilan), 
 a most important pass between Cilicia and Syria, 
 lying between the shore of the Gulf of Issus on the 
 "VV., and M. Amanus on the E. Xenophon, who 
 called the pass (or rather its fortifications) the 
 Oates of Cilicia arid ofSyria, describes it as 3 stadia 
 in length and very narrow, with walls built from 
 the mountains to the sea at both ends (the Cilician 
 and the Syrian), and gates in the walls {AnabA. 4.). 
 These walls and gates are not mentioned by the 
 historians of Alexander. 
 
 Syrianus (Supmcfis), a Greek philosopher of 
 the Neo-Platonic school, was a native of Alex- 
 andria, and studied at Athens under Plutarchus, 
 whom he succeeded as head of the Neo-Platonic 
 school in the early part of the 5th century. The 
 most distinguished of his disciples was Proclus, 
 who regarded him with the greatest veneration, 
 and gave directions that at his death he should be 
 buried in the same tomb with Syrianus. Syria- 
 nus wrote several works, some of which are ex- 
 tant Of these the most valuable are the commen- 
 taries on the Metaphysics of Aristotle, 
 
 Syrinx, an Arcadian nymph, who being pur- 
 sued by Pan, fled into the river Ladon, and at her 
 own request was metamorphosed into a reed, of 
 which Pan then made his flute. 
 
 Syrinx (2upi7|), a great and strongly fortified 
 city of Hyrcania, and the capital of the province 
 under the Greek kings of Syria. Perhaps it is 
 only the Greek name of the city called, in the 
 native language, Zadrakarta. 
 
 Syros, or Syrus (2i}poy, called 'S.vpi-n by Homer, 
 and 2ypa by a few writers: 'Zvpios: Syra)^ an 
 island in the Aegaean sea, and one of the Cyclades, 
 lying between Rhenea and Cythnus. It is described 
 by the ancients as 20 Roman miles in circumference, 
 and as rich in pastures, wine, and corn. It con- 
 tained 2 towns, one on the E. side, and one on 
 the W. side of the island ; of the latter there are 
 still remains near the modem harbour oi Maria 
 deila Grazia. The philosopher Pherecydes was a 
 native of Syros. 
 
 Syrtes, g^n. -idos (5iJpTi9, gen. -i^os and -eoiy, 
 Ton. -los), the Greek name for each of the 2 great 
 gulfs in the E. half of the N. coast of Africa, is 
 derived by ancient writers from (jvpw, to draiu, 
 with reference to the quicksands by which, in the 
 Greater Syrtis at least, ships were liable to be 
 swallowed up; but modem scholars generally pre- 
 fer the derivation from the Arabic scH = a sandy 
 desert^ which is at the present day applied to the 
 country along this coast, the Regio Syrtica of 
 the ancients. Both were proverbially dangerous, 
 the Greater Syrtis from its sandbanks and quick- 
 sands, and its unbroken exposure to the N. winds, 
 the Lesser from its shelving rocky shores, its ex- 
 posure to the N.E. winds, and the consequent 
 variableness of the tides in it. 1. Syrtis Major 
 (tJ ue-)a\T7 'S.CpTti : (hdfofSidra\ the E. of the 
 2, is a wide and deep gulf on the shores of Tri- 
 poli ta and Cyrenaica, exactly opposite to the Ionic 
 
 SYRTICA. 
 
 sea, or mouth of the Adriatic, between Sicily and 
 Peloponnesus. Its greatest depth, from N. to S-, 
 is about 110 geographical miles; its width is 
 about 230 geographical miles, between Cephalac 
 Prom. {Ras Kliarra) on the W., and Boreum 
 Prom. {Ras Teyonas) on the E. (Strabo gives its 
 width as 1500 stadia, its depth 1500 to 1800, 
 and its circuit 4000 to 5000). The Great Desert 
 comes down close to its shores, forming a sandy 
 coast [Syrtica Regio]. The terror of being 
 driven on shore in it is referred to in the narrative 
 of St. Paul's voyage to Italy (Acts, xxvii. 17. 
 ''fearing iest they should fall into the SyHis'"'') \ 
 and tlie dangers of a march through the loose 
 sand on its shores, sometimes of a burning heat, 
 and sometimes saturated with sea- water, were 
 scarcely less formidable. — Syrtis Minor {t^ ixutpa 
 'S.vpris: Gtdf of Khidjs), lies in the S.W. angle 
 of the great bend formed by the N. coast of Alrica 
 as it drops down to the S. from the neighbour- 
 hood of Carthage, and then bears again to the E. : 
 in other words, in the angle between the E, coast 
 of Zeugitana and Byzacena (Tunis) and the N. 
 coast of Tripolitana {Tripoli). Its mouth faces 
 the E.. between Caput Vada or Brachodes Prom. 
 (Eas Kapovdiali) on the N., and the island called 
 IVIeninx or Lotophagitis (Jerbak) on the S. In 
 its mouth, nenr the N. extremity, lie the islands 
 of Cercina and Cercinitis, which were often re- 
 garded as its N. extremity. Its dimensions are 
 differently given, partly perhaps on account of the 
 different points from which they were reckoned. 
 The Greek geographers give the width as 600 
 stadia (60 geog. miles), and the circuit 1600 
 stadia: the Romans give 100 Roman miles for 
 the width, and 300 for the circuit. The true 
 width (between Ras Kapoudiah and the E. point 
 oi Jerhali) is ubout 80 geog. miles, and the great- 
 est depth, measured W.-ward from the line joining 
 those points, is about Q5 geog. miles. In Herodo- 
 tus, the word Syrtis occurs in a few passages, 
 without any distinction between the Greater and 
 the Less. It seems most probable that he 
 means to denote by this term the Greater Syrtis, 
 and that he included the Lesser in the lake Tri- 
 
 TONIS. 
 
 Syrtica Eegio (t) 2u/)tik^ : W. part of Tripoli)^ 
 the special name of that part of the N. coast of 
 Africa which lay between the 2 Syrtes, from the 
 river Triton, at the bottom of the Syrtis Minor, 
 on the W., to the Philaenorum Arae, at the bottom 
 of the Syrtis Major, on the E. It was for the 
 most part a very narrow strip of sand, interspersed 
 with salt marshes, between the sea and a range 
 of mountains forming the edge of the Great Desert 
 {Sahara), with only here and there a few spots 
 capable of cultivation, especially about the river 
 Cinyps. It was peopled by Libyan tribes, the 
 chief of whom were the Lotophagi, Macao, Psylli, 
 and Nasamones ; and several Egyptian and Phoe- 
 nician colonies were settled on the coast at an 
 early period. The Greeks of Cyrene disputed 
 with the Carthaginians the possession of this dis- 
 trict until it was secured to Carthage by the self- 
 devotion of the Philaeni. Under the Romans 
 it formed a part of the province of Africa. It wna 
 often called Tripolitana, from its 3 chief cities, 
 Aerotonum, Oea, and Leptis Magna; and 
 this became its usual name under the later empire, 
 and has been handed down to our own time in 
 the modem name of the Regency of Tripoli, 
 
SYRUS. 
 
 Sjrnis, a slave brought to Rome some years- 
 before the downfal of the republic, and designated, 
 according to the usual practice, from the country of 
 his birth. He attracted attention while yet a 
 youth, by his accomplishment and wit, was manu- 
 mitted by his master, who probably belonged to 
 the Clodia gens, assumed the name of Ptiblms^ 
 from his patron, and soon became highly cele- 
 brated as a mimographer. He may be said to 
 have flourished b. c. 4iS. His mimes were com- 
 mitted to writing, and extensively circulated at 
 an early period ; and a collection of pithy moral 
 sayings extracted from his works appears to have 
 been used as a school-book in the boyhood of 
 St. Jerome. A compilation of this description, 
 extending to upwards of 1000 lines in iambic and 
 trochaic measures, every apophthegm being com- 
 prised in a single line, and the whole ranged alpha- 
 betically, according to the initial letter of the first 
 word in each, is now extant under the title Puhlh- 
 SyH Sententiae. These proverbs have been drawn 
 from various sources, and are evidently the work 
 of many different hands ; but a considerable 
 number may be ascribed to Syrus and his con- 
 temporaries. The best editions of the Sententiae 
 are by Havercamp, Lug. Bat. 1708, 1727 ; by 
 Orelli, Lips. 1 822 ; and by Bothe, in his Poetarum 
 Latin. Scenicorum Fragmcnta^ Lips. 1834. 
 
 Sytbas (Suflas), a river on the frontiers of 
 Achaia and Sicyonia. 
 
 Tabae (Tafia: : Tagj/ros). 1. (Taw), a small 
 inland town of Sicily. — 3. {Dawas\ a city of 
 Caria, on the borders of Phrygia. ^ 3. A city of 
 Persis, in the district of Paraetacene, on the road 
 from Ecbatana to Persepolis. 
 
 Tabemae. [Tres Tabernak] 
 
 Tabumus (Tubumo), a mountain belonging 
 half to Campania and half to Samnium. Its S. 
 side was very fertile, and was celebrated for its 
 olive grounds. It shut in the Caudine pass on its 
 S. aide. 
 
 Tacape (TaKdirT] : Kh-ahs^ large Ru.), a city of 
 N. Africa, in the Regio Syrtica, at the innermost 
 angle of the Syrtis Minor, to which the modern 
 town gives its name. Under the Romans, it at 
 first belonged to Byzacena, but it was afterwards 
 raised to a colony and made the W. town of 
 Tripolitana. It had an indifferent hai-bour. A 
 little to the W. was the bathing place, called, 
 from its warm mineral springs, Ac^uae Tacipitanae 
 {El Hammat-el Khahs). 
 
 Tacfarinas, a Numidian in the reign of Ti- 
 berius, had originally served among the au.xiliary 
 troops in the Roman army, but he deserted ; and, 
 havin^ collected a body of freebooters, he became at 
 length the acknowledged leader of the Musulamli, 
 a powerful people in the interior of Numidia, bor- 
 dering on Mauretania. For some years he defied 
 the Roman arms, but was at length defeated and 
 slain in battle by Dolabella, A. d. 24. 
 
 Tacbompso (TaxO)ti'/'i^, also Tacompsos, Plin., 
 and MeTO/co^i/zeJ, Ptol.), aft. Contrapselcis, a city 
 in the Dodecaschoenus, that is, the part of Aethi- 
 opia immediately above Egypt, built on an island 
 (Derarf) near the E. bank of the river, a little 
 above Pselcis, which stood on the opposite bank. 
 
 [PSELOIS.] 
 
 TACITUS. 
 
 739 
 
 Tachos (Taxtis), king of Egypt, succeeded 
 Acoris, and maintained the independence of his 
 country for a short time during tiie latter end of 
 the reign of Artaxerxes II. He invited Chabrias, 
 the Athenian, to take the command of his fleet, 
 and Ageailaus to undertake the supreme command 
 of all his forces. Both Chabrias and Agesilaus 
 came to Egypt ; but the latter was much aggrieved 
 in having only the command of the mercenaries 
 entrusted to him. Accordingly, wlien Nectanabis 
 laid claim to the Egyptian crown, Agesilaus deserted 
 Tachos, and espoused the cause of Nectanabis, who 
 thus became king of Egypt, b. c. 361. 
 
 Tacitus. 1. C. Cornelius, the historian. The 
 time and place of his birth are unknown; He was a 
 little older than the younger Pliny, who was born 
 A. D. 61. His father was probably Cornelius Tacitus, 
 a Roman eq^ues, who is mentioned as a procurator in 
 Gallia Belgica,and who died in 79. Tacitus was first 
 promoted by the emperor Vespasian, and he re- 
 ceived other favours from his sons Titus and Domi- 
 tian. In 78 he married the daughter of C. Julius 
 Agricola, to whom he had been betrothed in the 
 preceding year, while Agricola was consul. In the 
 reign of Domitian, and in 88, Tacitus was pmetor, 
 and he assisted as one of the quindecemviri at the 
 solemnity of the Ludi Seculares which were cele- 
 brated in that year. Agricola died at Rome in 
 93, but neither Tacitus nor the daughter of Agri- 
 cola was then with him. It is not known wheie 
 Tacitus was during the last illness of Agricola. In 
 the reign of Nerva, 97, Tacitus was appointed con- 
 sul surt'ectus, in the place of T. Virginius Rufus, 
 who had died in that year, and whose funeral 
 oration he delivered. We know that Tacitus had 
 attained oratorical distinction when the younger 
 Pliny was commencing his career. He and Tacitus 
 were appointed in the reign of Nerva (99) to con- 
 duct the prosecution of Marius, proconsul of Africa. 
 Tacitus and Pliny were most intimate friends. 
 In the collection of the letters of Pliny, there are 
 11 letters addressed to Tacitus. The time of the 
 death of Tacitus is unknown, but he appears to 
 have survived Trajan, who died 117- Nothing is 
 recorded of any children of his, though the emperor 
 Tacitus claimed a descent from the historian, and 
 ordered his works to be placed in all (public) li- 
 braries. The following are the extant works of 
 Tacitus: 1. Vita Agricolae., the life of Agricola, 
 which was ^vritten after the death of Domitian, ^6, 
 as we may probably conclude from the introduction, 
 which was certainly written after Trajan's acces- 
 sion. This life is justly admired as a specimen of 
 biography. It is a monument to the memory of a 
 good man and an able commander and adminis- 
 trator, by an affectionate son-in-law, who has por- 
 trayed in his peculiar manner and with many 
 masti-Tly touches, the virtues of one of the most 
 illustrious of the Romans. 2. Hisloriae^ wliiuh 
 were written after the death of Nerva, 98. and 
 before the Annales. They comprehended the pe- 
 riod from the second consulship of Galba, 68,' to 
 the death of Domitian, 96, and the author designed 
 to add the reigns of Nerva and Trajan. The first 4 
 books alone are extant in a complete form, and they 
 comprehend only the events of about one year. 
 The Sth book is imperfect, and goes no further than 
 the commencement of the siege of Jerusalem by 
 Titus, and the war of Civilis in Germany. It is 
 not known how many books of the Histories there 
 were, but it must have been a large work, if it was 
 
740 
 
 TACITUS. 
 
 all written on the same scale as the first 5 books. 
 
 — 3. AnnaleSi which, commence with the death of 
 Augustus, 14, and comprise the period to the death 
 of Nero, 68, a space of 54 years. The greater 
 part of the 5th book is lost ; and also the 7th, 8th, 
 9th, 10th, the beginning of the llth, and the end 
 of the 16th, which is the last book. These lost 
 parts comprised the whole of Caligula's reign, the 
 first 5 years of Claudius, and the 2 last of Nero. 
 
 — 4. De Moribus et Poptdis Germaniae, a treatise 
 describing the Germanic nations. It is of no value, 
 as a geographical description; the first few chap- 
 ters contain as much of the geography of Germany 
 as Tacitus knew. The main matter is the descrip- 
 tion of the political institutions, the religion, and 
 the habits, of the various tribes included under the 
 denomination of Germani. The value of the in- 
 formation contained in this treatise has often been 
 discussed, and its credibility attacked ; but we may 
 estimate its true character by observing the pre- 
 cision of the writer as to those Germans who were 
 best known to the Romans from being near the 
 Rhine. That the hearsay accounts of more remote 
 tribes must partake of the defects of all such evi- 
 dence, is obvious ; and we cannot easily tell whether 
 Tacitus embellished that which he heard obscurely 
 told. But to consider the Germany as a fiction, 
 is one of those absurdities which need only be re- 
 corded, not refuted. — 5. Dialogus de Oratoribus. 
 If this dialogue is the work of Tacitus, and it pro- 
 bably ia, it must be his earliest work, for it was 
 written in the 6th year of Vespasian (c. 17). The 
 style is more easy than that of the Annals, more 
 diffuse, less condensed ; but there is no obvious 
 dilTerence between the style of this Dialogue 
 and the Histories, nothing so striking as to make 
 us contend for a diiferent authorship. Besides 
 this, it is nothing unusual for works of the same 
 author which are written at different times to vary 
 greatly in style, especially if they treat of different 
 matters. The old MSS. attribute this Dialogue to 
 Tacitus. — The Annals of Tacitus, the work of a 
 mature age, contain the chief events of the period 
 which they embrace, arranged under their several 
 years. There seems no peculiar propriety in giving 
 the name of AnnaJes to this work, simply because 
 the events are arranged in the order of time. The 
 work of Livy may just as well be called Annals. 
 In the Annals of Tacitus the Princeps or Emperor 
 is the centre about which events are grouped. Yet 
 the most important public events, both in Italy and 
 tiie provinces, are not omitted, though every thing 
 is treated as subordinate to the exhibition of im- 
 perial power. The Histories, which were written 
 before the Annals, are in a more diffuse style, and 
 the treatment of the extant part is different from 
 that of the Annals. Tacitus wrote the Histories 
 as a contemporary ; the Annals as not a contem- 
 porary. They are two distinct works, not parts of 
 one ; which is clearly shown by the very different 
 proportions of the two works : the first 4 books of 
 the Histories comprise about a year, and tlie first 
 4 books of the Annals comprise 14 years. The 
 moral dignity of Tacitus is impressed upon his 
 works ; the consciousness of a love of truth, of the 
 integrity of his purpose. His great power is in the 
 knowledge of the human mind, his insight into the 
 motives of human conduct ; and he found materials 
 for this study in the history of the emperors, and 
 particularlyTiberiuSjthearch-hypocrite, and perhaps 
 half madman. His Annals are filled with drama- 
 
 TAGASTE. 
 
 tic scenes and striking catastrophes. He laboured 
 to produce effect by the exhibition of great per- 
 sonages on the stage ; but as to the mass of the 
 people we learn little from Tacitus. — The style of 
 Tacitus is peculiar, though it bears some resem- 
 blance to Sallust. In the Annals it is concise, 
 vigorous, and pregnant with meaning; laboured, 
 but elaborated with art, and stripped of every 
 superfluity. A single word sometimes gives effect 
 to a sentence, and if the meaning of the word is 
 missed, the sense of the writer is not reached. 
 Such a work is probably the result of many tran- 
 scriptions by the author. In the Annals Tacitus 
 is generally brief and rapid in his sketches ; but he 
 is sometimes minute, and almost tedious, when he 
 comes to work out a dramatic scene. Nor does he 
 altogether neglect his rhetorical art when he has 
 an opportunity for displaying it. The condensed 
 style of Tacitus sometimes makes him obscure, but 
 it is a kind of obscurity that is dispelled by careful 
 reading. Yet a man must read carefully and 
 often, in order to understand him ; and we cannot 
 suppose that Tacitus was ever a popular writer. 
 His real admirers will perhaps always be few ; his 
 readers fewer still. The best editions of the com- 
 plete works of Tacitus are byOberlin, Lips. 1801, 
 2 vols. 8vo. ; by Bekker, Lips. 1831, 2 vols. 
 8to,; and by Orelli, Zurich, 1846 and 1848, 
 2 vols. 8vo.— 2, M. Claudius, Roman emperor from 
 the 25tli September, a. d. 275, imtil April, a. d, 
 276. He was elected emperor by the senate after 
 the death of Aurelian, the army having requested 
 the senate to nominate a successor to the imperial 
 throne. Tacitus was at the time 70 years of age, 
 and was with difficulty persuaded to accept the pur- 
 ple. The high character which he had borne before 
 his elevation to the throne, he amply sustained 
 during his brief reign. He endeavoured to repress 
 the luxury and licentiousness of the age by various 
 sumptuary laws, and he himself set an example to 
 all around, by the abstemiousness, simplicity, and 
 frugality of his own habits. The only military 
 achievement of this reign was the defeat and 
 expulsion from Asia Minor of a party of Goths, who 
 had carried their devastation across the peninsula 
 to the confines of Cilicia. He died either at Tarsus 
 or at Tyana, about the 9th of April, 276. 
 
 Taenarum (yaivapov : C, Matapan\ a promon- 
 tory in Laconica, forming the S.-ly point of the 
 Peloponnesus, on which stood a celebrated temple 
 of Poseidon, possessing an inviolable asylum, A 
 little to the N. of the temple and the harbour of 
 Achilleus was a town also called Taenarum or 
 Taenarus, and at a later time Caenepolis. It was 
 situated 40 stadia from the extreme point of the 
 promontory, and was said to have been built by 
 Taenarus, a son of Zeus, or Icarius or Elatus. On 
 this promontory was a cave, through which Her- 
 cules is said to have dragged Cerberus to the 
 upper world. Here also was a statue of Arioii 
 seated on a dolphin, since he is said to have landed 
 at this spot after his miracidous preservation by a 
 dolphim In the time of the Romans there were 
 celebrated marble quarries on the promontory. 
 
 Tagae (Toyaf: />«7)i£_^/ia7z?), a city mentioned 
 by Polybius as in Parthia, on the border towards 
 Hyrcania, apparently the same place which Str;ibo 
 calls Tape (Totttj) and reckons to Hyrcania. 
 
 Tagaste (Tuffilt, Ru.), an inland town of Nu- 
 midia, on a tributary of the Bagradas, remarkable 
 as the birthplace of St. Augustine. 
 
TAGES. 
 
 TSges, a mysterious Etruscan being, who is 
 described as a boy with the wisdom of an old man. 
 Once when an Etruscan, of the name of Tarchon, 
 was ploughing in the neighbourhood of Tarquinii, 
 there suddenly rose out of the ground Tages, the 
 son of a Genius Jovialis, and grandson of Jupiter. 
 When Tages addressed Tarchon, the latter shrieked 
 with fear, whereupon other Etruscans hastened to 
 him, and in a short time all the people of Etniria 
 were assembled around him. Tages now instructed 
 them in the art of the haruspices, and died imme- 
 diately after. The Etruscans, who had listened 
 attentively to his instructions, afterwards wrote 
 down all he had said, and thus arose the books of 
 Tages, which, according to some, were 12 in number. 
 Tagus (Spanish Ttyo, Portuguese T^'o, English 
 Tacfus), one of the chief rivers in Spain, rising in 
 the land of the Celtiberiang, between the moun- 
 tains Orospeda and Idubeda, and, after flowing in 
 a W.-ly direction, falling into the Atlantic. The 
 whole course of the Tagus exceeds 550 English 
 miles. At its mouth stood Olisippo (Lisbon). 
 The ancient writers relate that much gold sand 
 and precious stone were found in the Tagus. 
 
 Talabriga, a town in Lusitania, between Ae- 
 minium and Lagobriga. 
 Talassius or Talasses. [Thalassius.] 
 Talauxa (ra TdKavpa; Tttrkhal?), a fortress 
 in Pontus, used by Mithridates the Great as a 
 residence, and supposed by some to be identical 
 with Gaziura. 
 
 TalSus {TdXaos), son of Bias and Pero, and 
 king of Argos. He was married to Lysimache 
 (Eurynome, or Lysianassa), and was father of 
 Adrastus, Parthenopaeus, Pronax, Mecisteus, Aris- 
 tomachus, and Eriphyle. He occurs among the 
 Argonauts, and his tomb was shovra at Argos. The 
 patronymic Tala'ionides (TaKaioviSTjs) is given to 
 his sons, Adrastus and Mecisteus. 
 
 Talmis (El-Kalabsheh, Ru.), a city of the Dode- 
 caschoenus, that is, the district of Aethiopia imme- 
 diately above Egypt, stood on the W. bank of the 
 Nile, S. of Taphis, and N. of Tutzis. Its ruins 
 consist of an ancient rock-hewn temple, with 
 splendid sculptures, and of a later temple of the 
 Roman period, in the midst of which stands the 
 modern village. There was a place on the oppo- 
 aite bank called Contra Talrais. 
 Talna, Juventius. [Thalna.] 
 Talos (TaAwy). 1. Son of Perdix, the aister of 
 Daedalus. For details see Perdix. ^ 2, A man 
 of brass, the work of Hephaestus. This wonderful 
 being was given to Minos by Zeus or Hephaestus, 
 and watched the island of Crete by walking round 
 the island thrice every day. Whenever he saw 
 strangers approaching, he made himself red hot in 
 fire, and then embniced the strangers when they 
 landed. 
 
 Talthybius (TaK0u€ios)j the herald of Aga- 
 memnon at Troy, He was worshipped as a hero 
 at Sparta and Argos, where sacriflces also were 
 offered to him. 
 
 Tamara. 1. Or Tamaris (Tambre)^ a small 
 river in Hispania Tarraconensis, on the coast of 
 Gallaecia, falling into the Atlantic between the 
 Minius and the Prom. Neriura. — 2. (Tcfmeriora 
 near Plymouth), a town of the Damnonii in the 
 S. of Britain, at the mouth of the Tamarus. 
 
 Tamarioi, a people in Gallaeciaj on the river 
 Tamara. 
 Tamarifl. [Tamaka.J 
 
 TAN AGRA. 741 
 
 Tamarus (Tamar), a river in the S. of Britain. 
 
 TamasBUS or Tamasus {Tafxa(Ta6s, Tdfxatros : 
 Ta/iatTiTTiF, Ta(Md(Tios), probably the same as the 
 Homeric TemesS (TcmcVtj), a town in the middle 
 of Cyprus, N. W. of Olympus, and 29 miles S. E, 
 of Soloe, on the road from the latter place to Tre- 
 mithus, was situated in a fertile country and in 
 the neighbourhood of extensive copper mines. 
 Near it was a celebrated plain (ager Taviasezis), 
 sacred to Venus. (Ov. Met. x. 644.) 
 
 Tambrax (Ta^§pa|), a great city of Hyrcania, 
 on the N. side of Mt. Coronus, mentioned by Po- 
 lybius. It is perhaps the same place which Strabo 
 calls TaXaSpoKrj, 
 
 Tamesis or Tamesa (Tltames)^ a river in Britain 
 flowing into the sea on the E. coast, on which 
 stood Londinium. Caesar crossed the Thames at 
 the distance of 80 Roman miles from the sea, 
 probably at Cowey Stakes, near Oatlands and the 
 confluence of the Wey. There have been found 
 in modern times in the ford of the river at this 
 spot large stakes, which are supposed to have been 
 the same as were fixed in the water by Cassi- 
 vellaunus, when he attempted to prevent Caesar 
 from crossing the river. 
 
 Tamna (Td/xua), a very great city in the S.W. 
 of Arabia Felix, the capital of the Catabani. It 
 maintained a caravan traffic, in spices and other 
 products of Arabia, with Gaza, from which its 
 distance was reckoned 1436 Roman miles. 
 
 Tamos (Ta/iojs), a native of Memphis in Egj-pt, 
 was lieutenant-governor of Ionia under Tissa- 
 phemes. He afterwards attached himself to the 
 service of the younger Cyrus ; upon whose death, 
 he sailed to Egypt, where he hoped to find refuge 
 with Psammetichus, on whom he had conferred an 
 obligation. Psammetichus, however, put him to 
 death, in order to possess himself of his money 
 and ships. 
 
 Tamphilus or Tampilas, Saebius. 1. Cn., 
 tribune of the plebs, B.C. 204; praetor 199, when 
 he was defeated by the Insubrians ; and consul 
 182, when he fought against the Ligurians witlL 
 success. — 2. M., brother of the last, was praetor 
 192, and served in Greece both in tliis year and the 
 following, in the war against Antiochus. In ItJl 
 he was consul, when he defeated the Ligurians. 
 
 Tamynae {Tafxvuai)^ a town in Euboea, on Mt. 
 Cotylaeum, in the territory of Eretria, with a 
 temple of Apollo, said to have been built by Ad- 
 metus. Here the Athenians under Phocion gained 
 a celebrated victory over Callias of Chalcisj b. c. 
 354. 
 
 Tamyracai a town and promontory of European 
 Sarmatia at the innermost corner of the Sinus 
 Carcinites, which was also called irom this town 
 Sinus Tamyraces* 
 
 Tamyras or Damuras (Ta/xiJpay, Aa/xovpa^ : 
 Damur^ or Nahr-el-Kadi), a little river of Phoe- 
 nicia, rising on Mt. Libanus, and falling into the 
 Mediterranean about half way between Sidon and 
 Berytus. 
 
 ^ Tanager {Negro\ a river of Lucania, rising in 
 the Apennines, which, after flowing in a N.E.-ly 
 direction, loses itself under the earth near PoUa 
 for a space of about 2 miles, and finally falls into 
 the Silarus near Forum Popilii. 
 
 Tanagra (Jduaypa : Taj'a7pa"os : Gri-madlia or 
 Grimala\ a celebrated town of Boeotia, situated 
 on a steep ascent on the left bank of the Asopus, 
 13 stadia from Oropus, and 200 stadia from Pla- 
 
742 
 
 TANAIS. 
 
 taeae, in the district Tanagraea, which was also 
 called Poemandris. Tanagra was supposed to be 
 the same town as the Homeric Graea. The most 
 ancient inhiibitants are said to have been the 
 Gephyraei, wlio ciime with Cadmus from Phoe- 
 nicia ; but it was afterwards taken possession of 
 by the Aeolian Boeotians. It was a place of con- 
 siderable commercial importance, and was cele- 
 brated, among nthei- things, for its breed of fighting 
 cocks. At a later time it belonged to the Boeotian 
 contederacy. Being near the frontiers of Attica, 
 it was frequently exposed to the attacks of the 
 Athenians; and near it the Athenians sustained a 
 celebrated defeat, B. c. 457. 
 
 Tanais (Ta;'ai'y). 1. {Don, i. e. Water\ a great 
 river, which rises in the N. of Sarraatia Europaea 
 (about the centre of Russia), and flows to the S.E. 
 till it comes near the Volga^ when it turns to tlie 
 S.W., and falls into the N. E. angle of the Palus 
 Mat^otis {Sea of Azov) by 2 principal mouths and 
 several smaller ones. It was usually considered 
 the boundary between Europe and Asia. Its 
 chief tributiiry was the Hyrgis or Syrgis (prob. 
 Donets). — 2. (Ku. near Kassaicliei), a city of 
 Sarmatia Asiatica, on the N. side of the S. mouth 
 of the Tanais, at a little distance from the sea. It 
 was founded by a colony from Miletus, and be- 
 came a very flourishing emporium. It reduced to 
 subjection several of the neighbouring tribes, but 
 in its mm it became subject to the kings of Bos- 
 porus. It was destroyed by Polemon on accomit 
 of an attempted revolt, and, though afterwards 
 restored, it never regained its former prosperity. 
 
 Tanaquil. [Tarquinius.] 
 
 Tanettun (Tanetanus : Taneio), a tovm of the 
 Boil in Gallia Cispadana, between Mutina and 
 Parma. 
 
 Tania {Tdvis : 0. T. Zoan : TaviTtis : San, 
 Ru,), a very ancient city of Lower Egypt, in the 
 E. part of the Delta, on the right bank of the arm 
 of the Nile, which was called after it the Tanitic, 
 and on the S. W. side of the great lake between 
 tliis and the Pelusiac branch of the Nile, which 
 was also called, after the city, Tanis {La/ce of 
 Menzaleh), It was one of the capitals of Lower 
 Egypt under the early kings, and was said by 
 tradition to have been the residence of the court 
 in the time of Moses. It was the chief city of 
 the Tanltes Nomos. 
 
 Tantalus iTdvraKos). L Son of Zeus and 
 Pluto. His wife is called hy some Eurj'anassa, 
 by others Taygete or Dione, and by others Clytia 
 or Eupryto. He was the father of Pelops, Broteas, 
 and Niobe. All traditions agree in stating that 
 he was a wealthy king, but while some call him 
 king of Lydia, others describe him as king of. 
 Argos or Corinth. Tantalus is particularly cele- 
 brated in ancient story for the terrible punishment 
 inflicted upon him after his death in the lower 
 world, the causes of which are differently stated 
 by the ancient authors- According to the common 
 account Zeus invited him to his table, and com- 
 municated his divine counsels to him. Tantalus 
 divulged the secrets thus intmsted to him ; and 
 lie was punished in the lower world by being 
 afflicted with a raging thirst, and at the same time 
 placed in the midst of a lake, the waters of 
 which always receded from him as soon as he at- 
 tempted to drink them. Over his head, moreover, 
 hung branches of fruit, which receded in like 
 manner when he stretched out his hand to reach 
 
 TAPHIS. 
 
 them. In addition to all this there was suspended 
 over his head a huge rock ever tiireatenlng to 
 crush him. Another tradition relates that, wishing 
 to test the gods, he cut his son Pelops in pieces, 
 boiled them and set them before the gods at a 
 repast. A third account states that Tantalus 
 stole nectar and ambrosia from the table of the 
 gods and gave them to his friends ; and a fourth 
 lastly relates the following story. Rhea caused 
 the mfant Zeus and his nurse to be guarded in 
 Crete by a golden dog, whom Zeus afterwards 
 appointed guardian of his temple in Crete. Pan- 
 dareus stole this dog, and, carrying him to Mount 
 Sipylns in Lydia, gave him to Tantalus to take 
 care of. But when Pandareus demanded the dog 
 back, Tantalus took an oath that he had never 
 received it. Zeus thereupon changed Pandareus 
 into a stone, and threw Tantalus down from 
 Mount Sipylus. Others again relate that Hermes 
 demanded the dog of Tantalus, and that the 
 perjury was committed before Hermes. Zeus 
 buried Tantalus under Mount Sipylus as a punish- 
 ment ; and there his tomb was shown in later 
 times. The punishment of TantJilus was proverbial 
 in ancient times, and from it the English language 
 has borrowed the verb '"to tantalize," that is, to 
 hold out hopes or prospects which cannot be 
 realised. — The patronymic Taatalides is fre- 
 quently given to the descendants of Tantalus. 
 Hence we find not only his son Pelops, but also 
 Atreus, Thyestes, Agamemnon, Menelaus, and 
 Orestes called by this name. — 2. Son of Thy- 
 estes, who was killed by Atreus. Others call 
 him a son of Broteas. He was married to Cly- 
 taemnestra before Agamemnon, and is said by 
 some to have been killed by Agamemnon. — 3. Son 
 of Amphion and Niobe. 
 
 Tanus or Tanaus {Tdvos or 'VavaSs : Kani), a 
 river in the district of Thyreatis, on tlie E. coast 
 of Peluponnesus, rising in Mt, Parnon, and falling 
 into the Th}Teatic gidf, after fonning the boundary 
 between Argolis and Cynuria. . 
 
 Taoce (TaoKTj : Bunder-ReigM), a city on the 
 coast of Persis, near the mouth of the river Granis, 
 used occasionally as a royal residence. The sur- 
 rounding district was called Taofcj])'?}. 
 
 Taochi (Taoxoi), a people of Pontus, on the 
 borders of Armenia, frequently mentioned by 
 Xenophon in the Anabasis. 
 
 Tape.^ [Tagae.] 
 
 Taphiae Insiilae, a number of small islands in 
 the Ionian sea, lying between the coasts of Leu- 
 cadia and Acarnania. They were also called the 
 islands of the Teleboae, and their inhabitants were 
 in like manner named Taphai {Td<pioi) or Tele- 
 boae {TT}Ae€6ai). The largest of these islands is 
 called Taphns (Tcctpoy) by Homer, but Taphiiis 
 {Tacpiovs) or Taphiusa (Ta^ioCo-a) by later writers. 
 They are mentioned in Homer as the haunts of 
 notorious pirates, and are celebrated in mythology 
 on account of the war carried on between them 
 and Electryon, king of Mycenae. 
 
 Taphiassus (Ta^mo-fftJs : Afaci'ivoro and Ri~ 
 gani)^7i mountain in Aetolia and Locris, properly 
 only a S. W, continuation of Mts, Oeta and Corax. 
 
 Taphia ( Ta]^, Ru. ), a city of the Dodecaschoenus, 
 that is, the district of Aethiopia immediately 
 above Egypt, stood on the W. bank of the Nile, 
 S. of Tzitzis, and N. of Talmis. It is also called 
 TaBis and TiairU. There was a town on the oppo- 
 site bank, called Contra Taphls. 
 
TAPHRAE. 
 
 TSphrae or TSphros {Tdtppai or 'Tu(ppos : 
 Td^pios), a town on the isthmus of the Cherso- 
 nesus Taui'ica, so called because a trench or ditch 
 wa3 cut across the isthmus at this point. 
 
 Taphus. [Taphiae.] 
 
 Taposiris {TairSaeipis, Tair6(Tipis, Taipoa-ipis, 
 i. e. iJie tomb of Osiris: Ahousir^ Ru.)i a city of 
 Lower Egypt, on the N.W. frontier, in the Libya 
 Nomos, near the base of the long tongne of land 
 on which Alexandria stood, celebrated for its claim 
 to be considered the burial-place of Osiris. Men- 
 tion IB also made of a Lesser Taposiris (tj fj^iKpb. 
 Tairoffeipts) near it. 
 
 Taprobane {TaTrpo^dp-q : CeywOi a great island 
 of the Indian Ocean, opposite to the S. extremity 
 of India intra Gangem. The Greeks first became 
 acquainted with, it through the researches of Onesi- 
 critus in the time of Alexander, and through in- 
 formation obtained by residents in India; and the 
 Roman geographers acquired additional knowledge 
 respecting the island through an embassy which 
 was sent from it to Rome in the reign of Clau- 
 dius. Of the accounts given of it by the ancients, 
 it is only necessary here to state that Ptolemy 
 makes it very much too large,^while, on the other 
 hand, he gives much too small a S.- ward extension 
 to the peninsula of India. 
 
 Tapuri {Tdirovpoi or Tatrovpoi), a powerful 
 people, apparently of Scythian origin, who dwelt 
 in Media, on the borders of Parthia, S. of M. 
 Coronus. They also extended into Margiana, 
 and probably further N. on the E. side of the 
 Caspian, where their original abodes seem to have 
 been in the mountains called by their name. The 
 men wore black clothes and long hair, and the 
 women white clothes and hair cut close. They 
 were much addicted to drunkenness. 
 
 Tapuri Montes (ra Td-jrovpa opj}), a range of 
 mountains on the E. of the Caspian sea, inhabited 
 by the Tapuri. 
 
 Taras. [Tarentum.] 
 
 Tarbelli, one of the most important people in 
 Gallia A qui tanica, between the Ocean (hence called 
 Tarhellicum aequor and Tarhellus Oceanits) and the 
 P3'-renee8 (hence called Tarbella Pyrene), Their 
 country was sandy and unproductive, but con- 
 tained gold and mineral springs. Their chief 
 town was Aquae Tarbellicae ot Augustae, on 
 the Aturus (Daeqs on the Adour). 
 
 Tarchon, son of Tyrrhenus, who is said to have 
 built the town of Tarquinii. [Tarquinil] Virgil 
 represents him as coming to the assistance of Ae- 
 neas against Tumus. 
 
 Tarentinus Sinus (TapevrTvos kSKttos : G. of 
 Tarenlum\ a great gulf in the S. of Italy, between 
 Bruttium, Lucania, and Calabria, beginning W. 
 near the Prom. Lacinium, and ending E. near the 
 Prom. lapygium, and named after the town of 
 Tarentum. According to Strabo, it is 1920 stadia 
 in circuit, and the entrance to it is 700 stadia 
 wide. 
 
 Tarentum, called Taras by the Greeks (Tdpas^ 
 ~avTos : Tapevrti/os^ Tarentinus : Taranto)^ an im- 
 portant Greek city in Italy, situated on the W. 
 coast of the peninsula of Calabria, and on a bay of 
 the sea, about 1 00 stadia in circuit, formingan excel- 
 lent harbour, and being a portion of the great Gulf of 
 Tarentum. The city stood in the midst of a beauti- 
 ful and fertile country, S. of Mt. Aulon and W. of 
 the mouth of the Galaesus. It was originally built 
 by the lapygians, who are said to have been joined 
 
 TARENTUM. 
 
 743 
 
 by some Cretan colonists from the neighbouring 
 town of Uria, and it derived its name from the 
 mythical Taras, a son of Poseidon. The greatness 
 of Tarentum, however, dates from b. c, 708, when 
 the original inhabitants were expelled, and the 
 town was taken possession of by a strong body of 
 Lacedaemonian Partheniae under the guidance of 
 Phalanthus [Phalanthus]. It soon became the 
 most powerful and flourishing city in the whole of 
 Magna Graecia, and exercised a kind of supremacy 
 over the other Greek cities in Italy. It carried on 
 an extensive commerce, possessed a considerable 
 fleet of ships of war, and was able to bring into the 
 field, with the assistance of its allies, an army of 
 30,000 foot and 3,000 horse. The city itself in 
 its most flo'irishing period contained 22,000 men 
 capable of bearing arms. The government of 
 Tarentum was different at various periods. In the 
 time of Darius Hystaspis, Herodotus speaks of a 
 king (i. e. a tyrant) of Tarentum ; but at a later 
 period the government was a democracy. Archytas, 
 who waa born at Tarentum, and who lived about 
 B. c. 400, drew up a code of laws for his native 
 city. With the increase of wealth the citizens 
 became luxurious and effeminate, and being hard 
 pressed by the Lucanians and other barbarians in 
 the neighbourhood, they were obliged to apply for 
 aid to the mother-countiy. Archidamus, son of 
 Agesilaus, was the first who came to their assist- 
 ance in B. c. 338 ; and he fell in battle tighting on 
 their behalf. The next prince whom they invited 
 to succour them, was Alexander, king of Epirus, 
 and uncle to Alexander the Great. At first he 
 met with considerable success, but was eventually 
 defeated and slain by the Bruttii in 326 near 
 Pandosia on the banks of the Acheron. Shortly 
 afterwards the Tarentines had to encounter a still 
 more formidable enemy. Having attacked some 
 Roman ships, and then grossly insulted the Roman 
 ambassadors who had been sent to demand repara- 
 tion, war was declared against the city by the 
 powerful republic. The Tarentines were saved for 
 a time by Pyrrhus, king of Epirus, who came to 
 their help in 281 ; but two years after the defeat 
 of this monarch and his withdrawal from Italy, 
 the city was taken by the Romans (272). In the 
 second Punic war Tarentum revolted from Rome 
 to Hannibal (212); but it was retaken by the 
 Romans in 207, and was treated by them with 
 great severity. From this time Tarentum declined 
 in prosperity and wealth. It was subsequently 
 made a Roman colony, and it still continued to be 
 a place of considerable importance in the time of 
 Augustus. Its inhabitants retained their -love of 
 luxiu'v and fease ; and it is described by Horace as 
 molle Tarentum and imbelle Tarentum. Even after 
 the downfall of the Western Empire the Greek 
 hinguage was still spoken at Tarentum ; and it was 
 long one of the chief strongholds of the Byzantine 
 empire in the S. of Italy. The town of Tarentum 
 consisted of 2 parts, viz., of a peninsula or island 
 at the entrance of the harbour, and of a town 
 on the main land, which was connected with the 
 island by means of a bridge. On the N.W. corner 
 of the island, close to the entrance of the harbour, 
 was the citadel: the principal part of the town was 
 situated S. W. of the isthmus. The modern town 
 is confined to the island or peninsula on which the 
 citadel stood. The neighbourhood of Tarentum 
 produced the best wool in all Italy, and was also 
 celebrated for its excellent wine, figs, pears, and 
 
 3b 4 
 
744 
 
 TARICHEA. 
 
 other fruits. Its purple die was also much valued 
 in antiquity. 
 
 Tarichea or -eae (Taplxeia, -4ai^ a7ai: El- 
 Kereh^ Ru.), a town of Galilee, at the S. end of 
 the lake of Tiberias, strongly fortified, and with a 
 turbulent population, who gave the Romans much 
 trouble during the Jewish Win. It obtained its 
 name from the quantities of the fish of the neigh- 
 bourinjr lakes which were salted here. 
 
 Tame {Tdpvri\ a city of Lydia, on M. Tmolus, 
 mentioned by lionier. Pliny mentions simply a 
 fuimtJiin of the name. 
 
 Tarpa, Sp. Maecius, was engaged by Porapeius 
 to select the plays that were acted at his games 
 exhibited in b. c. 65. Tarpa was likewise em- 
 ployed ""oy Augustus as a dramatic censor. 
 
 Tarpcia, daughter of Sp. Tarpeius, the go- 
 vernor of the Roman citadel on the Satumian hill, 
 afterwards called the Capitoline, was tempted by 
 the gold on the Sabine bracelets and collars to 
 open a gate of the fortress to T. Tatius and his 
 Sabines. As they entered, they threw upon her 
 their shields, and thus crushed her to death. She 
 ■was buried on the hill, and her memory was pre- 
 served by the name of the Tarpeian rock, which 
 was given to a part of the Capitoline. A legend 
 still exists at Rome which relates that the fair 
 Tarpeia ever sits in the heart of the hill, covered 
 with gold and jewels, and bound by a spell. 
 
 Tarphe (Tdp^Tj), a town in Locris on Mt. Oeta, 
 mentioned by Homer, and subsequently called 
 Pharygae. 
 Tarqmnia. [Tarquinius.] 
 Tarquinii (Tarquiniensis : Turcldna nr. Corneto)^ 
 a city of Etruria, situated on a hill and on the 
 river Marta, S. E. of Cosa and on a road leading 
 from the latter town to Rome. It was one of the 
 12 Etruscan cities, and was prnbably regarded as 
 the metropolis of the Confederation. It is said to 
 have been founded by Tarchon, the son or brother 
 of Tyrrhenus, who was the leader of the Lydian 
 colony from Asia to Italy. It was in the neigh- 
 bourhood of Tarquinii that the seer Tages appeared, 
 from whom the Etruscans leamt their civil and 
 religious polity. [Tages.] According to one 
 account Tarquinii was founded by Thessalians, 
 that is, Pelasgians ; but there can be no doubt that 
 it was an original Etruscan city, and that Tarchon 
 is merely a personification of the race of the Tyr- 
 rhenians. It was at Tarquinii that Demaratus, the 
 father of Tarquinius Priscus, settled; and it was 
 from this city that the Tarquinian family came to 
 Rome. After the expulsion of Tarquinius Super- 
 bus from Ptome, the Tarquiniensea, in conjunction 
 with the Veientes, espoused his cause, but they 
 were defeated by the Romans. From this time the 
 Tarquinienses were frequently engaged in war with 
 the Romans ; but they were at length obliged to 
 submit to Rome about B.C. 310. Tarquinii was 
 subsequently made a Roman colony and a muni- 
 cipium ; but it gradually declined in importance ; 
 and in the 8th or 9th century of the Christian era 
 it was deserted by its inhabitants, who founded 
 Corneto on the opposite hill. There are few re- 
 mains of the ancient city itself; but the cemeteiy 
 of Tarquinii, consisting of a vast number of sub- 
 terraneous caves in the hill on which Corneto 
 stands, is still in a state of excellent preservation 
 and contains numerous Etruscan paintings : here 
 some of the most interesting remains of Etruscan 
 art have been discovered in modem times. 
 
 TARQUINIUS. 
 
 Tarquinius, the name of a family in early 
 Roman history, to which the 5th and 7th kings of 
 Rome belonged. The legend of the Tarquins ran 
 as follows. Demaratus, their ancestor, belonged 
 to the noble family of the Bacchiadae at Corinth, 
 and fled from his native city when the power of 
 his order was overthrown by Cypselus. He settled 
 at Tarquinii in Etruria, where he had mercantile 
 connections. He married an Etruscan wife, by 
 whom he had two sons, Lucumo and Aruns. The 
 latter died in the lifetime of his father, leaving his 
 wife pregnant ; but as Demaratus was ignorant of 
 this circumstance, he bequeathed all his property 
 to Lucumo, and died himself shortly afterwards. 
 But, although Lucumo was thus one of the most 
 wealthy persons at Tarquinii, and had married 
 Tanaquil, who belonged to a family of the highest 
 rank, he was excluded, as a stranger, from all 
 power and influence in the state. Discontented 
 with this inferior position, and urged on by his 
 wife, he resolved to leave Tarquinii, and remove 
 to Rome. He accordingly set out for Rome, riding 
 in a chariot with his wife ; and accompanied by a 
 large train of_followers. When they had reached 
 the Janiculus, an eagle seized his cap, and after 
 carrying it away to a great height placed it again 
 upon his head. Tanaquil, who was skilled in the 
 Etruscan science of augury, bade her husband 
 hope for the highest honour from this omen. Her 
 predictions were soon verified. The stranger was 
 received with welcome, and he and his followers 
 were admitted to the rights of Roman citizens. 
 He took the name of L. Tarquinius, to which 
 Livy adds Priscus. His wealth, his courage, and 
 his wisdom, gained him the love both of Ancus 
 Marcius and of the people. The former appointed 
 him guardian of his children ; and, when he died, 
 the senate and the people unanimously elected 
 Tarquinius to the vacant throne. The reign of 
 Tarquinius was distinguished by great exploits in 
 war, and by great works in peace. He defeated 
 the Latins and Sabines ; and the latter people 
 ceded to him the town of CoUatia, where he placed 
 a garrison under the command of Egerius, the 
 son of his deceased brother Aruns, who took the 
 surname of Collatinus. Some traditions relate 
 that Tarquinius defeated the Etruscans likewise. 
 Among the important works which Tarquinius 
 executed in peace, the most celebrated are the 
 vast sewers by which the lower parts of the city 
 were drained, and which still remain, with not a 
 stone displaced, to bear witness to his power and 
 wealth. He is also said in some traditions to have 
 laid out the Circus Maximus in the valley whicli 
 had been redeemed from water by the sewers, and 
 also to have instituted the Great or Roman Games, 
 which were henceforth performed in the Circus. 
 The Forum, with its porticoes and rows of shops, 
 was also his work, and he likewise began to sur- 
 round the city with a stone wall, a work which 
 was finished by his successor Servius Tulliiis. 
 The building of the Capitoline temple is moreover 
 attributed to the elder Tarquinius, though most 
 traditions ascribe this work to his son, and only 
 the vow to the father. Tarquinius also made 
 some changes in the constitution of the state. He 
 added 100 new members to the senate, who were 
 called patres minorum gentium^ to distinguish them 
 from the old senators, who were now called patres 
 majorum gentium. He wished to add to the 3 
 centuries of equites established by Romulus 3 new 
 
TARQUINIUS. 
 
 centuries, and to call them after himself and two 
 of his friends. His plan was opposed by the augur 
 Attua Navius, who gave a convincing proof that 
 the gods were opposed to his purpose. [Navius.] 
 Accordingly, he gave up his design of establishing 
 new centuries, but to each of the former centuries 
 he associated another under the same name, so that 
 henceforth there were the first and second Ranmes, 
 Tities, and Luceres. He increased the number of 
 Vestal Virgins from 4 to 6. Tarquinius ^'as 
 murdered after a reign of 38 years at the insti- 
 gation of the sons of Ancus Marcius. But the 
 latter did not secure the reward of their crime, 
 for Servius TuUius, with the assistance of Tanaquil, 
 succeeded to the vacant throne. Tarquinius left 
 two sons and two daughters. His two sons, 
 L. Tarquinius and Aruns, were subsequently mar- 
 ried to the two daughters of Servius Tullius. One 
 of his daughters was married to Servius Tullius, 
 and the other to M. Brutus, by whom she became 
 the mother of the celebrated L. Brutus, the first 
 consul at Rome. Servius Tullius, whose life is 
 given under Tullius, was murdered after a reign 
 of 44 years, by his son-in-law, L. Tarquinius, who 
 ascended the vacant throne.— L. Tarquinius 
 Superbus commenced his reign without any of the 
 forms of election. One of the first acts of his reign 
 was to abolish the rights which had been conferred 
 upon the plebeians by Servius ; and at the same 
 time all the senators and patricians whom he mis- 
 trusted, or whose wealth he coveted, were put to 
 death or driven into exile. He surrounded himself 
 by a bodj'-guard, by means of which he was 
 enabled to do what he liked. His cruelty and 
 tyranny obtained for him the surname of Superbus. 
 But, although a tyrant at home, be raised Rome 
 to great influence and power among the surround- 
 ing nations. He gave his daughter in marriage to 
 Octavius Mamilius of Tusculum, the most powerful 
 of the Latin chiefs ; and under his sway Rome 
 became the head of the Latin confederacy. He 
 defeated the Volscians, and took the wealthy town 
 of Suessa Pometia, with the spoils of which he 
 commenced the erection of the Capitol which his 
 father had vowed. In the vaults of this temple 
 he deposited the Sibylline books, which the king 
 purchased from a sibyl or prophetess. She had 
 oflFered to sell him 9 books for 300 pieces of gold. 
 The king refused the offer with scorn. There- 
 upon she went away, and burned 3, and then 
 demanded the same price for the 6. The king 
 still refused. She again went away and burnt 3 
 more, and still demanded the same price for the 
 remaining 3. The king now purchased the 3 books, 
 and the sibyl disappeared. He next engaged in 
 war with Gabii, one of the Latin cities, which 
 refused to enter into the league. Unable to take 
 the city by force of arms, Tarquinius had recourse 
 to stratagem. His son, Sextus, pretending to be 
 ill-treated by his father, and covered with the 
 bloody marks of stripes, fled to Gabii. The infa- 
 tuated inhabitants intrusted him with the com- 
 mand of their troops ; whereupon he sent a mes- 
 senger to his father to inquire how he should 
 deliver the city into his hands. The king, 
 who was walking in his garden when the mes- 
 senger arrived, made no reply, but kept striking 
 otf the heads of the tallest poppies with his stick. 
 Sextus took the hint. He put to death or bnnished 
 all the leading men of the place, and then had no 
 difficulty in compelling it to submit to his father. 
 
 TARQUINIUS. 
 
 745 
 
 In the midst of his prosperity, Tarquinius fell 
 through a shameful outrage committed by one of 
 his sons, Tarquinius and his sons were engaged 
 in besieging Ardea, a city of the Rutulians. Here, 
 as the king's sons, and their cousin, Tarquinius 
 CoUatinus, the son of Egerius, were feasting to- 
 gether, a dispute arose about the virtue of their 
 wives. As nothing was doing in the field, they 
 mounted their horses to visit their homes by sur- 
 prize. They first went to Rome, where they sur- 
 prized the king''s daughters at a splendid banquet. 
 They then hastened to Collatia, and there, though 
 it was late in the night, they found Lucretia, the 
 wife of CoUatinus, spinning amid her handmaids. 
 The beauty and virtue of Lucretia had fired tlie 
 evil passions of Sextus. A few days afterwards he 
 returned to Collatia, where he was hospitably re- 
 ceived by Lucretia as her husband's kinsman. In 
 the dead of night he entered the chamber with a 
 drawn sword : by threatening to lay a slave with 
 his throat cut beside her, whom he would pretend 
 to have killed in order to avenge her husband's 
 honour, he forced her to yield to his wishes. Ae 
 soon as Sextus had departed, Lucretia sent for her 
 husband and father. CoUatinus came, accompanied 
 by L. Brutus ; Lucretius, with P. Valerius, who 
 afterwards gained the surname of Publicola. They 
 found her in an agony of sorrow. She told them 
 what had happened, enjoined them to avenge her 
 dishonour, atid then stabbed herself to death. 
 They all swore to avenge her. Brutus threw off 
 his assumed stupidity, and placed himself at their 
 head. They carried the corpse to Rome. Brutus, 
 who was Tribunus Celerum, summoned the people, 
 and related the deed of shame. All classes were 
 inflamed with the same indignation. A decree 
 was passed deposing the king, and banishing him 
 and his family from the city. The army, encamped 
 before Ardea, likewise renounced their allegiance 
 to the tyrant. Tarquinius, with his two sons, 
 Titus and Aruns, took refuge at Caere in Etruria. 
 Sextus repaired to Gabii, his own principality, 
 where he was shortly after murdered by the 
 friends of those whom he had put to death. Tar- 
 quinius reigned 24 years. He was banished b. c. 
 510. The people of Tarquinii and Veii espoused 
 the cause of the exiled tyrant, and marched 
 against Rome. The two consuls advanced to 
 meet them. A bloody battle was fought, in which 
 Bi-utus and Aruns, the son of Tm-quinius, slew 
 each other. Tarquinius next repaired to Lars 
 Porsena, the powerful king of Chisium, who 
 marched against Rome at the head of a vast aimy. 
 The history of this memorable expedition is re- 
 lated under PonsENA. After Porsena quitted 
 Rome, Tarquinius took refuge with his son-in- 
 law, Mamilius Octavius of Tusculum. Under the 
 guidance of the latter, the Latin states espoused 
 the cause of the exiled king, and declared war 
 against Rome. The contest was decided by the 
 celebrated battle of the lake Regillus, in which the 
 Romans gained the victoiy by the help of Castor 
 and Pollux. Tarquinius himself was wounded, 
 but escaped with his life ; his son Sextus is said 
 to have fallen in this battle, though, according to 
 another tradition, as we have already seen, he was 
 slain by the inhabitants of Gabii. Tarquinius 
 Superbus had now no other state to whom he 
 could apply for assistance. He had already sur- 
 vived all his family ; and he now fled to Aris- 
 tobulus at Cumae, where he died a wretched and 
 
746 
 
 TARRACINA. 
 
 childless old man. Such is the story of the 
 Tarquina according to the ancient writers ; but 
 this story must not be received as a real history. 
 The narrative contains numerous inconsistencies 
 and impossibilities. The following is only one 
 instance out of many. We are told that the 
 younger Tarquinius who was expelled from Rome 
 in mature age, was the son of the king who 
 ascended the throne 107 years previously in the 
 vigour of life ; and Servius Tultius, who mar- 
 ried the daughter of Tarquinius Priscus, shortly 
 before he ascended the throne, is represented im- 
 mediately after his accession as the father of two 
 daughters whom he marries to the brothers of his 
 own wife ! 
 
 Tarracina (Tarracinensls : Terracina)^ more 
 anciently called Anxur (Anxurates PI.), an ancient 
 town of Latium situated 58 miles S.E. of Rome on 
 the Via Appia and upon the coast, with a strongly 
 fortified citadel upon a high hill, on which stood 
 the temple of Jupiter Anxurus. It was probably 
 a Pelasgian town originally ; but it afterwards be- 
 longed to the Volsci, by whom it was called Anxur. 
 It was conquered by the Romans, who gave it the 
 name of Tarracina, and it was made a Roman 
 colony, B. c. 329. Three miles W. of the town 
 stood the grove of Feronia, with a temple of this 
 goddess. The ancient walls of the citadel of Tar- 
 racina are still visible on the slope of Montecchio. 
 
 Tarraco (Tarraconensis : Tarragona)^ an ancient 
 town on the E. coast of Spain situated on a rock 
 7'iO ft. high, between the river Iberus and the 
 P^yrenees on the river Tulcis. It was founded by 
 the Massilians, and was made the Bead quarters 
 of the 2 brothers P. and Cn. Scipio, in their cam- 
 paigns against the Carthaginians in the 2nd Punic 
 war. It subsequently became a populous and 
 flourishing town ; and Augustus, who wintered 
 here (b. c. 26) after his Cantabrian campaign, made 
 it the capital of one of the 3 Spanish provinces 
 {Hispania Tarraconensis) and also a Roman colony. 
 Hence we find it called Colonia Tarraconensis^ also 
 Col. Victvix Togata and Col. Julia Vicirix Tarra- 
 conensis. The modern town of Tarragona is built 
 to a great extent with the remains of the ancient 
 city ; and Roman inscriptions may frequently be 
 seen embedded in the walls of the modern houses. 
 The ancient Roman aqueduct, having been repaired 
 in modern times, still supplies the modem city 
 with water ; and at a short distance to the N. W. 
 of Tarragona, along the sea coast, is a Roman se- 
 pulchre called the tower of the Scipios, although 
 the real place of the burial of the Scipios is quite 
 unknown. 
 
 Tarninteims Paternus. [Paternus.] 
 
 Tarsia (Tapo-tTj : Ras Jird or C. Ceries)^ a 
 proniontorj' of Carmania, on the coast of the Per- 
 sian Gulf, near the frontier of Persia. The neigh- 
 bouring part of the coast of Carmania was called 
 Tarsi an a. 
 
 Tarsius ((5 Taptnos: Tarza or Balikesri), a 
 river of Mysia, rising in jM. Temnus, and flowing 
 N. E., through the Miletopolites Lacus, into the 
 Macestus. 
 
 Tarsus, Tarsos (Tapo-iJs, Tapaol, TepaSs, 0ap- 
 cr6s: Tapaevs^ Tarsensis : Tersus, Ru.), the chief 
 city of Cilicia, stood near the centre of Cilicia 
 Campestris, on the river Cydnus, about 12 miles 
 above its mouth, in a very large and fertile plain 
 at the foot of M. Taurus, the chief pass through 
 which (Pylaq Ciliciae) led down to Tarsus. Its 
 
 TARTARUS. 
 
 position gave it the full benefit of the natural ad- 
 vantages of a fertile country, and the command of 
 an important highway of commerce. It had also an 
 excellent harbour, 12 miles from the city, which is 
 filled up with sand. The city was of unknown 
 antiquity. Some ascribed its foundation to the 
 Assyrian king Sardanapalus ; others to Perseus, 
 in connection with whose legend the name of the 
 city is fancifully derived from a hoof (rapaos) 
 which the winged horse Pegasus lost here ; and 
 others to the Argive chieftain Triptolemus, whose 
 efiigy appears on the coins of the city. All that 
 can be determined with certainty seems to be that 
 it was a very ancient city of the Syrians, who 
 were the earliest known inhabitants of this part of 
 Asia Minor, and that it received Greek settlers at 
 an early period. In the time of Xenophon, who 
 gives us the first historical notice of Tarsus, it was 
 the capital of the Cilician prince Syennesis, and 
 was taken by Cyrus. [Comp. Cilicia.] At the 
 time of the Macedonian invasion, it was held by 
 the Persian troops, who were about to bum it, 
 when they were prevented by Alexander's arrival. 
 After playing an important part as a military post 
 in the wars of the successors of Alexander, and 
 under the Syrian kings, it became, by the peace 
 between the Romans and Antiochus the Great, the 
 frontier city of the Syrian kingdom on the N. W. 
 As the power of the Seleucidae declined, it suffered 
 much from the oppression of its governors, and 
 from the wars between the members of the royal 
 family. At the time of the Mithridatic War, it 
 suffered, on the one hand, from Tigranes, who 
 overran Cilicia, and, on the other, from the pirates, 
 who had their strongholds in the mountains of 
 Cilicia Aspera, and made frequent incursions into 
 the level country. From both these enemies it 
 was rescued by Pompey, who made it the capital 
 of the new Roman province of Cilicia, b. c. 66. In 
 the Civil War, it took part with Caesar, and as- 
 sumed, in his honour, the name of Juliopolia. 
 For this the inhabitants were severely punished by 
 Cassius, but were recompensed by Antony, who 
 made Tarsus a free city. Under Augustus, the 
 city obtained immunity from taxes, through the 
 influence of the emperor's tutor, the Stoic Atheno- 
 donis, who was a native of the place. It enjoyed 
 the favour, and was called by the names, of several 
 of the later emperors. It was the scene of im- 
 portant events in the wars with the Persians, the 
 Arabs, and the Turks, and also in the Crasades. 
 The people of Tai'sus were celebrated for their 
 mental power, their readiness in repartee, and 
 their fondness for the study of philosophy. Among 
 the most distinguished natives of the place were : 
 the Stoics, Antipater, Archederaus, Ileraclldes, 
 Nestor, Zeno, and the 2 Athenodori ; the Aca- 
 demic, Nestor; the Epicureans, Diogenes, cele- 
 brated for his powers of improvising, Lysias, who 
 was for a time tyrant of the city, and Plutiades ; 
 the tragic poets, Dionysides and Bion ; the satiric 
 poets, Demetrius, and Boethes, who was also a 
 troublesome demagogue ; the grammarians, Ar- 
 temidoms, Biodorus, and Hermngenes ; the his- 
 torian Hetmogenes ; the physicians, Herodotus 
 and Philo ; and, above all, the apostle Paul, who 
 belonged to one of several families of Jews, who 
 had settled at Tarsus in conpiderable numbers, 
 under the Persian and Syrian kings. 
 
 Tartarus (Taprapos), son of Aether and Ge, 
 and by his mother Ge the father of the Gigantes, 
 
TARTESSUS. 
 
 Typhoeus and Echidna. In the Iliad Tartarus is 
 a place beneath the earth, as far below Hades as 
 Heaven is above the earth, and closed by iron gates. 
 Later poets describe Tartarus as the place in the 
 lower world in which the spirits of wicked men are 
 punished for their crimes ; and sometimes they use 
 the name as synonymous with Hades or the lower 
 world in general. 
 
 Tartessus {TapTT}(r(r6s : TapTTjo-trios), an an- 
 cient town in Spain, and one of the chief settle- 
 ments of the Phoenicians, probably the same as 
 the Tarshish of Scripture. The position of this 
 town has occasioned much dispute. Most of the 
 ancient writers place it at the mouth of the river 
 Baetis, which, they say, was originally called 
 Tartessus. Others identify it, with more proba- 
 bility, with the city of Carteia on Mt. Calpe, the 
 rock of Gibraltar. The whole country W. of 
 Gibraltar was also called Tartessig. 
 
 Taruacon orTarascon (Tarusconienses : Taras- 
 con\ a town of the Sal yes in Gaul, on the E. bank 
 of the Rhone, N. of Arelate, and E. of Nemausus. 
 
 Tarvisium (Tarvisarms: Traviso), a town of 
 Vcnetia in the N. of Italy, on the river Silis, 
 wliich became the seat of a bishopric, and a place 
 of importance in the middle ages. 
 
 Tatianus {TaTiavS^)^ a Christian writer of the 
 2nd century, was born in Assyria, and was origi- 
 nally a teacher of rhetoric. He was afterwards 
 converted to Christianity, according to some ac- 
 counts, by Justin Martyr, with whom at any rate 
 he was very intimate. After Justin's death Tatian 
 quitted Rome, where he had resided for some time, 
 and returned into the East. There he imbibed and 
 promulgated views of a Gnostic character, and gave 
 rise to a new sect, called after him Tatiani. Tatian 
 wrote numerous works, of which there is still ex- 
 tant an Address to the Greeks (Jiphs "EW-qvas)^ in 
 which he points out the superiority of Christianity 
 to the heathen religion. The best edition of this 
 work i? by Worth, Oxford, 1700. 
 
 T. Tatiu3,Idng of the Sabines. [Romulus.] 
 
 Tatta (^TaTTa: Tuz-Gol)^ a great salt lake 
 in the centre of Asia Minor, on the Phrygian 
 table-land, on the confines of Phrygia, Galatia, 
 (Jappadocia, and Lycaonia. It supplies the whole 
 8urroundi]ig country with salt, as it doubtless did 
 in ancient times. 
 
 Tauchira or Teuchira (Tayx^ipa, Teuxetpa : 
 Taukra^ Ru.), a colony of Cyrene, on the N. W. 
 coast of Cyrenaica, in N. Africa. Under the Pto- 
 iL'mies, it was called Arsinne, and was one of the 
 5 cities of the Libyan Pentapolis. It became a 
 Roman colony, and was fortified by Justinian. It 
 was a chief seat of the worship of Cybele, who had 
 here a great temple and an annual festival. 
 
 Taulantii {TavXavTioi)^ a people of Illyria, in 
 the neighbourhood of Epidamnus, frequently men- 
 tioned by the Greek and Roman writers. One of 
 tiieir most powerful kings was Glaucias, a contera- 
 ])orary of Alexander the Great, who fought against 
 the latter monarch, and at a later period afforded 
 an asylum to the infant Pyrrhus, and refused to 
 surrender him to Cassander. ^ 
 
 Taunus {Taunus)^ a range of mountains in 
 Germany, at no great distance from the confluence 
 of the Moenus {Main) and the Rhine. 
 
 Taurasia. [Taurini.]- 
 
 Taurentum and Taurois {Tavpohnov^ Tav- 
 p6€is^ -evTos)f a fortress belonging to Massiliajand 
 near the latter citj', on the S. coast of Gaul. 
 
 TAURUS. 
 
 7-i7 
 
 Tauri, a wild and savage people in European 
 Sarmatia, who sacrificed all strangers to a goddess 
 whom the Greeks identified with Artemis. An 
 account of this goddess is given elsewhere (p. 94, 
 a). The Tauri dwelt in the peninsula which was 
 called after them Chersoneaus Taurica, [Chersu- 
 
 NESUS, No. 2.] 
 
 Taurianum (Taureito)^ a town of Bruttium on 
 the Via Popilia, 23 miles S. E. of Vibo. 
 
 Taunni, a people of Liguria dwelling on the 
 upper course of the Po, at the foot of the Alps. 
 Their chief town was Taurasia, afterwards colo- 
 nised by Augustus, and called Augusta Tauri- 
 norum {Turin). 
 
 Tatiris (Turcot), a small island off the coast of 
 Illyria, between Phai'us and Corcyra. 
 
 Taurisci, a Celtic people in Noricum, and pro- 
 bably the old Celtic name of the entire population 
 of the country. They were subsequently called 
 Norici by the Romans after their capital Noreia. 
 
 Taurois. [Taurentum.] 
 
 Tatiromeiiium {TavpojjLhiov : TavpofxeyirTjs, 
 Taxu-omenitanus : Taormina), a city on the E. 
 coast of Sicily, situated on Mt. Taurus, from which 
 it derived its name, and founded b. c. 358 by 
 Andromachus with the remains of the inhabitants 
 of Naxos, whose town had been destroj'^ed by 
 Dionysius nearly 60 years before. [Naxos, 
 No. 2.] Tauromeniura soon became a large and 
 floiu:ishing city ; but in consequence of its espousing 
 the side of Sex. Pompey against Augustus, most 
 of its inhabitants were expelled from the citj-, and 
 their place supplied by a colony of Roman vete- 
 rans : hence we find the town called CuL Augusta 
 Tauromenitana. From this time Tauromeniura 
 became a place of secondary importance. The 
 hills in the neighbourhood produced excellent 
 wine. There are still remains of the ancient town, 
 of which the most important is a splendid theatre 
 cut out of the rock, and capable of holding from 
 30,000 to 40,000 spectators, from which we may 
 form some idea of the populousnesa of Tauro- 
 raenium. 
 
 Tanroscyth-ae [Sctthotauri]. 
 
 Taurunum (Semlin), a strongly fortified town 
 in Pannonia at the confluence of the Savus and 
 the Danube. 
 
 Taurus, Statilius, a distinguished general ol 
 Octavian. At the battle of Actium, b. c. 31, he 
 commanded the land-forces of Octavian, which 
 were drawn up on the shore. In 29 he defeated 
 the Cantabri, Vaccaei,and Astures. He was consul 
 in 26; and in 16, when the emperor went to Gaul, 
 the government of the city and of Italy was left tc 
 Taurus, with the title of praefectus urbi. In thf 
 fourth consulship of Augustus, 30, Taurus built ar 
 amphitheatre of stone at his own expense. [Roma. 
 p. 662.] 
 
 Taurus (6 Taupoy, from the Aramaean Tur, c 
 Jii(/h mountain : Taurus^ Ala-Dagh^ and other spe- 
 cial names), a great mountain chain of Asia. Ir 
 its widest extent, the name was applied, by tht 
 later geograpliers, to the whole of the great chain 
 which runs through Asia from W. to E., forming 
 the S. margin of the great table-laud of Centra 
 Asia, Avhich it divides from the Mediterraneai 
 coast of Asia Minor, from Syria and the Tigri; 
 and Euphrates valley, from the low lands on th- 
 N. shure of the Indian Ocean, and from the *, 
 great peninsulas of India. But this is not a commoi 
 use of the name. In its usual signification, it de 
 
ns 
 
 TAVIUM. 
 
 notes the mountain-chain in the S. of Asia Minor, 
 ■which begins at the Sacrum or Chelidonium Prom, 
 at the S. E. angle of Lycia, surrounds the pulf of 
 I'amphylia, passing through the middle of Pisidia ; 
 then along the S. frontier of Lycaonia and Cappa- 
 docia, which it divides from Cilicia and Com- 
 magene ; thence, after being broken through by 
 the Euphrates, it proceeds almost due E. through 
 the S. of Armenia, forming the water-shed between 
 the sources of the Tigris on the S., and the streams 
 which feed the upper Euphrates and the Araxes 
 on the N. ; thus it continues as far as the S. mar- 
 gin of the lake Arsissa, where it ceases to bear the 
 name of Taurus, and is continued in the chain 
 which, under the names of Niphates, Zagros, &c., 
 forms the N. E. margin of the Tigris and Euphrates 
 valley. This main chain sends off branches which 
 are nearly as important as itself. In the middle of 
 the frontier between Cilicia and Cappadocia, E. of 
 the Cilician Gates, the Antitaurus branches off 
 to the N. E. In the E. of Cilicia, the Amanus 
 goes off to the S. W. and S. Immediately E. of 
 the Euphrates, a branch proceeds to the S. E., 
 forming, under the name of Masius, the frontier 
 between Armenia and Mesopotamia, and dividing 
 the valley of the Upper Tigris from the waters 
 which flow through Mesopotamia into the Eu- 
 phrates. The Taurus is of moderate height, for 
 the most part steep, and wooded to the summit. 
 Its general character greatly resembles the moun- 
 tains of central Germany. 
 
 Tavium (Taouioi/, Taijioy : prob. BogTmz Kieni, 
 Ru.), the capital of the Trocmi, in Galatia, stood 
 on the E. side of the Halys, but at some distance 
 from the river, and formed the centre of meeting 
 for roads leading to all parts of Asia Minor. It 
 was therefore a place of considerable commercial 
 importance. It had a temple and bronze colossus 
 of Zeus. 
 
 Taxila or Taziala (ri Ta|(Aa, Ta|^aAa), an im- 
 portant city of India intra Gangem, stood in a 
 large and fertile plain between the Indus and the 
 Hydaspes, and was the capital of the Indian king 
 Taxiles, in the time of Alexander. Its position 
 has not been identified. It is not, as Major 
 Hennell supposed, Attoch; and there is no large 
 city remaining which exactly answers to its po- 
 sition . 
 
 Taxiles (Ta^iA.7js). L An Indian prince or 
 king, who reigned over the tract between the Indus 
 and the Hydaspes, at the period of the expedition 
 of Alexander, B.C. 327. His real name was Mophis, 
 or Ompliis, and the Greeks appear to have called 
 him Taxiles or Taxilas, from the name of his ca- 
 pital city of Taxila, near the modem Attock. On 
 the approach of Alexander he hastened to meet 
 him with valuable presents, and was in consequence 
 confirmed in his kingdom by the Macedonian mo- 
 narch.— 2. A general in the service of Mithridates 
 the Great, and one of those in whom he reposed 
 the highest confidence. 
 
 Taygete (TaiJ7eT77), daughter of Atlas and Ple- 
 ione, one of the Pleiades, from whom Mt. Taygetus 
 in Laconia is said to have derived its name. By 
 Zeus she became the mother of Lacedaemon and 
 of Eiirotas. 
 
 Taygetus orTaygetum or Taygeta (Taifyeros, 
 TaiJ'7€Toi', Tcs "Vaxiysra pi.), a lofty range of moun- 
 tains of a wild and savage character, separating 
 Laconica and Messenia, and extending from the 
 frontiers of Arcadia down to the Prom. Taenarum. , 
 
 TEGEA. 
 
 Its highest points were called Taletus and Evoraa, 
 about 3 miles S. of Sparta. Taygetus is said to 
 have derived its name from the nymph Taygete. 
 
 Teanum (Teanensis). 1. Apiiluin (nr. Ponie 
 Rotlo), a town of Apulia on the river Frento and 
 the confines of the Frentani, 18 miles from Lari- 
 num. — 2. Sidicinum (Teano)^ an important town 
 of Campania, and the capital of the Sidicini, situ- 
 ated on the N. slope of Mt. Massicus and on the 
 Via Pi-aenestina, 6 miles W. of Cales. It was 
 made a Roman colony by Augustus ; and in its 
 neighbourhood were some celebrated medicinal 
 springs. 
 
 Teams {Teapos: Teara^ Deara or Dere\ a 
 river of Thrace, the waters of which were useful 
 in curing cutaneous diseases. Herodotus relates 
 that it rises from 38 fountains, all flowing from the 
 same rock, some warm and others cold. It falls 
 into the Contadesdus ; this into the Agrianes ; and 
 the latter again into the Hebrus. 
 
 Teate (Teatinus: Chieti)^ the capital of the 
 Marrucini, situated on a steep hill on the river 
 Atemus, and on the road from Atemum to Cor- 
 finium. 
 
 Tecmeasa (TeV^Tj trca), the daughter of the 
 Phrygian king Teleutas, whose territor}^ was ra- 
 vaged by the Greeks during a predatory excursion 
 from Troy. Tecmessa was taken prisoner, and was 
 given to Ajax, the son of Telamon, by whom she 
 had a son, Eurysaces, 
 
 Tecmoa (T^Kfitav), a town of the Molossi in 
 Epirus. 
 
 Tectaens and Angelion (TcKraTos koX *Pi.yy^~ 
 \i(av\ early Greek statuaries, who are always 
 mentioned together. They were pupils of Dipoenus 
 and Scyllis, and instructors of Callon of Aegina ; 
 and therefore they must have flourished about B.C. 
 548. 
 
 Tectosages (Te/cTfJo-ayes). 1. In Gallia. [VoL- 
 CAE.] — 2. In Asia Minor. [Galatia.] 
 
 Tecum or Ticis {Tecli\ a river in Gallia Narbo- 
 nensis in the territory of the Sardones, called 
 lUiberis by the Greeks from a town of this name 
 upon the river. 
 
 Tedanius, a river in Illyricum, separating 
 lapydia and Liburnia. 
 
 Tegea (T67ea). 1. (TeyearTjs : Piali), an im- 
 portant city of Arcadia, and the capital of the 
 district Tegeatis (Teyeans), which was bounded 
 on the E. by Argolis and Laconica, on the S. by 
 Laconica, on the W. by Maenalia, and on the N. 
 by the territory of Mantinea. It was one of the 
 most ancient towns of Arcadia, and is said to have 
 been founded by Tegeates, the son of Lycaon. 
 It was formed out of 9 small townships, which 
 were united into one city by Aleus, who was thus 
 regarded as the real founder of the city. At a 
 later time we find Tegea divided into 4 tribes, 
 each of which possessed a statue of Apollo Agyieus, 
 who was especially honoured in Tegea. The 
 Tegeatae long resisted the supremacy of Sparta ; 
 and it was not till the Spartans discovered the 
 bones of Orestes that they were enabled to con- 
 quer this people. The Tegeatae sent 3000 men 
 to the battle of Plataea, in which they were dis- 
 tinguished for their bravery. They remained 
 faithful to Sparta in the Peloponnesian war; but 
 after the battle of Leuctr.i they joined the rest of 
 the Arcadians in establishing their independence. 
 During the wars of the Achaean league Tegea 
 was taken both by Cleomenea, king of Sparta, and 
 
TELAMON. 
 
 Antigonus Doson, king of Macedonia, and the 
 ally of the Achaeana. It continued to be a place 
 of importance in the time both of Strabo and 
 Pausanias. Its most splendid public building was 
 the temple of Athena, which was the largest and 
 most magnificent building in the Peloponnesus. 
 It was erected soon after b. c. 394, in place of a 
 more ancient temple of this goddess, which was 
 burnt down in this year. The architect was 
 Scopaa, and the sculpture in the pediments were 
 probably by the hand of Scopas himself. ^2. A 
 town in Crete, said to have been founded by Aga- 
 memnon. 
 
 Telamon (T6\a,ucJi/), son of Aeacus and Endeis, 
 and brother of Peleus. Having assisted Peleus in 
 slaying their half-brother Phocas [Peleus], Te- 
 lamon was expelled from Aegina, and came to Sala- 
 mis. Here he was first married to Glance, daughter 
 of Cychreus, king of the island, on whose death Te- 
 lamon became king of Salamis. He afterwards 
 married Periboea or Eriboea, daughter of Alcathous, 
 by whom he became the father of Ajax, who is 
 hence frequently called Telamoniades, and Tdamo- 
 nius Itcros. Telamon himself was one of the 
 Calydonian hunters and one of the Argonauts. 
 He was also a great friend of Hercules, whom 
 he joined in his expedition against Laomedon 
 of Troy, which city he was the first to enter. 
 He there erected an altar to Hercules Callinicus or 
 Alexicacua. Hercules, in return, gave to him 
 Theanira or Hesione, a daughter of Laomedon, 
 by whom he became the father of Teucer and 
 Trarabelus. On this expedition Telamon and Her- 
 cules also fought against the Meropes in Cos, on 
 account of Chalciope, the beautiful daughter of 
 Eiirypylus, the king of the Meropes, and against the 
 giant Alcioneus, on the isthmus of Corinth. Tela- 
 mon likewise accompanied Hercules on his expe- 
 dition against the Amazons, and slew Melanippe. 
 
 Telamon {Telavwne)^ a town and harbour of 
 Etruria, a few miles S. of the river Umbro, said to 
 have been founded by Telamon on his return from 
 tlie Argonautic expedition. In its neighbourhood 
 • a great victory was gained over the Gauls in b c. 
 225. It was here that Marins landed on his 
 return from Africa in 87. Telamon was un- 
 doubtedly the port of the great Etruscan city 
 recently discovered in its neighbourhood, which is 
 supposed to be the ancient Vetulonia. 
 
 Telchiues (T^Kx^ves), a family or a tribe, said 
 to have been descended from Thalassa or Poseidon. 
 They are represented in 3 different aspects : — 1. 
 As cultivators of t/ie soil and ministers of tlie gods. 
 As such they came from Crete to Cyprus and from 
 thence to Rhodes, where they founded Camirus, 
 lalysus, and Lindus. Rhodes, which was named 
 after them Telclmiis^ was abandoned by them, be- 
 cause they foresaw that the island would be inun- 
 dated. They then spread in different directions. 
 Lycus went to Lycia, where he built the temple of 
 the Lycian Apollo. This god had been worshipped 
 by them at Lindus, and Hera at lalysus and 
 Camirus. Nymphs also are called after them 
 Telchjniae. Poseidon was intrusted to them by 
 Rhea, and they brought him up in conjunction 
 with Caphira, a daughter of Oceanua. Rhea, 
 Apollo and Zens, however, are also described as 
 hostile to the Telchines. Apollo is said to have 
 assumed the shape of a wolf, and to have thus 
 destroyed the Telchines, and Zeus to have over- 
 whelmed them by an inundation. 2. As sorcerers 
 
 TELEMACHUS. 
 
 7^I> 
 
 and envious daemons. Their very eyes and aspect 
 are said to have been destructive. They had it in 
 their power to bring on hail, rain, and snow, and 
 to assume any form they pleased ; they further 
 mixed Stygian water with sulphur, in order thereby 
 to destroy animals and plants. 3. As artists^ for 
 they are said to have invented useful arts and in- 
 stitutions, and to have made images of the gods. 
 They worked in brass and iron, made the sickle of 
 Cronos and the trident of Poseidon. This last 
 feature in the character of the Telchines seems to 
 have been the reason of their being classed with the 
 Idaean Dactyls ; and Strabo even states that those 
 of the 9 Rhodian Telchines who accompanied Rhea 
 to Crete, and there brought up the infant Zeus, 
 were called Curetes. 
 
 Teleboae. [Taphiae,] 
 
 Teleboas (T7jA€e(ias),ariver of Armenia Major, 
 falling into the Euphrates ; probably identical 
 with the Arsanias. 
 
 Teleclides(TjjAeK\ei57;s), a distinguished Athe- 
 nian comic poet of the Old Comedy, flourished 
 about the same time as Crates and Cratinus, and a 
 little earlier than Aristophanes. He was an earnest 
 advocate of peace, and a great admirer of the an- 
 cient manners of the age of Themistocles. 
 
 Teleclus (Ti^^eKAos), king of Sparta, 8th of the 
 Agids, and son of Archelaus. He was slain by 
 the Messenians, in a temple of Artemis Limnatis, 
 on the borders. His death was the immediate oc- 
 casion of the 1st Messenian war, b. c. 743. 
 
 Telegonus (TrjAe'-yoPos), son of Ulysses and 
 Circe. After Ulysses had returned to Ithaca, 
 Circe sent out Telegonus in search of his father. 
 A storm cast his ship on the coast of Ithaca, and 
 being pressed by hunger, he began to plunder the 
 fields. Ulysses and Telemachus being informed of 
 the ravages caused by the stranger,' went out to 
 fight against him ; but Telegonus ran Ulysses 
 through with a spear which he had received from 
 his mother. At the command of Athena, Telego- 
 nus, accompanied by Telemachus and Penelope, 
 went to Circe in Aeaea, there buried the body of 
 Ulysses, and married Penelope, by whom he be- 
 came the father of Italus. In Italy Telegonus was 
 believed to have been the founder of the towns of 
 Tusculura and Praeneste. He left a daughter Ma- 
 milia, from whom the family of the Mamilii traced 
 their descent. 
 
 Telemaclius (TijAe/ioxos), son of Ulysses and 
 Penelope. He was still an infant when his father 
 went to Troy ; and when the latter had been absent 
 from home nearly 20 years, Telemachus went to 
 Pylos and Sparta, to gather information concerning 
 hira. He was hospitably received by Nestor, who 
 sent his own son to conduct Telemachus to Sparta. 
 Menelaus also received him kindly, and communi- 
 cated to him the prophecy of Proteus concerning 
 Ulysses. From Sparta Telemachus returned home ; 
 and on his arrival there he found his father, whom 
 he assisted in slaying the suitors. According to 
 some accounts, Telemachus became the father of 
 Perseptolis either by Polycaste, the daughter oi 
 Nestor, or by Nausicaa, the daughter of Alcinoua. 
 Others relate that he was induced by Athena to 
 marry Circe, and became by her the fatlier of La- 
 tinus ; or that he married Cassiphone, a daughter 
 of Circe, but in a quai'rel with his mother-in-law 
 slew her, for which he was in his turn killed by 
 Cassiphone. One account makes Telemachus the 
 founder of Clusium in Etruria. 
 
750 
 
 TELEMUS. 
 
 Telemns (TTJAe/ios), son of Eurymua, and a cele- 
 brated soothsayer. 
 
 Telepbassa (TTjAe'^jao-o-a), -wife of Agenor, and 
 mother of Europa, Cadmus, Phoenix, and Cilix. 
 She, with her sons, went out in search of Europa, 
 who had been earned off by Zeus ; but she died 
 on the expedition, and was buried by Cadmus. 
 
 Telephus (TtjAc^os), son of Hercules and Auge, 
 the daugliter of king Aleus of Tegea. As soon as 
 lie was born he was exposed by his grandfather, 
 but was reared by a hind (eAa^os), and educated 
 by king Corythus in Ajcadia. On reaching man- 
 hood, he consulted the Delpliic oracle to learn his 
 parentage, and was ordered to go to king Teuthras 
 in Mj'-sia. He there found his mother, and suc- 
 ceeded Teuthras on the throne of Mysia. He 
 married Laodice or Astyoche, a daughter of Priam ; 
 and he attempted to prevent the Greeks from land- 
 ing on the coast of Mysia. Dionysus, however, 
 caused him to stumble over a vine, whereupon he 
 was wounded by Achilles. Being informed by an 
 oracle that the wound could only be cured by him 
 who had inflicted it, Telephus repaired to the Gre- 
 cian camp ; and as the Greeks had likewise learnt 
 from an oracle that without the aid of Telephus 
 they could not reach Troy, Achilles cured Telephus 
 by means of the rust of the spear by which he 
 had been wounded. Telephus, in return, pointed 
 out to the Greeks the road which they had to take. 
 
 Telepte. [Thala.] 
 
 Telesia (Telesinus : Telese\ a town in Sam- 
 nium, on the road from Allifae to Beneventum, 
 taken by Hannibal in the 2nd Punic war, and 
 afterwards retaken by the Romans. It was colo- 
 nised by Augustus with a body of veterans. It 
 was the birthplace of Pontius, who fought against 
 Sulla, and who was hence sumamed Telesinus. 
 
 TelesLUa(T6AeViAAa),ofArgos,acelebrated lyric 
 poetess and heroine, floui'ished about b. c. 510. In 
 the war of Argos against Sparta, she not only en- 
 couraged her coimtrymen by her lyre and song, but 
 she took up arms at the head of a band of her 
 countrywomen, and greatly contributed to the vic- 
 tory which they gained over the Spartans. In 
 memory of this exploit, her statue was erected in 
 the temple of Aphrodite at Argos, with the em- 
 blems of a poetess and a heroine ; Ares was wor- 
 shipped in that city as a patron deity of women ; 
 and the prowess of her female associates was com- 
 memorated by the annual festival cabled JFI^hH si ica. 
 Only 2 complete verses of her poetry are extant. 
 
 Telesinus, Pontius. [Pontius J 
 
 Telestas or Telestss (TeAeVra?, TeAeVrTjy), of 
 Selinus, a distinguished poet of the later Athenian 
 dithyramb, flourished e. c. 398. A few lines of 
 his poetry are preserved by Athenaeus. 
 
 Telethrius (TeAeflptoy), a mountain in the N. of 
 Euboea near Histiaea. 
 
 Tellenae, a town in Latium between the Later 
 Via Ostiensis and the Via Appia, destroyed by 
 Ancus Martins. 
 
 Tellus. [Gaea.] 
 
 Telmessus or Telmissus (TeA/iTj tro-iJs, TeA- 
 uia-irSs : TeAjLtijo-creys, TeA/ito-ffew'?). 1. (Mei, the 
 port of Maori, Ru.), a city of Lycia, near the 
 borders of Caria, on a gidf called Telmissicus 
 Sinus, and close to the promontory Telmissis. — 3. 
 A town of Caria, 60 stadia (G geog. miles) from 
 Halicamasaus, celebrated for the skill of its in- 
 habitants in divination. It is often identified 
 with the former place. 
 
 TEMPE. 
 
 Telo Martius (Toulon), a port-town of Gallia 
 Narbonensis on the Mediterranean, is rarely men- 
 tioned by the ancient writers, and did not become 
 a place of importance till the downfal of the Roman 
 empire. 
 
 Teios (TtjAo? : T^Aioy : Tehs or Plskopi), a 
 small island of the Carpathian sea, one of the 
 Sporades, lay off the const of Caria S.W. of the 
 mouth of the Sinus Doridls, between Rhodes and 
 Nisyrus. It was also called Agathussa. . 
 
 Telphussa, [Thelpusa.] 
 
 Temenidae. [Temenus.] 
 
 Temeuites (Te^ue^/iTTjs), a surname of Apollo, 
 derived from his sacred temenus in the neighbour- 
 hood of Syracuse, 
 
 Temenus (TTj/xei/os), son of Aristomachus, was 
 one of the Heraclidae who invaded Peloponnesus. 
 After the conquest of the peninsula, he received 
 Argos as his share. His descendants, the Teme- 
 nidae, being expelled from Argos, are said to have 
 founded the kingdom of Macedonia, whence the 
 kings of Macedonia called themselves Temenidae. 
 
 Temesa or Tempsa (Temesaeus or Tempsanus: 
 Torre del Lupi), a town in Bruttiinn on the Sinus 
 Terinaeus, was one of the most ancient Ausoniaa 
 towns in the S. of Italy, and is said to have been 
 afterwards colonised by a body of Aetolians under 
 Thoas. At a still later time it was successively in 
 the possession of the Locrians, of the Bruttians, 
 and finally of the Romans, who colonised it in b. c. 
 196. Some of the ancients identified this town 
 with Temese mentioned by Homer as celebrated 
 for its copper mines ; but the Homeric town was 
 probably in Cypms. 
 
 Temnus. 1. (ri Tiifivov opos : Morad or Ah 
 Dagh), a mountain of Mysia, extending E.-ward 
 from Ida to the borders of Phrygia, and dividing 
 Mysia into 2 parts. It contains the sources of the 
 Macestus, M3'siu3, Caicus, and Evenus. — 2. 
 {Menimen ? or Guzal-Hisar?)^ a city of Aeolis in 
 the N.W. of Lydia (some say in Mysia), on the 
 W. bank of the Hermus, 3U miles S. of Cyme. 
 It was nearly destroyed by an earthquake iu the 
 reign of Tiberius, and in that of Titus (Pliny's, 
 time) it no longer existed. 
 
 Tempe (Td/xTn) contr. of Te/i^ea), a beautiful 
 and romantic valley in the N. of Thessaly between 
 Mts. Olympus and Ossa, through which the Peneus 
 escapes into the sea. The lovely scenery of this 
 glen is frequently described by the ancient poets 
 and declaimers ; and it was also celebrated as one 
 of the favourite haunts of Apollo, who had trans- 
 planted his laurel from this spot to Delphi. The 
 whole valley is rather less than 5 miles in length, 
 and opens gradually to the E. into a spacious plain. 
 Terape is also of great importance in historj', as it 
 is the only pass through which an army can invade 
 Thessaly from the N. In some parts the rocks on 
 each side of the Peneus approach so close to each 
 other as only to leave room between tliem for the 
 stream ; and the road is obliged to be cut out of 
 the rock in the narrowest point. Tempe is the only 
 channel through which the waters of the Thessa- 
 lian plain descend into the sea ; and it was the 
 common opinion in antiquity that these waters had 
 once covered the country with a vast lake, till an 
 outlet was foraoed for them by some great convul- 
 sion in nature, which rent the rocks of Tempe 
 asunder. So celebrated was the scenery of Tempe 
 that its name was given to any beautiful valley. 
 Thus we find a Tempe in the laud of the Sahines 
 
TEMPYRA. 
 
 nearReate, throiigli which the river Velinus flowed ; 
 and also a Terape in Sicily, tlirough which the 
 river Helorua flowed, hence called by Ovid Tempe 
 Heloria. 
 
 Tempyra, a town in Thrace at the foot of a 
 narrow mountain pass between Mt. Rhodope and 
 the coast. 
 
 Teucteri or Tenchteri, a people of Germany 
 dwelling on the Rhine between the Ruhr and the 
 Sieg, S. of the Usipetes, in conjunction with whom 
 their name usually occurs. They crossed the Rhine 
 together with the Usipetes, with the intention of 
 settling in Gaul ; but they were defeated by Caesar 
 with great slaughter, and those who escaped took 
 refuge in the territories of their S. neighbours, the 
 Sygarabri. The Tencteri afterwards belonged to 
 the league of the Cherusci, and at a still later 
 period they are mentioned as a portion of the con- 
 federacy of the Franks. 
 
 Tenedos or Tenedns (TeVeSos : T^viSios), a 
 small island of the Aegean sea, off the coast of 
 Troas, of an importance very disproportionate to 
 its size, on account of its position near the mouth 
 of the Hellespont, from which it is about 12 miles 
 distant. Its distance from the coast of the Troad 
 was 40 stadia (4 geog. miles), and from Lesbos 
 66 stadia : its circuit was 80 stadia. It was 
 called, in early times, by the names of CaJydna, 
 Leucophrys, Phoenice, and Lyrnessus, The 
 mythical derivation of its usual name is from 
 Tenes, son of Cycnus. It had an Aeolian city of 
 the same name, with 2 harbours. Its name ap- 
 pears in several proverbs, such asTej/e'5ios TreAeKus, 
 T. &vdpa>iTo<!, T. auA7jTi]s, T. KaicSv, It appears in 
 the legend of the Trojan "War as the station to 
 which the Greeks withdrew their fleet, in order to 
 induce the Trojans to think that they had departed, 
 and to receive the wooden horse. In the Persian 
 War it was used by Xerxes as a naval station. 
 It afterwards became a tributary ally of Athens, 
 and- adhered to her during the whole of the Pelo- 
 ponnesian War, and down to the peace of An- 
 talcidas, by which it was siuTendered to the 
 Persians. At the Macedonian conquest the Te- 
 nedians regained their liberty. In the war against 
 Philip III., Attalus and the Romans used Tenedos 
 as a naval station, and in the Mithridatic War 
 LucuUus gained a naval victory over Mithridates 
 off the island. About this time the Tenedians 
 placed themselves under the protection of Alex- 
 andria Troas. Tlie island was celebrated for the 
 beauty of its women. 
 
 Tenes or Tennes (T^rcTjs), son of Cycnus and 
 Proclea, and brother of Hemithea, Cycnus was 
 king of Colonae in Troas. His 2nd wife was Phi- 
 lonome, who fell in love with her stepson ; but as 
 he repulsed her advances, she accused him to his 
 father, who threw both his son and daughter in a 
 chest into the sea. But the chest was driven on 
 the coast of the island of Leucophrys, of which the 
 inhabitants elected him king, and which he called 
 Tenedos, after his own name. Cycnus at length 
 heard of the innocence of his son, killed Philonome, 
 and went to his children in Tenedos. Here both 
 Cycnus and Tenes were slain by Acliilles. Tenes 
 was afterwards worshipped as a hero in Tenedos. 
 
 Tenos (T^vos: T-fiftos: Tlno)^ a small island 
 in the Aegaean sea, S. E. of Andros and N. of 
 Delos. It is about 15 miles in length. It was 
 originally called Hydi-ussu {"^Spovaaa) because it 
 was well watered, and OpMusiia {^Ocpiuvao-a) be- 
 
 TERENTIANUS. 
 
 7.^1 
 
 cause it abounded in snakes. It possessed a town 
 of the same name on the site of the modern S. AH- 
 colo. It had also a celebrated temple of Poseidon, 
 which is mentioned in the time of the emperor 
 Tiberius, The wine of Tenos was celebrated in 
 antiquity and is still valued at the present day, 
 
 Tentyra (ra Teurvpa : TepTupiTTjs, Tentyrites : 
 Denderah, Ru.), a city of Upper Egypt, on the 
 W. bank of the Nile, between Abydos and Coptos, 
 with celebrated temples of Athor (the Egyptian 
 Venus), Isis, and Typlmn. Its people were dis- 
 tinguished for their hatred of the crocodile ; and 
 upon this and the contrary propensities of the 
 people of Ombi, Juvenal founds his 15th satire, 
 [Omei.] There are still magnificent renuiins of 
 the temples of Athor and of Isis : in the latter 
 was found the celebrated Zodiac, which is now 
 preserved at Paris, 
 
 Teos {t} Tews : T-n'ios, Teius ; Sighojik), one of 
 the Ionian cities on the coast of Asia Minor, re- 
 no wnea as the birthplace of the lyric poet Ana- 
 creon. It stood on the S. side of the isthmus 
 which connects the peninsula of M. Mimas with 
 the mainland of Lydia, at the bottom of the bay 
 between the promontories of Coryceum and Myon- 
 nesus. It was a flourishing seaport, until, to free 
 themselves from the Persian yoke, most of its in- 
 habitants retired to Abdera. It was still, how- 
 ever, a place of importance in the time of the 
 Roman emperors. It had 2 harbours, and a cele- 
 brated temple of Dionysus. 
 
 Teredon {TepriSwv : prob. Dorak), a city of 
 Babylonia, on the W. side of the Tigris, below its 
 junction with the Euphrates, and not far from its 
 mouth. It was a great emporium for the traffic 
 with Arabia, It is no doubt the Diridotis {AipL- 
 dwTts') of Arrian. 
 
 Terentia. 1. Wife of M. Cicero, the orator, to 
 whom she bore 2 children, a son and daughter. 
 She was a woman of sound sense and great reso- 
 lution ; and her firmness of character was of no 
 small service to her weak and vacillating husband in 
 some important periods of his life. On his banish- 
 ment in B. c. 50, TuUia by her letters endeavoured 
 to keep up Cicero's fainthig spirits, and she vigo- 
 rously exerted herself on his behalf among his 
 friends in Italy, During the civil war however 
 Cicero was offended with her conduct, and divorced 
 her in 46. Shortly afterwards he married Publilia, 
 a young girl of whose property he had the manage- 
 ment. Terentia could not have been less than 50 
 at the time of her divorce, and therefore it is not 
 probable that she married again. It is related 
 indeed, by Jerome, that she married Sallust the 
 historian, and subsequently Messala Corvinus ; but 
 these marriages are not mentioned by any other 
 writer, and may therefore be rejected, Terentia is 
 said to have attained the age of 103. — 2. Also 
 called Terentilla, the wife of Maecenas, and also 
 one of the favourite mistresses of Augustus. The 
 intrigue between Augustus and Terentia is said to 
 have disturbed the good understanding which sub- 
 sisted between the emperor and his minister, and 
 finally to have occasioned the disgrace of the 
 latter. 
 
 Terentianua Maurus, a Roman poet, probably 
 lived at the end of the first or the beginning of the 
 second century under Nerva and Tr.njan, and was 
 a native of Africa, as his surname, Maurus, indi- 
 cates. There is still extant a poem of Terentianus, 
 intitled De Uteris, Si/llabis^ Pedtbus, Metris, which 
 
752 
 
 TERENTIUS. 
 
 treats of prosody and the different kinds of metre 
 with, much elegance and skill. The work is printed 
 by Santen and Van Lennep, Traj. ad Rhen. 1825, 
 and hy Lachmann, Berol. 1836. 
 
 P. Terentiixs Afer, usually called Terence, the 
 celebrated comic poet, was boni at Carthage, b. o. 
 1 95. By birth or purchase he became the sla\'e of 
 P. Terentius Lucanus, a Roman senator. A hand- 
 some person and promising talents recommended 
 Terence to his master, who afforded him the best 
 education of the age and finally manumitted him. 
 On his manumission, according to the usual prac- 
 tice, Terence assumed Lis patron's nomen, Te- 
 rentias, having been previously called Publius 
 or Publipor. The Andria was the first play 
 offered by Terence for representation. The curule 
 aediles referred the piece to Caecilius, then one of 
 the most popular play-writers at Rome. Unknown 
 and meanly clad, Terence began to read from a low 
 stool his opening scene. A few verses showed the 
 elder poet that no ordinary writer was before him, 
 and the young aspirant, then in his 27 th year, was 
 invited to share the couch and supper of his judge. 
 This reading of the Andfia^ however, must have 
 preceded its performance nearly two years, for 
 Caecilius died in 168, and it was not acted till 
 166. Meanwhile, copies were in circulation, envy 
 ■was awakened, and Lusciua Lavinius, a veteran, 
 and not ver}' successful play-writer, began his un- 
 wearied attacks on the dramatic and personal cha- 
 racter of the author. The Andria was successful, 
 and, aided by the accomplishments and good ad- 
 dress of Terence himself, was the means of intro- 
 ducing him to the most refined and intellectual 
 circles of Rome. His chief patrons were Laelius 
 and the younger Scipio, both of whom treated him 
 as an equal, and are said even to have assisted him 
 in the composition of his plays. After residing 
 some years at Rome, Terence went to Greece, and. 
 while there he translated lOSofMenander's come- 
 dies. He never returned to Italy, and we have 
 various accounts of his death. According to one 
 story, after embarking at Brundusium, he was 
 never heard of more ; according to others, he died 
 at Stymphalus in Arcadia, in Leucadia, or at 
 Patrae in Achaia. One of his biographers said 
 he was drowned, with all the fruits of his sojourn 
 in Greece, on his home-passage. But tlie pre- 
 vailing report was, that his translations of Me- 
 nander were lost at sea, and that grief for their 
 loss caused his death. He died in the 36th year 
 of his age, in 159, or in the year following. He 
 left a daughter, but nothing is known of his fa- 
 mily. Six comedies are all that remain to us ; and 
 they are probably all that Terence produced. His 
 later versions of Menander were, in all likelihood, 
 from their number and the short time in which 
 they were made, merely studies for future dramas 
 of his own. They were brought forvvard at the 
 following seasons. \. AndHa^ "'the Woman of 
 Andros," so called from the birth-place of Gly- 
 cerium, its heroine, was first represented at the 
 Megalesian Games, on the 4th of April, 166. 
 2. Hecyra, " the Step- Mother," produced at the 
 Megalesian Games, in 165. 3, Heauton-iiviorou- 
 menos, " the Self-Tormentor," performed at the 
 Megalesian Games, 163. 4. Eunuchus, ''the Eu- 
 nuch," played at the Megalesian Games, 162. 
 It was at the time the most popular of Terence's 
 comedies, 5. Plwrmio^ was performed in the 
 game year with the preceding, at the Roman 
 
 TERGESTE. 
 
 Games on the Ist of October. 6. Adelpld^ "the 
 Brothers," was acted for the first time at the 
 funeral games of L. Aemiiius PauUus, 160. The 
 comedies of Terence have been translated into 
 most of the languages of modern Europe, and in 
 conjunction with Plautus were, on the revival of 
 the drama, the models of the most refined play- 
 writers. The ancient critics are unanimous in 
 ascribing to Terence immaculate purity and ele- 
 gance of language, and nearly so in denying him 
 vis comica. But it should be recollected that 4 of 
 Terence's 6 plays are more or less sentimental 
 comedies — in which vis comica is not a primary 
 element. Moreover, Terence is generally contrasted 
 with Plautus, with whom he had veiy little in 
 common. Granting to the elder poet the highest 
 genius for exciting laughter, and a natural force 
 which his rival wanted, there will remain to 
 Terence greater consistency of plot and character, 
 closer observation of generic and individual dis- 
 tinctions, deeper pathos, subtler wit, more skill 
 and variety in metre and in rhythm, and a wider 
 command of the middle region between sport and 
 earnest. It may be objected that Terence's supe- 
 riority in these points arises from his copying his 
 Greek originals more servilely. But no servile 
 copy is an animated copy, and we have correspond- 
 ing fragments enough of Menander to prove that 
 Terence retouched and sometimes improved his 
 model. In summing up his merits we ought not 
 to omit the praise which has been universally 
 accorded him — that, although a foreigner and a 
 freedman, he divides with Cicero and Caesar the 
 palm of pure Latinity. The best editions of 
 Terence are by Bentley, Cantab. 1726, 4to., 
 Amatel. 1727, 4to., Lips. 1791, 8vo. ; by Wester- 
 hovius, Hagae Cora. 1727, 2 vols. 4to, ; and by 
 Stallbaum, Lips. 1830, 8vo. 
 
 Terentius Cnlleo. [Culleo.] 
 
 Terentius Yarro. [ Varro.] 
 
 Teres {T-qp-qs}. 1. King of the Odrysae and 
 father of Sitalces, was the founder of the great 
 Odrysian monarchy. ^ 2. King of a portion of 
 Thrace in the time of Philip of Macedon. 
 
 Tereus (TTjpeus), son of Ares, king of the Thra- 
 cians in Daulis, afterwards Phocis. Pandion, king 
 of Attica, who had 2 daughters, Philomela and 
 Procne, called in the assistance of Tereus against 
 some enemy, and gave him his daughter Procne 
 in marriage, Tereus became by her the father of 
 Itys, and then concealed her in the country, that 
 he might thus marry her sister Philomela whom he 
 deceived by saying that Procne was dead. At the 
 same time he deprived Philomela of her tongue. 
 Ovid {Afet. vi. 565) reverses the story by stating 
 that Tereus told Procne that her sister Philomela 
 was dead. Philomela, however, soon learned the 
 truth, and made it known to her sister by a few 
 words which she wove into apeplus. Procne there- 
 upon killed her own son Itys, and served up the 
 flesh of the child in a dish before Tereus. She 
 then fled with her sister. Tereus pursued them with 
 an axe, and when the sisters were overtaken they 
 prayed to the gods to change them into birds. 
 Procne, accordingly, became a nightingale, Philo- 
 mela a swallow, and Tereus a hoopoo. According 
 to some, Procne became a swallow, Philomela a 
 nightingale, and Tereus a hawk. 
 
 Tergeste (Tergestinus : Trieste), a town of 
 Istria, on a bay in the N.E. of the Adriatic gulf, 
 called after it Tergestinus Sinus, It was at first 
 
TEHIA. 
 
 an insignificant place, with wliich the Romans be- 
 came acquainted in their wars with the lapydea ; 
 but under the Roman dominion it became a town 
 of considerable commercial importance. It was 
 made a Roman colony by Vespasian. 
 
 Teria (TTjpefTjs Spos alirv, Hom.), a mountain 
 of Mysia, probably in the neighbourhood of Cyzi- 
 CU3. Some identified it with a hill near Lamp- 
 sacua, on which was a temple of Cybele. 
 
 Terias (Guavalunga), a river in Sicily near 
 Leontini, 
 
 Teridates. [Tiridates.] 
 
 Terlua (Terinaeus : St. Eufemia\ a town on 
 the W. coast of Bruttium, from which the Sinus 
 Terinaeus derived its name. It was a Greek city 
 founded by Croton, and was originally a place of 
 some importance ; but it was destroyed by Han- 
 nibal in the 2nd Punic war. 
 
 Teriolis or Teriola Castra, a fortress in Rhae- 
 tia, which has given its name to the country of the 
 TyroL Its site is stiU occupied by the Castle of 
 Tyrul^ lying above Meran, to the N. of the road. 
 
 Termantia, Termes, or Termesus (Termesti- 
 nus or Termesius : Ermita de nuestra Senora de 
 Tiennes), a town of the Arevaci in Hispania Tar- 
 raconensis, originally situated on a steep hill, the 
 inhabitants of which frequently resisted the Ro- 
 mans, who compelled them in consequence to aban- 
 don the town, and build a new one on the plain, 
 B. c. 9«. 
 
 Termera (ra Tep^epa), a Dorian citv in Caria, 
 on the promontory Termerium (Tep/xeptov), the 
 N. W. headland of the Sinus Ceramicus. Under 
 the Romans, it was a free city. 
 
 Tennessus {Tspfiija-a-ds, and other forms : prob. 
 Slienet, Ru.), a city of Pisidia, high up on the 
 Taurus, in the pass through which the river 
 Catarrhactes flowed. It was almost impregnable 
 by nature and art,, so that evea Alexander did not 
 attempt to take it. 
 
 Termimia, a Roman divinity presiding over 
 boundaries and frontiers. His worship is said to 
 have been instituted by Numa, who ordered that 
 every one should mark the boundaries of his landed 
 property by stones consecrated to Jupiter, and at 
 these boundary-stones every year sacrifices should 
 be offered at the festival of the Terminaiia. The 
 Terminus of the Roman state originally stood be- 
 tween the 5th and 6th milestone on the road 
 towards Laurentum, near a place called Festi. 
 Another public Terminus stood in the temple of 
 Jupiter in the Capitol. It is said that when this 
 temple was to be founded, all the gods gave way 
 to Jupiter and Juno, with the exception of Ter- 
 minus and Juventas, whose sanctuaries the au- 
 guries would not allow to be removed. This was 
 taken as an omen that the Roman state would 
 remain ever undiminished and young, and the 
 chapels of the two divinities were inclosed within 
 the walls of the new temple. It is however 
 probable that the god Terminus is no other than 
 Jupiter himself, in the capacity of protector of 
 boundaries. 
 
 Terpander (Tipiravdpos), the father of Greek 
 music, and through it of lyric poetry. He was a 
 native of Antissa in Lesbos, and flourished between 
 B. c. 700 and 650. He removed from Lesbos to 
 Sparta, and there introduced his new system of 
 music, and established the first musical school or 
 system that existed in Greece. He added 3 strings 
 to the lyre, which before his time had only 4 
 
 TETRICUS. 
 
 753 
 
 strings, thus making it seven-stringed. His music 
 produced a powerful effect upon the Spartans, and 
 he was held in high honour by them, during his 
 life and after his death. He was the first who 
 obtained a victory in the musical contests at the 
 festival of the Carnea (676). We have only 3 or 
 4 fragments of the remains of his poetry. 
 
 Terpsichore (Tep^pix^pa), one of the 9 Muses, 
 presided over the choral song and dancing. [Mu- 
 
 SAE.] 
 
 Terra. [Gaea.] 
 
 Terracina, more usually written Tarracina. 
 [Tarracina.] 
 
 Tertullianua, Q, Septimius Florens. usually 
 called Tertullian, the most ancient of the Latin 
 fathers now extant. Notwithstanding the celebrity 
 which he has always enjoyed, our knowledge of 
 his personal history is extremely limited, and is 
 derived almost exclusively from a succinct notice 
 by St. Jerome. From this we learn that Ter- 
 tullian was a native of Carthage, the son of a pro- 
 consular centurion (an officer who appears to have 
 acted as a sort of aide-de-camp to provincial 
 governors) ; that he flourished chiefly during the 
 reigns of Septimius Severus and of Caracalla ; that 
 he became a presbyter, and remained orthodox 
 until he had reached the term of middle life, when, 
 in cpnsequence of the envy and ill-treatment which 
 he experienced on the part of the Roman clergy, 
 he went over to the Montanists, and wrote several 
 books in defence of those heretics ; that he lived to a 
 great age, and was the author of many works. His 
 birth may be placed about a. d. 160, and bis death 
 about 240. The most interesting of his numerous 
 works is his Apologia, or defence of Christianity. 
 It was written at Carthage, probably during the 
 reign of Severus. The writings of Tertullian show 
 that he was a man of varied learning; but his 
 style is rough, abrupt, and obscure, abounding in 
 far-fetched metaphors and extravagant hyperboles. 
 The best editions of the complete works of Ter- 
 tullian are the one printed at Venice, 1744, fo., 
 and the one edited by Semler and by Schutz, 
 6 vols. 8vo. Hal. 1770. There is a good edition 
 of the Apoloffeticvs, by Havercamp, 8vo. Lug. Bat. 
 17L0. 
 
 Testa,. C. Trebatius, a Roman jurist, and a 
 contemporary and friend of Cicero. He was 
 recommended by Cicero to Julius Caesar during 
 his proconsulship of Gaul, and he followed Caesar's 
 party after the civil war broke out. Cicero dedi- 
 cated to Trebatius his book of Topica^ which he 
 wrote tO' explain to him this beck of Aristotle. 
 Trebatius enjoyed considerable reputation under 
 Augustus as a lawyer. Horace addressed to him 
 the 1st Satire of the 2nd Book. Trebatius was a 
 pupil of Q. Cornelius Maximus, and master of 
 Labeo. He wrote some books De Jure CivilU and 
 De Religionibus. He is often cited in the Digest, 
 but there is no direct excerpt from his writings. 
 
 Tethys (TtjAus), daughter of Uranus and Gaea, 
 and wife of Oceanus, by whom she became the 
 mother of the Oceanides and of the numerous 
 river-gods. She also educated Hera, who was 
 brought tfl. her by Rhea. 
 
 Tetrioa, a mountain on the frontiers of Pisenum 
 and the land of the Sabines, belonging to the great 
 chain of the Apennines. 
 
 Tetricus, C. Pesuvius, one of the Thirty Ty- 
 rants, and the last of the pretenders who ruled Gaul 
 duringitsseparationfrom the empire under Gallieuua 
 
 3c 
 
754 
 
 TEUCER 
 
 and his successor. He reigned in Gaul from a. d. 
 267 to 274, and was defeiited by Aurelian in 274, 
 at the battle of Clmlons, on which occasion he was 
 believed to have beti-ayed his army to the emperor. 
 It is certain that although Tetricus, along with his 
 son, graced the triumph of the conqueror, he was 
 immediately afterwards treated with the greatest 
 distinction by Aurelian. 
 
 Teucer (TeuKpos). 1. Son of the river-god Sca- 
 mander by the Nymph Idaea, was the first king 
 of Troy, whence the Trojans are sometimes called 
 Teiteri. Dardanus of Saniothrace came to Teucer, 
 received his dautfhter Batea or Arisbe in marriage, 
 and became his successor in the kingdom. Accord- 
 ing to others, Dardanus was a, native prince of 
 Troy, and Scamander and Teucer immigrated into 
 Troas from Crete, bringing with them tlie worship 
 of Apollo Smintheus. — 2. Son of Telamon and 
 Hesione, was a step-brother of Ajax, and tlie best 
 archer among the Greeks at Troy. On his return 
 from the Trojan war, Telamon refused to receive 
 him in Salamis, because he had not avenged the 
 death of his brother Ajax. Teucer thereupon 
 sailed away in search of a new home, which he 
 found in the island of Cyprus, which was given to 
 him by Belus, king of Sidon. He there founded 
 the town of Salamis, aod married Eune, the daugh- 
 ter of Cyprus, by whom he became the father of 
 Asteria. 
 
 TeucrL [Mvsia; Troas.] 
 
 Teumessus (Teu/iTj^rtrds), a mountain in Boeotia, 
 near Hypatus, and close to Thebes, on the road 
 from the latter place to Chalcis. It was from this 
 mountain that Dionysus, enraged with the Thebans, 
 sent the fox which committed such devastations in 
 their territory. 
 
 Teuta (Teura), wife of Agron, king of the Illy- 
 rians, assumed the sovereign power on the death 
 of her husband, b. c. 231. In consequence of the 
 injuries inflicted by the piratical expeditions of her 
 subjects upon the Italian merchants, the Romans 
 sent two ambassadors to demand satisfaction, but 
 she not only refused to comply with their demands, 
 but caused the younger of the two brothers to be 
 assassinated on his way home. War was now de- 
 clared against her by the Romans, The greater 
 part of her territory was soon conquered, and she 
 was obliged to sue for peace, which was granted to 
 her (B.C. 228), on condition of her giving up the 
 greater part of her dominions. 
 
 Teutkrania. [Mvsia.] 
 
 Teuthras {Teudpas)y an ancient king of Mysia, 
 who married, or, according to other accounts, 
 adopted as his daughter Auge, the daughter of 
 Aieus. He also received with hospitality her son 
 Telephus, when the latter came to Asia in search 
 of his mother. He was succeeded in the kingdom 
 of Mysia by Telephus. [Telephus.J The SO 
 daughters of Teuthras, given as a reward to Her- 
 cules, are called by Ovid Teuthrantia iurba. 
 
 Teuthras {Tivdpas: prob. Demirji-Dagli)^ a 
 mountain in the Mysian district of Teuthrania, a 
 S.W. branch of Temnus. It contains a celebrated 
 pa98, called the Iron Gates {Demir Kapa)^ through 
 which ail caravans between Smyrna and Brusa 
 (the ancient Piiisias) must needs pass. 
 
 Teutoburgiensis Saltua, a range of hills in 
 Germany covered with wood, extending N. of the 
 Lippe, from Osnabrlick to Paderborn, and known 
 in the present day by the name of the Teutohurger 
 Wald or Lipjnsclie Wald. It is celebrated on ac- 
 
 THALES. 
 count of the defeat and destruction of Varus and 
 3 Roman legions by the Germans under Arminius, 
 
 A. D. 9. ' 
 
 Teutones or Teutoni, a powerful people in Ger- 
 many, who invaded Gaul and the Roman dominions 
 along with the Cimbri, at the latter end of the 2nd 
 century B. c. The history of their invasion is 
 given under Cimbri. The name'Teutones is not 
 a collective name of the whole people of Germany, 
 as some writers have supposed, but only of one 
 particular tribe, who probably dwelt on the coast 
 of the Baltic, near the Cimbri. 
 
 Thabor, Tabor, or Atabyriilm ('Araeupiov 
 LXX. ; 'Iraffypioi', Joseph. : Jebel Tur)^ an isolated 
 mountain at the E, end of the plain of Esdraelon in 
 Galilee, between 1700 and 1800 feet high. Its 
 summit was occupied by a fortified town, under 
 the Maccabees and the Romans. This is quite 
 enou:;h to prove that it cannot be, as a local tra- 
 dition asserts, the lonely mountaiii on wliicli our 
 Saviour was trimsfigured ; although the tradition 
 has been Vjolstered up by a variation of the modern 
 name of the mountain, which makes it Jebel Nur, 
 i. e. the Mountain of Light. 
 
 Tliabraca or Tabraca (©afipaKa, Td€a8pa : 7a- 
 barca), a city of Numidja, at the mouth of the 
 river Tusca, and on the frontier towards Zeugi- 
 tana, 
 
 Thais (0ots), a celebrated Athenian courtezan, 
 who accompanied Alexander the Great on his ex- 
 pedition into Asia. Her name is best knouii from 
 the story of her having stimulated the conqueror 
 during a great festival at Persepolis, to set fire to 
 the palace of the Persian kings : but this anecdote, 
 immortalized as it has been by Dryden's famous 
 ode, is in all probability a mere fable. After the 
 death of Alexander, Thais attalched herself to 
 Ptolemy Lagi, by whom she became the mother of 
 two sons, Leontiscus and Lagus, and of a daughter 
 Irene. 
 
 Thala (Qd\a\ a great city of Numidia, men- 
 tioned by Sallust and other writers, and probably 
 identical with Telepte {TeXeTrTTj) or Thelepte, a 
 city in the S. of Numidia, 71 Roman miles N.W. 
 of Capsa. It was the S- W, front'ier town towards 
 the desert, and was connected by a road with 
 Tacape on the Syrtis Minor, It is probably to 
 be identified with Feriunah^ or with the large 
 ruins near it, called Medinah el Kadima. 
 
 Thalamae (©aAcijuoi). 1. A fortified town in 
 Elis, situated in the mountains above Pylos.^2. 
 A town in Messenia, probably a little to the E, of 
 the river Pamisus, 
 
 Thalassius, Talassius, or Talassio, a Roman 
 senator of the time of Romulus, ' At the time of 
 the rape of the Sabine women, when a maiden of 
 surpassing beauty was Ciirried off for Thalassius, 
 the persons conducting her, in order to protect her 
 against any assaults from others,' exclaimed '' for 
 Thalassius." Hence, it is said, arose the wedding 
 shout with which a bride at Rome was conducted 
 to the house of her bridegroom. 
 
 Thalea (©aAi^s), the Ionic philosopher, and one 
 of the Seven Sages, was born at Miletus about 
 
 B. c. 636, and died about 546, at the age of 90, 
 tliough the exact date neither of his birth nor of 
 his death is known. He is said to have predicted 
 the eclipse of the sun, which happened in the reign 
 of the Lydian king Alyattes ; to have diverted the 
 course of the Halys in the time of Croesus ; and 
 later, in order to unite the lonians when threatened 
 
THALES. 
 
 by tlie Persians, to have instituted a federal council 
 in Teos. In the lists of the Seven Sages his name 
 seems to have stood at the head ; and he displayed 
 his wisdom both by political sagacity, and by 
 prudence in acquiring wealth. He was also one 
 of the founders in Greece of the study of pliilo- 
 sophy and mathematics. In the latter science 
 however we find attributed to him only proofs of 
 propositions which belong to the first elements of 
 geometry, and which could not possibly have enabled 
 him to calculate the eclipses of the sun, and the 
 course of the heavenly bodies. He may however 
 have obtained his knowledge of the higher branches 
 of mathematics from Egypt, which country he is 
 said to have visited. Thales maintained that water 
 is the origin of things, meaning thereby, that it is 
 water, out of which every thing arises, and into 
 which every thing resolves itself. Thales left no 
 works behind him. 
 
 Thales or Thaletas (©a^TJy, ©aXi^ras), the 
 celebrated musician and lyric poet, was a native of 
 Gortyna in Crete. On the invitation of the Spar- 
 tans he removed to Sparta, where, by the influence 
 of his music, he appeased the wrath of Apollo, who 
 liad visited the city with a plague, and composed 
 the factions of the citizens, who were at enmity 
 with each other. He founded the 2nd of the 
 musical schools, which flourished at Sparta, the 1st 
 having been established by Terpander. The date 
 of Thaletas is uncertain, but he may probably be 
 placed shortly after Terpander. [Terpandeti.] 
 
 Tballa {@d\eia, &a\la). 1. One of the 9 Muses 
 and, at least in later times, the Muse of Comedy. 
 [MusAE.]^2. One of the Nereides. — 3. One 
 of the Charites or Graces. 
 
 Thallo. [HoRAE.] 
 
 Thalna or Talna, W. Juventius, was tribune of 
 the plebs b. c. 170 ; praetor 167 ; and consul 163, 
 when he subdued the Corsicans. The senate voted 
 him the honour of a thanksgiving; and he was so 
 overcome with joy at the intelligence, which he 
 received as he was offering a sacrifice, that he 
 dropt down dead on the spot. 
 
 Thambes (Qd/iSTjs, @d/j.fi7]s, 0ajiti7s), a moun- 
 tain in the E. of Numidia, containing the source of 
 the river Rubricatus. 
 
 Thamydeni or Thamyditae (QafivBrjvoi^ @afxv- 
 STroi), a people of Arabia Felix, on the coast of 
 the Sinus Arabicus, in the neighbourhood of 27te- 
 inond. 
 
 Thamyris or Thamyras {Bdtxvpis), an ancient 
 Thraciau bard, was a son of Philaramon and the 
 nymph Argiope. In his presumption he chal- 
 lenged the Muses to a trial of skill, and being 
 overcome in the contest, was deprived by them of 
 his sight and of the power of singing. He was 
 represented with a broken lyre in his hand. 
 
 Thanatos. [Mors.] 
 
 Thapsa, a city of N. Africa, probably identical 
 
 with RUSICADA. 
 
 Thapsacus (0ai|/aKos : 0. T. Thiphsach: an 
 Aramean word signified a/)r(i.' ®a'<^aKf)v6s : Ru. 
 Rt the ford of El-lJamman^ near Rakkah), a city 
 of Syria, in the province of Chalybonitis, on the 
 left bank of the Euphrates, 2000 stadia S. of 
 Zeugma, and 15 parasangs from the mouth of the 
 river Chaboras (the Araxes of Xenophon). At 
 this place was the usual, and for a long time the 
 only ford of the Euphrates, by which a passage 
 was made between Upper and Lower Asia. 
 • Xhapsus (0ii\|/oy : ©ai/zios). 1. A city on the 
 
 THEAGENES. 
 
 755 
 
 E. coast of Sicily on a peninsula of the same name 
 {Isola degli Magnisi\ founded by Dorian colonists 
 from Megara, who soon abandoned it in order to 
 found Megara Hybla. — 2. {Dejiias, Ru.), a city 
 on the E. coast of Byzacena, in Africa Propria, 
 where Caesar finally defeated the Pompeian army, 
 and finished the civil war, b. c, 46. 
 
 ThS-sos or Thasus {@d<Tos : ©daios : Thaso or 
 Tasso), an island in the N. of the Aegaean sea, 
 off the coast of Thrace and opposite the mouth of 
 the river Nestus. It was at a very early period 
 taken possession of by the Plioenicians, on account 
 of its valuable gold mines. According to tradition 
 the Phoenicians were led by Thasus, son of Posei- 
 don, or Agenor, who came from the East in search 
 of Europa, and from whom the island derived its 
 name. Thasos was afterwards colonised by the 
 Parians, B. c. 708, and among the colonists was the 
 poet Archilochus. Besides the gold mines in Tha- 
 sos itself, the Thasians possessed still more valuable 
 gold mines at Scapte Hyle on the opposite coast of 
 Thrace. The mines in the island had been most 
 extensively worked by the Phoenicians, but even 
 in the time of Herodotus they were still productive. 
 The clear surplus revenue of the Thasians before 
 the Persian conquest amounted to 200, and some- 
 times even to 300 talents (46,000/., 66,000^.), of 
 which sum the mines in Scapte Hyle produced 80 
 talents, and those in the island somewh;it less. 
 They possessed at this time a considerable terri- 
 tory on the coast of Thrace, and were one of the 
 richest and most powerful peoples in the N. of the 
 Aegaean. They were subdued by the Persians 
 under Mardonius, and subsequently became part of 
 the Athenian maritime empire. They revolted, 
 however, from Athens hi b. c. 465, and after sus- 
 taining a siege of 3 years, were subdued by Ci- 
 mon in 463. They were obliged to surrender to 
 the Athenians all their possessions in Thrace, to 
 destroy their fortifications, to give up their ships, 
 and to pay a large tribute for the future. They 
 again revolted from Athens in 411, and called in 
 the Spartans, but the island was again restored to 
 the Athenians by Thrasybulus in 407. In addition 
 to its gold mines, Thasos was celebrated for its 
 marble and its wine. The soil, however, is other- 
 wise barren, and merits even at the present day 
 the description applied to it by the poet Archilo- 
 chus, — "an ass's back-bone, overspread with wild 
 wood." The principal town in the island, also 
 called Thasos, was situated on the N. coast upon 
 3 eminences. There are still a few remains of 
 the ancient town. 
 
 Thaumas (©au;xas), son of Pontus and Ge, and 
 by the Oceanid Electra, the fiither of Iris and the 
 Harpies. Hence Iris is called ThaumantiaSy Tliau- 
 7nantis, and Thaumaniea virgo, 
 
 Theaetetus (©eatTTjTos), an Athenian, the son 
 of Euphronius of Sunium, is introduced as one of 
 the speakers in Plato's Theaetetus and Sophistes, in 
 which dialogues he is spoken of as a noble and 
 well-disposed youth ; and ardent in the pursuit of 
 knowledge, especially in the study of geometry. 
 
 Theagenes (Q^ayiv-ns), 1. Tyrant of Megara. 
 obtained his power about b. c. 630, having espoused 
 the part of the commonalty against the nobles. 
 He was driven out before his death. He gave his 
 daughter in marriage to Cylon. [Cylon.]^2. A 
 Thasian, the son of Timoathenes, renowned for his 
 extraordinary strength and swiftness. He gained 
 numerou.s victories at the Olympian, Pythian, 
 
 3c 2 
 
756 
 
 THEANO. 
 
 Neraean, and Isthmian games, and is said to have 
 won 1300 crowns. He flourished b c. 480. 
 
 Theano (0eai/aj>, daughter of Cisseua, wife of 
 Antenor, and priestess of Athena at Ilion. 
 
 Theano {Qeava>), the most celebrated of the 
 female philosophers of tlie Pythagorean school, 
 appears to have been the wife of Pythagoras, and 
 the mother by him of Telauges, Mnesarchus, Myia, 
 and Arignote ; but tlie accounts respecting her 
 were various. Several letters are extant under her 
 name ; and, though they are not genuine, they are 
 valuable remains of a period of considerable anti- 
 quity. 
 
 Thebae (©^^ax), in the poets sometimes Thebe 
 (©^§Tj, DoY.@-f}Sa)^ aft. Diospolis Ula^a (Aioa-iro- 
 Xis ^e7aATi, i. e. Gieai City of Jove) ^ in Scripture 
 No or No Ammon, was the capital of Tliebais, or 
 Upper Egypt, and, for a long time, of the whole 
 country. It was reputed the oldest city of the 
 world. It stood in about the centre of the The- 
 bai'd, on both banks of the Nile, above Coptos, and 
 in the Nonios Coptites. It is said to have been 
 founded by Aetliiop'uins ; but this is of course only 
 a fonn of tlie tradition which represents the civili- 
 sation of Uppor Egypt as having come down the 
 Nile. Others ascribed its foundation to Osiris, 
 who named it after his mother, and others to Bu- 
 siris. It appears tu have been at the height of its 
 splendour, as the capital of Egypt, and as a chief 
 Peat of the worship of Ammon, about B. c. 1600. 
 The fame of its grandeur had reached the Greeks 
 as early as the time of Horner^ who describes it, 
 with pneticJil exaggeration, as having a hundred 
 gates, from each of which it could send out 200 
 war chariots fully armed. Homer's epithet of 
 " Hundred-Gated" {kKaro^TrvXoi) is repeatedly 
 applied to the city by later writers. Its real extent 
 was calculated by the Greek xvriters at 140 stadia 
 (14 geog. miles) in circuit; and in Strabo's time, 
 when the long transference of the seat of power to 
 Lower Egypt had caused it to decline greatly, it 
 still had a circuit of 80 stadia. That these compu- 
 tations are not exaggerated, is proved by the exist- 
 ing ruins, which extend from side to side of the 
 valley of the Nile, here about 6 miles wide ; while 
 the rocks which bound the valley are perforated 
 with tombs. These ruins, which are perhaps the 
 most magnificent in the world, enclose within their 
 site the 4 modern villages of Carnac^ Ljixot, Me- 
 dinet Aboii, and Gourvou; the 2 former on the 
 E., and the 2 latter on the W. side of the river, 
 They consist of temples, colossi, sphinxes, and obe- 
 lisks, and, on the W. side, of tombs, many of 
 which are cut in the rock and adorned with paint- 
 ings, which are still as fresh as if just finished. 
 These ruins are remarkable alike for their great 
 antiquity, and for the purity of their style. It is 
 most probable that the great buildings were all 
 erected before the Persian invasion, when Thebes 
 was taken by Cambyses, and the wooden habita- 
 tions burnt ; after which time it never regained the 
 rank of a capital city ; and thus its architectural 
 monuments escaped that Greek influence which is 
 80 marked in the edifices of Lower Egypt. Among 
 its chief buildings,, the ancient writers mention the 
 Memnoniom, with the 2 colossi in front of it, the 
 temple of Ammon, in which one of the 3 chief 
 colleges of priests was established, and the tombs 
 of the kings. To describe the ruins and discuss 
 their identification, would far exceed the limits of 
 this article. 
 
 THEBAE. 
 
 Thebae, in Europe. 1. (©^^ax, in Poetry 
 0T]fi7?, Dor. 07]§a ; ©rjfioroy, fern. ©Tjgat'y, Thebi- 
 nus, fern. Thel)ais: Th^^ Turkish Stiva), the 
 chief city in Boeotia, was situated in a plain S. E. 
 of the lake Hylice and N. E. of Plataeae. Its 
 acropolis, which was an oval eminence of no great 
 height, was called Cadmea (KoS^eio), because it 
 was said to liave been founded by Cadmus, the 
 leader of a Phoenician colony. On each side of 
 this acropolis is a small valley, running up from the 
 Theban plain into the low ridge of hills by which 
 it is separated from that of Plataeae. Of these 
 valleys, the one to the W. is watered by the Dirce ; 
 and the one to the E. by the Ismenus ; both of 
 which however are insignificant streamlets, though 
 so celebrated in ancient story. The greater part 
 of the city stood in these valleys, and was built 
 some time after the acropolis. 'It is said that the 
 fortifications of the city were constructed by Am- 
 phion and his brother Zethus ; and that, when 
 A mphion played his lyre, the stones moved of their 
 own accord and formed the wall. The territory of 
 Thebes waa called Tiiebais (©Tjffats), and extended 
 E.-wards as far as the Euboean sea. No city is 
 more celebrated in the mythical ages of Greece 
 tlian Thebes. It was here that the use of letters 
 was first introduced from Phoenicia into W. Eu- 
 rope, It was the reputed birthplace of the 2 great 
 divinities, l>ionysns and Hercules. It was also the 
 native city of the great seer Tiresias, as well as 
 of the great musician Amphion. It was the scene 
 of the tragic fate of Oedipus, and of one of the 
 most celebrated wars in the mythical annals of 
 Greece. Polynices, who had been expelled from 
 Thebes by his brother Eteocles, induced 6 other 
 heroes to espouse his cause, and marched against 
 the city ; but they were all defeated and slain by 
 the Thebans, with the exception of Adrastus, Po- 
 lynices and Eteocles falling by each other's hands. 
 This is usually called the war of the " Seven 
 against Thebes.'" A few years afterwards " The 
 Epigoni," or descendants of the seven heroes, 
 marched against Thebes to revenge their fathers' 
 death ; tliey took the city and rased it to the 
 ground. Thebes is not mentioned by Homer in 
 the catalogue of the Greek cities which fought 
 against Troy, as it was probably supposed not yet 
 to have recovered from its devastation by the Epi- 
 goni. It appears however at the earliest historical 
 period as a large and flourishing city ; and it is 
 represented as possessing 7 gates, the number as- 
 signed to it in the ancient legends. Its govern- 
 ment, after the abolition of monarchj', was an 
 aristocracy, or rather an oligarchy, which conti- 
 nued to be the prevailing form of government for a 
 long time, although occasionally exchanged for 
 that of a democracy. Towards the end of the Pe- 
 loponnesian war, however, the oligarchy finally 
 disappears ; and Thebes appejirs under a democra- 
 tical form of government from this time, till it Dc- 
 came with the rest of Greece subject to the Romans. 
 The Thebans were from an early period invete- 
 rate enemies of their neighbours, the Athenians. 
 Their hatred of the latter people was probably one 
 of the reasons which induced them to desert the 
 cause of Grecian liberty in the great struggle against 
 the Persian power. In the Peloponnesian war the 
 Thebans naturally espoused the Spartan side, and 
 contributed not a little to the downfal of Athens. 
 But, in common with the other Greek states, they 
 soon became disgusted with the Spartan supremacjs 
 
THEBAIS. 
 
 and joined the confederacj^ formed against Sparta 
 in B. c. 394. The peace of Antalcidas in 3U7 put 
 an end to hostilities in Greece ; but the treacherous 
 seizure of the Cadmea by the Lacedaemonian ge- 
 neral Phoebidas in 382, and its recovery by the 
 Theban exiles in 379, led to a war between Thebes 
 and Sparta, in which the former not only recovered 
 its independence, bat for ever destroyed the Lace- 
 daemonian aupreraacy. This was the most glorious 
 period in the Theban annals ; and the decisive 
 defeat of the Spartans at the battle of Leuctra in 
 371, made Thebes the first power in Greece. Her 
 greatness however was mainly due to the pre- 
 eminent abilities of her citizens, Epaminondas and 
 Pelopidas ; and with the death of the former at the 
 battle of Mantinea in 362, she h)8t the supremacy 
 which she had so recently gained. Soon after- 
 wards Philip of Macedon began to exercise a para- 
 mount influence over the greater part of Greece. 
 The Thebans were induced, by the eloquence of 
 Demosthenes, to forget their old animosities against 
 the Athenians, and to join the latter in protecting 
 the liberties of Greece ; but their united forces 
 were defeated by Philip, at the battle of Chaero- 
 nea, in 338. Soon after the death of Philip and 
 the accession of Alexander, the Thebans made a 
 last attempt to recover their liberty, but were 
 cruelly punished by the young king. The city 
 was taken by Alexander in 336, and was entirely 
 destroyed, with the exception of the temples, and 
 the house of the poet Pindar ; 6000 inhabitants 
 were slain, and 30,000 sold as slaves. In 316 the 
 city was 'rebuilt by Cassander, with the assistance 
 of the Athenians. In 290 it was taken by Deme- 
 trius Poliorcetes, and again sufft^red greatly. Di- 
 caearchus, wha flourished about this time, has left 
 us an interesting account of the city. He describes 
 it as about 70 stadia (nearly 9 milee) in circum- 
 ference, in form nearly circular, and in appearance 
 somewhat gloomy. He says that it is plentifully 
 provided with water, and contains better gardens 
 than any other city in Greece ; that it is most 
 agreeable in summer, on account of its plentiful 
 supply of cool and fresh water, and its large gar- 
 dens ; but that in winter it is very unpleasant, 
 being destitute of fuel, exposed to floods and cold 
 winds, and frequently visited by heavy falls of 
 snow. He further represents the people as proud 
 and insolent, and always ready to settle disputes 
 by fighting, rather than by the ordinary course of 
 justice. It is supposed that the population of the 
 city at this time may have been between 50^000 
 and 60,000 souls. After the Macedonian period 
 Thebes rapidly declined in importance ; and it re- 
 ceived its last blow from Sulla, who gave half of 
 its territory to the Delphians. Strabo describes 
 it as only a village in bis time; and Pausanias, 
 who visited it in the 2nd century of the Christian 
 era, says that the Cadmea alone was then in- 
 habited. The modern town is also confined to 
 this spot, and the surrounding country is covered 
 with a confused heap of niins. — 3. Surnamed 
 Phthioticae {QvSat at ^fluiTiSes), an important 
 city of Thessaly in the district Phthiotis, at a short 
 distance from the coast, and with a good harbour. 
 — 3. A town in Lacania, rarely mentioned. 
 
 Thebais. [Aegyptus.] 
 
 Thebe {®-h^V 'TiroirKaKii]), a city of Mysia, on 
 the wooded slope of M. Placus, destroyed by 
 Achilles. It was said to have been the birthplace 
 of Andromache and Chryseis. It existed iu the 
 
 THEMISTiaS. 
 
 757 
 
 historical period, but by the time of Strabo it had 
 fallen into ruin, and by that of Pliny it had va- 
 nished. Its site was near the head of the Gulf of 
 Adramyttium, where a beautiful tract of country 
 was named, after it, Thebanus campus {rh &q€7js 
 ire^iop). 
 
 Tbecoa orTekoa(0eK(fa,Joseph.: QeKweLXX.: 
 Tehta, Ru.), a city of Judaea, on the edge of the 
 desert, 6 miles S. of Bethlehem, and 12 S. of .le- 
 rusalem, was the birthplace of the prophet Amos. 
 (See also 2 Chron. xi.) In the time of Jerome, it 
 was a mere village. 
 
 Thelpusa orTelphussa (@4\Trov(ra,T4\<pou<T<Ta; 
 Te\(pov(no^ : nr. Vanena Ru.), a town iu Arcadia 
 on the river Ladon. 
 
 Theman, a city of the Edomites, in Arabia Pe- 
 traea, whose people were celebrated for their 
 wisdom. 
 
 Themis (0e/*iy), daughter of Uranus and Ge, 
 was married to Zeus, by whom she became the 
 mother of the Horae, Eunnmia, Dice (Astraea), 
 Irene, and of the Moerae. In the Homeric poems, 
 Themis is the personification of the order of things 
 established by law, custom, and equity, whence 
 she is described as reigning in the assemblies of 
 men, and as convening, by the command of Zeus, 
 the assembly of the gods. She dwells in Olympus, 
 and is on friendly terms with Hera. She is also 
 described as a prophetic divinity, and is said to 
 liave been in possession of the Delphic oracle as 
 the successor of Ge, and previous to Apollo. 
 Nymphs believed to be daughters of Zeus and 
 Themis lived in a cave on. the river Eridanus, and 
 the Hesperides also are called daughters of Zeus 
 and Themis. She is- often represented on coins 
 resembling the figure of Athena with a cornucopia 
 and a pair of scales. 
 
 Themiscyra (8e,u£o-«u/)a), a plain on the coast 
 of Pontiis, exteiiding E. of the river Iris beyond the 
 Thermodon, celebrated from very ancient times as 
 the comitry of the Amazons, It was well watered, 
 and rich in pasture. At the mouth of the Ther- 
 modon was a city of the same name, which had 
 been destroyed by the time of Augustus. It is 
 doubtful whether the present Tltermek occupies its 
 site. [Thermodon.] 
 
 Themison {@e/j.iacov)^ a celebrated Greek phy- 
 sician, and the founder of the medical sect of the 
 Methodici, was a native of Laodicea in Syria, and 
 lived in the first century b. c. He wrote several 
 medical worics, but of these only the titles and a 
 few fragments remain. The physician mentioned 
 by Juvenal was probably a contemporary of the 
 poet, and consequently a different person from the 
 founder of the Methodici. 
 
 Tbemistius (©e/xio-noy), a distinguished phi- 
 losopher and rhetorician, was a Paphlagonian, and 
 flourished, first at Constantinople and afterwards 
 at Rome, iu the reigns- of Constantius, Julian, 
 Jovian, Valens, Gratian, and Theodosius. He 
 enjoyed the favour of all those emperors, and was 
 promoted by thera to the highest honours of the 
 state. After holding various public offices, and 
 being employed on' many important embassies, he 
 waa made prefect of Constantinople by Theodosius, 
 A. D. 384. So great was the confidence reposed in 
 him by Theodosius, that, though Themistius was 
 a heathen, the emperor entrusted his son Arcadius 
 to the tutorship of the philosopher, 387. The life 
 of Themistius probably did not extend beyond 
 390. Besides the emperors, he numbered among 
 
758 
 
 THEMTSTOCLES. 
 
 his friends the chief orators and philosophers of 
 the age. Christian as well as heathen. Not only 
 Libaniua, but Gregory of Nazianzus also was his 
 friend and correspondent, and the latter, in an 
 epistle still extant, calls hira the " king of argu- 
 ments." The orations {TroKiriKol X6yoi) of The- 
 mistius, extant in the time of Photius, were 36 in 
 number, of which 33 have come down to us in the 
 original Greek, and one in a Latin version. The 
 other two were supposed to be lost, until one of 
 them was discovered by Cardinal Maio, in the 
 Arabrosian Library at Milan, in 1816. The best 
 edition oftheOrations is by Din dorf,Lips.l832,8vo. 
 Themistocles (0e^i(rTo/c\T)s), the celebrated 
 Athenian, was the son of Neocles and Abrotonon, 
 a Thracian woman, and was bom about b. c. 514. 
 In his youth he had an impetuous character ; he 
 displayed great intellectual power combined with 
 a lofty ambition and desire of political distinction. 
 He began his career by setting himself in opposi- 
 tion to those who had most power, among whom 
 Aristides was the chief. The fame which Mil- 
 tiades acquired by his generalship at Marathon 
 made a deep impression on Themistocles ; and he 
 said that the trophy of Miltiades would not let hira 
 sleep. His rival Aristides was ostracized in 483, 
 ■ to which event Themistocles contributed ; and 
 from this time he was the political leader in 
 Athens. In 481 he was Archon Eponymus. It 
 was about this time that he persuaded the 
 Athenians to employ the produce of the silver 
 mines of Laurium in building ships, instead of 
 distributing it among the Athenian citizens. His 
 great object was to draw the Athenians to the sea, 
 as he was convinced that it was only by their fleet 
 that Athens could repel the Persians and obtain 
 the supremacy in Greece. Upon the invasion of 
 Greece by Xerxes, Themistocles was appointed to 
 the command of the Athenian fleet ; and to his 
 energ}', prudence, foresight, and courage the Greeks 
 mainly owed their salvation from the Persian 
 dominion. Upon the approach of Xerxes, the 
 Athenians, on the advice of Themistocles, deserted 
 their city, and removed their women, children, and 
 infirm persons to Salamis, Aegina, and Troezen ; 
 but as soon as the Persians took possession of 
 Athens, the Peloponnesians were anxious to retire 
 to the Corinthian isthmus. Themistocles used all 
 his influence in inducing the Gieeks to remain 
 and fight with the Persians at Salamis, and with 
 the greatest difficulty persuaded the Spartan com- 
 mander Eurybiades to stay at Salamis. But as 
 soon as the fleet of Xerxes made its appearance, the 
 Peloponnesians were again anxious to sail away ; 
 and when Themistocles saw that he should be un- 
 able to persuade them to remain, he sent a faithful 
 slave to the Persian commanders, informing them 
 that the Greeks intended to make their escape, 
 and that the Persians had now the opportunity of 
 accomplishing a noble enterprise, if they would 
 only cut off the retreat of the Greeks. The Per- 
 sians believed what they were told, and in the 
 night their fleet occupied the whole of the channel 
 between Salamis and the mainland. The Greeks 
 were thus compelled to fight; and the result was 
 the great and glorious victory, in which the greater 
 part of the fleet of Xerxes was destroyed. This 
 victory, which was due to Themistocles, established 
 his reputation among the Greeks. On his visiting 
 Sparta, he was received with extraordinary honours 
 hy the Spartans, who gave Eurybiades the palm 
 
 THEMISTOCLES. 
 
 of braver}'', and to Themistocles the palm of wisdom 
 and skill, with a crown of olive, and the best 
 chariot that Sparta possessed. Tiie Athenians 
 began to restore their ruined city after the bar- 
 barians had left the country, and Themistocles 
 advised them to rebuild the walls, and to make 
 them stronger than before. The Spartans sent 
 an embassy to Athens to dissuade them from forti- 
 fying their city, for which we can assign no motive 
 except a miserable jealousy. Themistocles, how- 
 ever, went on an embassy to Sparta, where he 
 amused the Spartans with lies, till the walls were 
 far enough advanced to be in a state of defence. It 
 was upon his advice also that the Athenians forti- 
 fied the port of Piraeus. The influence of The- 
 mistocles does not appear to have survived the 
 expulsion of the Persians from Greece and the 
 fortification of the ports. He was probably justly 
 accused of enriching himself by unfair means, for 
 he had no scruples about the way of accomplishing 
 an end. A story is told, that after the retreat of 
 the fleet of Xerxes, when the Greek fleet was 
 wintering at Pagasae, Themistocles told the Athe- 
 nians in the public assembly that he had a scheme 
 to propose which was beneficial to the state, but 
 could not be expounded to the many. Aristides 
 was named to receive the secret, and to report 
 upon it. His report was that nothing could be 
 more profitable than the scheme of Themistocles, 
 but nothing more unjust ; and the Athenians 
 abided by the report of Aristides. In 471 The- 
 mistocles was ostracised from Athens, and retired 
 to Argos. /After the discover^'' of the treasonable 
 correspondence of Pausanias with the Persian 
 king, the Lacedaemonians sent to Athens to ac- 
 cuse Themistocles of being privy to the design of 
 Pausanias. Thereupon the Athenians sent off 
 persons with the Lacedaemonians with instruc- 
 tions to arrest Themistocles (466). Themistocles, 
 hearing of what was designed against him, first 
 fled from Argos to Corcyra, and then to Epirus, 
 where he took refuge in the house of Admetus, 
 king of the Molossi, who happened to be from 
 home. Admetus was no friend to Themistocles, 
 but his wife told the fugitive that he would be 
 protected if he would take their child in his arras, 
 and sit on the hearth. The king soon came in, 
 and respecting his suppliant attitude, raised him 
 np, and refused to surrender hira to the Lace- 
 daemonian and Athenian agents. Themistocles 
 finally reached the coast of Asia in safety. Xerxes 
 was now dead (465), and Artaxerxes was on the 
 throne. Themistocles went up to visit the king 
 at his royal residence; and on his arrival he sent 
 the king a letter, in which he promised to do the 
 k ng a good service, and prayed that he might be 
 allowed to wait a year, and then to explain per- 
 sonally what brought him there. In a year he 
 made himself master of the Persian language and 
 the Persian usages, and, being presented to the 
 king, he obtained the greatest influence over him, 
 and such as no Greek ever before enjoyed; partly 
 owing to his high reputation and the hopes that 
 he gave to the king of subjecting the Greeks to 
 the Persians. The king gave him a handsome 
 allowance, after the Persian fashion ; Magnesia 
 supplied him with bread nominally, but paid him 
 annually fifty talents. Lampsacus supplied wine, 
 and Myus the other provisions. Before he could 
 accomplish any thing he died ; some say that lie 
 poisoned hiaisclf, finding that he could not perform 
 
THEMISTOGENES. 
 
 his promiEe to the king. A monument was erected 
 to hia memory in the Agora of Magnesia, which 
 place was within his government. It is said that 
 his bones were secretly taken to Attica by his re- 
 lations, and privately interred there. Themistocles 
 died in 449, at the age of 65. Themistocles un- 
 doubtedly possessed great talents as a statesman, 
 great political sagacity, a ready wit, and excellent 
 judgment : but he was not an honest man ; and, 
 like many other clever men with little morality, 
 he endt'd his career unhappily and ingloriously, an 
 exile and a traitor too. 21 letters attributed to 
 Themistocles are spurious. 
 
 Themistogenes {&efj.i(rToy4vr}s), of Syracuse, is 
 said by Xenophon (Hell. iii. I. § 2) to have written 
 a work on the Anabasis of Cyrus ; but most mo- 
 dern writers, following the statement of Plutarch, 
 suppose that Xenophon really refers to his own 
 work, to which he prefixed the name of Themis- 
 togenes. 
 
 Theocles (©cokAtjs), son of Hegylus, was a 
 Lacedaemonian statuary, and one of the disciples 
 of Dipoeims and Scyllis. He therefore flourished 
 about B. c. 550. 
 
 Theoclymemis {@eoK\vfxevos), son of Poly- 
 phides of Hyperasia, and a descendant of Me- 
 lampus, was a soothsaj'er, and in consequence of a 
 murder, was obliged to take to flight, and came to 
 Telemachus when the latter quitted Sparta to 
 return to Ithaca. 
 
 TheocosDms (©erfKoff/ioy), of Megara, a statu- 
 ary, flourished about b. c. 435 — 430, 
 
 Theocritus (©etJ/cptros). 1. Of Chios, an orator, 
 sophist, and perhaps an historian, in the time of 
 Alexander the Great. Pie was contemporary with 
 Epliorus and Theopompus ; and the latter was his 
 fellow- citizen and political opponent, Theopompus 
 belonging to the aristocratic and Macedonian, and 
 Theocritus to the demoeratle and patriotic party. 
 Theocritus is said to have also given deep offence 
 to Alexander by the sarcastic wit, which appears 
 to have been the chief cause of his celebrity, and 
 which at last cost him his life. He was put to 
 death by Antigonus, in revenge for a jest upon 
 the king^'s single eye. None of his works are 
 extant with the exception of 2 or 3 epigrams, 
 among which is a very bitter one upon Aristotle. 
 — 2. The celebrated bucolic poet, was a native of 
 Syracuse, and the son of Praxagoras and Philinna. 
 He visited Alexandria during the latter end of the 
 reign of Ptolemy Soter, where he received the in- 
 struction of Philetas and Asclepiades, and began 
 to distinguish himself as a poet. His first efforts 
 obtained for him the patronage of Ptolemy Pliila- 
 delphus, who was associated in the kingdom with 
 his father, Ptolemy Soter, in b. c. 285, and in 
 whose praise, therefore, the poet wrote the 14th, 
 15th, and 17th Idyls. At Alexandria he became 
 acquainted with the poet Aratus, to whom he 
 addressed his 6th Idyl. Theocritus afterwards 
 returned to Syracuse, and lived there under 
 Hiero II. It appears from the 16th Idyl that 
 Theocritus was dissatisfied, both with the want of 
 liberality on the part of Hiero in rewarding him 
 for his poems, and with the political state of his 
 native country. It may therefore be supposed 
 that he devoted the latter part of his life almost 
 entirely to the contemplation of those scenes of 
 nature and of country life, on his representations 
 of which his fame chiefly rests. Theocritus was 
 the creator of bucolic poetry as a branch of Greek, 
 
 THEODORETUS. 
 
 759 
 
 and, through imitators, such as Virgil, of Roman 
 literature. The bucolic idyls of Theocritus are of 
 a dramatic and minietic character. They are pic- 
 tures of the ordinary life of the common people of 
 Sicily ; whence their name, e'/Sij, eiSvWia. The 
 pastoral poems and romances of later times are a 
 totally different sort of composition from the bu- 
 colics of Theocritus, who knows nothing of the 
 affected sentiment, the pure innocence, and the 
 primeval simplicity, which have been ascribed to 
 the imaginary shepherds of a fictitious Arcadia. 
 He merely exhibits simple and faithful pictures of 
 the common life of the Sicilian people, in a tho- 
 roughly objective, although truly poetical spirit. 
 Dramatic simplicity and truth are impressed upon 
 the pictures exhibited in his poems, into the colour- 
 ing of which he has thrown much of the natural 
 comedy which is always seen in the common life 
 of a free people. The collection, which has come 
 do^vn to us under the name of Theocritus, consists 
 of 30 poems, called by the general title of Idyls, a 
 fragment of a few lines from a poem entitled 
 Berenice, and 22 epigrams in the Greek Anthology. 
 But these Idyls are not all bucolic, and were not 
 all written by Theocritus. Those idyls, of which 
 the genuineness is the most doubtful, are the 
 12th, 17th, 18th, 19th, 20th, 26th, 27th, 29th, 
 and 30th. The dialect of Theocritus is a mixed 
 or eclectic dialect, in which the new or softened 
 Doric predominates. The best editions of Theo- 
 critus are by Kiessling, Lips. 1819, and by W'dste- 
 mann, Gothae, 1830. 
 
 Theodectes (©eoSe/cT?;?), of Phaselis, in Pam- 
 phylia, was a highly distinguished rhetorician and 
 tragic poet in the time of Philip of Macedon. He 
 was the son of Aristander, and a pupil of Isocrates 
 and Aristotle. The greater part of his life was 
 spent at Athens, where he died at the age of 41. 
 The people of his native city honoured the memory 
 of Theodectes with a statue in their agora, which 
 Alexander, when he stopped at Phaselis on his 
 march towards Persia, crowned with garlands, to 
 show his respect for the memory of a man who 
 had been associated with himself by means of 
 Aristotle and philosophy. The passages of Aris- 
 totle, in which Theodectes is mentioned, show tlie 
 strong regard and high esteem in which he was 
 held bj' the philosopher. Theodet^es devoted 
 hiraself, during the first part of his life, entirely to 
 rhetoric, and afterwards he turned his attention to 
 tragic poetry. He was a professional teacher of 
 rhetoric and composer of orations for others, and 
 was in part dependent on this profession for his 
 subsistence. None of the works of Theodectes 
 have come down to us. He wrote 50 tragedies, 
 which were very popular among his contemporaries. 
 His treatise on rhetoric is repeatedly referred to 
 by the ancient writers. 
 
 Theodoretua (©eoSwpTjros), an eminent ecclesi- 
 astic of the Sth centur}"", was born at Antioch 
 abtmt A. D. 393, and was made bishop of Cyrus, 
 or Cyrrhus, a small city near the Euphrates, in 
 420 or 423. He was accused of being a Nes- 
 torian, and was in consequence deposed at the 
 second council of Ephesus in 449 ; but he was 
 restored to his diocese at the council of Chalcedon, 
 in 451, upon his anathematizing Nestorius and 
 his doctrines. He appears to have died in 457 or 
 458. Theodoret was a man of learning and of 
 sound judgment. The most important of his works 
 are : 1, Commentaries on various books of the Old 
 
 3c 4 
 
760 TIIEODOniAS. 
 
 and New Testaments, in which he adopts the; 
 metliod, not of a continuous commentary, but of 
 proposing and solving those difficulties which he 
 thinks likely to occur to a thoughtful reader. 2. 
 An Ecclesiastical History^ in 5 books, intended as 
 a continuation of the History of Eueebius. It 
 begins with the history of Arianism, under Con- 
 stantine the Great, and ends in 429. 3. An 
 apologetic treatise, intended to exhibit the con- 
 firmations of the truth of Christianity contained in 
 the Gentile philosophy. 4. Ten Orations on Provi- 
 dence. The complete editions of Theodoret are 
 by Sirmond and Gamier, 5 vols, fo., Paris, 1642 
 — 1684, and by Schulze and Noesselt, Halae Sax. 
 1769 — 1774, 5 vols, in 10 parts 8vo. 
 
 Tlieodorias. [Vacca.] 
 
 Theodoricus or Theodericiis. 1. I. King of 
 the Visigoths from A. d. 41tf to 451, was the suc- 
 cessor of Wallia, but appears to have been the son 
 of the great Aiaric, He fell fighting on the aide 
 of Aetius and the Romans at the great battle of 
 Chalons, in which Attila was defeated 451. ^2. 
 IL King of the Visigoths a. d. 452 — 466, 2nd 
 son of Theodoric I. He succeeded to the throne 
 by the murder of his brother Thorismond. He 
 ruled over the greater part of Gaul and Spain. 
 He was assassinated In 466 by his brother Euric, 
 "who succeeded him on the throne. Theodoric II. 
 was a patron of letters and learned men. The 
 poet Sidonius ApoUinaris resided for some time at 
 his court. ^3. Surnamed the Great, king of the 
 Ostrogoths, succeeded his father Theodemir, in 
 475. He was at first an ally of Zeno, the em- 
 peror of Constantinople, bat was afterwards in- 
 volved in hostilities with the emperor. In order 
 to get rid of Theodoric, Zeno gave him permission 
 to invade Italy, and -expel the usurper Odoacer 
 from the country. Theodoric entered Italy in 
 489, and after defeating Odoacer in 3 great battles, 
 laid siege to Ravenna, in which Odoacer took 
 refuge. After a siege of 3 years Odoacer capitu- 
 lated on condition that he and Theodoric should 
 rule jointly over Italy; but Odoacer was soon 
 after ivards murdered by his more fortunate rival 
 (493). Theodoric thus became master of Italy, 
 which he ruled for 33 years, till his death in 526. 
 His long reign was prosperous and beneficent, and 
 under his sway Italy recovered from the ravages 
 to which it had been exposed for so many years. 
 Theodoric was also a patron of literature ; and 
 among his ministers were Cassiodorus and Boe- 
 thius^ the two last writers who can claim a place 
 in the literature of ancient Rome. But prosperous 
 as had been the reign of Theodoric, hia last days 
 were darkened by disputes with the Catholics, and 
 by the condemnation and execution of Boethiua 
 and Symmachus, whom he accused of a conspiracy 
 to overthrow the Gothic dominion in Italy. His 
 death is said to have been hastened by remorse. 
 It is related that one evening, when a large fish 
 was served on the table, be fancied that he beheld 
 the head of Symmachus, and was so terrified that 
 he took to his bed, and died three daya afterwards. 
 Theodoric was buried at Ravenna, and a monu- 
 ment was erected to his memory by his daughter 
 Amalasuntha. His ashes were deposited in a por- 
 phyry vase, which is atill to be seen at Ravenna. 
 
 Theodoridas (©eoSwpiSas), of Syracuse, a lyric 
 and epigrammatic poet, who lived about b. c. 235. 
 He had a place in the Garland of Meleager. There 
 are 18 of his epigrams in the Greek Anthology. 
 
 THEODORUS. 
 
 TJieodorus {©UZtepos). 1. Of Byzantium, a 
 rhetorician, and a contemporary of Platn, who 
 speaks of him somewhat contemptuously. Cicero 
 describes him as excelling rather in the theory 
 than the practice of his art. — 2. A philosopher of 
 the Cyrenaic school, to one branch of which he 
 gave the name of" Theodorians,"0€o5wp6(Oi. He 
 is usually designated by an<;ient writers the Atheist. 
 He was a disciple of the younger Aristippus, and 
 was banished from Cyrene, but on what occasion is 
 not stated. He then went to Athens, and only 
 escaped being cited before the Areopagus, by the 
 influence of Demetrius Phalereus. He was after- 
 wards banished from Athens, probably with Deme- 
 trius (307), and went to Alexandria, where he 
 was employed in the service of Ptolemy son of 
 Lagus, king of the Macedonian dynasty in Eg3'-pt; 
 it is not unlikely that he shared the overthrow 
 and exUe of Demetrius. While in the service of 
 Ptolemy, Theodonis was sent on an embassy to 
 Lysimachus, whom he offended by the freedom of 
 his remarks. One answer which he made to a 
 threat of crucifixion which Lyaimachua had used, 
 has been celebrated by many ancient writers, 
 "■ Employ such threats to those courtiers of yours ; 
 for it matters not to Theodore whether he rots on 
 the ground or in the air." He returned at length 
 to Cyrene, where he appears to have ended his 
 days. ^ 3. An eminent rhetorician of the age of 
 Augustus, was a native of Gadara, in the country 
 east of the Jordan. He settled at Rhodes, where 
 Tiberius, afterwards emperor, during his retirement 
 (b. c, 6 — .4. D. 2) to that island, was one of his 
 hearers. He also taught at Rome ; but whether 
 his settlement at Rome preceded that at Rhodes is 
 uncertain. Theodorus was the founder of a school 
 of rhetoricians, called "Theodorei,"" as distinguished 
 from the " ApoUodorei," or followers of ApoUodorus 
 of Pergamus, who had been the tutor of Augustus 
 Caesar at Apollonia. Theodorus wrote many 
 works, all of which are lost. —4. A Greek monk, 
 surnamed Frodromus, who lived in the first half of 
 the 12th century. He was held in great repute 
 by his contemporaries as a scholar and philosopher, 
 and wrote upon a great variety of subjects. Several 
 of his works have come down to us, of which the 
 following may be mentioned : 1. A metrical romance 
 in 9 books, on the loves of Rhodanthe and Dosicles, 
 written in iambic metre, and exhibiting very little 
 ability. 2, A poem entitled Oaleomyomachia^ in 
 iambic verse, on ■■' the battle of the mice and cat,'' 
 in imitation of the Homeric Batrachomyomachia, 
 This piece is often appended to the editions of 
 Aesop and Babrius. — 5. The name of 2 ancient 
 Samian artists. (1.) The son of Rhoecus, and 
 brother of Telecles, flourished about e.g. 600, and 
 was an architect, a statuary in bronze, and a sculp- 
 tor in wood. He wrote a work on the Heraeuni 
 at Samos, in the erection of which it may therefore 
 be supposed that he was engaged as well as his 
 father. Or, considering the time which such a 
 building would occupy, the treatise may perhaps be 
 ascribed to the younger Theodorus. He was also 
 engaged with his father in the erection of the laby- 
 rinth of Lemnos ; and he prepared the foundation 
 of the temple of Artemis at Ephesus. In conjunc- 
 tion with his brother Telecles, he made the wooden 
 statue of Apollo Pythius for the Samians, according 
 to the fixed rules of the hieratic style. (2.) The 
 son of Telecles, nephew of the elder Theodorus, 
 and grandson of Rhoecus, flourished about 560, in 
 
THEODOSIOPOLIS. 
 
 the times of Croesus and Polycrates, and obtained 
 such renown as a Btatuary in bronze, that the in- 
 vention of that art was ascribed to him, in con- 
 junction with his grandfather. He also practised 
 the arts of engraving metals (ropevTiKij^caeliitura), 
 and of gera-engraving ; his works in those depart- 
 ments being celebrated gold and silver craters, and 
 the ring of Poljxrates. 
 
 Theodosiopolis {@eo^oa■lov■^■o^^s : prob. JErze- 
 routn\ a city of Armenia Major, S. of the Araxes, 
 and 42 stadia S. of the mountain wliich contains 
 the sources of the Euphrates : built by Theo- 
 dosins II. as a mountain fortress: enlarged and 
 strengthened by Anastasius and Justinian. Its 
 position made it a place of commercial importance. 
 There were other cities of the name, but none of 
 any great consequence. 
 
 Tbeodosins. I. Sumamed the Great, Roman 
 emperor of the East, a. d. 378 — 395, was the son 
 of the general Theodosius who restored Britain to 
 the empire, and was beheaded at Carthage in the 
 rei^n of Valens, 376. The future emperor was 
 born in Spain about 346. He received a good 
 education ; and he learned the art of war nnder 
 his own father, whom he accompanied in his British 
 campaigns. During his father's life-time he was 
 raised to the rank of Duke (dux) of Moesia, where 
 he defeated the Sarmatians (374), and saved the 
 province. On the death of his father he retired 
 before court intrigues to his native country. He 
 acquired a considerable military reputation in the 
 lifetime of his father; and after the death of Valens, 
 who fell in battle against the Goths, he was pro- 
 claimed emperor of the East by Gratian, who felt 
 himself unable to sustain the burden of the empire. 
 The Roman empire in the East was then in a 
 critical position ; for the Romans were disheart- 
 ened by the bloody defeat which they had sus- 
 tained, and the Goths were insolent in their victory. 
 Theodosius, however, showed himself equal to the 
 difficult position in which he was placed ; he gained 
 two signal victories over the Goths, and concluded 
 a peace with tlie barbarians in 382. In the follow- 
 ing year (383) Maximus assumed the imperial 
 purple in Britain, and invaded Gaul with a power- 
 ful army. In the war which followed Gratian was 
 sljiin ; and Tlieodosius, who did not consider it 
 prudent to enter into a contest with Maximus, 
 acknowledged the latter emperor of the countries 
 of Spain, Gaul, and Britain, but he secured to 
 Valentinian, the brother of Gratian, Italy, Africa, 
 and western lUyricura. But when Maximus ex- 
 pelled Valentiuian from Italy in 387, Theodosius 
 espoused the cause of the latter, and marched into 
 the West at the head of a powerful army. After 
 defeating Maximus in Pannoni.i, Theodosius pur- 
 sued him across the Alps to Aquileiu. Here Maxi- 
 mus was surrendered by his own soldiers to Theo- 
 dosius and was put to death. Theodosius spent 
 the winter at Milan, and in the following year 
 (389) he entered Rome in triumph, accompanied 
 b}' Valentinian and his own son Honorius. Two 
 events in the life of Theodosius about this time 
 may be mentioned as evidence of his uncertain 
 character and his savage temper. In 387 a riot 
 took place at Antioch, in which the statues of the 
 emperor, of his father, and of his wife were thrown 
 down ; but these idle demonstrations were quickly 
 sTippressed by an armed force. When Tiieodosius 
 heard of these riots, he degi'aded Antioch from the 
 rank of a city, stripped it of its possessions and 
 
 THEODOSIUS. 
 
 761 
 
 privileges, and reduced it to the condition of a 
 village dependent on Laodicea. But in conse- 
 quence of the intercession of Antioch and the senate 
 of Constantinople, he pardoned the city, and all 
 who had taken part in the riot. The other event 
 is an eternal brand of infamy on tlie name of Theo- 
 dosius, In 390, while the emperor was at Milan, 
 a serious riot broke out at Thessalonica, in which 
 the imperial officer and several of his troops were 
 murdered. Theodosius resolved to take the most 
 signal vengeance upon the whole city. An army 
 of barbarians was sent to Thessalonica ; the people 
 were invited to the games of the Circus ; and as 
 soon as the place was full, the soldiers received the 
 signal for a massacre. For 3 hours the spectators 
 were indiscrimiuately exposed to the fuiy of the 
 soldiers, and 7000 of them, or, as some accounts 
 say, more than twice that number, paid the penalty 
 of the insurrection. St. Ambrose, the archbishop 
 of Milan, represented to Theodosius his crime in a 
 letter, and told him that penitence alone could 
 efface his guilt. Accordingly, when the emperor 
 proceeded to perform his devotions in the usual 
 manner in the great church of Milan, the archbishop 
 stopped hum at the door, and demanded an acknow- 
 ledgment of his guilt. The conscience-struck 
 Theodosius humbled himself before the church, 
 which has recorded his penance as one of its great- 
 est victories. He laid aside the insignia of impe- 
 rial power, and in the posture of a suppliant in the 
 church of Milan entreated pardon for his great sin 
 before all the congregation. After 8 months, the 
 emperor was restored to communion with the 
 church. Theodosius spent 3 j'ears in Italy, during 
 which he established Valentinian II. on the throne 
 of the West. He returned to Constantinople to- 
 wards the latter end of 391. Valentinian was slain 
 in 392 by Arbogastes, who raised Eugenius to the 
 empire of the West. This involved Theodosius in 
 a new war; but it ended in the defeat and death 
 both of Eugenius and Arbogastes in 394. Theo- 
 dosius died at Milan 4 months after the defeat of 
 Eugenius, on the l7th of January 39a. His 2 
 sons, Arcadius and Honorius, had already been 
 elevated to the rank of Augusti, and it was ar- 
 ranged that the empire should be divided between 
 them, Arcadius having the East, and Honorius the 
 West. Theodosius was a firm Catholic, and a 
 fierce opponent and persecutor of the Ariaus and 
 all heretics. It was in his reign also that the 
 formal destruction of paganism took place ; and we 
 still possess a large number of the Irrvvs of Theo- 
 dosius, prohibiting the exercise of the piigan reli- 
 gion, and forbidding the heathen worship under 
 severe penalties, in some cases extending to death. 
 — 11. Roman emperor of the East, a. d. 4U8 — 
 450, was born in 401, and was only 7 years of age 
 at the deatli of his father Arcadius, whom he suc- 
 ceeded. Theodosius was a weak prince ; and hia 
 sister Pulcheria, who became his guardian in 414, 
 possessed the virtual government of the empire 
 during the remainder of his long reign. The prin- 
 cipal external events in the reign of Theodosius 
 were the war with the Perfdans, which only lasted 
 a short time (421—422), and was terminated by 
 a peace for 100 years, and the war with the Huns, 
 who repeatedly defeated the armies of the em- 
 peror, and compelled him at length to conclude a 
 disgraceful peace with them in 447 or 448. Theo- 
 dosius died in 450, and was succeeded by his sister 
 Pulcheria, who prudently took for her colleague in 
 
762 
 
 THEODOTA. 
 
 the empire the aenator Marcian, and made him 
 her husband. Thcodosius had been married in 
 421 to the accomplished Athenais, the daughter 
 of the sophist Leontius, who received at her bap- 
 tism the nauie of Eudocia. Their daughter Eu- 
 doxia was married to Valentinian III., the emperor 
 of the West. In the reign of Theodosius, and 
 that of Valeutinian III., was made the compilation 
 called the Codex Theodosianus. It was published 
 in 438. It consists of 16 books, which are divided 
 into titles, with appropriate rubricae or headings; 
 and the constitutions belonging to each title are 
 arranged under it in chronological order. The 
 first 5 books comprise the greater part of the 
 constitution which relates to Jiis Privatum; the 
 6th, 7th, and 8th books contain the law that re- 
 lates to the constitution and administration ; the 
 9th book treats of criminal law; the 10th and 
 11th treat of the public revenue and some matters 
 relating to procedure; the 12th, 13th, 14th and 
 15th books treat of the constitution and the ad- 
 ministration of towns and other corporations ; and 
 the 16th contains the law relating to ecclesiastical 
 matters. The best edition of this Code with a 
 commentary is that of J, Gothofredus, which was 
 edited after his death by A. Marville, Lyon, 1665, 
 6 vols. fo. ; and afterwards by Ritter, Leipzig, 
 1736—1745, fol. The best edition of the text 
 alone is that by HUnel in the Goi-pus Juris Anie- 
 justinianeicm^ Bonn, 1837.^111. Literary, 1, Of 
 Bithynia, a mathematician, mentioned by Strabo 
 and by Vitruvius, the latter of whom speaks of 
 him as the inventor of an universal sun-dial. 
 2. Of Tripolis, a mathematician and astronomer of 
 6ome distinction, who appears to have flourished 
 later than the reign of Trajan. He wrote several 
 works, of which the 3 following are extant, and 
 have been published. 1. '^(paipiKO.^ a treatise on 
 the properties of the sphere, and of the circles 
 described on its surface. 2. Ilepl •^/xepwi' Koi 
 yvKTCov. 3. Tlepl oiK-fjcrfojy. 
 
 Th,eodota (0eo5(iTi7), an Athenian courtezan, 
 and one of the most celebrated persons of that 
 class in Greece, is introduced as a speaker in 
 Xenophon''8 Memorabilia (iii. 11.) Slie at last 
 attached herself to Alcibiades, and, after his 
 murder, she performed his funeral rites. 
 
 TheogTiis (Beoyvis). 1. Of Megara, an an- 
 cient elegiac and gnomic poet, is said to have flou- 
 rished B. c. 548 or 544. He may have been born 
 about 570, and would therefore have been 80 at the 
 commencement of the Persian wars, 490, at which 
 time we know from his own writings that he was 
 alive. Theognia belonged to the oligarchical party 
 in his native city, and in its fates he shared. He 
 was a noble by birth ; and all bis sympathies 
 ■were with the nobles. They are, in his poems, 
 the ayadol and 4(Td\oi, and the commons the KaKoi 
 and SeiAoi, terms which, in fact, at that period, 
 were regularly used in this political signification, 
 and not in their later etliical meaning. He was 
 banished with the leaders of the oligarchical party, 
 having previously been deprived of all his pro- 
 perty ; and most of his poems were composed 
 while he was an exile. Most of his political 
 ■verses are addressed to a certain Cymus, the son 
 of Polypas. The other fragments of his poetry 
 are of a social, most of them of a festive character. 
 They place us in the midst of a circle of friends, 
 who formed a kind of convivial society ; all the 
 members of this society belonged to the class whom 
 
 THEOPHANES. 
 
 the poet calls " the good." The collection of gnomic 
 poetry, which has come down to us under the 
 name of Theognis, contains, however, many addi- 
 tions from later poets. The genuine fragments of 
 Theognis contain much that is highly poetical in 
 thought, and elegant as well as forcible in expres- 
 sion. The best editions are by Bekker, Lips. 
 1815, and 2d ed. 1827, 8vo. ; by Welcker, Fran- 
 cof. 1826, 8vo. ; and by Orellius, Turic. 1840, 4to. 
 ^ 2, A tragic poet, contemporary with Aristo- 
 phanes, by whom he is satirized. 
 
 Theon {&4a)v). 1. The name of 2 mathema- 
 ticians who are often confounded together. The 
 first is Theon the elder, of Smyrna, best known 
 as an arithmetician, who lived in the time of 
 Hadrian. The second is Theon the younger, of 
 Alexandria, the father of Hypatia, best known as 
 an astronomer and geometer, who lived in the 
 time of Theodosius the elder. Both were hea- 
 thens, a fact which the date of the second makes it 
 desirable to state ; and each held the Platonism 
 of his period. Of Theon of Smyrna all that we 
 have left is a portion of a work entitled, TcHiu wara 
 fia6i]fj.aTiK7]v ■x^p7]a'ifiti}v els ttji/ rov HKoltwi/os 
 avdyvwaiv. The portion which now exists is in 
 2 books, one on arithmetic, and one on music : 
 there was a third on astronomy, and a fourth Ilepi 
 Tr\s eV K6a/J.a} apfiovias. The best edition is by 
 Gelder, Leyden, 1827. Of Theon of Alexandria 
 the following works have come down to us; — • 
 1. Scholia on Aratiis. 2. Edition of Euclid. 3. 
 Commentary on the Almagest of Ptolemy, ad- 
 dressed to his son Epiphanius. 4. Commentary on 
 the tables of Ptolemy. ^2. Aelius Theon, of 
 Alexandria, a sophist and rhetorician of uncertain 
 date, wrote several works, of which one entitled 
 Frogymnasmaia {VIpoyvfXvdcrfjLaTa) is still extant. 
 It is a useful treatise on the proper system of pre- 
 paration for the profession of an orator, according 
 to the rules laid down by Hermogenes and Aph- 
 thonius. One of the best editions is by Finckh, 
 Stuttgard, 1834,^3. Of Samos, a painter who 
 flourished from the time of Philip onwards to that 
 of the successors of Alexander. The peculiar merit 
 of Theon was his prolific fancy. 
 
 Theonoe {©eovd-q), daughter of Proteus and 
 Psaramathe, also called Idothea. [Idothea.] 
 
 Theophanes (0eo<^ar7j5). 1. Cn. Pompeius 
 Tlieopliaiies, of Mytilene in Lesbos, a learned 
 Greek, and one of the most intimate friends of 
 Pompey. Poinpey appears to have made his ac- 
 quaintance during the Mithridatic war, and soon 
 became so much attached to him that he presented 
 to him the Roman franchise in the presence of his 
 army, after a speech in which he eulogised his 
 merits. This occurred about b, c, 62 ; and in the 
 course of the same year Theophanes obtained from 
 Pompey the privileges of a free state for his native 
 city, althougli it had espoused the cause of Mithri- 
 dates. Theophanes came to Rome with Pompey ; 
 and on the breaking out of the civil war he accom- 
 panied his patron to Greece. Pompey appointed 
 him commander of the Fabri, and chiefly consulted 
 him and Lucceius on all important matters in the 
 war, much to the indignation of the Roman nobles. 
 After the battle of Pharsalia Theophanes fled with 
 Pompey from Greece, and it was owing to his ad- 
 vice that Pompey went to Egypt. After the death 
 of his patron, Theophanes took refiige in Italy, 
 and was pardoned by Caesar. After his death 
 the Lesbians paid divine honours to his memory. 
 
TIIEOPHILUS. 
 
 Theophanes wrote the history of Pompey's cam- 
 paigns, in which he represented the exploits of his 
 patron in the most favoui-able light. — 2. M. 
 Pompeiu3 Theophanes, son of the preceding, was 
 sent to Asia by Augustus, iii the capacity of pro- 
 curator, and was at the time that Strabo wrote 
 one of the friends of Tiberius. The latter emperor, 
 liowever, put his descendants to death towards the 
 end of his reign, a. d. 3)i, because their ancestor 
 had been one of Pompey's friends, and had received 
 after his death divine honours from tlie Lesbians. 
 — 3. A Byzantine historian, flourished most pro- 
 bably in the latter part of the 6th century of our 
 era. He wrote, in 10 books, the history of the 
 Eastern Empire during the Persian war under 
 Justin II., from a. d. 567 to 581. The work it- 
 self is lost, but some extracts from it are preserved 
 by Photius. ^4. Also a Byzantine historian, lived 
 during the second half of the 8th century, and the 
 early part of the 9th. In consequence of his sup- 
 porting the cause of image worship, he was 
 banished by Leo the Armenian to the island of 
 Samothrace, where he died, in 818. Theophanes 
 wrote a Chronicon, which is still extant, beginning 
 at the accession of Diocletian, in 277, and coming 
 down to 811. It consists, like the Chronica of 
 Eusebius and of Syncellus, of two parts, a history 
 arranged according to years, and a chronological 
 table, of which the former is very superior to the 
 latter. It is published in the Collections of the 
 Byzantine writers, Paris, 1655, foL, Venet. 1729, 
 fol. 
 
 TheopMlus (©etJt/jiXos). 1. An Athenian comic 
 poet, most probably of the Middle Comedy. — 2. 
 An historian and geographer, quoted by Josephus, 
 Plutarch, and Ptolemy. — 3. Bishop of Antioch, 
 in the latter part of the 2nd century of our era, 
 and the author of one of the early apologies for 
 Christianity which have come down to ue. This 
 work is in the form of a letter to a friend, named 
 Autolycus, who was still a heathen, but a man of 
 extensive reading and great learning. It was com- 
 posed A. D. 180 ; a year or two before the death 
 of Theophilus. The best edition is that by Wolf, 
 Harab. 1724, 8vo. ^4. Bishop of Alexandria, in 
 the latter part of the 4th and the beginning of the 5th 
 centuries of our era, and distinguished for his per- 
 secutions of the Origenists and for his hostility to 
 Chrysostom. He died a. d. 412. A few remains 
 of his works hare come down to us.— 5. One of 
 tiie lawyers of Constantinople who were employed 
 by Justinian on his first Code, on the Digest, and 
 on the composition of the Institutes. [Justini- 
 ANUS.j Theophilus is the author of the Greek 
 translation or paraphrase of the Institutes of Justi- 
 nian, which has come down to us. It is intitled ^lv~ 
 (TTiTovTa @io<pi\ou 'AvTiKivtTwpos^ Instituta Tkeo- 
 phili Anteccnsoris. It became the text for the In- 
 stitutes in the East, where the Latin language was 
 little known, and entirely displaced the Latin text. 
 The best edition is by Reitz, Haag. 1751, 2 vols. 
 4to. — 6. Theophilus Protospatharius, the author 
 of several Greek medical works, which are still 
 extant. Proiospaiharius was originally a military 
 title given to the colonel of the body-guards of the 
 emperor of Constantinople {Spatharii), but after- 
 wards became also a high civil dignity. Theophi- 
 lus probably lived in the 7th century after Christ. 
 Of his works the 2 most important are: 1. Uep\ 
 TTJs Ttiv 'AvdptaTTov KaTaaKevrjs, De Corporis Hu- 
 mani Fabrica, an anatomical and physiological 
 
 THEOPHYLACTUS. 763 
 
 treatise in 5 books. The best edition is by 
 Greenhill, Oxon. 1842, 8vo. 2. HepX Ovptov, De 
 Unnis, of which the best edition is by Guidot, 
 Lugd. Bat. 1703 (and 1731) 8vo. 
 
 Theophrastus (©eoi^pao-Tos), the Greek philo- 
 sopher, was a native of Eresus in Lesbos, and 
 studied philosophy at Athens, first under Plato, 
 and afterwards under Aristotle-, He became the 
 favourite pupil of Aristotle, who is said to have 
 changed his original name of Tyrtamus to Theo- 
 phrastus (or the Divine Speaker), to indicate 
 the fluent and graceful address of his pupil ; but 
 this tale is scarcely credible. Aristotle named 
 Theophrastus his successor in the presidency of 
 the Lyceum, and in his will bequeathed to him 
 his library and the originals of his own writings. 
 Tlieophrastus was a worthy successor of his great 
 master, and nobly sustained the character of the 
 school. He is said to have had 2000 disciples, 
 and among them such men as the comic poet 
 MenandtT. He was highly esteemed by the 
 kings Philippus, Cassander, and Ptolemy, and was 
 not the less tlie object of the regard of the Athe- 
 nian people, as was decisively shown when he 
 was impeached of impiety; for he was not only 
 acquitted, but his accuser would have fallen a 
 victim to his calumn}', had not Theophrastus 
 generously interfered to save him. Nevertheless, 
 when the philosophers were banishtd from Athens, 
 in B. c. 305, according to the law of Sophocles, 
 Theophrastus also left the citj', until Philo, a 
 disciple of Aristotle, in the very next year, brought 
 Sophocles to punishment, and procured the repeal of 
 the law. From this time Theophrastus continued 
 to teach at Athens without any further molestation 
 till his death. He died in 287, having presided over 
 the Academy about 35 years. His age is differently 
 stated. According to some accounts he lived 85 
 years, according to others 107 years. He is said 
 to have closed his life with the complaint respect- 
 ing the short duration of human existence, that it 
 ended just when the insight into its problems was 
 beginning. The whole population of Athens took 
 part in his funeral obsequies. He bequeathed his 
 library to Neleus of Scepsis. Theophrastus exerted 
 himself to cany out the philosophical system o£ 
 Aristotle, to throw light upon the difficulties con- 
 tained in his books, and to fill up the gaps in 
 them. With this view he wrote a great number 
 of works, the great object of which was the de- 
 velopment of the Aristotelian philosophy. Un- 
 fortunately most of these works have perished. 
 The following are alone extant : 1. Cliaracteres 
 {y\8iKo\ xapdfCT^pes), in 30 chapters, containing 
 descriptions of vicious characters. 2. A treatise 
 on sensuous perception and its objects (Trepi aladi}- 
 a-eMs [fcal alo-BrjTuv]). 3. A fragment of a work 
 on metaphysics {rui/ fxera ra ^vaiicd). 4. On the 
 History of Plants (Trepl ^vrwv laropias)^ in 10 
 books, one of the earliest works on botany which 
 have come down to us. 5. Chi the Causes of Pla.nts 
 (Trepl ^VT(av alnchv)^ originally in 8 books, of which 
 6 are still extant. 6. Of Stones (-Trepl XiBoiu). The 
 best editions of the complete works of Theo- 
 phrastus are by Schneider, Lips. 1818—21, 5 
 vols., and by Wiramer, Vratislaviae, 1842, of 
 which, however, the first volume has only yet 
 appeared. The best separate edition of the Charac- 
 teres is^by A.st, Lips. 1816. 
 
 Theophylactus (©eot^uAarcros). 1. Sumamed 
 Simocatta, a Byzantme historian, lived at Con- 
 
764 
 
 TIIEOPOMPUS. 
 
 stantinople, where he held some public offices 
 under Heracllus, about a. d. 610 — 6'29. His chief 
 work is a history of the reign of the emperor 
 Maurice, in 8 books, from the death of Tiberius II. 
 and the accession of Maurice, in 58"2, down to the 
 murder of Maurice and his children by Phocas in 
 60'2. The best edition of this work is by Bekker, 
 Bonn, 1834, 8vo. There is also extant another 
 work of Theophylactus, entitled Quaestiones Phy- 
 sicae, of which the best edition is by Boiasonade, 
 Paris, 1835, 8vo. ^ 2. Archbishop of Bulgaria, 
 flourished about a. d. 1070 and onwards, is cele- 
 brated for his commentaries on the Scriptures, 
 which are founded on the commentaries of Chry- 
 sostom, and are of considerable value, 
 
 TlieopompTls (0ecJ7ro^7ros). 1. King of Sparta, 
 reigned about b, c. 770 — 720 He is said to have 
 established the ephoralty, and to have been mainly 
 instrumental in bringing the Ist Messenian war 
 to a successful issue. ^ 2. Of Chios, a celebrated 
 Greek historian, was the son of Damasistratua and 
 the brother of Caucalus, the rhetorician. He was 
 born about b. c. 378. He accompanied his father 
 into banishment, when the latter was exiled on 
 account of his espousing the interests of the Lace- 
 daemonians, but he was restored to his native 
 country in the 45th year of his age (333), in con- 
 sequence of the letters of Alexander the Great, in 
 which he exhorted the Chians to recal their exiles. 
 In what year Theopompus quitted Chios with his 
 father is uncertain ; but we know that before he 
 left his native countr}', he attended the school of 
 rhetoric which Isocrates opened at Chios, and that 
 he profited so much by the lessons of liis great 
 master as to be regarded by the ancients as the 
 most distinguished of all his scholars. Ephorus 
 the historian was a fellow-student with him, but 
 was of a very different character; and Isocrates 
 used to say of them, that Theopompus needed the 
 bit and Ephorus the spur. In consequence of the 
 advice of Isocrates, Theopompus did not devote 
 his oratorical powers to the pleading of causes, but 
 gave his chief attention to the study and composi- 
 tion of histor)'. Like his master Isocrates, how- 
 ever, he composed many orations of the kind, called 
 Epideitic by the Greeks, that is, speeches on set 
 subjects delivered for display, such as eulogiums 
 upon states and individuals. Thus in 352 he 
 contended at Halicamassus with Naucrates and 
 his master Isocrates for the prize of oratory, given hy 
 Artemisia in honour of iier husband, and gained the 
 victory. On his return to Chios in 333, Theo- 
 pompus, who was a man of great wealth as well 
 as learning, naturally took an important position 
 in the state ; but his vehement temper, and his 
 support of the aristocratical party, soon raised 
 against him a host of enemies. Of these one of 
 the most formidable was the sophist Theocritus. 
 As long as Alexander lived, his enemies dared not 
 take any open proceedings against Theopompus ; 
 and even after the death of the Macedonian mo- 
 narch, he appears to have enjoyed for some years 
 the protection of the royal house. Theopompus 
 wag supported by Alexander, and after his death 
 by the royal house ; but he weis eventually ex- 
 pelled from Chios as a disturber of the public 
 peace, and fled to Egypt to Ptolemy, about 305, 
 being at the time 75 years of age. We are in- 
 formed that Ptolemy not only refused to receive 
 Theopompus, but would even have put him to ! 
 death as a dangerous busybody, had not some of I 
 
 THERA. 
 
 liis friends interceded for his life. Of his further 
 fate we have no particulars. None of the works 
 of Theopompus have come down to us, but tiie 
 following were his chief works : 1. 'E.WT]viKa\ t<no~ 
 piat or 2ui/Ta^ts 'EAAtj^/hcwi', A History of Greece^ 
 in 12 books, which was a continuation of the his- 
 tory of Thucydides. It commenced in b. c. 411, 
 at the point where the history of Thucydides 
 breaks off, and embraced a period of 17 years 
 down to the battle of Cnidus in 394, 2. 4>tAi7r7riK:a, 
 also called 'ICTopiat (kut' €^oxw)^ The Histoi^y of 
 Philip^ father of Alexander the Great, in 58 books, 
 from the commencement of his reign 360, to his 
 death 336. This work contained numerous di- 
 gressions, which in fact formed the greater part 
 of the whole work ; so that Philip V., king of 
 Macedonia, was able, by omitting them and re- 
 taining only what belonged to the proper subject, 
 to reduce tlie work from 58 books to 16. 53 of 
 the 58 books of the original work were extant in 
 the 9th century of the Christian aera, and were 
 read by Photius, who has preserved an abstract of 
 the 12th book. 3. Oratioms, which were chiefly 
 Panegyrics, and what the Greeks called ^vfiSov- 
 \evTiKol \6yoL. Of the latter kind one of the 
 most celebrated was addressed to Alexander on 
 the state of Chios. Theopompus is praised by 
 ancient writers for his diligence and accuracy ; 
 but is at the same time said to have taken more 
 pleasure in blaming than in commending ; and 
 many of his judgments respecting events and cha- 
 racters were expressed with such acrimony and 
 severity that several of the ancient writers speak 
 of his malignity, and call him a rcviler. The 
 style of Theopompus was formed on the model of 
 Isocrates, and possessed the characteristic merits 
 and defects of his master. It was pure, dear, and 
 elegant, but deficient in vigour, loaded with orna- 
 ment, and in general too artificial. The best col- 
 lections of the fragments of Theopompus are by 
 Wichers, Lugd. Bat. 1829, and by C. and Theod. 
 MiiUer in the Frugnicnta Hisioriconun Graecorum, 
 Paris, 1841. — 3. An Athenian comic poet, of the 
 Old, and also of the Middle Comedy, was the son 
 of Theodectes or Theodoriis, or Tisamenus. He 
 wrote as late as b. c. 3''J0, His extant fragments 
 contain examples of the declining purity of the 
 Attic dialect. 
 
 Theoxeuius (0eo|eVios), a surname of Apollo 
 and Hermes. Respecting the festival of the 
 Theoxenia, see Diet, of Anilq. s.v. 
 
 Tnera [®-r)pa.: Q-qpaTos : SantoriTi)^ an island 
 in the Aegaean sea, and the chief of the Sporades, 
 disUmt from Crete 700 stadia, and 25 Roman 
 miles S. of the island of los. It is described by 
 Strabo as 200 stadia in circumference, but by 
 modern travellers as 36 miles, and In figure exactly 
 like a horse-shoe. Thera is clearly of volcanic 
 origin. It is covered at the present day with 
 pumice-stone ; and the rocks are burnt and 
 scorched. It is said to have been formed by a 
 clod of earth thrown from the ship Argo, and to 
 have received the name of Calliste, when it first 
 emerged from the sea. Therasia, a small island 
 to the W., and called at the present day by the 
 same name, was torn away from Thera by some 
 volcanic convulsion. Thera is said to have been 
 onginally inhabited by Phoenicians, but was 
 afterwards colonist^d by Lacedaemonians and Mi- 
 nyana of Lenmos under the guidance of tlie Spartan 
 Theras, who gave his name to the island. In 
 
THERAMBO. 
 
 B.a 631 Battua conducted a colony from Tliera to 
 Africa, where he founded the celebrated city of 
 Cyrene. Thera remained faithful to the Spartans, 
 and was one of the few islands which espoused 
 the Spartan cause at the commencement of the 
 Peloponnesian war. 
 
 Therambo (©epa/A^w, also ©pa^ifios), a town of 
 Macedonia on the peninsula Pallene. 
 
 Xlieramenes (©Tjpa/ieVTjs), an Athenian, son of 
 Hagnon, was a leading member of the oligarchical 
 government of the 400 at Athens in b. c. 411. In 
 this, however, he does not appear to have occupied 
 as eminent a station as he had hoped to till, while 
 at the same time the declaration of Alcibiades and 
 of the army at Samns against the oligarchy made 
 it evident to hira that its days were numbered. 
 Accordingly he withdrew from the more violent 
 aristocrats and began to cabal against them ; and 
 he subsequently took not only a prominent part in 
 the deposition of the 400, but came forward as the 
 accuser of Antiphon and Archeptolemus, who liad 
 been his intimate friends, but whose death he was 
 now the mean and cowardly instrument in pro- 
 curing. At the battle of Arginusae, in 406, The- 
 i"ament!g held a subordinate command in the Athe- 
 nian fleet, and he was one of those who, after the 
 victory, were commissioned by the generals to 
 repair to the scene of action and save as many as 
 possible of the disabled galleys and their crews. 
 A storm, it is said, rendered the execution of the 
 order impracticable; yet, instead of trusting to this 
 as his ground of defence, Thernmenes thought it 
 safer to divert the popular anger from himself to 
 others; and it appears to have been chiefly through 
 his machinations that the 6 generals who had re- 
 turned to Athens, were condemned to death. After 
 the capture of Athens by Lysander, Theramenes 
 was chosen one of the Thirty Tyrants (404). He 
 endeavoured to check the tyrannical proceedings of 
 his colleagues, foreseeing that their violence would 
 be fatal to the permanence of their power. His 
 opposition, however, had no effect in restraining 
 them, but only induced the desire to rid themselves 
 of so troublesome an associate, whose former con- 
 duct moreover had shown that no political party 
 could depend on him, and who had earned, by his 
 trimming, the nickname of Kddopvos^ — a boot 
 which might be worn on either foot. He was 
 therefore accused by Critias before the council as a 
 traitor, and when his nominal judges, favourably 
 impressed by his able defence, exhibited an evident 
 disposition to acquit him, Critias introduced into 
 the chamber a number of men armed with daggers, 
 and declared that, as all who were not included in 
 the privileged Three Thousand might be put to 
 death by the sole authority of the Thirty, he struck 
 the name of Theramenes out of that list, and con- 
 demned him with the consent of all his colleagues. 
 Theramenes then rushed to the altar, which stood 
 in the council-chamber, but was dragged from it 
 and carried off to execution. When he had drunk 
 the hemlock, he dashed out the last drops from the 
 cup, exclaiming, " This to the health of the lovely 
 Critias ! " Both Xenophon and Cicero express 
 their admiration of the equanimity which he dis- 
 played in his last hour ; but surely such a feeling 
 is sadly out of place when directed to such a man. 
 
 Therapnae (©epoTr^of, also ©epaTrj/?), Dor. ©e- 
 pdiTi/a : ®epairpa7os). 1. A town in Laconica, on 
 the left bank of the Eurotas, and a little above 
 Sparta. It received its name from Therapne, 
 
 THERMOPYLAE. 765 
 
 daughter of Lelex, and is celebrated in mythology 
 as the birth-place of Castor and Pollux, and con- 
 tained temples of these divinities as well as temples 
 of Menelaus and Helen, both of whom were said 
 to be buried here. ^ 2. A town in Boeotia, on the 
 road from Thebes to the Asopus. 
 Theraa. [Thera.] 
 Therasia. [Theha,] 
 
 Thericles (©TipifcX^s), a Corinthian potter, whose 
 works obtained such celebrity that the}' became 
 known throughout Greece by the name of &7jp(- 
 kAcio (sc. iroriipia.) or kvKik^s 0Tjp(KAeia( (or -ai), 
 and these names were applied not only to cups of 
 earthenware, but also to those of wood, glass, gold, 
 and silver. Some scholars make Tiiericles a con- 
 temporary of Aristophanes ; but others deny the 
 existence of Thericles altogether, and contend that 
 the name of these vases is a descriptive one, derived 
 from the figures of animals {p-i]pia) with which 
 they were adorned. 
 
 Therma (Qipjiri: ©ep^ctTos), a town in Mace- 
 donia, afterwards called Thessalonica [Thessa- 
 lonica], situated at the N. E. extremity of a 
 great gulf of the Aegaean sea, lying between 
 Thessaly and the peninsula Chalcidice, and called 
 Thermaicus or Tliermaeus Sinus ( ©ep/xoToy 
 KtJATTos), from the town at its head. This gulf 
 was also called Macedonicus Sinus : its modem 
 name is Gulf of Salonild. 
 
 Thermae (©ep/iai), a town in Sicily, built by 
 the inhabitants of Himera, after the destruction 
 of the latter city by the Carthaginians. For details 
 see Himera. 
 
 Thermaicus Sinus. [Therma.] 
 Tliermodon (©ep^LtwStDC : Tliermeh)^ a river of 
 Pontus, in the district of Themiscyra, the reputed 
 country of the Amazons, rises in a mountain called 
 Amazonius M. (and still Mason Dagh\ near 
 Phanaroea, and falls into the sea about iJO miles 
 E. of the mouth of the Iris, after a short course, 
 but with so large a body of water, that its breadth, 
 accordiiig to Xenophon, was 3 plethra (above 300 
 feet), and it was navigable. At its mouth was 
 the city of Tliemiscyra ; and there is still, on the 
 "VV. side of the mouth of the T/iei-ineh, a place of 
 the same name, Thermeli. 
 
 Thermopylae, often called simply Pylae (0fp- 
 ^OTTuAai, ZluAai), that is, the Hot Gates or the 
 GaieSy a celebrated pass leading from Thessaly 
 into Locris. It lay between Mt. Oeta and an 
 inaccessible morass, forming the edge of the Malic 
 Gulf. At one end of the pass, close to Anthela, 
 the mountain approached so close to th*" morass as 
 to leave room for only a single carriage between ; 
 this narrow entrance formed the W. gate of Ther- 
 mopylae. About a mile to the E. the mountain 
 again approached close to the sea, near the Locrian 
 town of Alpeni, thus forming the E. gate of Ther- 
 mopylae. The space between these 2 gates was 
 wider and more open, and was distinguished by 
 its abundant flow of hot springs, which were sacred 
 to Hercules : hence the name of the place. Ther- 
 mopylae was the only pass by which an enemy 
 can penetrate from northern into southern Greece ; 
 whence its great importance in Grecian history. 
 It is especially celebrated on account of the heroic 
 defence of Leonidas and the 300 Spartans against 
 the mighty host of Xerxes ; and they only fell 
 through the Persians having discovered a path 
 over the mountains, and thus being enabled to 
 attack the Greeks in the rear. This mountain 
 
76$ 
 
 THERMUM. 
 
 path commenced from the neighbourhood of 
 Trachis, ascended the gorge of the river Asopus 
 and the hill called Anopaea, then crossed the crest 
 of Oeta, and descended in the rear of Thermopylae 
 near the town of Alpeni. 
 
 Thermum or Therma {@4p/.Lov or rh Q4pfia\ 
 a town of the Aetoliana near Stratus, with warm 
 mineral springs, was regarded for some time as 
 the capital of the country, since it was the place 
 of meeting of the Aetolian confederacy. 
 
 Thermus, Minucius. 1. Q., served under Scipio 
 as tribunus militum in the war against Hannibal 
 in Africa in b. c. 202 ; was tribune of the plebs 
 201; curule aedile 197; and praetor 196, when he 
 carried on war with great success in nearer Spain. 
 He was consul in 193, and carried on war against 
 the Ligurians in this and the 2 following years. 
 On his return to Rome in 190, a triumph was re- 
 fased him, through the influence of M. Cato, who 
 delivered on the occasion his two orations intltled 
 J)e decern Hominihus and Defalsis Piu/nis. Thermus 
 was killed in 188, while fighting under Cn. Manilas 
 Viilso against the Thracians. — 2. BT,, propraetor 
 in 81, accompanied L. Murena, Sulla's legate, into 
 Asia. Tliermus was engaged in the siege of My- 
 tilene, and it was under him that Julius Caesar 
 served his first campaign, and gained his first 
 laurels. — 3. Q,., propraetor 51 and 50 in Asia, 
 where he received many letters from Cicero, who 
 praises his administration of the province. On the 
 breaking out of the civil war he espoused the side 
 of Pompey. 
 
 Theroa (@-hpwv)^ t}'Tant of Agrigentum in Sicily, 
 ■was the son of Aenesidemus, and descended from 
 one of the most illustrious families in his native city. 
 He obtained the supreme power about n. c. 488, 
 and retained it till his death in 472. He conquered 
 Himera in 482, and united this powerful city to 
 his own dominions. He was in close alliance with 
 Gelon, ruler of Syracuse and Gela, to whom he 
 had given his daughter Demarete in marriage ; 
 and he shared with Gelon in the great victory 
 gained over the Carthaginians in 480. On the 
 death of Gelon in 478, Theron espoused the cause 
 of Polyzelus, who had been driven into exile by 
 his brother Hieron. Theron raised an army for 
 the purpose of reinstating him, but hostilities were 
 prevented, and a peace concluded between the two 
 sovereigns. 
 
 Thersander (©epo-avSpos"), son of Polynices and 
 Argia, and one of the Epigoni, was married to 
 Demonasaa, by whom he became the father of 
 Tisamenus. He went with Agamemnon to Trny, 
 and was slain in that expedition by Telephus. 
 His tomb was shown at Elaea in Mysia, where 
 sacrifices were offered to him. Virgil (Aen. ii. 261) 
 enumerates Thersander among the Greeks concealed 
 in the wooden horse. Homer does not mention 
 him. 
 
 Thersites (Ofpo-iTr/r), son of Agrlus, the most 
 deformed and impudent talker among the Greeks 
 at Troy. According to the later poets he was killed 
 by Achilles, because he had ridiculed him for la- 
 menting the death of Penthesilea, queen of the 
 Amazons. 
 
 Theseus (©Tjo-eys), the great legendary hero of 
 Attica, was the son of Aegeus, king of Athens, 
 and of Aethra, the daughter of Pittheus, king of 
 Troezen. He was brought up at Troezen ; and 
 when he reached maturity, he took, by his mother's 
 directione, the sword and sandals, the tokens 
 
 THESEUS. 
 
 which had been left by Aegeus, and proceeded to 
 Athens. Eager to emul.ate Hercules, he went by 
 land, displaying his prowess by destroying the 
 robbers and monsters that infested the coxuitry. 
 Periphetes, Sinis, Phaea the Crommyonian sow, 
 Sciron, Cercyon, and Procrustes fell before him. 
 At Athens he was immediately recognised by 
 Medea, who laid a plot for poisoning him at a 
 banquet to which he was invited. By means of 
 the sword which he carried, Theseus was recog- 
 nised by Aegeus, acknowledged as his son, and 
 declared his successor. The sons of Pallas, thus 
 disappointed in their hopes of succeeding to the 
 throne, attempted to seciu:e the succession by vio- 
 lence, and declared war ; but, being betrayed by 
 the herald Leos, were destro^'^ed. The capture of 
 the Marathonian bull, which had long laid waste 
 the surrounding country, was the next exploit of 
 Theseus. After this Theseus went of his own 
 accord as one of the 7 youths, whom the Athenians 
 were obliged to send every year, with 7 maidens, 
 to Crete, in order to be devoured by the Minotaur. 
 When they arrived at Crete, Ariadne, the daughter 
 of Minos, became enamoured of Theseus, and pro- 
 vided him with a sword with which he slew the 
 Minotaur, and a clue of thread by which he found 
 his way out of the labyrinth. Having effected his 
 object, Theseus sailed away, carrying off Ariadne. 
 There were various accounts ab'iut Ariadne ; but 
 according to the general account Theseus abandoned 
 her in the island of Naxos on his way home. 
 [AniAnNE,] He was generally believed to have 
 had by her two sons, Oenopion and Staphylus. As 
 the vessel in which Theseus sailed approached 
 Attica, he neglected to hoist the white sail, which 
 was to have been the signal of the success of the 
 expedition ; whereupon Aegeus, thinking that his 
 son had perished, threw himself into the sea. 
 [Aegeus.] Theseus thus became king of Athens. 
 One of the most celebrated of the adventures of 
 Theseus was his expedition against the Amazons. 
 He is said to have assailed them before they had 
 recovered from the attack of llerc.Jes, and to have 
 carried off their queen Antiope. The Amazons in 
 their turn invaded Attica, and penetrated into 
 Athens itself; and the final battle in which Theseus 
 overcame them was fought in the very midst of 
 the city. By Antiope Theseus was said to have 
 had a son named Hippolytus or Bemophoon, and 
 ■after her death to have married Phaedra [Hippo- 
 lytus, PhaehraJ. Theseus figures in almost all 
 the great heroic expeditions. He was one of the 
 Argonauts (the auEichronism of the attempt of 
 Medea to poison him does not seem to have been 
 noticed); he joined in the Calydonian hunt, and 
 aided Adrastus in recovering the bodies of those 
 slain before Thebes. He contracted a close friend- 
 ship with Pirithoua, and aided him and the La- 
 pithae against the Centaurs. With the assistance 
 of Pirithous he carried off Helen from Sparta while 
 she was quite a girl, and placed her at Aphidnae, 
 under the care of Aethra. In return he assisted 
 Pirithous in his attempt to carry off Persephone 
 from the lower world. Pirithous perished in the 
 enterprise, and Theseus was kept in hard durance 
 until he was delivered by Hercules. Meantime 
 Castor and Pollux invaded Attica, and carried off 
 Helen and Aethra, Academus having informed the 
 brothers where they were to be found [Acade- 
 mus]. Menestheus also endeavoured to incite the 
 people against Theseus, who on his return found 
 
THESMIA. 
 
 himself xmable to re-establish his authority, and 
 retired to Scyros, where he met with a treacherous 
 death at the hands of Lycomedes. The departed 
 liero was believed to have appeared to aid the 
 Athenians at the battle of Marathon. In 469 the 
 bones of Theseus were discovered by Cimon in 
 Sc5Toa, and brought to Athens, where tliey were 
 deposited in a temple (the Tkeseum) erected in 
 honour of the hero. A considerable part of this 
 temple still remains, forming one of the most inter- 
 esting monuments of Athens. A festival in honour 
 of Theseus was celebrated on the 8th day of each 
 month, especially on the 8th of Pyanepaion. — 
 There can be no doubt that Theseus is a purely 
 legendary personage. Nevertheless, in later times 
 the Athenians came to regard him as the author of 
 a very important political revolution in Attica. 
 Before his time Attica had been broken up into 12 
 petty independent states or townships, acknow- 
 ledging no head, and connected only by a federal 
 union. Theseus abolished the separate govern- 
 ments, and erected Athens into the capital of a 
 single commonwealth. The festival of the Pana- 
 thenaea was ijistituted to commemorate this im- 
 portant revolution. Theseus is said to have esta- 
 blished a constitutional government, retaining in 
 his own hands only certain definite powers and 
 functions. He is further said to have distributed 
 the Athenian citizens into the 3 classes of Eupa- 
 tridae, Geomori, and Demiurgi. It would be a 
 vain task to attempt to decide whether there is 
 any historical basis for the legends about Theseus, 
 and still more so to endeavour to separate the his- 
 torical from the legendary in what has been pre- 
 served. The Theseus of the Athenians was a hero 
 wlio fought the Amazons, and slew the Minotaur, 
 and carried off Helen. A personage who should be 
 nothing more than a wise king, consolidating the 
 Athenian commonwealth, however possible his ex- 
 istence might be, would have no historical reality. 
 The connection of Theseus with Poseidon, the na- 
 tional deity of the Ionic tribes, his coming from 
 the Ionic town Troezen, forcing his way through the 
 Isthmus into Attica, and establishing the Isthmia 
 as an Ionic Panegyris, rather suggest that Theseus 
 is, at least in part, the mythological representative 
 of an Ionian immigration into Attica, which, 
 adding perhaps to the strength and importance of 
 Ionian settlers already in the countrj% might easily 
 have led to that political aggregation of the dis- 
 jointed elements of the state which is assigned to 
 Tlipseus. 
 
 Thesmia or Thesmophoros (©eo-^fa, ©to-^oi^ci- 
 pus), that is, *' the law-giver," a surname of De- 
 meter and Persephone, in honour of whom the 
 77tes7nophoria were celebrated at Athens in the 
 month of Py.inepsion. 
 
 Thespiae or Thespia (©etrn-cia?, @e<nnal, ©eV- 
 Treta ©etTTrta ; ©etrTTieus, ©eo'TrioSTjr, Thespiensis : 
 Eremo or Rimohasiro)^ an ancient town in Boeotia 
 on the S. E, slope of Mt. Helicon, at no great 
 distance from the Crissaean Gulf. Its inhabitants 
 did not follow the example of the other Boeotian 
 towns in submitting to Xerxes, and a number of 
 them bravely fought under Leonidas at Ther- 
 mopylae, and perished with the Spartans. Their 
 city was burnt to the ground by the Persians, but 
 was subsequently rebuilt. In the Peloponnesian 
 war the Thebans made themselves masters of the 
 town. At Thespiae was preserved the celebrated 
 mai-ble statue of Eros by Praxiteles, who had 
 
 THESSALIA. 
 
 767 
 
 given it to Phryne, by whom it was presented to 
 her native town. [Praxiteles.] From the 
 vicinity of the town to Mt. Helicon the Muses are 
 called T/iespiadeSj and Helicon itself is named the 
 Thespia rupes. 
 
 Tkespia {@4a-ms\ the celebrated father of Greek 
 tragedy, was a contemporary of Piaistratiis, and a 
 native of Icarus, one of the demi in Attica, where 
 the worship of Dionysus had long prevailed. The 
 alteration made by Thespis, and which gave to the 
 old tragedy a new and dramatic character, was 
 verj' simple but very important He introduced 
 an actor, for the sake of giving rest to the chonis, 
 and independent of it, in which capacity he pro- 
 bably appeared himself, taking various parts in the 
 same piece, under various disguises, which he was 
 enabled to assume by means of the linen masks, 
 the invention of which is ascribed to him. The 
 first representation of Thespis was in b. c. 525. 
 For further details seeDict o/Antiq. sxvt.Tragoedia. 
 Thespius (©eo-Trios), son of Erechtheus, who, 
 according to some, founded the town of Thespiae 
 in Boeotia. His descendants are called Thes' 
 piadae. 
 
 Tliesproti (©eo-TrpojTOi), a people of Epirus, 
 inhabiting the district called after them Tbes- 
 protia {©^(T-npojria) or Thesprotis (©eo-Trpwris), 
 which extended along the coast from the Am- 
 bracian gulf N.-wards as far as the river Thyamis, 
 and inland as far as the territory of the Molossi. 
 The S. E. part of the country on the coast, from 
 the river Acheron to the Ambracian gulf, was 
 called Cassopaea from the town Cassope, and is 
 sometimes reckoned a distinct district. The Thes- 
 proti were the most ancient inhabitants of Epirus, 
 and are said to have derived their name from 
 Thesprotus, the son of Lycaon. They were Pe- 
 lasgians, and their country was one of the chief 
 seats of the Pelaagic nation. Here was the oracle 
 of Dodona, the great centre of the Pelasgic wor- 
 ship. From Thesprotia issued the Thessalians, 
 who took possession of the country afterwards 
 called Thesaaly. In the historical period the 
 Thesprotians were a people of small importance, 
 having become subject to the kings of the Mo- 
 lossians. 
 
 Thessalia (©eo-caXia or ©cTTciXfa ; ®e<T(raK6s 
 or ©erraXfJ^), the largest division of Greece, was 
 bounded on the N. by the Caipbunian mountains, 
 which separated it from Macedonia ; on the W. 
 by Mt. Pindus, which separated it from Epirus ; 
 on the E. by the Aegaean sea ; and on the S. by 
 the Maliac gulf and Mt. Oeta, which separated it 
 from Locris, Phocis and Aetolia. Thessaly Proper 
 is a vast plain lying between the Cainbunian 
 mountains on the N. and Mt. Othrys on the S., 
 Mt. Pindus on the W., and Mts. Ossa and Pelion 
 on the E. It is thus shut in on every side by 
 mountain barriers, broken only at the N. E. comer 
 by the valley and defile of Tempe, which separates 
 Ossa from Olympus, and is the only road through 
 which an invader can enter Thessaly from the W. 
 This plain is drained by the river Peneus and its 
 affluents, and is said to have been originally a vast 
 lake, the waters of which were afterwards carried 
 off through the vale of Tempe by some sudden 
 convulsion, which rent the rocks of this valley 
 asunder. The lake of Nessonis at the foot of Mt. 
 Ossa, and that of lioebeis at the foot of Mt. Pelion, 
 are supposed to have been remains of this vast 
 lake. In addition to the plain already described 
 
768 
 
 THESSALIA. 
 
 there were 2 other districts included under the 
 general nnnie of Thessaly : one called Magnesia, 
 being a long narrow strip of country, extending 
 along the coast of the Aegaean sea from Tempe to 
 the Pagasaean gulf, and bounded on the W. by 
 Mts. Ossa and Olympus ; and the other being a 
 long narrow vale at the extreme S. of the coun- 
 try, lying between Mts. Othrys and Oeta, and 
 drained by the river Spercheus. Thessaly is said 
 to have been originally known by the names of 
 Pyrrhiy Aemonia and Aeolis. The two former 
 appellations belong to mythology ; the latter refers 
 to the period when the country was inhabited by 
 Aeolians, who were afterwards expelled from the 
 country by the Thessalians about 60 years after 
 the Trojan war. The Thessalians are said to have 
 come from Thesprotia ; but at what period their 
 name became the name of the country cannot be 
 determined. It does not occur in Homer, who 
 only mentions the several principalities of which it 
 was composed, and does not give any general ap- 
 pellation to the country. Thessaly was divided 
 in very early times into 4 districts or tetrarchies, 
 a division which we still find subsisting in the 
 Peloponnesian war. These districts were Hesti- 
 aeotis^ Felasgiotis, Thessaiiotis and Phthioiis. They 
 comprised, however, only the great Thessalian 
 plain ; and besides them, we find mention of 4 
 other districts, viz. Magnesia^ Dolopia, Oetaea, and 
 Malis. Thus there were 8 districts altogether. 
 Perrhaebia was, properly speaking, not a district, 
 since Perrhaebi was the name of a Pelasgic people 
 settled in Hestiaeotis and Pelasgiotis. [Per- 
 rhaebi.] 1. Hestiaeotis {"EtrriatMns or 'E<tti- 
 WTis), inhabited by the Hestiaeotae ('EcmatajTai 
 or 'Eo-Tiwrat), the N. W. part of Thessaly, bounded 
 on the N. by Macedonia, on the W. by Epirus, 
 on the E. by Pelasgiotis and on the S. by Thes- 
 saiiotis : the Peneus may be said in general to 
 have formed its S. limit. — 2. Pelasgiotis (He- 
 Xa.(xyta)Tis) inhabited by the Pelasgiotae (IleAair- 
 7iWTai), the E. part of the Thessalian plain, was 
 bounded on the N. by Macedonia, on the W. by 
 Hestiaeotis, on the E. by Magnesia and on the 
 S. by the Sinus Pagasaeus and Phthiotis. The 
 name shows that it was originally inhabited by 
 Pelasgians ; and one of the chief towns In the 
 district was Larissa, which was of Pelasgic origin. 
 — 3. Thessaiiotis {QeaaaKmris)^ the S. W. part 
 of the Thessalian plain, so called because it was 
 first occupied by the Thessalians who came from 
 Thesprotia. It was bounded on the N. by 
 Hestiaeotis, on the W. by Epirus, on the E. 
 by Pelasgiotis, and on the S. by Dolopia and 
 Phthiotis. ^4. Phthiotis (*0icSTis), inhabited by 
 the Phthiotae {^diiii-rai), the S. E. of Thessaly, 
 bounded on the N. by Thessaiiotis, on the W. by 
 Dolopia, on the S. by the Sinus Maliacus, and on 
 the E. by the Pagasaean gulf. Its inhabitants 
 were Achaeans, and are frequently called the 
 Achaean Phthiotae. It is in this district that 
 Hmner places Phthia and Hellas Proper, and the 
 dominions of Achilles. ^5. Magnesia [Mag- 
 nesia]. ^6. Dolopia (AoAoTTia), inhabited by 
 the Dolopes (ASKott^s), a small district bounded 
 on the E. by Phthiotis, on the N. by Thessaiiotis, 
 on the W. by Athamania, and on the S. by 
 Oetaea. They were an ancient people, for they 
 are not only mentioned by Homer as fighting 
 before Troy, but they also sent deputies to the 
 Amphictyonic assembly. — 7. Oetaea (^OtTata), 
 
 THESSALIA. 
 
 inhabited by the Oetaei {Ohaioi) and Aenlanes 
 (AtViSces), a district in the upper valley of the 
 Spercheus, lying between Mts. Othrys and Oeta, 
 and bounded on the N. by Dolopia, on the S. by 
 Phocis, and on the E. by Malis. — 8. Malis 
 [Malis]. — History of Thessaly. The Thessalians, 
 as we have already seen, were a Thesprotian tribe. 
 Under the guidance of leaders, who are said to 
 have been descendants of Hercules, they invaded 
 the W. part of the country, afterwards called 
 Thessaiiotis, and drove out or reduced to the 
 condition of Penestae or bondsmen the ancient 
 Aeolian inhabitants. The Thessalians afterwards 
 spread over the other parts of the country, com- 
 pelling the Perrhaebi, Magnetes, Achaean Phthi- 
 otae, etc., to submit to their authority and pay 
 them tribute. The population of Thessaly, there- 
 fore, consisted, like that of Laconica, of 3 distinct 
 classes. 1 . The Penestae, whose condition was nearly 
 the same as that of the Helots. 2. The subject 
 people, corresponding to the Perioeci of Laconica. 
 3. The Thessalian conquerors, who alone had any 
 share in the public administration, and wliose 
 lands were cultivated by the Penestae. For some 
 time after the conquest, Thessaly was governed by 
 kings of the race of Hercules ; but the kingly 
 power seems to have been abolished in early times, 
 and the government in the separate cities beamie 
 oligarchical, the power being chiefly in the liands 
 of a few great families descended from the ancient 
 kings. Of these two of the most powerful were 
 the Aleuadae and the Scopadae, the former of 
 whom ruled at Larissa, and the latter at Cranon 
 or Crannon. These nobles had vast estates cul- 
 tivated by the Penestae ; they were celebrated 
 for their hospitality and princely mode of life ; 
 and they attracted to their courts many of the 
 poets and artists of southern Greece. At an early 
 period the Thessalians were united into a con- 
 federate body. Each of the 4 districts into which 
 the country was divided probably regulated its 
 affairs by some kind of provincial council ; and 
 when occasion required, a chief magistrate was 
 elected under the name of Tagus (Ta'jos), whose 
 commands were obeyed by all the 4 districts. 
 His command was of a military rather than of a 
 civil nature, and he seems to have been appointed 
 only in cage of war. We do not know the extent 
 of his constitutional power nor the time for which 
 he held his office ; probably neither was precisely 
 fixed, and depended on the circumstances of the 
 time and the character of the individual. This 
 confederacy, however, was not of much practical 
 benefit to the Thessalian people, and appears to 
 have been only used by the Thessalian nobles as a 
 means of cementing and maintiiining their power. 
 The Thessalians never became of much importance 
 in Grecian history. They submitted to the Per- 
 sians on their invasion of Greece, and they exer- 
 cised no important influence on Grecian atifairs 
 till after the end of the Peloponnesian war. 
 About this time the power of the aristocratical 
 families began to decline, and Lycophron, who had 
 established himself as tyrant at Pherae, offered 
 a formidable opposition to the great aristocratical 
 families, and endeavoured to extend his power 
 over all Thessaly. His ambitious schemes were 
 realized by Jason the successor, and probably 
 the son of Lycophron, who caused himself to be 
 elected Tagus about b. c. 374. While he lived 
 the whole of Thessaly was united as one political 
 
THESSALONICA. 
 
 power, and he began to aim at making himself 
 master of all Greece, when he was assassinated in 
 370. The office of Tagus became a tyranny under 
 his successors, Polydorus, Polyphron, Alexander, 
 Tisiphon and Lycophron ; but at length the old 
 aristocratical families called in the assistance of 
 Philip of Macedonia, who depri\'ed Lycophron of 
 his power in 353, and restored the ancient govern- 
 ment in the different towns. The country, how- 
 ever, only changed masters ; for a few years later 
 (344) Philip made it completely subject to Mace- 
 donia, by placing at the head of the 4 divisions of 
 the country governors devoted to his interests, and 
 probably members of the ancient noble families, 
 who had now become little better than his vassals. 
 From this time Thessaly remained in a state of 
 dependence upon the Macedonian kings, till the 
 victory of T. Flamininus at Cynoscephalae in 197 
 again gave them a semblance of independence 
 under the protection of the Romans. 
 
 Thess&lonica {Qea-o-aKoviKT}), daughter of 
 Philip, the father of Alexander the Great, by his 
 wife or concubine, Nicesipolis of Pherae. She was 
 taken prisoner by Cassander along with Olympias 
 on the capture of Pydna in B.C. 317; and Cas- 
 sander embraced the opportunity to connect him- 
 self with the ancient royal house of Macedonia by 
 marrying her. By Cassander she became the 
 motlier of 3 sons, Philip, Antipater, and Alex- 
 ander ; and her husband paid her the honour of 
 conferring her name upon the city of Thessalonica, 
 which he founded on the site of the ancient 
 Therma. [See below.] After the death of Cas- 
 sander, Tliessalonica was put to death by her son 
 Antipater, 295, 
 
 Thsssalonica (®€a-ffa\oviK7j^ also Q^aaaKovi- 
 KEta : 06O"(raAoi'tK6ys : Salo?ii/ci), more anciently 
 Therma {@€p/j.t] ; ©ep^atos), an ancient city in 
 Macedonia, situated at the N. E. extremity of the 
 Sinus Thei-maicus. Under the name of Therma 
 it was not a place of much importance. It was 
 taken and occupied by the Athenians a short time 
 before the commencement of the Peloponnesian 
 war (b. c. 43'J), but was soon after restored by 
 them to Perdiccas. It was made an important 
 city by Cassander, who collected in this place the 
 inhabitants of several adjacent towns (about B. c. 
 315), and who gave it the name of Thessalonica, 
 in honour of his wife, the daughter of Philip and 
 bister of Alexander the Great. From this time it 
 became a large and flourishing city. Its harbour 
 was well situated for commercial intercourse with 
 the Hellespont and the Aegaean ; and under the 
 Romans it had the additional advantage of lying 
 on the Via Egnatia, which led from the W. shores 
 of Greece to Byzantium and the East. It was 
 visited by the Apostle Paul about a. d, 53 ; and 
 about 2 years afterwards he addressed from Corinth 
 2 epistles to his converts in the city. Thessalonica 
 continued to be, under the empire, one of the most 
 important cities of Macedonia ; and at a later time 
 it became the residence of the prefect, and the ca- 
 pital, of the Illyrian provinces. It is celebrated at 
 this period on account of the fearful massacre of its 
 inhabitJints by order of Theodosius, in consequence 
 of a riot in which some of the Roman officers had 
 been assassinated by the populace. [Theodosius.] 
 Thessalus {©eaaakSs). 1. A Greek physician, 
 son of Hippocrates, passed some of his time at the 
 court of Archelaus, king of Macedonia, who reigned 
 B. c. 413 — '699. Pie was one of the founders of 
 
 THETIS. 
 
 769 
 
 the sect of the Dograatici, and is several times 
 highly praised by Galen, who calls him the most 
 eminent of the sons of Hippocrates. He was sup- 
 posed by some of the ancient writers to be the 
 author of several of the works that form part of 
 the Hippocratic Collection, which he might have 
 compiled from notes left by his father. ^2. Also 
 a Greek physician, was a native of Tralles in 
 Lydia, and one of the founders of the medical sect 
 of the Methodici. He lived at Rome in the reign 
 of the emperor Nero, a. n. 54 — 68, to whom he 
 addressed one of his works ; and here he died and 
 was buried, and his tomb was to be seen in Pliny's 
 time on the Via Appia. He considered himself 
 superior to all his predecessors ; he asserted that 
 none of them had contributed any thing to the 
 advance of medical science ; and boasted that he 
 could himself teach the art of liealing in 6 months. 
 He is frequently mentioned by Galen, but always 
 in terms of contempt and ridicule. None of his 
 works are extant. 
 
 Thestiua {Q4<ttlqs), son of Ares and Demonice 
 or Androdice, and, according to others, son of 
 Agenor and grandson of Pleuron, the king of 
 Aetolia. He was the father of Iphiclus, Euippus, 
 Plexippus, Eurypylus, Leda, Althaea, and Hy- 
 permnestra. His wife is not the same in all tra- 
 ditions, some calling her Lycippe or Laophonte, 
 a daughter of Plenron, and others Deidamla. The 
 patronjnnic Thestiades is given to his grandson 
 Mfletiger, as well as to his sons, and the female 
 patronymic Thestias, to his daughter Althaea, the 
 mother of Meleager. 
 
 Thestor (Geffrwp), son of Idraon and Laothoe, 
 and father of Calchas, Theoclymenus, Lcucippe, 
 and Theonoe. The patronymic Thestorides is 
 frequently given to his son Calchas. 
 
 Thetis (©eVis), one of the daughters of Nereus 
 and Doris, was the wife of Peleus, by whom she 
 became the mother of Achilles. As a marine 
 divinity, she dwelt like her sisters, the Nereids, 
 in the depth of the sea, with her father Nereus. 
 She there received Dionysus on his flight from 
 Lycurgus, and the god, in his gratitude, presented 
 her with a golden urn. When Hephaestus was 
 thrown down from heaven, he was likewise re- 
 ceived by Thetis. She had been brought up by 
 Hera, and when she reached the age of maturity, 
 Zeus and Hera gave her, against her will, in 
 marriage to Peleus. Poseidon and Zeus himself 
 are said by some to have sued for her hand ; but 
 when Themis declared that the son of Thetis 
 would be more illustrious than his father, both gods 
 desisted from their suit. Others state that Thetis 
 rejected the offers of Zeus, because she had been 
 brought up by Hera ; and the god, to revenge 
 himself, decreed that she should marr)"" a mortal. 
 Chiron then informed his friend Peleus how he 
 might gain possession of her, even if she should 
 metamorphose herself ; for Thetis, like Proteus, 
 had the power of assuming any form she pleased ; 
 and she had recourse to this means of escaping 
 from Peleus, but the latter instructed by Chiron 
 held the goddess fast till she again assumed her 
 proper form, and promised to marry him. The 
 wedding of Peleus was honoured with the presence 
 of all the gods, with the exception of Eris or Dis- 
 cord, who was not invited, and who avenged her- 
 self by throwing among the assembled gods the 
 apple, which was the source of so much misery. 
 [Paris.] After Thetis had become the mother of 
 
 3 D 
 
770 
 
 TIIEUPOLIS. 
 
 Achilles, she bestowed upon him the teiiderest 
 care and love. [Achillea.] 
 
 Theupolis (OeouTroAis), a liiter name given to 
 the city of Antioch in Syria, on account of its emi- 
 nence in the early history of Christianity. 
 
 TheHprosopOU (0eoiJ Trpoawirov^ i.e. tlie face 
 ofagod: Ras-esh-Shitkeh ; Arab. Wejeh-cl-Khiar, 
 i. e. a/ace of stone) ^ a lofty rugged promontory on 
 the coast of Phoenice, between Tripolis and Byb- 
 his, formed by a spur of Lebanon, and running far 
 out to sea. Some travellers have fancied that they 
 can trace in its side-view that resemblance to a 
 human profile which its name implies. 
 
 Tbeveste (©eoueVrT? : Tchessa^ Ru.), a con- 
 siderable city of N. Africa, on the frontier of Nu- 
 midia and Byzacena, at the centre of several roads. 
 It was of comparatively late origin, and a Roman 
 colony. Among its recently discovered ruins are 
 a fine triumphal arch, and the old walls of the city, 
 tlie circuit of which was large enough to have con- 
 tained 40,000 inhabitants. 
 
 Thia (06(a), daughter of Uranus and Ge, one 
 of the female Titans, became by Hj'perion the 
 mother of Helios, Eos, and Selene, that is, she was 
 regarded as the deity from whom all light pro- 
 ceeded. 
 
 Thilsaphata (prob. Tell Afacl^ between Moszd 
 and Sinjar)^ a town of Mesopotamia, near the 
 Tigris. 
 
 Thilutha, a fort in tlie S. of Mesopotamia, on 
 an island in the Euphrates. Some identify it with 
 Olabus, and that with the fort now called Zubia or 
 JiJju in about 34° N. lat. 
 
 Thinae or Thina {QTuai^ Q7ua), a chief city of 
 the SiN.iE, and a great emporium for the silk and 
 wool trade of the extreme E. Some seek it on 
 the E. coast of China, others on the S. E. coast of 
 CocJiin- China. 
 
 Thiodamas (0fw5a/icis-), father of Hylas, and 
 king of the Diwopes. 
 
 This (0IS : ©ivirrjs), a great city of Upper 
 Egvpt, capital of the Thinites Nomos, and the 
 seat of some of the ancient dj'nasties. It was 
 either the same place as Aeydus (No. 2.), or was 
 60 near it as to be entirely supplanted by Abydus. 
 
 Thisbe {®iff§t])^ a beautiful Babylonian maiden, 
 beloved by Pyramus. The lovers living in adjoin- 
 ing houses, often secretly conversed with each 
 other through an opening in the wall, as their 
 parents would not sanction their marriage. Once 
 they agreed upon a rendezvous at the tomb of 
 Ninus, Thisbe arrived first, and while she was 
 waiting for P3Tanui3, she perceived a lioness which 
 had just torn to pieces an ox, and took to flight. 
 While running she lost her garment, which the 
 lioness soiled with blood. In the mean time Py- 
 ranuis arrived, and finding her gannent covered 
 with blood, he imagined that she had been mur- 
 dered, and made away with himself ur^der a mul- 
 berry tree, the fruit of which henceforth was as 
 red as blood, Thisbe, who afterwards found the 
 body of her lover, likewise killed herself. 
 
 Thisbe, afterwards Thisbae (©tV^ij, eio-Sai : 
 ©iffgatos, QiffSsvs : Kakosia), a town of Boentia, 
 on the borders of Phocis, and between Mt. Helicon 
 and the Corinthian gulf. It was famed for its 
 number of wild pigeons, which are still found in 
 abundance in the neighbourhood of Kakosia. 
 
 Thisoa (©cio-tJa: ©t-fcroctrT;?), a town in Arcadia 
 on Mt. Lycaeus, called after a nymph of the same 
 name. 
 
 THRACIA. 
 
 Thmiiis {©jxovis: Tmaif^Jiii.^neciVxVfansowaJt), 
 a city of Lower Egypt, on a canal on the E. side 
 of tlie Mendesian mouth of the Nile. It was a 
 chief seat of the worship of the god Mendes 
 (the Egyptian Pan), under the symbol of a goat; 
 and, according to Jerome, the word Thmuis signi- 
 fies ffoat. It was the chief city of the Nomos 
 Thmuites, which was afterwards united with the 
 Mendesian Nomos. 
 
 Thoantea, a surname of tlie Tauriau Artemis, 
 derived from Thoas, king of Tauris. 
 
 Thbas (@6a?). 1. Son of Andraemon and Gorge, 
 was king of Caiydon and Pleuron, in Aetolia, and 
 sailed with 40 ships against Troy. ^2. Son of 
 Dionysus and Ariadne, was king of Lemnos, and 
 married to Myrina, by whom he became tite fatlter 
 of Hypsipyle and Sicinus. When the Lemiiian 
 women killed all the men in the island, Hypsipyle 
 saved her father Thoas, and concealed liim. After- 
 wards, however, he was discovered by the other 
 women, and killed ; or, according to other ac- 
 counts, he escaped to Taurus, or to the island of 
 Oenoe near Euboea, which was henceforth called 
 Sicinus. The patronymic Thoantias is given to 
 Hypsipyle, as the daughter of Thoas. — 3. Son of 
 Borysthenes, and king of Tauria, into whose do- 
 minions Iphigenia was carried by Artemis, when 
 she was to have been sacrificed. 
 
 Thomas Magister, a rhetorician and gram- 
 marian, who flourished about A. d. 1310. He was 
 a native of Thessalonica, and lived at the court of 
 the emperor Andronicus Palaeologus I., where he 
 held the offices of marshal {Maghtcr Officiorum) 
 and keeper of the archives {Chartuphylax) ; but lie 
 afterwards retired to a monastery, where lie as- 
 sumed the name of Tlieodulus^ and devoted him- 
 self to the study of the ancient Greek authors. 
 His chief work, which has come down to us, is a 
 Leaicon of Attic Words {KaTa^Pi.\(p6.S7]Toi/ bvof.i.6.- 
 Twv 'Attiucov 'E/cAo-yat), compiled from the works 
 of the elder grammarians, such as Phrynichus, 
 Ammonius, HiTodian, and Moeris. The work has 
 some value on account of its containing much from 
 the elder grammarians, which would otherwise 
 have been lost; but, when Thomas deserts-his 
 guides, ho often falls into tlie most serious errors. 
 The best edition is by Ritschl, Halis Sax. li)31, 
 1832, {Jvo. 
 
 Thoricus (©(JpiKo? or BopiKos : ©opiicios^ Qopi- 
 Ksvs: Tlieriko) one of the 12 ancient towns in 
 Attica, and subsecLuently a demus belonging to the 
 tribe Acamantis, was situated on the S. E. coast a 
 little above Sunium, and was fortified by the 
 Athenians towards the close of the Peloponnesian 
 war. There are still extensive remains of the 
 ancient town. 
 
 Thornax {Bopva^: Pavlaiku), a mountain in 
 Laconica N. E. of Sparta, on which stood a cele- 
 brated temple of Apollo. 
 
 Thospltes Lacus (©wo-Trtrts Kifxvt]: Goljik9\ 
 a lake in Ai-menia Major, through whicii the Ti- 
 gris flows. The lake, and the surrounding district, 
 also called Thospitis, were both named from a city 
 Thospia (@'v(nria) at the N. end of the lake. 
 
 Thracia (@pa,Kt]^ Ion. ©prfKi?, Qprfi'Kr]^ QpTjtKitj : 
 ®p4L pi- ©pa/ces. Ion. 0/)7?| and ®pV^^, pi. 0pi7«€s, 
 ©p-ifiices : Thrax, pi. Thraces), was in earlier times 
 the name of the vast space of country bounded on 
 the N. by the Danube, on the S. by the Propoutis 
 and the Aegaean, on the E. by the Pontua Euxinus, 
 and on the W. by the river Strymon and the 
 
THRACIA. 
 
 E.-most of the Illvrian tribes. It was divided Into 
 2 parts by Mt. Haemus (the Balkan), riuming 
 from W. to E., and separating the plain of the 
 lower Dajiube from the rivers which fall into the 
 Aegaean. Two extensive mountain ranges branch 
 off from the S. side of Mt. Haemus ; one running 
 S. E. towards Constantinople ; and the other called 
 Rhodope, E. of the preceding one. and also running 
 in a S. E.-ly direction near the river Nestus. Be- 
 tween these two ranges there are many plains, 
 which are drained by the Hebrus, the htrgest river 
 in Tlirace. At a later time the name Thrace was 
 applied to a more limited extent of country. I'he 
 district between the Strymnn and the Nestua was 
 added to Macedonia by Philip, and was usually 
 called Macedonia A djecta. [Macedonia.] Under 
 Augustus the part of the country N. of the Haemus 
 was made a separate Roman province under the 
 name of Moesia [Moesia] ; but the district be- 
 tween the Strj-nion and the Nestus had been pre- 
 viously restored to Thrace by the Romans. The 
 Roman province of Thrace was accordingly bounded 
 on the \y. by the river Nestus, which separated it 
 from Macedonia, on the N. by Mt. Haemus, 
 which divided it from Moesia, on the E. by the 
 Euxiue, and on the S. by the Propontis and Ae- 
 gaean. — Thrace, in its widest extent, was peopled 
 ill the times of Herodotus and Thucydides by a 
 vast number of different tribes ; but their customs 
 and cliaracter were marked by groat miiformity. 
 Herodotus says that, next to the Indians, the Thra^ 
 cians were the most numerous of all races, and if 
 imited under one head would have been irresistible. 
 He describes them as a savage, cruel, and rapacious 
 people, delighting in blood, but brave and warlike. 
 According to his account, which is confinned by 
 other writers, the Tiiracian chiefs sold their chil- 
 dren for exportation to the foreign merchant ; they 
 purchased their wives from their parents ; they 
 punctured or tattooed their bodies and those of the 
 women belonging to them, as a sign of noble birth ; 
 they despised agriculture, and considered it most 
 honourable to live by war and robbery. Deep 
 drinking prevailed among them cxtensivelj', and 
 their quarrels over their wine cups were notorious 
 even in the time of Augustus. (Hor. Carm. i. 27.) 
 They worshipped deities, whom the Greeks assi- 
 mihited to Ares, Dionysus, and Artemis : the 
 great sanctuary and oracle of their god Dionysus 
 was in one of the loftiest summits of Mt. Rhodope. 
 The tribes on the S. coast attained to some degree 
 of civilisation, owing to the numerous Greek co- 
 lonies which were founded in their vicinity ; but 
 the tribes in the interior seem to have retained 
 their savage habits, with little mitigation, down to 
 the time of the Roman empire. In earlier times, 
 however, some of the Thracian tribes must have 
 been distinguished by a higher degree of civilisa- 
 tion than prevailed among them at a later period. 
 The earliest Greek poets, Orpheus, Linus, Musaeus, 
 and otliers, are all represented as coming from 
 Tiirace. Kumolpus, likewise, who founded the 
 Eleusinian mysteries at Attica, is said to have been 
 a Thracian, aiid to have fought against Erechtheus, 
 king of Athens, "We also find mention of the 
 Thracians in other parts of southern Greece : thus 
 they are said to have once dwelt both in Phocis 
 and Boeotia, They were also spread over a part 
 of Asia : the Thynians and Bithynians, and perhaps 
 also the Mysians, were members of the great 
 Thracian race. Even Xeiiophon speaks of Thrace 
 
 TIIRASEA. 
 
 771 
 
 in Asia, which extended along the Asiatic side oF 
 the Bosporus, as far as Heraclea. — The principal 
 Greek colonies along the coast, beginning at the 
 Strynion and going E. -wards, were Amphipolis, 
 at the mouth of the Strymon ; Abdeka, a little to 
 the \Y. of the Nestus ; Dicaea or Dicaepolis, a 
 settlement of Maronea ; Maronea itself, colonised 
 by the Chiaus ; Stryme, a colony of the Thasiana ; 
 Mesembkia, founded by the Samothracians ; and 
 Aenos, a Lesbian colony at the mouth of the He- 
 brus. The Thracian Chersonesus was probably 
 colonised by the Greeks at an early period, but it 
 did not contain any important Greek settlement 
 till the migration of the first Miltiades to the 
 country, during the reign of Pisistratus at Athens. 
 [Chersonesus.] On the Propontis the 2 chief 
 Greek settlements were those of Perinthus and 
 Selymbria ; and on the Thracian Bosporus was 
 the important town of Byzantium. There were 
 only a few Greek settlements on the S.W. coast of 
 the Euxine ; the most important were those of 
 Apollonia, Odessus,Callatis,Tomi, renowned 
 as the place of Ovid's banishment, and Istria, 
 near the S. mouth of the Danube. — The Thracians 
 are said to have been conquered by Sesostris, king 
 of Egypt, and subsequently to have been subdued 
 b}"^ the Teucrians and Mysians ; b\it the first really 
 historical fact j'especting them is their subjugation 
 by Megiibazus, the general of Darius. After the 
 Persians had been driven out of Europe by the 
 Greeks, the Thracians recovered their independence ; 
 and at the beginning of the Peloponnesian war, 
 almost all the Thraciim tribes were united under the 
 dominion of Si takes, king of the Odrj'sae, whose 
 kingdom extended from Abdera to the Euxine and 
 the mouth of the Danube. In the 3rd year of the 
 Peloponnesian war (b. a 429), Sitalces, who had 
 entered into an alliance with the Athenians, in- 
 vaded Macedonia with avast army of 150,000 men, 
 but was compelled by the failure of provisions to 
 return home, after remaining iu Macedonia 30 
 days. Sitalces fell in battle against the Triballi in. 
 424, and was succeeded by his nephew Seuthes, 
 who during a long reign raised his kingdom to a 
 height of power and prosperity which it had never 
 previously attained, so that his regular revenues 
 amounted to the annual sum of 400 talents, in ad- 
 dition to contributions of gold and silver in the 
 form of presents, to a nearly equal amount. After 
 the deatii of Seuthes, which appears to have hap- 
 pened a little before the close of the Peloponnesian 
 war, we find his powerful kingdom split up into 
 different parts ; and when Xenophon, with the 
 remains of the 10,000 Greeks, arrived on the op- 
 posite coast of Asia, another Seuthes applied to 
 him for assistance to reinstate him in his dominions. 
 Philip, the father of Alexander the Great, re- 
 duced the greater part of Thrace ; and after the 
 death of Alexander the country fell to the share of 
 Lysiniachus. It subsequently formed a part of 
 the Macedonian dominions, but it continued to be 
 governed by its native princes, and was only no- 
 minally subject to the Macedonian monarchs. Even 
 under the Romans Thrace was for a long time go- 
 verned by its own chiefs ; and we do not know at 
 what period it was made into a Roman province. 
 
 P. Thrasea Paetus, a distinguished Roman 
 senator, and Stoic philosopher, in the reign of 
 Nero, was a native of Patavium and was probably 
 born soon after the death of Augustus. He ap- 
 pears at an early period of his life to have made 
 
 3d 2 
 
772 
 
 THRASYBULUS. 
 
 the younger Cato his model, of whose life he wrote 
 an account. He married Arria, the dauchter of 
 the heroic Arria, who showed her husband Caecina 
 how to die ; and his wife was worthy of her 
 mother and her husband. At a later period he 
 gave his own daughter in marriage to Helvidius 
 Priscus, who trod closely in the footsteps of his 
 father-in-law. After incurring the hatred of Nero 
 by the independence of his character, and the free- 
 dom with which he expressed his opinions, he was 
 condemned to death by the senate by command of 
 the emp5ror, a. d. 66. By his execution and that 
 of his fi'iend Barea Soranus, Nero, says Tacitus, 
 resolved to murder Virtue herself. The panegyric 
 of Thrasea was written by Arulenus Ruaticus, 
 who was in consequence put to death by Domitian. 
 
 Thrasybulus {@pa(TvgouXos), 1. Tyrant of 
 Miletus, was a contemporary of Periander and 
 Alyattes, the king of Lydia. He was intimately 
 connected with Thrasybulus. The story of the 
 mode in which Thrasybulus gave his advice to 
 Periander as to the best means of securing his 
 power, is given under Periander. — 2. A cele- 
 brated Athenian, son of Lycus. He was zealously 
 attached to the Athenian democracy, and took an 
 active part in overthrowing the oligarchical govern- 
 ment of the 400 in B.C. 411. This is the first 
 occasion on which he is mentioned ; but from this 
 time he took a prominent part in the conduct of 
 the war. On the establishment of the Thirty 
 Tyrants at Athens he was banished, and was 
 living in exile at Thebes when the rulers of Athens 
 were perpetrating their excesses of tyranny. Beiiig 
 aided by the Thebans with arms and money, he 
 collected a small band, and seized the fortress of 
 Phylo. He next marched upon the Piraeus, which 
 fell into his hands ; and from this place he carried 
 on war for several months against the Ten, who 
 had succeeded to the government, and eventually 
 he obtained possession of Athens, and restored the 
 democracy, 403. In 390 he commanded the 
 Athenian fleet in the Aegean, and was slain by 
 the inhabitants of Aspendus. — 3. Brother of 
 Gelon and Hieron, tyrants of Sj'racuse. He suc- 
 ceeded Hieron in the government, B.C. 467, and was 
 soon afterwards expelled by the Syracusans, whom 
 he had provoked by his rapacity and cruelty. He 
 withdrew to Locri, in Italy, and there ended his 
 days. 
 
 Thrasydaeus (©pao-uSalos), tyrant of Agri- 
 gentum, was the son and successor of Theron, B. c. 
 472. Shortly after his accession he was defeated 
 by Hieron of Syracuse ; and the Agrigentinea 
 immediately took advantage of this disaster to 
 expel him from their city. He made his escape to 
 Greece, but was arrested at Megara, and publicl}-' 
 executed, 
 
 TlirasyllTis or Tlirasylus {Qpda-uWos, Qpd- 
 ffvKos). 1. An Athenian, who actively assisted 
 Thrasybulus in opposing the oligarchical revolution 
 in B.C. 411. He was one of the commanders at 
 tlie battle of Arginusae, and was among the 6 
 generals who returned to Athens and were put 
 to death. 406. — 3. A celebrated astrologer at 
 Rhodes, with whom Tiberius became acquainted 
 during his residence in that island, and whom he 
 ever after held in the highest honour. He died in 
 A. D. 36, the year before Tiberius, and is said to 
 have saved the lives of many persons whom 
 Tiberius would otherwise have put to death, by 
 fulsely predicting for this very purpose that the 
 
 THUCYDIDES. 
 
 emperor would live ten years longer. Tlie son of 
 this Thrasyllus succeeded to his father's skill, and 
 he is said to have predicted the empire to Nero. 
 
 Tlirasyniach.us (©paffvixaxos), a native of Chal- 
 cedon, was a sophist, and one of the earliest cul- 
 tivators of the art of rhetoric. He was a contem- 
 porary of Gorgias. He is introduced by Plato as 
 one of the interlocutors in tlrePoiitiH,and is referred 
 to several timeft in the Phaedrus. 
 
 Thrasymedes {®pa(Tv/j.-hST}s)^ son of the Pylian 
 Nestor and Anaxibia, accompanied his father on 
 the expedition against Troy, and returned with 
 him to Pylos. 
 
 Thrasymenus. [Trasimenus.] 
 
 Th.roniiun {&p6vtov : ©poVios, Qpopnus : 7?o- 
 mani), the chief town of the Locri Epicnemidii, 
 on the river Boagrius, at a short distance from the 
 sea, with a harbour upon the coast. 
 
 Thucydides (©oukuSiStjs). L An Athenian 
 statesman, of the demus Aiopece, son of Melesias. 
 After the death of Cimon, in R. c. 449, Thucydides 
 became the leader uf the aristocratic party, which 
 he concentrated and more thoroughly orgnniaed in 
 opposition to Pericles. He was ostracised in 444, 
 thus leaving the undisputed political ascendancy 
 to Pericles. He left 2 sons, Melesias and Ste- 
 phanus ; and a son of the former of these, named 
 Thucydides after hia grandfather, was a pupil of 
 Socrates. ^2, The great Athenian historian, of 
 the demus Halimus, was the son of Olnrus or 
 Groins and Hegesipyle. He is said to have been 
 connected with the family of Cimon ; and we 
 know that Miltiades, the conqueror of Marathon, 
 married Hegesipyle, the daughter of a Thracian 
 king called Olorus, by whom she became the mother 
 of Cimon ; and it has been conjectured with much 
 probability that the mother of Thucydides was a 
 granddaughter of Miltiades and Hegesipyle, Ac- 
 cording to a statement of Pamphiia [Pamphila], 
 Thucydides was 40 years of age at the commence- 
 ment of the Peloponnesian war or b. c. 431, and 
 accordingly he was bom in 471. There is a story 
 in Lucian of Herodotus having read his History 
 at the Olympic games to the assembled Greeks ; 
 and Suidas adds that Thucydides, then a boy, was 
 present, and shed tears of ennilation ; a presage of 
 his own future historical distinction. But this 
 celebrated story ought probably to be rejected as a 
 fable. Thucydides is said to have been instructed 
 in oratory by Antiphon, and in philosophy by 
 Anaxagoras ; but whether these statements are to 
 be received cannot be determined. It is certain, 
 however, that being an Athenian, of a good familjs 
 and living in a city which was the centre of Greek 
 ci\'iIisation, he must have had the best possible 
 education: that he was a man of great ability and 
 cultivated understanding his work clearly shows. 
 He informs us that he possessed gold mines in that 
 part of Thrace which is opposite to the island of 
 Thasos, and that he was a person of the greatest 
 influence among those in that part of Thrace. 
 This property, according to some accounts, he had 
 from his ancestors : according to other accounts he 
 married a rich woman of Scaptesyle, and received 
 them as a portion with her. Thucydides left a 
 son, called Timotheiis; and a daughter also is 
 mentioned, who is said to have written the 8th 
 book of the History of Thucydides. Thucydides 
 (ii. 4.8) was one of those who suffered from the 
 great plague of Athens, and one of thefew who 
 recovered. We have no trustworthy evidence of 
 
THUCYDIDES. 
 
 Thucj'dldes having distinguished himself as an 
 orator, though it is not unlilcely that lie did, for 
 his oratorical talent is shown by the speeches that 
 he has inserted in his history. He was, however, 
 employed in a military capacity, and he was in 
 command of an Athenian squadron of 7 ships, at 
 Thasus, B. c. 424, when Eucles, who commanded 
 in Amphipolis, sent for his assistance against 
 Brasidas, who was before that town with an army. 
 Brasidas, fearing the arrival of a superior force, 
 offered favourable terms to Amphipolis, which were 
 readily accepted, for there were few Athenians in 
 tlie place, and the rest did not wish to make re- 
 sistance. Thucydides arrived at Eion, at the 
 mouth of the Strymon, on the evening of the same 
 day on which Amphipolis surrendered ; and though 
 he was too late to save Amphipolis, he prevented 
 Eion from falling into the hand of the enemy. In 
 consequence of this failure, Thucydides became an 
 exile, probably to avoid a severer punishment ; 
 for Cleon, who was at this time in great favour 
 with the Athenians, appears to have excited po- 
 pular suspicion against him. There are various 
 untrustworthy accounts as to his places of resi- 
 dence during his exile ; but we may conclude that 
 he could not safely reside in any place which was 
 under Athenian dominion, and as he kept his eye 
 on the events of the war, he must have lived in 
 those parts which belonged to the Spartan alliance. 
 His own words certainly imply that, during his 
 exile, he spent much of his time either in the Pe- 
 loponnesus or in places which were under Pelo- 
 ponnesian influence (v. 26) ; and his work was the 
 result of his own experience and observations. 
 His minute description of Syracuse and the neigh- 
 bourhood leads to the probable conclusion that he 
 was personally acquainted with the localities ; and 
 if he visited Sicily, it is probable that he also saw 
 some parts of southern Italy. Thucydides says 
 that he lived 20 years in exile (v. 26), and as his 
 exile commenced in the beginning of 423, he may 
 have returned to Athens in the beginning of 403, 
 about the time when Thrasybulus liberated Athens. 
 Thucydides is said to have been assassinated at 
 Athens soon after his return ; but other accounts 
 place his death in Thrace. There is a general 
 agreement, however, among the ancient authorities 
 that he came to a violent end. His death cannot 
 be placed later than 401. The time when he 
 composed his work has been a matter of dispute. 
 He informs us himself tliat he was busy in col- 
 lecting materials all through the war from the be- 
 ginning to the end (i. 22), and of course he would 
 register them as he got them. Plutarch says that 
 he wrote the work in Thrace ; but the work in 
 the shape in which we have it was certainly not 
 finished until after the close of the war, and he 
 was probably engaged upon it at the time of his 
 death. A question has been raised as to the 
 authorship of the 8th and last book of Thucydides, 
 which breaks off in the middle of the 21st year of 
 the war (41 1). It differs from all the other books 
 in containing no speeches, and it has also been 
 supposed to be inferior to the rest as a piece of 
 composition. Accordingly, several ancient critics 
 supposed that the 8th book was not by Thucy- 
 dides : some attributed it to his daughter, and 
 some to Xenophon or Theopompus, because both 
 of them continued the history. The words with 
 which Xenophon's Hellenica commence {^eri Se 
 ravra) may chiefly have led to the supposition that 
 
 THUCYDIDES. 
 
 773 
 
 hft was the author, for his work is made to appear 
 as a continuation of that of Thucydides : but this 
 argument is in itself of little weight; and besides, 
 both the style of the 8th book is different from 
 that of Xenophon, and the manner of treating the 
 subject, for the division of the year into summers 
 and winters, which Thucydides has observed in 
 his first 7 books, is continued in the 8th, but is 
 not observed by Xenophon. The rhetorical style 
 of Theopompus, which was the characteristic of 
 his writing, renders it also improbable that he was 
 the author of the 8th book. It seems the simplest 
 supposition to consider Thucydides himself as the 
 author of this book, since he names himself as the 
 author twice (viii. 6, 60) ; but it is probable that 
 he had not the opportunity of revising it with the 
 same care as the first 7 books. It is stated by an 
 ancient writer that Xenophon made the, work of 
 Thucydides known, which may be true, as he 
 wrote the first 2 books of his Hellenica^ or the part 
 which now ends with the 2nd book, for the pur- 
 pose of completing the history. The work of 
 Thucydides, from the commencement of the 2nd 
 book, is chronologically divided into winters and 
 summers, and each summer and winter make a 
 year (ii. 1). His siunmer comprises the time from 
 the vernal to the autumnal equinox, and the winter 
 comprises the period from the autumnal to the 
 vernal equinox. The division into books and 
 chapters was probably made by the Alexandrine 
 critics. The history of the Peloponneslan war 
 opens the 2nd book of Thucydides, and the 1st is 
 introductory to the history. He begins his 1st 
 book by observing that the Peloponneslan war was 
 the most important event in Grecian history, which 
 he shows by a rapid review of the history of the 
 Greeks from the earliest period to the commence- 
 ment of the war (i. 1 — 21). After his intro- 
 ductory chapters he proceeds to explain the alleged 
 grounds and causes of the war: the real causes 
 were, he says, the Spartan jealousy of the Athe- 
 nian power. His narrative is interrupted (c. 89 
 — 118), after he has come to the time when the 
 Lacedaemonians resolved on war, by a digression 
 on the. rise and progress of the power of Athens; 
 a period which had been either omitted by other 
 writers, or treated imperfectly, and with little 
 regard to chronology, as by Hellanicus in his Attic 
 history (c, 97). He resumes his narrative (c. 110) 
 with the negotiations that preceded the war; but 
 this leads to another digression of some length uti 
 the treason of Pausanias (c. 128 — 134), and the 
 exile of Theraistocles (c. 135 — 138). He concludes 
 the book with the speech of Pericles, who advised 
 the Athenians to refuse the demands of the Pe- 
 loponnesians ; and his subject, as already observed, 
 begins with the 2nd book. A history which treats 
 of so many events, which, took place at remote 
 spots, could only be written, in the time of Thucy- 
 dides, by a man who took great pains to ascertain 
 facts by personam inquiry. In modern times facts 
 are made known by printing as soon as they occur ; 
 and the printed records of the time, newspapers 
 and the like, are often the only evidence of many 
 facts which become historj'. When we know the 
 careless way in which facta are now reported ami 
 recorded by very incompetent persons, often upon 
 very indifferent hearsay testimony, and compare 
 with such records the pains that Thucydides took 
 to ascertain the chief events of a war, with which 
 he was contemporary, in which he took a share a* 
 
774 
 
 THULE. 
 
 a commander, the opportunities Avliich his means 
 allowed, his great abilities, and serious earnest 
 character, it is a fair conclusion that we have a 
 more exact history of a long eventful period by 
 Thucydides than we have of any period in modern 
 history, equally long and equally eventful. His 
 whole work shows the most scrupulous care and 
 diligence in ascertaining facts ; his strict attention 
 to chronology, and the importance that he attaches 
 to it, are additional proof of his historical accuracy. 
 His narrative is brief and concise : it generally 
 contains bare facts expressed in the fewest pos- 
 sible words, and when we consider what pains it 
 must have cost him to ascertain these facts, we 
 admire the self-denial of a writer who ia satisfied 
 with giving facts in their naked brevity without 
 ornament, without any parade of his personal im- 
 portance, and of the trouble that his matter cost 
 him. A single chapter must sometimes have 
 represented the labour of many days and weeks. 
 Such a principle of historical composition is the 
 evidence of a great and elevated mind. The his- 
 tory of Thucydides only makes an octavo volume 
 of moderate size ; many a modern writer wnuld 
 have spun it out to a dozen volumes, and so have 
 spoiled it. A work that is for all ages must con- 
 tain much in little compass. He seldom makes 
 reflections in the course of his narrative : occa- 
 sionally he has a chapter of political and moral 
 observations, animated by the keenest perception 
 of the motives of action, and the moral character 
 of man. Many of his speeches arc political essays, 
 or materials for them ; they are not mere imagina- 
 tions of bis own for rhetorical etfect; they contain 
 the general sense of what w^as actually delivered 
 as nearly as he could ascertain, and in many in- 
 stances he had good opportunities of knowing what 
 was said, for he heard some speeches delivered 
 (i. 22). His opportunities, his talents, his cha- 
 racter, and his subject, all combined to produce a 
 ■work that stands alone, and in its kind has neither 
 equal nor rival. His pictiires are sometimes striking 
 and tragic, an effect produced by severe simplicity 
 and minute particularity. Such is the description 
 of the plague of Athens. Such also is the incom- 
 parable history of the Athenian expedition to 
 Sicil}', and its melancholy termination, A man 
 who thinks profoundly will have a form of ex- 
 pression which is stamped with the character of 
 his mind ; and the style of Thucydides is accord- 
 ingly concise, vigorous, and energetic. We feel that 
 all the words were intended to have a meaning, 
 and have a meaning : none of them are idle. Yet 
 he is sometimes harsh and obscure ; and probably 
 he was so, even to his own countrymen. Some of 
 bis sentences are very involved, and the connection 
 and dependence of the parts are often difficult to 
 seize. The best editions of Thucydides are by 
 Bekker, Bedin, 1821, 3 vols. 8vo. ; by Poppo, 
 Leipzig, 10 vols. 8vo., 1821—1830, of which two 
 volumes are filled with prtdegomena ; by Haack, 
 with selections from the Greek Scholia and short 
 notes, Leipzig, 1820, 2 vols. 8vo. ; by Goller, 2 
 vols. 8vo., Leipzig, 1826 ; and by Arnold, 3 vols. 
 8vo., Oxford, 1830—1835. 
 
 Tliule (©ouAt;), an island in the N. part of the 
 Gennan Ocean, regarded by the ancients as the 
 most N.-Iy point in the whole earth. It is first 
 mentioned by Pytheas, the celebrated Greek navi- 
 gator of Massilia, who undertook a voyage to 
 Britain and Thule, of which he gave a descrip- 
 
 TIIYMBRA. 
 
 tion in his work on the Ocean, All subsequent 
 writers, who speak of Thule, appear to have takfu 
 their accounts from that of Pytheas. According 
 to Pytheas, Thule was a six days' sail i'nmi 
 Britain ; and the day and night there were each 
 6 months long. He further stated that in TIniltj 
 and those distant parts there was neither enrtli, 
 sea, nor air, but a sort of mixture of all these, like 
 to the moUusca, in which the earth and the sea 
 and every thing else were suspended, and which 
 could not be penetrated either by land or liy sea. 
 Many modem writers suppose the Thule of Py- 
 theas to be the same as Iceland, while others 
 regai-d it as a part of Norway. The Thule of 
 Ptolemy, however, lay much further to the S., 
 and should probably be identified with the largest 
 of the Shetland islands. 
 
 ThUrii, more rarely Thurium (Qovpioi, @ov- 
 piov: ©oupios, ©oyp:eu5, Thiirius, Thurinus : Terra 
 nuova)^ a Greek city in Lueauia, founded b.c 44.'J, 
 near the site of the ancient Sybaris, which had 
 been destroyed more than 60 years before. [Sv- 
 UARis.] It was built by the remains of the popu- 
 lation of Sybaris, assisted bj"" colonists from all 
 parts of Greece, but especially from Athens. 
 Among these colonists were the historian Hero- 
 dotus and the orator Lysias, the latter of whom, 
 hov/ever, was only a youth at the time and sub- 
 sequently returned to Athens. The new city, 
 from which the remains of the Sybarites were 
 soon expelled, rapidly attained great power and 
 prosperity, and became one of the most inipurUint 
 Greek towns in the S. of Italy. Thus we aie 
 told that the Thurians were able to bring 14,000 
 foot soldiers and 1000 horse into the field against 
 the Lucanians. In the Samnite wars Thurii 
 received a Roman garrison ; but it revolted to 
 Hannibal In the 2nd Punic war. The Cartha- 
 ginian general, however, at a later time, not trust- 
 ing the Thurians plundered the town, and removed 
 S.tOO of its inhabitants to Croton. The Romans 
 subsequently sent a Latin colony to Thurii, and 
 changed its name into Cnpiac ; but it continued to 
 retain its original name, under which it is men- 
 tioned by Caesar in the civil war as a municipiuin. 
 
 Tbyamis (©tJa^iy: Kcdaina), a river in Epiru?, 
 forming the boundary between Thesprotia and 
 the district of Ccstrj'na, and flowing into the sea 
 opposite Corcyra and near a promontory of the 
 same name, 
 
 Thyades, [Thyia.] 
 
 Thyainua (©uajuos), a mountain in Acamania, 
 south of Argos Amphilochium. 
 
 Thyestea (0u€Vt7js), son of Pelops and Hippo- 
 damia, was the brother of Atreus and the father 
 of Aegisthus. His story is given under Atreus 
 and Aegisthus. 
 
 Thyia (©u/a), a daughter of Castalius or Ce- 
 phisseus, became by Apollo the mother of Del- 
 phus. She is said to have been the first to have' 
 sacrificed to Dionysus, and to have celebrated 
 orgies in his honour. From her the Attic women, 
 who went yearly to Mt. Parnassus to celebrate the 
 Dionysiac orgies with the Delphian Thyiades, 
 received themselves the name of Thyiades or 
 Thyades. This word, however, comes from ^uu}, 
 and properly signifies the raging or frantic women. 
 
 Thymbra (QufjL§pr]). 1. A^city of the Troad, 
 N. of Ilium Vetus, on a htU by the side of the 
 river Thymbrius, with a celebrated temple of 
 Apollo, who derived from this place the epithet 
 
THYMBRIA. 
 
 Thymbnieus. The surrounding plain still bears 
 the same name. — 3. A wooded district in Phrygia, 
 no doubt connected with Thymbrium. 
 
 Thymbria {QufxSpia), a place in Caria, on the 
 Maeander, 4 stadia E. of Myus, with a Cha- 
 ronium, that ia, a cave containing mephitic vapour. 
 
 Tbymbrium {@uf^€piov : Thyrabriani), a small 
 town of Phrygia, 10 parasangs W. of Tyriaeum, 
 with the so-called fountain of Midas (Xen. Aiiah. 
 i. 2.). 
 
 Thymbrius {(dvp.^pios : Thimbrek), a river of 
 the Troad, falling into the Scamander. At the 
 present day, it flows direct into the Hellespont ; 
 and, on this and other grounds, some doubt whether 
 the Tliimbrck is the ancient river. 
 
 Thyinelb, a celebrated mima or female actress 
 in ihe reign of Domitian, with whom she was a 
 great favourite. She frequently acted along with 
 Latinus. 
 
 Tbymoetes {Qv{xoirris\ one of the elders of 
 Troy. A soothsayer had predicted, that on a cer- 
 tain day a boy should be born, by whom Troy 
 should be destroyed. On that day Paris was born 
 to Priam, and Munippiis to Thymoetes. Priam 
 ordered Munippus and his mother Cylla to be 
 killed. Hence Virgil [Acn. ii. 31) represents 
 Aeneas saying, that it was doubtful whether Thy- 
 moetes advised the Trnjans to draw the wooden 
 horse into the citv, in order to revenge himself. 
 
 Thyni (Qwoi)^ a Thracian people, whose origi- 
 nal abodes were near Salmydessus, but who after- 
 wards pjissed over into Bithynia. 
 
 Thynia {Bwia). 1. The land of the Thynl in 
 Thrace. — 2. Another name for Bithynia. — 3. 
 [Thynias]. 
 
 Tliynias or Thynia {©wias^ Qwla). 1. [Tti- 
 ada)^ a promontory on the coast of Thrace, N.W. 
 of Salmydessus, with a town ot the same name. — 
 2. (KirjM)^ a small island of the Euxine, on the 
 const of Bithynia, near the Prom. Calpe, also 
 called ApoUonia and Daphnusa. 
 
 Thyone (Quwj't?), the name of Semele, under 
 which Dionysus fetched her from Hades, and in- 
 troduced her among the immortals. Plence Diony- 
 sus is also called Thyoneus. Both names are 
 formed from ^vetv^ "^ to be inspired." 
 
 Thyrea (©i/^iea, Ion. ©vp^r); Qupedrrjs)^ the 
 chief town in Cynuria, the district on the borders 
 of Laconia and Argolis, was situated upon a height 
 on the hay of the sea called after it Sinus Thy- 
 reates (Qupedrrjs k^Atto?). It was for the pos- 
 session of Thyrea that the celebrated battle was 
 fiMight between the 300 Spartans and 300 Argives. 
 The territory of Thyrea was called Tliyreatis 
 
 Tliysdrus, Tisdrus, or Tusdrua (fdva^pns : 
 Et'Jcmm^ Ru.), a large fortified city of Byzaccna, 
 N.W. of the promontory Brachodes {Ras Kapuzt.- 
 dkih). Under the Romans, it was a free city. It 
 was here that the emperor Gordian assumed the 
 purple. 
 
 Tliyssagetae (©uirtrayeTat), a people of Sar- 
 matia Asiatica, on the E. shores of the Palus 
 Maeotis. 
 
 Tliyssus ( ®v(Taos or ©vaads)^ a town of Mace- 
 donia on the peninsula of Acte. 
 
 Tiarantus, a river of Scythia and a tributary 
 of the Danube. 
 
 Tibareni or Tibari {TiSap-nvoi, TiSapoi), a quiet 
 agricultural people on the N. coast of Pontus, E. 
 of the river Iris. 
 
 TIBERIUS. 776 
 
 Tiberias, 1. (Tigeptav : Tt§€pie{is% a city of 
 Galilee, on the S.W. shore of the Lake of Tiberias, 
 built by Herod Antipns in honour of t)ie emperor 
 Tiberius. After the destniction of Jerusalem, it 
 became the seat of the Jewish sanhedrim. Near 
 it were the warm baths of Emmaus. — '2. (Ti- 
 €epias^ Xip-VT} t) TiSiplccv), or Geniiesaret {Tei'v-rj' 
 (rapeT^ lidwp T€i/V7](rdp^ ij TevyriaapirLs), also tlie 
 Sea of Cralilee (i] ^dXaa-aa ttjs raAtXaias), in the 
 0. T. Chinneretli {Bahr Tubariyeh), the 2nd of 
 the 3 lakes in Palestine, fonned by the course of 
 the Jordan. [Jordanes.] Its length is 11 or 
 12 geographical miles, and its breadth from 5 to 6. 
 It lies deep among fertile hills, has very clear and 
 sweet water, and is full of excellent fish. Its sur- 
 face is 750 feet below the level of the Mediterra- 
 nean. In the time of our Saviour, its shores were 
 covered with populous villages, but they are now 
 almost entirely deserted. Its E, coast belonged 
 to the districts of Decapolis and Gaulonitis. 
 
 Tiberinus, one of the mythical kings of Alba, 
 son of Capetus, and father of Agrippa, is said to 
 have been drowned in crossing the river Alba, 
 which was hence called Tiberis after him, and of 
 which he became the guardian god. 
 
 Tiberiopolis (Ti&T^ptouTroAts), a city of Great 
 Phr}'"gia, near Eamenia. 
 
 Tiberis alsoTibris, Tybris, Tliybris,Amni3 Ti- 
 berinus or simply Tiberinus ( Tiber or Tevere), the 
 chief river in central Italy, on which stood the city 
 of Rome. It ia said to have been originally called 
 Albula, and to have received the name of Tiberis 
 in consequence of Tiberinus, king of Alba, having 
 been drowned in it. It has been supposed that 
 Albula was the Latin and Tiberis the Etruscan 
 name of the river. The Tiber rises from 2 springs 
 of limpid water in the Apennines, near Tifernum, 
 and flows in a S. W.-ly direction, separating 
 Etruria from Umbria, the land of the Sabines, and 
 Latium. After flowing about 110 miles it receives 
 the Nar {Nera)^ and from its confluence with this 
 river its regular navigation begins. Three miles 
 above Rome, at the distance of nearly 70 miles 
 from the Nar, it receives the Anio {Teverone), 
 and from this point becomes a river of considerable 
 importance. Within the walls of Rome, the Tiber 
 is about 300 feet wide and from 12 to 18 feet 
 deep. After heavy rains the river in ancient times, 
 as at the present day, frequently overflowed its 
 banks, and did considerable mischief to the lower 
 parts of the city. (Hor. Carm. i. 2.) At Rome 
 the maritime navigation of the river begins ; and 
 at 18 miles from the city, and about 4 miles from 
 the coast, it divides into 2 arms, forming an island, 
 which was sacred to Venus, and called Insula 
 Sacra (Xsola Sagra). The left branch of the rivec 
 runs into the sea by Ostia, which was the ancient 
 harbour of Rome ; but in consequence of the accu- 
 mulation of sand at the mouth of the left braneli, 
 the right branch was widened by Trajan, and was 
 made the regular harbour of the city under th-e 
 name of Partus Romanus, Partus Aagusti, or simply 
 Partus. The whole length of the Tiber, with 
 its windings, is about 200 miles. The waters 
 of the river aro muddy and yellowish, whence it 
 ia frequently called by the Roman poets fiaviis 
 Tiberis. The poets also give it the epithets of 
 Tyrrlienus^ because it flowed past Etj-uria during 
 the whole of its course, and oi Lydiiis^ because the 
 Etruscans are said to have been of Lydian origin. 
 
 Tiberius. 1. Emperor of Rome, a. d. U— 37, 
 3 D 4 
 
776 TIBERIUS. 
 
 His full name Tvas Tiberius Claudius Nero 
 Caesar. He was the son of T. Claudius Nero 
 and of Livia, and was born on the 16th of Novem- 
 ber, B. c. 42, before his mother married Augustus. 
 Tiberius was tall and strongly made, and his health 
 was very good. His face was handsome, and his 
 eyes were large. He was carefully educated, 
 and became well acquainted with Greek and Latin 
 literature. His master in rhetoric was Theodorus 
 of Gadara. Though not without military courage, 
 as his life shows, he had a great timidity of cha- 
 racter, and was of a jealous and suspicious temper ; 
 and these qualities rendered him cruel after he had 
 acquired power. In the latter years of his life, 
 particularly, he indulged his bistful propensities in 
 every way that a depraved imagination could sug- 
 gest : lust and cruelly are not strangers. He 
 aifected a regard to decency and to externals. He 
 was the prince of hypocrites ; and the events of 
 his reign are little more than the exhibition of his 
 detestable character. In E. c. II, Augustus com- 
 pelled Tiberius, much against his will, to divorce 
 his wife Vipsania Agrippina, and to marry Julia, 
 the widow of Agrippa, and the emperor's daughter, 
 with whom Tibenus however did not long live in 
 harmony. Tiberius was thus brought into still 
 closer contact with the imperial family ; but as 
 Caesar and L. Caesar, the grandsons of Augustus, 
 were still living, the prospect of Tiberius succeeding 
 to the imperial power seemed very remote. He 
 was employed by Augustus on various military 
 services. In 20 he was sent by Augustus to re- 
 store Tigranes to the throne of Armenia. It was 
 during this campaign that Horace addressed one of 
 his epistles to Julius Florus (i. 12), who was serv- 
 ing under Tiberius. In 15, Drusus and his brother 
 Tiberius were engaged in warfare with the Rhaeti, 
 and the exploits of the 2 brothers were sung by 
 Horace (Cann. iv. 4, 14). In 13, Tiberius was 
 consul with P. Quintilius Varus. In 11, while 
 his brother Drusus was fighting against the Ger- 
 mans, Tiberius conducted the war against the Dal- 
 matians and against the Pannonians. Drusus died 
 in 9, owing to a fall from his horse. On the news 
 of the accident, Tiberius was sent by Augustus to 
 Drusus, wliom he found just alive. Tiberius re- 
 turned to the war in Germany, and crossed the 
 Rhine. In 7 he was consul a second time. In 6 
 he obtained the tribunitia potestas for 5 years, but 
 during this year he retired with the emperor's per- 
 mission to Rhodes, where he spent the next 7 
 years. Tacitus says that his chief reason for leav- 
 ing Rome v/^as to get away from his wife, who 
 treated him with contempt, and whose licentious 
 life was no secret to her husband ; probably, too, 
 he was unwilling to stay at Rome when the grand- 
 sons of Augustus were attaining years of maturity, 
 for there was mutual jealousy between them and 
 Tiberius. He returned to Rome a. d. 2. He was 
 relieved from one trouble during his absence, for 
 his wife Julia was banished to the island of Pan- 
 dataria (b. c, 2), and he never saw her again. 
 After the deaths of L. Caesar (a. d. 2) and C. 
 Caesar (a. d. 4), Augustus adopted Tiberius, with 
 the view of leaving to him the imperial power ; 
 and at the same time he required Tiberius to 
 adopt Germanicus, the son of his brother Drusus, 
 though Tiberius had a son Drusus by his wife 
 Vipsania. From the year of his adoption to the 
 death of Augustus, Tiberius was in command of 
 the Roman annies, though he visited Rome several 
 
 TIBERIUS. 
 times. He was sent into Germany a. d. 4. He 
 reduced all Illyricumto subjection A. D, 9 ; and in 
 A. D. 12 he had the honour of a triumph at Rome 
 for his German and Dalmatian victories. On the 
 death of Augustus at Noia, on the 19th of August, 
 A. D. 14, Tiberius, who was on his way to Illyri- 
 cum, was immediately summoned home by his 
 mother Livia, He took the imperial power with- 
 out any opposition, affecting all the while a great 
 reluctance. He began his reign by putting to 
 death Postumus Agrippa, the surviving grandson 
 of Augustus, and he alleged that it was done 
 pursuant to the command of the late emperor. 
 When he felt himself sure in his place, he began 
 to exercise his craft. He took from the popular 
 assembly the election of the magistrates, and trans- 
 ferred it to the senate. The news of the death of 
 Augustus roused a mutiny among the legions in 
 Pannonia, which was quelled by Drusus, the son 
 of Tiberius. The armies on the Rhine under Ger- 
 manicus showed a disposition to reject Tiberius, 
 and if Germanicus had been inclined to try the for- 
 tune of a campaign, he might have had the assist- 
 ance of the German armies against his uncle. But 
 Germanicus restored discipline to the army by his 
 firmness, and maintained his fidelity to the new 
 emperor. The first year of his reign was marked 
 by the death of Julia, whom Augustus had re- 
 moved "from Pandataria to Rhegium. The death 
 of Germanicus in the East, in A. D. 19, relieved 
 Tiberius from all fear of a rival claimant to the 
 throne ; and it was believed by many that Ger- 
 manicus had been poisoned by order of Tiberius. 
 From this time Tiberius began to indulge with 
 less restraint in his love of tyranny, and many 
 distinguished senators were soon put to death on 
 the charge of treason against the emperor [laesa 
 majestas). Notwithstanding his supicious nature, 
 Tiberius gave his complete confidence to Sejanus, 
 who for many years possessed the real govern- 
 ment of the state. This ambitious man aimed at 
 the imperial power. In 23 Drusus, the son of Ti- 
 berius, was poisoned by the contrivance of Sejanus. 
 Three years afterwards (26) Tiberius left Rome, 
 and withdrew into Campania. He never returned 
 to the city. He left on the pretext of dedicating 
 temples in Campania, but his real motives were his 
 dislike to Rome, where he heard a great deal that 
 was disagreeable to him, and his wish to indulge 
 his sensual propensities in private. In order to 
 secure still greater retirement, he took up his re- 
 sidence (27) in the island of Capreae, at a short 
 distance from the Campanian coast. The death of 
 Livia (29), the emperor's mother, released Tiberius 
 from one cause of anxiety. He had long been tired 
 of her, because she wished to exercise authority, 
 and one object in leaving Rome was to be out of 
 her way. Livia's death gave Sejanus and Tiberius 
 free scope, for Tiberius never entirely released him- 
 self from a kind of subjection to his mother, and 
 Sejanus did not venture to attempt the overthrow 
 of Livia's influence. The destruction of Agrip- 
 pina and her children was now the chief purpose of 
 Sejanus : he finally got from the tyrant (31) the 
 reward that was his just desert, an ignominious 
 death. [Sejanus.] The death of Sejanus was 
 followed by the executii)n of his friends ; and for 
 the remainder of the reign of Tiberius, Rome con- 
 tinued to be the scene of tragic occurrences. Ti- 
 berius died on the Kith of March, 37, at the villa 
 of Lucullus, in Miaenmn. He was 70 years ot 
 
TIBILIS. 
 
 nge, and had reigned 22 years. He was succeeded 
 by Caius (Caligula), the son of Gerraanicus, but 
 lie had himself appointed no successor. Tiberius 
 did not die a natural death. It was known that 
 his end was rapidly approaching, and having had 
 a fainting fit, he was supposed to be dead. There- 
 upon Caius came forth and was saluted as emperor ; 
 but he was alarmed by the intelligence that Ti- 
 berius had recovered and called for something to 
 eat. Caius was so frightened that he did not 
 know what to do ; but Macro, the praefect of the 
 praetorians, with more presence of mind, gave orders 
 that a quantity of clothes should be thrown on Ti- 
 berius, and that he should be left alone. — In the 
 time of Tiberius lived Valerius Maximus, Velleius 
 Paterculus, Phaedrus, Fenestella, and Strabo ; also 
 the jurists Massurius Sabinus, M. Cocceius Nerva, 
 and others. — Tiberius wrote a brief commentary 
 of iiis own life, the only book that the emperor 
 Domitian studied : Suetonius made use of it for his 
 life of Tiberius. Tiberius also wrote Greek poems, 
 and a lyric poem on the death of L. Caesar. — 2. 
 A philosopher and sophist, of unknown time, the 
 author of numerous works on grammar and rhe- 
 toric. One of his works, on tlie figures in the ora- 
 tions of Demosthenes (Trepi rS>v -rrapa Arifxoadcvei 
 ffXV/J-'^Tcoi')-, is still extant, and has been published. 
 
 Tibilis [Hammam Miskouien?), a town of Nu- 
 midia, in N. Africa, on the road from Cirta to 
 Carthaffe, with warm springs, called Aquae Tibili- 
 tanaL'. 
 
 Tibiscum, a town of Dacia and a Roman mu- 
 nicipium on the river Tibiscus. 
 
 Tibiscus or Tibissus, probably the same as the 
 Parthiscus or Parthissus (T/ieiss), a river of 
 Dacia, forming the W. boundary of that country, 
 rising in the Montes Carpates, and falling into the 
 Danube. 
 
 Tibullus, Albius, the Romanpoet, was of eques- 
 trian family. The date of his birth is uncertain ; 
 but he died young, soon after Virgil. His birth is 
 therefore placed by conjecture B.C. 54, and his 
 death b. c. 18. Of his youth and education, ab- 
 solutely nothing is known. The estate belonging 
 to the equestrian ancestors of Tibullus was at Pe- 
 dum, between Tibur and Praeneste. This pro- 
 perty, like that of the other great poets of the day, 
 Virgil and Horace, had been either entirely or par- 
 tially confiscated during the civil wars ; yet Tibul- 
 lus retained or recovered part of it, and spent there 
 the better portion of his short, but peaceful and 
 happj', life. His great patron was Messala, whom 
 he accompanied in 31 into Aquitania, whither Mes- 
 sala had been sent by Augustus to suppress a for- 
 midable insurrection which had broken out in tliis 
 province. Part of the glory of the Aquitanian 
 campaign, which Tibullus celebrates in language of 
 unwonted loftiness, redounds, according to the poet, 
 to his own fame. He was present at the battle of 
 Atax (Aude in Languedoc), which broke the Aqui- 
 tanian rebellion. In the following year (30) Mes- 
 sala, having pacified Gaul, was sent into the East.. 
 Tibullus set out in his company, but was taken ill, 
 and obliged to remain in Corcyra, from whence he 
 returned to Rome. So ceased the active life of 
 Tibullus ; his life is now the chronicle of his poetry 
 and of those tender passions which were the in- 
 spiration of his poetry. The first object of his 
 attachment is celebrated under the poetic name of 
 Delia. To Delia are addressed the lirst 6 elegies 
 of the 1st book. The poet's attachment to Delia 
 
 TIBULLUS. 
 
 777 
 
 had begun before he left Rome for Aquitania. But 
 Delia seems to have been faithless during his ab- 
 sence from Rome. On his return from Corcyra, he 
 found her ill, and attended her with affectionate 
 solicitude {Eleg. i. 5), and hoped to induce her to 
 retire with him into the country. But first a richer 
 lover appears to have supplanted him with the in- 
 constant Delia ; and afterwards there appears a 
 husband in his wa}--. The 2nd book of Elegies 
 is chiefly devoted to a new mistress named Ne- 
 mesis. Besides these 2 mistresses Tibullus was en- 
 amoured of a certain Glycera. He wrote elegies 
 to soften that cruel beauty, whom there seems no 
 reason to confound either with Delia, the object of 
 his youthful attachment, or with Nemesis. Gly- 
 cera, however, is not known to us from the poetry 
 of Tibullus, but from the ode of Horace, which 
 gently reproves him for dwelling so long in his 
 plaintive elegies on the pitiless Glycera. — The 
 poetry of his contemporaries shows Tibullus as a 
 gentle and singularly amiable man. To Horace 
 especially he was an object of warm attachment. 
 Besides the ode which alludes to his passion for 
 Glycera (Hor. Carm. i. 33), the epistle of Horace 
 to Tibullus gives the most full and pleasing view 
 of his poetical retreat, and of his character : it is 
 written by a kindred spirit. Horace does homage 
 to that perfect purity of taste which distinguishes 
 the poetry of Tibullus ; he takes pride in the 
 candid but favourable judgment of his own satires. 
 The time of Tibullus he supposes to be shared be- 
 tween the finishing his e.xquisite small poems, 
 which were to surpass even those of Cassius of 
 Parma, up to that time the models of that kind of 
 composition, and the enjoyment of the country. 
 Tibullus possessed, according to his friend''s notions, 
 all the blessings of life — a competent fortune, fa- 
 vour with the great, fame, health ; and lie seemed 
 to know how to enjoy all those blessings. — The 2 
 first books alone of the Elegies, under the name of 
 TibuHus, are of undoubted authenticity. The 3rd 
 is the work of another, a very inferior poet, whether 
 Lygdamus be a real or fictitious name or not. 
 This poet was much younger than Tibullus, for he 
 was bom in the year of the battle of Mutina, 43. 
 The hexameter poem on Messala, which opens the 
 4th book, is so bad that, although a successful ele- 
 giac poet may have failed when he attempted epic 
 verse, it cannot well be ascribed to a writer of the 
 exquisite taste of Tibullus. The smaller elegies 
 of the 4th book have all the inimitable grace and 
 simplicity of Tibullus. With the exception of the 
 13th (of which some lines are hardly surpassed bj'' 
 Tibullus himself) these poems relate to the love of 
 a certain Sulpicia, a woman of noble birth, for Ce- 
 rinthus, the real or fictitious name of a beaiitiiul 
 youth. Nor is there any improbability in sup- 
 posing that Tibullus may have written elegies in 
 the name or by the desire of Sulpicia. If Sulpicia 
 was herself the poetess, she approached nearer to 
 Tibullus than any other writer of elegies. — The 
 1st book of Elegies alone seems to have been pub- 
 lished during the author's life, probably soon after 
 the triumph of Messala (27). The 2nd bonk no 
 doubt did not appear till after the death of Tibul- 
 lus. With it, according to our conjecture, may 
 have been published the elegies of his imitator, 
 perhaps his friend and associate in the society of 
 Messala, Lygdamus (if that be a real name), i. e. 
 the 3rd book: and likewise the 4th, made up of 
 poems belonging, as it were, to this intimate society 
 
in 
 
 TIBUR. 
 
 of Messala,, the Panegyric by some nameless author, 
 which, feeble as it is, seems to be of that age ; the 
 poems in the name of Sulpicia, with the concluding 
 one, the 13th, a fragment of Tibiillus himself. The 
 best editions of TibuUus are by Lachmann, Berol. 
 liJ"2iJ, and by Dissenus, Giittingen, KSSo. 
 
 Titar (Tiburs, pi. Tiburtes, Tibartinus: TivoU), 
 one of the most ancient towns of Latium, 16 miles 
 N. E. of Rome, situated on the slnpe of a hill 
 (iience called by Horace supinum Tihur\ on the 
 left bank of the Anio, which here forms a mag- 
 iiilicent waterfall. It is said to have been origi- 
 nally built by the Siculi, and to have afterwards 
 passed into the possession of the Aborigines and 
 Pelasgi. According to tradition it derived its 
 name from Tiburtus, son of Catillus, who emigrated 
 from Greece with Evander. It was afterwards 
 one of the chief towns of the Latin league, and 
 became subject to Rome with the other Latin 
 cities on the final subjugation of Latium in B.C. 
 3^38. Under the Romans Tibur continued to be 
 a large and flourishing town, since the salubrity 
 and beautiful scenery of the place led many of the 
 most distinguished Roman nobles to build liere 
 magnificent villas. Of these the most splendid 
 was the villa of the emperor Hadrian, in the 
 extensive remains of which many valuable spe- 
 cimens of ancient art liave been discovered. Here 
 also the celebrated Zenobia lived after adorning 
 the triumph of h:T conqueror Aurelian. Horace 
 likewise had a country house in the neighbourhood 
 of Tibur, wliich he preferred to all his other resi- 
 dences. The deity chiefly worshipped at Tibur 
 was Hercules ; and in the neighbourhood was the 
 grove and temple of the Sibyl Albunea, whose 
 onicles were consulted from the most ancient times. 
 f Albunea.] The surrounding country produced 
 excellent olives, and also contained some celebrated, 
 etime quarries. There was a road from Rome 
 leading to Tibur, called Via Tiburtina, which was 
 continued from the town under the name of the 
 Via Valeria, past Corlinium to Adria. 
 
 TicMs or TecQin. [Tecum.] 
 
 Tichiussa (Teix^*'^^*^")? a- fortress in the terri- 
 tory of Miletus. 
 
 Ticiniim (Ticinensis : Pauia), a town of the 
 Laevi, or, according to others, of the Insubres, in 
 Gallia Cisalpina, on tite left bank of the Ticinus. 
 It was subsequently a Roman raunicipium ; but it 
 owed its greatness to the Lombard kings, who 
 niade it the capital of their dominions. The 
 Lombards gave it the name of Papia, which it still 
 retains under the sh'ghtly changed form of Pavia. 
 
 TTuinus (Tessiiio)^ an importiint river in Gallia 
 Cisalpina, rises in Mons Adiiia, and after flowing 
 through Lacus Verliauus (Lur/o Maggiore)^ falls 
 into the Po near Ticinum. It was upon the bank 
 of this river that Hannibal gained his first victory 
 over the Romans by the defeat of P. Scipio, b. c. 
 2\''., 
 
 Tilata. a mountain in Campania, E. of Capua, 
 near which the Samiiites defeated the Campanians, 
 iiiid where at a Inter time Sulla gained a victory 
 over the proconsul Norbanus. On this mountain 
 there was a temple of Diana and also one of Jupiter 
 of some celebrity. 
 
 Tifernum. 1. Tiberinum (Tifernates Tiberini, 
 pi. : Cdta di C'isiello), a town of Umbria, near the 
 finurces of the river Tiber, whence its suvnnme, and 
 upon the conlines of Etrurfa. Near this town the 
 pouiiger Pliny had a villa.— 3. Metaui-euse (Tifer- 
 
 TIGRANES. 
 
 nates Metaurenses; S. Angelo in Vadd)^ a town in 
 Urubria, E. of the preceding, on the river Melau- 
 rus, whence its surname. •— 3. A town in Sam- 
 nium, on the river Tifernus. 
 
 Tiiemas {Bifemo), a river of Samnium, rising 
 in tlie Apennines, and flowing through the country 
 of the Frentani into the Adriatic. 
 
 Tigellinus Sophonius, the eon of a native of 
 Agrigentum, owed his rise from poverty and ob- 
 scurity to his handsome person and his unscrupulous 
 character. He was banished to Scyllaceum in 
 Bruttii (a. d. 39 — 40), for an intrigue with Agxip- 
 pina and Julia Livilla, sisters of Caligula. He 
 was probably among the exiles restored by Agrip- 
 pina, after she became empress, since early in 
 Nero's reign he was again in favour at court, and 
 on the death of Burrus (63) was appointed prae- 
 torian prefect jointly with Fenius Rufus. Tigel- 
 linus ministered to Nero's worst passions, and of all 
 his favourites was the most obnoxious to the Roman 
 people. He inflamed his jealousy or his avarico 
 against the noblest members of the senate and the 
 most plinnt dependants of the court. In 65, Ti- 
 gellinus entertained Nero in his Aemilian gardens, 
 with a sumptuous profligacy unsurpassed even in 
 that age, and in the same year shared with him the 
 odium of burning Rome, since the conflagration had 
 broken out on the scene of the banquet. On Nero'-i 
 fall he joined with Nymphidius Sabinus, who had 
 succeeded Fenius Rufus as praetorian prefect, in 
 transferriiiiT ihe alletiiancc of the soldiers to Galba. 
 The people clamorously demanded his death. 
 During the brief reign of Galba his life was spared ; 
 hut on the accession of Othn, he was compelled to 
 put an end to his own life. 
 
 TigelliTis Hermog-enes. [Hermogenes.] 
 
 Tigranes {Tiypdv^s)^ kings of Armenia. L 
 Reigtied b. c. dQ — 50 or 55. He united under 
 his sway not only all Armenia, but several of the 
 neighbouring provinces, such as Ati'r.patcne and 
 Gordyene, and thus raised himself to a degree nf 
 power far superior to that enjoyed by any of his 
 predecessors. He assumed the pompous title of 
 king of kings, and always appeared in public 
 accompanied by some of his tributary princes as 
 attendants. His power was also greatly strength- 
 ened by his alliance with Mithridates the Great, 
 king of Pontus, whose daughter Cleopatra he had 
 married at an early period of his reign. In con- 
 sequence of the dissensions in the royal family of 
 Syria, Tigranes was enabled in 83 to make himself 
 master of the whole Syrian monarchy fr' m the 
 Euphrates to the sea. He was now at the summit 
 of his power, and continued in the undisputed 
 possession of these extensive dominions for nearly 
 14 years. At the instigation of his son-in-law 
 Jlithridates, he invaded Cappadocia in 74, and is 
 said to have carried off Into captivity no less thnn 
 300,000 of the inhabitants, a large portion of whom 
 he settled in his newly founded capital of Tigrano- 
 certa. [Tigranoceiita.] In other respects he 
 appears to have fimnshed little support to Mithri- 
 dates in his war against the Romans ; but when the 
 Romans haughtily demanded from him the surren- 
 der of Mithridates, who had tiiken refuge in his 
 dominions, he returaed a peremptory refusal, accom- 
 panied with an express declaration of war. Lu- 
 cuilus invaded Armenia in 69, defeated the mighty 
 host which Tigranes led against him, and followed 
 up his victory by the capture of Tigranocerta. 
 In the following yenr (6!i) the united forces of 
 
TIGRANOCEPvTA. 
 Tigranea and Mithridates were again defeated by 
 Lucullus ■ but the mutinous disposition of the 
 Roman troops prevented Lucullus from gaining 
 any further advantages over the Armenian king, 
 and enabled the latter not only to regahi his do- 
 minions, but also to invade Cappadocia. The 
 arrival of Pompey (66') soon changed the face of 
 events. Mithridates, after his final defeat by 
 Pompey, once more threw himself upon the sup- 
 port of his son-in-law : but Tigranes, who sus- 
 pected him of abetting the designs of his son 
 Tigranes, who had rebelled against his father, 
 refused to receive him, while he himself hastened 
 to make overtures of submission to Pompey. That 
 general had already advanced into the heart of 
 Armenia under the guidance of the young Tigranes, 
 when the old king repaired in person to the Roman 
 camp, and presenting himself as a suppliant before 
 Pompey, laid his tiara at his feet. By this act of 
 humiliation he at once conciliated the favour of the 
 conqueror, who treated him in a friendly manner, 
 and left him in possession of Armenia Proper with 
 the title of king, depriving him only of the provinces 
 of Sophene and Gordyene, v/hich he erected into 
 a separate kingdom for his son Tigranes. The 
 elder monarch was so overjoyed at obtaining these 
 unexpectedly favourable terms, that he not only 
 paid the sum of 6000 talents demanded by 
 I^ompe}', hut added a large sum as a donation to 
 his armj', and continued ever after the steadfast 
 friend of the Roman general. He died in 56 or 
 55, and was succeeded by his son Artavasdes. ^ 
 2. Son of Artavasdes, and grandson of the pre- 
 ceding, lie was living an exile at Rome, when a 
 pai'ty of his countrymen, discontented with the 
 rule of his elder brother, Artaxias, sent to request 
 that he should be placed on the throne. To this 
 Augustus assented, and Tiberius was charged with 
 the duty of accomplishing it, a task which he 
 effected apparently without opposition (ii. c. -0). 
 
 Tigranocerta (ra TtypavonepTa and 7J Tt^p., 
 i. e., in Armenian, the City of Tigranes : Scrt, 
 Ru.), the later capital of Armenia, built by Ti- 
 granes, on a height by the river Nicephorius, in 
 the valley between M. Masius and Niphates. It 
 was strongly fortified, and peopled chiefly with 
 Macedonians and Greeks, forcibly removed from 
 Cappadocia and Cilicia ; but, after the defeat of 
 Tigranes by Lucullus under its walls, these people 
 were permitted to return to their homes. The 
 city was at the same time partially destroyed ; but 
 it still remained a considerable place. 
 
 Tigris, gen. -idos and -is {6 Tiypis, gen. T(- 
 ypidos and Tiypios, also Tiyp-qs, gen. Tiyp7}Tos : 
 Tigris), a great river of W, Asia, rises from several 
 sources on the S. side of that part of the Taurus 
 chain called Niphates, in Armenia, and flows 
 S. E., first through the narrow valley between M. 
 Masius and the prolongation of M. Niphates, and 
 then through the great plain which is bounded on 
 the K. by the last-named chain, till it falls into 
 the head of the Persian Gulf, after receiving the 
 Euphrates from the W". [Cmnp. EoPHnATBS.] 
 Its other chief tributaries, all falling into its E. 
 side, were the Nicephorius or Centhites, the 
 Lycus, the CAPRas, the Physcus, the Gorgus, 
 SiLLAS, or Delas, the Gyndes, and the Cho- 
 AHPES. It divided Assyria and Susiana on the 
 E., from Mesopotamia and Babylonia, and (at its 
 mbnth) Arabia, on the "VV". The name ia some- 
 times applied to the Pasitigris. 
 
 TIMAEUS. 77.*) 
 
 Tigltrini, a tribe of the Helvetii, who joined the 
 Cimbri in invading the country of the Allobroges 
 in Gaul, where they defeated the consul L. Cassius 
 Longinus, B.C. 107. They formed in the time of 
 Caesar the most important of the 4 cantons (pa/fi) 
 into which the Helvetii were divided. It was 
 perhaps from this people that the town of Tigurum 
 \Zurich) derived its name, though this name does 
 not occur in any ancient writer. 
 
 Tilphiisiuin (TtAi^oytno^, TtKtpovffaiov^ Dor. 
 TiA.t^tio'ffiov : TiAiioucrioy, Dor. TiX^citrios), a 
 town in Boeotia, situated upon a mountiiin of the 
 same name, S. of lake Copais, and between Coronea 
 and Ilaliartus. It derived its name from the foun- 
 tain Tilphusa, which was sacred to Apollo, and 
 where Tiresiaa is said to have been buried. 
 
 Timaeus (TiVaios). 1. The historian, was the 
 son of Andromachus, tyrant of Tauromenium, in 
 Sicily. Timaeus attained the age of 96 ; and 
 though we do not know the exact date either of his 
 birth or death, we cannot be far wrong in placing his 
 birth in B.C. 352, and his death in 256. Timaeus 
 received instruction from Philiscus, the Milesian, 
 a disciple of Isocrates ; but we have no further 
 particulars of his life, except that he was banished 
 from Sicily by Agathocles, and passed his exile at 
 Athens, where he had lived SO years when he 
 wrote the 34th book of his history. The grent 
 work of Timaeus was a history of Sicily from the 
 earliest times to 264, in which year Poly bins 
 commences the introduction to his work. Tlii^i 
 history was one of great extent. We have a quo- 
 tation from the JJIJth book, and there were pro- 
 bably many books after this. The value and 
 authority of Timaeus as an historian have been 
 most vehemently attacked by Polybius in many 
 parts of his work. Most of the charges of Polyhiua 
 appear to have been well founded ; but he has not 
 only omitted to mention some of the peculiar ex- 
 cellencies of Timaeus, but has even regarded these 
 excellencies as deservuig the severest censure. 
 Thus it was one of the great merits of Timaeu«, 
 for which he is loudly denounced by Polybius, 
 that he attempted to give the myths in their 
 simplest and most genuine form, as related by the 
 most ancient writers. Timaeus also collected the 
 materials of his history with the greatest diligence 
 and care, a fact which even Polybius is oblig:>d to 
 admit. He likewise paid very great attention to 
 chronology, and was the first writer who intro- 
 duced the practice of recording events by Olym- 
 piads, which was adopted b}"" almost all subsequent 
 writers of Greek histor}'. The fragments of Ti- 
 maeus have been collected by Gciller, in his De 
 Situ et Orifiine Syraciisarum, Lips. ]f)18, and by 
 Car. and Theod. Mliller, in the Frugmenta Uis- 
 ioric. Graec.^ Paris, 1841. — 2. Of Locii, in Italy, 
 a Pythagorean philosopher, is said to have bet:n a 
 teacher of Plato. There is an extant work, bear- 
 ing his name, written in the Doric dialect, and 
 entitled irspX ^vx^s k6<t^ov koX <pvains: but its 
 genuineness is very doubiful, and it is in all pro- 
 bability nothing more than an abridgment of 
 Plato's dialogue of Timaeus. The best edition 
 is by Gelder, Leyden, 1036. — 3. The Sophist, 
 wrote a Lexicon to Plato, addressed to a certain 
 Gentianus, which is still extant. The time at 
 which he lived is quite uncertain. He is usually 
 placed in the 3rd c ntury of the Christian aern. 
 which produced so many ardent admirers of the 
 Platonic philosophy, such as IViiphyry, Longinus 
 
7R0 TIMAGENES. 
 
 Plotinus, &c. The Lexicon is verj- brief, and 
 tears the title Tif.ialou (rocpiffrov iK ruv rov ITAa- 
 Tuuos Xe^ewi/. It is evident that the work has 
 received several interpolations, especially in expla- 
 nations of words occurring in Herodotus- But it 
 is one of great value, and the explanations of 
 ■words are some of the very best which have come 
 down to ua from the ancient grammarians. It has 
 been edited by Ruhnken, Leyden, 1754, and 
 again, Leyden, 1789 ; and by Koch, Leipzig, 1828, 
 and 1833. 
 
 Timagenes (Ti/iayeprisX a rhetorician and a 
 historian, was a native of Alexandria, from which 
 place he was carried as a prisoner to Rome, where 
 he was first employed as a slave in menial offices, 
 but being liberated b}' Faustus Sulla, the son of 
 the dictator, he opened a school of rhetoric, in 
 which he taught with great success. (Comp. Hor. 
 Ep. i. ly. 15.) The emperor Augustus induced 
 him to write a history of his exploits ; but having 
 offended Augustus by sarcastic remarks upon his 
 family, he was forbidden the palace ; whereupon 
 he burnt his historical works, gave up his rhe- 
 torical school, and retired from Rome to the house 
 of his friend Asinius PoUio at Tusculum. He 
 afterwards went to the East, and died at Dabanum 
 in Mesopotamia, 
 
 Timanthes {Tifidvdijs), a celebrated Greek 
 painter at Sicj'on, contemporary with Zeuxis and 
 Parrhasius, about B.C. 400. The masterpiece of 
 Timanthes was his celebmted picture of tlie sa- 
 crifice of Iphigenia, in which Agamemnon was 
 painted with his face hidden in his mantle. Tlie 
 ancient critics tell us that the picture showed 
 Iphigenia, standing by the altJir, surrounded, 
 among the assistants, by Culchas, whose prophetic 
 voice had demanded her sacrifice, and whose hand 
 was about to complete it; Ulysses, who had 
 brought her from her home, and Menelaus, her 
 father's brother, all manifesting different degrees 
 of grief, so that, when the artist had painted the 
 sorrow of Calchas, and the deeper sorrow of Ulysses, 
 and had added all his powers to express the woe 
 of Menelaus, his resources were exhausted, and, 
 unable to give a powerful expression to the agony 
 of the father, he covered his head with a veil. 
 But this is clearly not the reason why Timanthes 
 hid the face of Agamenmon. The critics ascribe 
 to impotence what was the forbearance of judg- 
 mi^nt. Timanthes felt like a father: he did not 
 hide the face of Agamemnon because it was be- 
 yond the possibility, but because it was beyond 
 the dignity, of expression. If he made Agamemnon 
 bear his calamity as a man, he made him also feel 
 it as a man. It became the leader of Greece to 
 sanction the ceremony with his presence, but it 
 did nut become the father to see his daughter be- 
 neath the dagger's point. 
 
 Timavus {Tauavo)^ a small river in the N. of 
 Italy, forming the boundary between Istria and 
 Venetia, and falling into the Sinus Tergostinus in 
 the Adriatic, between Tergeste and Aqiiilcia. This 
 river is frequently celebrated by the poets and other 
 ancient writers, who speak of its numerous sources, 
 its lake, and its subterraneous passage ; but these 
 accounts seem, to a great extent, fabulous. 
 
 Timocles (Ti^o«a^s). a distinguished Athenian 
 comic poet of the Middle Comedy, who lived at a 
 period wiien the revival of political energy, in con- 
 sequence of the encroachments of Philip, restored 
 to the Middle Comedy much of the vigour and 
 
 TIMOLEON. 
 
 real aim of the Old. He is conspicuous for th^; 
 freedom with which he discussed public men and 
 measures, as well as for the number of his dramas 
 and the purity of his style. He flourished from 
 about the middle of the 4th century B. c. till after 
 324, 60 that at the beginning of his career he was 
 in part contemporary with Antiphanes, and at the 
 end of it with Menander. 
 
 Timocreon (Tifj.0Kp4uv), of Rhodes, a lyric 
 poet, celebrated for the bitter and pugnacious spirit 
 of his works, and especially for his attacks on 
 Themistocles and Simonides. He was a native of 
 lalysus in Rhodes, whence he was banished on 
 the then common charge of an inclination towards 
 Persia (/iTjSttr/ios) ; and in this banishment he was 
 left neglected by Themistocles, who had formerly 
 been his friend, and his connection by the ties of 
 hospitality. Timocreon was still flourishing after 
 B. c. 471, since one of his poems, of which we have 
 a fragment, was an attack upon Themistocles after 
 the exile of the latter. It appears that Timocreon 
 was a man of prodigious strength, which he sus- 
 tained by great voracity. 
 
 Timoleon (Ti^oAe'wi/), son of Timodemus or 
 Timaeuetus and Demariste, belonged to one of the 
 noblest families at Corinth. His early life was 
 stained by a dreadful deed of blood. We are told 
 that so ardent was his love of libert}'-, that when 
 his brother Timophanes endeavoured to make him- 
 self tyrant of their native city, Timoleon murdered 
 him i-ather than allow him to destroy the liberty 
 of the state. The murder was perpetrated just 
 before an embassy arrived from several of tiie 
 Greek cities of Sicily, begging the Corinthians to 
 send assistance to the island, which was distracted 
 by internal dissensions, and was expecting an in- 
 vasion of the Carthaginians. It is said that the 
 Corinthians were at the very moment of the arrival 
 of the Sicilians deliberating respecting Tinioleon's 
 act, and had not come to any decision respecting 
 it; and that they avoided the difficulty of a decision 
 by appointing him to the command of the Sicilian 
 expedition, with the singular provision, that if he 
 conducted himself justly in the command, tbey 
 would reg;ird him as a tyrannicide, and honour him 
 accordingly; but if otherwise, they would punish 
 him as a fratricide. To whatever causes Timoleon 
 owed his appointment, his extraordinaiy succe>s 
 more than justified the confidence which had been 
 reposed in him. His history reads almost like a 
 romance; and yet of the main facts of the uan-ative 
 we cannot entertain any reasonable duubt. Al- 
 though the Corintlrians had readily assented to 
 the requests of the Sicilians in the appointment of 
 a commander, they were not prepared to make 
 many sacrifices in their favour; and acconliM^ily it 
 was only with 10 triremes and 700 mercenaries 
 that Timoleon sailed from Cm'inth to rep. 1 the 
 Carthaginians, and restore order to the Sicilian 
 cities. He reached Sicily in B. c. 3 14, and 
 straightway marched against Symcuse, of 2 quarters 
 of which he obtfiined possession. lu the Ibliowing 
 spring (343) Diiniysius, despairing of succes-;, sur- 
 rendered the citadel ti) Timnleon, on condition of 
 his being allowed to depart in safety to Corinth. 
 [DiONVSius,] Timoleon soon afterwards obtained 
 pnsst'ssirin of the whole of Symcuse. He destroyed 
 the citadel, which had been for so many years ihe 
 seat and bulwark of the power of the t\ rants, 
 and restored the deraocratical form of goveriiinent. 
 He then proceeded to expel the tyrants from the 
 
TIM0MACHU3. 
 other Greek cities of Sicil}', but was interrupted in 
 this undertaking by a formidable invasion of the 
 Carthaginians, who landed at Lilybaeum in 339, 
 with an immense army, under the command of 
 Hasdrubal and Hamilcar, consisting of 70,000 foot 
 and 10,000 horse. Such an overwhelming force 
 struck the Greeks with consternation and dismay. 
 So great was their alarm that Timoleon could only 
 induce 12,000 men to march with him against the 
 Carthaginians. But with this small force he gained 
 a brilliant victory over the Carthaginians on the 
 river Crimissus (339). This victory justly ranks 
 as one of the greatest gained by Greeks over bar- 
 barians. The booty which Timoleon acquired was 
 prodigious; and some of the richest of the spoils he 
 sent to Corinth and other cities in Greece, thus 
 diffusing the glory of his victory throughout the 
 mother country. Timoleon now resolved to carry 
 into execution his project of expelling all the 
 tyrants from Sicily. Of these, two of the most 
 powerful, Hicetas of Leontirii, and Mamercus of 
 Catana, had recourse to the Carthaginians for as- 
 sistance, who sent Gisco to Sicily with a fleet of 
 70 ships and a body of Greek mercenaries. Al- 
 though Gisco gained a few successes at first, the 
 war was upon the whole favourable to Timoleon, 
 and the Carthaginians were therefore glad to con- 
 clude a treaty with the latter in 330, by which 
 the river Halycus was fixed as the boundary of 
 the Carthaginian and Greek dominions in Sicily. 
 It was during the war with Gisco that Hicetas 
 fell into the hands of Timoleon, and was massacred 
 by his order. His wife and daughters were carried 
 to Syracuse ; where they were executed by the 
 people, as a satisfaction to the manes of Dion, 
 whose wife Arete and sister Aristomache had both 
 been put to death by Hicetas. This is one of the 
 greatest stains upon Timoleon's character, as he 
 might easily have saved these unfortunate women 
 if he had chosen. After the treaty between the 
 Carthaginians and Timoleon, Mamercus, being 
 unable to maintain himself in Catana, fled to Mes- 
 sana, where he took refuge with Hippon, tyrant of 
 that city. Timoleon quickly followed, and be- 
 sieged Messana so vigorously by sea and land, that 
 Hippon, despairing of holding out, attempted to 
 escape by sea, but was taken and put to death in 
 the public theatre. Mamercus now surrendered, 
 Btipulating only for a public trial before the Syra- 
 cusans, with the condition that Timoleon should 
 not appear as his accuser. But as soon as he was 
 brought into the assembly at Syracuse, the people 
 refused to hear him, and unanimously condemned 
 him to death. Thus almost all the tyrants were 
 expelled from the Greek cities in Sicily, and a 
 democratical form of government established in 
 their place. Timoleon, however, was in reality the 
 ruler of Sicily, for all the states consulted him on 
 every matter of.importance ; and the wisdom of his 
 rule is attested by the flourishing condition of the 
 island for several years even after his death. He 
 did not, however, assume any title or office, but 
 resided as a private citizen among the Syracusans. 
 Timoleon died in 337, having become blind a short 
 time before his death. He was buried at the 
 public expense in the market-place at Syracuse, 
 where his monument was afterwards surrounded 
 with porticoes and a gymnasium, which was called 
 after him the Timoleonieum. Annual games were 
 also instituted in his honour. 
 
 TimomacliU3 (^ip.6^axo%\ a distinguished 
 
 TIMOTHEUS. 78J 
 
 painter, of Byzantium, lived (according to Pliny) 
 in the time of Julius Caesar, who purchased two of 
 his pictures, the Ajacc and Medea^ for the immense 
 sum of 80 Attic talents, and dedicated them in the 
 temple of Venus Genitrix. It has been supposed, 
 however, by some modern writers that Tiraomachus 
 lived at an earlier period. 
 
 Tfmon {Tiyiuv). 1. The son of Timarchus of 
 PhliuB, a philosopher of the sect of the Sceptics, 
 flourished in the reign of Ptolemy Philadelphus, 
 about B. c. 279, and onwards. He first studied 
 philosophy at Megara, under Stilpon, and then re- 
 turned home and married. He next went to Elis 
 with his wife, and heard Pyrrhon, whose tenets 
 he adopted. Driven from Elis by straitened cir- 
 cumstances, he spent some time on the Hellespont 
 and the Propontis, and taught at Chalcedon as a 
 sophist with such success that he realised a fortune. 
 He then removed to Athens, where he passed the 
 remainder of his life, with the exception of a short 
 residence at Thebes. He died at the age of almost 
 90. Timon appears to have been endowed by nature 
 with a powerful and active mind, and with that 
 quick perception of the follies of men which be- 
 trays its possessor into a spirit of universal distrust 
 both of men and truths, so as to make him a sceptic 
 in philosophy and a satirist in every thing. He 
 wrote numerous works both in prose and poetry. 
 The most celebrated of his poems were the satiric 
 compositions called Silli {(riXKoi), a word of some- 
 what doubtful etymology, but which undoubtedly 
 describes metrical compositions of a character at 
 once ludicrous and sarcastic. The invention of this 
 species of poetry is ascribed to Xenophanes of Co- 
 lophon. [Xenophanes.] The Silli of Timon 
 were in 3 books, in the first of which he spoke in 
 his own person, and the other 2 are in the form 
 of a dialogue between the author and Xenophanes 
 of Colophon, in which Timon proposed questions, 
 to which Xenophanes replied at length. The sub- 
 ject was a sarcastic account of the tenets of all 
 philosophers, living and dead ; an unbounded field 
 for scepticism and satire. They were in hexameter 
 verse, and, from the way in which they are men- 
 tioned by the ancient writers, as well as from the 
 few fragments of them which have come down to 
 us, it is evident that they were very admirable 
 productions of their kind. The fragments of his 
 poems are collected by Wolke, De Graecoi-um 
 Si/Uis, Varsav. 1820 ; and by Paul, Dissertatio de 
 Sillis, Berol. 1821. — 2. The Misanthrope (6 /ii- 
 adi^OpcoTros)^ lived in the time of the Peloponnesian 
 war. He was an Athenian, of the demos of Co- 
 lyttus, and his father's name was Echecratides. 
 In consequence of the ingratitude he experienced, 
 and the disappointments he suffered, from his early 
 friends and companions, he secluded himself en- 
 tirely from the world, admitting no one to his 
 society except Alcibiades, in whose reckless and 
 variable disposition he probably found pleasure in 
 tracing and studying an image of the world he had 
 abandoned ; and at last he is said to have died in 
 consequence of refusing to suffer a surgeon to come 
 to him to set a broken limb. One of Lucian's 
 pieces bears his name. 
 
 Timotheus (Ti/icJfleos). 1. Son of Conon, the 
 famous general, was himself a distinguished Athe- 
 nian general. He was first appointed to a public 
 command in b. c. 378 ; and from this time his 
 name frequently occurs as one of the Athenian 
 generals down to 356. In this year he was asso- 
 
782 TIMOTHEUS. 
 
 ciated with Iphicrates, Menestlieus, and Chares in 
 the command of tlie Athenian fleet. In conse- 
 quence of his conduct in this war he was arraigned 
 in 354, and condemned to the crushing fine of 100 
 talents (more than 24,000/.). Being unable to pay 
 the fine, he withdrew to Chalcis in Euboea, where 
 he died shortly after. The Athenians subsequently 
 remitted nine-tenths of the penalty, and allowed 
 his son Conon to expend the remainder on the 
 repair of the walls, which the famous Conon had 
 restored. — 2. Son of Clearchua, the tyrant of He- 
 raclea on the Euxine, whom he succeeded in the 
 sovereignty, B.C. 353. There is extant a letter 
 addressed to him by Isocrates. ^ 3. A celebrated 
 musician and poet of the later Athenian ditliyranib, 
 was a native of Miletus, and the son of Thersander. 
 lie was born B.C. 446, and died in 357, in the 90th 
 Tear of his age. Of the details of his life we have 
 very little information. He was at first unfortunate 
 in his professional efforts. Even the Athenians, 
 fond as they were of novelty, were offended at the 
 Ijold innovations of Timotheus, and hissed off his 
 performance. On this occasion it is said that Eu- 
 ripides encouraged Timotheus by the prediction 
 that he would soon have the theatres at his feet. 
 This prediction appears to have been accomplished 
 in the vast popularity which Timotheus afterwards 
 enjoyed. The Ephesians rewarded him, for his 
 dedicatory hymn to Artemis, with the sum of 1000 
 pieces of gold ; and the last accomplishment, by 
 which the education of the Arcadian youth was 
 finished, was learning the nomes of Timotheus and 
 Philoxenus. Timotheus is said to have died in 
 Macedonia. He delighted in the most artificial 
 and intricate forms of musical expression, and he 
 used instrumental music, without a vocal accompa- 
 niment, to a greater extent than any previous 
 composer. Perhaps the most important of his 
 innovations, as the means of introducing all the 
 others, was his addition to the number of the 
 strings of the citliara. Respecting the precise na- 
 ture of that addition the ancient writers are not 
 agreed ; but it is most probable, from the whole 
 evidence, that the lyre of Timotheus had 1 1 strings. 
 It is said that, when Timotheus visited Sparta, 
 and entered the musical contest at the Camea, one 
 of the ephors snatched away his lyre, and cut 
 from it the strings, 4 in number, by which it ex- 
 ceeded the seven -stringed lyre of Terpander, and, 
 as a memorial of this public vindication of the 
 ancient simplicity of music, and for a warning to 
 future innovators, the Lacedaemonians hung up the 
 mutilated lyre of Timotheus in their Scias. With 
 regard to the subjects of his compositions, and the 
 manner in which he treated them, we have abun- 
 dant evidence that he even went beyond the other 
 musicians of the period in the liberties which he 
 took with the ancient myths, in the attempt to 
 make his music imitative as well as expressive, 
 and in the confusion of the different subjects and 
 departments of lyric poetry; in one word, in the 
 application of that false principle, which also misled 
 his friend Euripides, that pleasure is the end of 
 poetr}'. — 4. A distinguished flute-player of Thebes, 
 flourished under Alexander the Great, on whom his 
 music made so powerful an impression that once 
 in the midst of a performance by Timotheus, of an 
 Orthian Nome to Athena, Alexander started from 
 his seat, and seized his arms. ^5. A statuary and 
 Bculptor, whose country is not mentioned, but who 
 belonged to the later Attic school of the time of 
 
 TIRIDATES. 
 
 Scopas and Praxiteles. Pie was one of the artista 
 who executed the bas-reliefs which adorned the 
 frieze of tlie Mausoleum, about E. c, 352. 
 
 Tingis (ij Tiyyis'. Tangier)^ a city of Maure- 
 tania, on the S. coast of the Fretum Gaditanum 
 [Straits of Gibraltar), was a place of very great 
 antiquity. It was made by Augustus a free city, 
 and by Claudius a colony, and the capital of 
 Mauretania Tingitana, 
 
 Tinia (Timia), a small river in Umbria, rising 
 near Spoletium, and falling into the Tiber, after re- 
 ceiving the Clitumnus. 
 
 Tiresias {Tcifrrjalas)^ a Theban, son of Everes 
 and Ciiariclo, was one of tlie most renowned sooth- 
 sayers in all antiquity. He was blind from hid 
 seventh year, but lived to a very old age. It was 
 believed that his blindness was occasioned by his 
 having revealed to men things which they ought 
 not to have known, or by his having seen Athena 
 while she was bathing, on which occasion the god- 
 dess deprived him of sight by sprinkling water 
 upon his face. Chariclo prayed to Athena to re- 
 store his sight, but as the goddess was unable to 
 do this, she conferred upon him the power of un- 
 derstanding the voices of birds, and gave him a 
 staff, with the help of which he could walk as 
 safel}' as if he had his eyesight. Another tradition 
 accounts for his blindness iu the following manner. 
 Once, when on Mount Cithaeron (others say Cyl- 
 lene), he saw a male and a female serpent together; 
 he struck at them with his staff, and as he happened 
 to kill the female, lie himself was metamorphosed 
 into a woman. Seven years later he again saw 2 
 serpents, and now killing the male, he again be- 
 came a man. It was for this reason that Zeus and 
 Hera, when disputing wliether a man or a woman 
 had more enjoyments, referred the matter to Tire- 
 sias, who declared that women enjoyed more 
 pleasure than men. Hera, indignant at the answer, 
 deprived him of sight, but Zeus gave him the 
 power of prophecy, and granted him a life which 
 was to last for seven or nine generations. In the 
 war of the Seven against Thebes, he declared that 
 Thebes should be victorious, if Menoeceus would 
 sacrifice himself; and during the war of the Epigoni, 
 when the Thebans had been defeated, he advised 
 them to commence negotiations of peace, and to 
 avail themselves of the opportunity that would thus 
 be afforded them, to take to flight. He himself 
 fled with them (or, according to others, he was 
 carried to Delphi as a captive), but on his way he 
 drank from the well of Tilphossa and died. His 
 daughter Manto (or Daphne) was sent by the vic- 
 torious Argives to Delphi, as a present to Apollo. 
 Even in the lower world Tiresias was believed to 
 retain the powers of perception, while the souls of 
 other mortals were mere shades, and there also he 
 continued to use his golden staff. His tomb was 
 shown in the neighbourhood of the Tilphusian well 
 near Thebes, and in Macedonia likewise. The place 
 near Thebes where he had observed the birds was 
 pointed out as a remarkable spot even in later 
 times. The blind seer Tiresias acts so prominent 
 a part in the mythical history of Greece that there 
 is scarcely anj' event with which he is not con- 
 nected in some way or other; and this introduction 
 of the seer in so many occurrences separated by 
 long intervals of time, was facilitated by the belief 
 in his long life. 
 
 TTridates or Teridates (T-npiZdrvs). 1. The 
 second king of Parthia. [Aiisaces II.] — " 3, 
 
TIRO. 
 King of Aiinenia, and brother of Vologeses I. 
 (Arsaces XXIII,), king of Parthia. He was 
 made king of Armenia by his brother, but was 
 driven out of the kingdom by Corbulo, the Romfin 
 general, and finally received the Armenian crown 
 from Nero at Rome in a. d. 63. 
 
 Tiro, M. Tullaus, the freedman of Cicero, to 
 whom he was an object of tender affection. He 
 appears to have been a man of very amiable dispo- 
 sition, and highly cultivated intellect. He was not 
 only the amanuensis of the orator, and his assistant 
 in literaiy labour, but was himself an author of no 
 ninan reputation, and notices of several works from 
 liis pen have been preserved by ancient writers. 
 It is supposed by man}' that Tiro was the chief 
 jiu-ent in bringing together and arranging tiie works 
 of his illustrious patron, and in preserving his cor- 
 respondence from being dispersed and lost. After 
 the death of Cicero, Tiro purchased a farm in the 
 neighbourhood of Puteoli, where be lived until he 
 reached hia 100th year. It is usually believed 
 that Tiro was the inventor of the art of short-hand 
 writing among the Romans; and hence abbreviations 
 of this description, which are common in MSS. 
 frum the 6th century downwards, have very gene- 
 nilly been designated by the learned as Notae 
 TironiuTUxe. 
 
 Tiryns {Tipws^ -vvBos : Tipu^flios), an ancient 
 town in Argolis, S. E. of Argos, and one of the 
 most ancient in all Greece, is said to have been 
 founded by Proetus, the brother of Acrisius, who 
 built the massive walls of the city with the help of 
 the Cyclopes. Proetus was succeeded by Perseus ; 
 and it was here that Hercules was brought up. 
 Hence we find his mother Alcmena called ThyntJda^ 
 and the hero himself Tiry7ithius, Homer represents 
 Tiryns as subject to Argos ; the town was at a later 
 time destroj'ed by the Argives, and most of the in- 
 habitants were removed to Argos. Tiryns was built 
 upon a hill of small extent, rising abruptly from 
 the dead level of the surrounding country. The 
 remains of the city are some of the most interesting 
 in all Greece, and are, with those of Mycenae, the 
 most ancient specimens of what is- called Cyclopian 
 architecture. They consist of masses of enormous 
 stones, rudely piled in tiers above one another. 
 
 Tisnmemis (Ticra^ei'(is). 1. Son of Orestes and 
 Ilermione, was king of Argos, but was deprived of 
 his kingdom when the Heraclidae invaded Pelo- 
 I)nnnesus. He was slain in a battle against the 
 Heraclidae, and his tomb was afterwards shown at 
 Helice, from which place his remains were subse- 
 quently removed to Sparta by command of an 
 oracle. — 2. Son of Thersander and Demonassa, 
 was king of Thebes, and the father of Autesion.^ 
 3. An Elean soothsayer, of the family of the Cly- 
 tiadae. He was assured by the Delphic oracle that 
 he should be successful in 5 great conflicts. Sup- 
 posing this to be a promise of distinction as an 
 athlete, he devoted himself to gymnastic exercises; 
 but the Spartans, understanding the oracle to refer, 
 not to gymnastic, but to military victories, made 
 great offers to Tisaraenus to induce him to take 
 with their kings the joint-command of their armies. 
 This he refused to do on any terms short of re- 
 ceiving the full franchise of their citj', which the 
 Spartans eventually granted. He was present 
 with the Spartans at the battle of Plataea, b.c. 37fl, 
 which was the first of the 5 conflicts referred to 
 by the oracle. The 2nd was with the Argives and 
 Tegeans at Tegea ; the 3rd, with the Arcadians at 
 
 TITANES. 
 
 703 
 
 Dipaea; the 4th was the 3rd Messcnian War (4fi5 
 ■ — 455) ; and the last was the battle of Tanagra, 
 with the Athenians and their allies, in 457. 
 
 Tisia (Tisiates, pi), a town in Bruttium in the 
 Sila Silva, of uncertain site. 
 
 Tisicrates, an eminent Greek statuary, of the 
 school of Lysippus, to whose works those of Tisi- 
 crates so nearly approached, that many of them 
 were scarcely to be distinguished from the works 
 of the master. 
 
 Tisiphone. [EuMENinAE.] 
 
 Tissa (Tissiensis, Tissinensis), a town in Sicily 
 N. of Mt. Aetna. 
 
 Tissaphernes (Tio-o-at/jept-Tir), a famous Persian, 
 who was appointed satrap of lower Asia in b. c. 
 414. He espoused the cause of the Spartans in 
 the Peloponnesian war, but he did not give them 
 any effectual assistance, since his policy was not 
 to allow either Spartans or Athenians to gain the 
 supremacy, but to exhaust the strength of both 
 parties by the continuance of the war. His plans, 
 however, were thwarted by the arrival of Cynis in 
 Asia Minor in 407. This prince supplied the 
 Lacedaemonians with cordial and effectual assist- 
 ance. Tissaphernes and Cyrus were not on good 
 terms ; and after the death of Darius, they were 
 engaged in continual disputes about the cities in 
 the satrapy of the latter, over which Cyrus claimed 
 dominion. The ambitious views of C3TUS towards 
 the throne at length became manifest to Tissa- 
 phernes, who lost no time in repairing to the king 
 with information of the danger. At the battle of 
 Cunaxa, in 401, he was one of the 4 generals who 
 commanded the army of Artaxerxes, and his troops 
 were the only portion of the left wing that was 
 not put to flight by the Greeks. When the 1 0,000 
 had begun their retreat, Tissaphernes professed his 
 great anxiety to serve them, and promised to eon- 
 duct them home in safety. In the course of the 
 march he treaclierously aiTested Clearchus and 4 
 of the other generals, who were put to death. 
 After this, Tissaphernes annoyed and harassed the 
 Greeks in their march, without however seriously 
 impeding it, till they reached the Carduchian 
 Mountains, at which point he gave up the pursuit. 
 Not long after, Tissaphernes, as a reward for his 
 great services, was invested by the king, in ad- 
 dition to his own satrapy, with all the authority 
 which Cyrus had enjoyed in western Asia. On 
 his arrival he claimed dominion over the Ionian 
 cities, which applied to Sparta for aid. Their re- 
 quest was gmnted, and the Spartans carried on 
 war against Tissaphernes with success for some 
 years under the command successively of Thimbron, 
 Dercyllidas, and Agesilaus (400 — 395). The con- 
 tinued want of success on the pai-t of Tissaphernes 
 led to grievous complaints against him ; and the 
 charges were transmitted to court, where they 
 were backed by all the influence of Parysatis, 
 eager for revenge on the enemy of Cyrus, her fa- 
 vourite son. The result was that Tithraustes was 
 commissioned by the king to put Tissaphernes to 
 death and to succeed him in his government, which 
 was accordingly done (395). 
 
 Titanes (TirSi/ey, sing. Tirar, Ion. TtTTji/es; 
 Fem. TiTai'iSer, sing, ^iravis), 1. The sons and 
 daughters of Uranus and Ge, originally dwelt in 
 heaven, whence they are called Ohp:LviwvGs or Ou- 
 paWSai. They were 12 in number, 6 sons and 6 
 daughters, namely, Oceanus, Coeua, Crius, Hyperion, 
 lapetus, Cronus, Thia, Rhea, Themis, Mnemosyne, 
 
784 
 
 TITARESIUS. 
 
 Phoebe, and Tethys; but their names are different 
 in other accounts. It is said that Uranus, the first 
 niier of the world, threw his sons, the Hecaton- 
 cheires (Hundred-Handed), — Briareus, Cottys, 
 Gyes — and the Cyclopes, — Argea, Steropes, and 
 Brontes — into Tartarus. Gaea, indignant .it this, 
 persuaded the Titans to rise against their father, 
 and gave to Cronus an adamantine sickle. Tiiey 
 did as their mother bade them, with the exception 
 of Oceanus. Cronus, with his sickle, unmanned his 
 father, and threw the part into the sea : from the 
 drops of his blood there arose the Erinnyes,. — 
 Alecto, Tisiphone, and Megaera. The Titans then 
 deposed Uranus, liberated their brothers who had 
 been cast into Tartarus, and raised Cronus to the 
 throne. But Cronus hurled the Cyclopes back into 
 Tartarus, and married his sister Rhea. Having 
 been foretold by Gaea and Uraims, that he should 
 be dethroned by one of his own children, he swal- 
 lowed successively his children Hestia, Demeter, 
 Hera, Pluto, and Poseidon, Rhea therefore^ when 
 she was pregnant with Zeus, went to Crete, and 
 gave birth to the child in the Dictaean Cave, 
 where he was brought up by the Curetes. When 
 Zeus had grown up he availed himself of the 
 assistance of Thetis, the daughter of Oceanus, who 
 gave to Cronus a potion which caused him to bring 
 up the stone and the children he had swallowed. 
 United with his brothers and sisters, Zeus now 
 began the contest against Cronus and the ruling 
 Titans. This contest (usually called the Titano- 
 machia) was carried on in Thessal}-, Cronus and 
 the Titans occupying Mount Othrys, and the sons 
 of Cronus Mount Olympus. It lasted 10 years, 
 till at length Gaea promised victory to Zeus if he 
 would deliver the Cyclopes and Hecatoncheires 
 from Tartarus. Zeus accordingly slew Campe, 
 who guarded the Cyclopes, and the latter furnished 
 him with thunder and lightning. The Titans then 
 were overcome, and hurled down into a cavity 
 below Tartarus, and the Hecatoncheires were set 
 to guard them. It must be observed that the fight 
 of the Titans is sometimes confounded by ancient 
 writers with the fight of the Gigantes.-^2. The 
 name Titans is also given to those divine or semi- 
 divine beings who were descended from the Titans, 
 such as Prometheus, Hecate, Latona, Pyrrha. and 
 especially Helios (the Sun) and Selene (the Moon) 
 as the children of Hyperion and Thia, and even 
 the descendants of Helios, such as Circe. 
 
 Titaresius {TiTapTjo-ios : Elassonitiko or Xera^ghi)^ 
 a river of Thessaly, also called Europus, rising in 
 Mt, Titarus, flowing through the country of the 
 Perrhaebi, and falling into the Peneus, S. E. of 
 Phalanna. Its waters were impregnated with an 
 oily substance, whence it was said to be a branch 
 of the infernal Styz. 
 
 Tithonus (Tif'wi'tJs), son of Laomedon and 
 Strj'mn, and bi other of Priam. By the prayers of 
 Eos (Aurora), who loved him, he obtained from 
 the gods immortality, but not eternal youth, in 
 consequence of which he completely shrunk to- 
 gether in his old age, whence an old decrepit man 
 was proverbially called Tithonus. As he could 
 not die, Eos changed him into a cicada. 
 
 Tithorea. [Neon.] 
 
 Tithrauates {i:idpavffT7]s\ a Persian, who suc- 
 ceeded Tissaphemes in his satrapy, and put him to 
 death by order of Artaxerxes Mnemon, B.C. 395. 
 Being unable to make peace with Aegesilaus, he 
 Bent Timocrates, the Rhodian, into Greece with 50 
 
 TITUS. 
 
 talents, to distribute among the leading men in tlie 
 several states, in order to induce them to ezcite a 
 war against Sparta at home. 
 
 Titianus, JUlius, a Roman vtriter, was the 
 father of the rhetorician Titianus, who taught the 
 younger Maximinus. The elder Titianus may 
 therefore be placed in the reigns of Comraodus, 
 Pertinax, and Severus. He was called the ape of 
 his age, because he had imitated every thing. All 
 his works are lost. 
 
 Titinius, a Roman dramatist whose producti;>n3 
 belonged to the department of the Comoedia Togata^ 
 is commended by Varro on account of the skill 
 with which he developed the characters of the 
 personages whom he brought upon the stage. It 
 appears that he was younger than Caecilius, but 
 older than Terence, and flourished about B.C. 170. 
 The names of upwards of 14 plays, together with a 
 considerable number of short fragments, have been 
 preserved by the grammarians. 
 
 Titius Septinnus. [Septimius.] 
 
 Titos Flavius Sabinus Tespasianus, Roman 
 emperor, a. d. 79 — 81, commonly called by his 
 praenomen Titus, was the son of the enipernr 
 Vespasianus and his wife Flavia Domitilla. He 
 was born on the 30th of December, a. d. 40. 
 "When a young man he served as tvibunus militum 
 in Britain and in Germany, with great credit. 
 After having been quaestor, he had the command 
 of a legion, and served under his father in the 
 Jewish wars. Vespasian returned to Italy, after 
 he had been proclaimed emperor on the 1st of July, 
 A. D. 6&; but Titus remained in Palestine to pro- 
 secute the siege of Jerusalem, during which he 
 showed the talents of a general with the daring of 
 a soldier. The siege of Jerusalem was concluded 
 by the capture of the place, on the 8th of Sep- 
 tember, 70. Titus returned to Italy in the fol- 
 lowing year (71), and triumphed at Rome with 
 his father. He also received the title of Caesar, 
 and became the associate of Vespasian in the go- 
 vernment. His conduct at this time gave no good 
 promise, and the people looked upon him as likely 
 to be another Nero. He was accused of being 
 excessively addicted to the pleasures of the tablp, 
 of indulging lustful passions in a scandalous wa}', 
 and of putting suspected persona to death with 
 very little ceremony. His attachment to Berenice, 
 the sister of Agrippa II., also made him unpopular. 
 Titus became acquainted with her when he was 
 in Judaea, and after the capture of Jerusalem she 
 followed him to Rome with her brother Agrippa, 
 and both of them lodged in the emperor's residence. 
 It was said that Titus had promised to marry Be- 
 renice, but as this intended union gave the Romans 
 great dissatisfaction, he sent her away from Rome 
 after he became emperor. Titus succeeded his 
 father in 79, and his government proved an agree- 
 able surprise to those who had anticipated a return 
 of the times of Nero. His brother Domitian was 
 accused of having entertained designs against 
 Titus ; but instead of punishing him, Titus en- 
 deavoured to win his affection, and urged him not 
 to attempt to gain by criminal means that power 
 which he would one day have in a legitimate way. 
 During his whole reign Titus displayed a sincere 
 desire for the happiness of the people, and he did 
 all that he could to relieve them in times of dis- 
 tress. He assumed the office of Pontifex Maximus 
 after the death of his father, and with the purpose, 
 as he declared, of keeping his hands free froru 
 
fc'lood; a resolution which he kept. Two patricians 
 who were convicted by the senate of a conspiracy 
 against him, were pardoned and treated with kind- 
 ness and confidence. He checked all prosecutions 
 for the crime of lacsa majesias^ and he severely 
 punished all informers. The 1st year nf his reign 
 is memorable for the great eruption of Vesuvius, 
 ■which desolated a large part of the adjacent coun- 
 try', and buried with lava and ashes the towns of 
 Herculaneum and Pompeii, Titus endeavoured to 
 repair the ravages of this great eruption ; he sent 
 two consulars with money to restore the ruined 
 ■towns, and he applied to this purpose the property 
 of those who had been destroj-ed, and had left no 
 jiext of kin. At the beginning of the following 
 3'ear (80) there was a great fire at Rome, whicli 
 lasted 3 days and 3 nights, and destroyed the 
 Capitol, the library of Augustus, the theatre of 
 Pompeius, and other public buildings, besides 
 many houses. The emperor declared that he 
 should consider all the loss as his own, and he set 
 about repairing it with great activity : he took 
 even the decorations of the imperial residences, 
 r,nd sold them to raise money. The eruption of 
 Vesuvius was followed by a dreadful pestilence, 
 which called for fresh exertions on the part of the 
 benevolent emperor. In this year he completed 
 the great amphitheatre called the Colosseum, which 
 had been commenced by his father; and also the 
 baths called the baths of Titus. The dedic;ition of 
 these two edifices was celebrated by spectacles 
 which lasted 100 days; by a naviil battle in the 
 old naumachia, and fights of gladiators: on one 
 day alone 5000 wild animals are said to have been 
 exhibited, a number which we may reasonably 
 suspect to be exaggerated. He died on the 13th 
 of September, 81, after a reign of 2 years and 2 
 months, and 20 days. He was in the 41st year of 
 his age. There were suspicions that he was poi- 
 soned by Domitian. There is a story that Domitian 
 •came before Titus was dead, and ordered hira to 
 be deserted by those about him: according to 
 another story, he ordered hira to be thrown into a 
 vessel full of snow, under the pretext of cooling 
 his fever. Titus was succeeded by his brother 
 Domitian. His daughter Julia Sabina was married 
 to Flavins Sabinus, his cousin, the son of Flavins 
 Sabinus, the brother of Vespasian. Titus is said 
 to have written Greek poems and tragedies ; he 
 was very familiar with Greek. He also wrote 
 many letters in his father's name during Vespasian's 
 life, and drew np edicta. 
 
 Tityns (TtTudy), son of Gaea, pr of Zeus and 
 Elara, the daughter of Orchomenus, was a giant in 
 Euboea. Instigated by Hera, he attempted to 
 offer violence to Leto or Art,emis (Latona), when 
 she passed through Panopaeus to Pytho, but he 
 was killed by the arrows of Artemis or Apollo; 
 according to others, Zeus destroyed him with a 
 flash of lightning. He was then cast into Tartarus, 
 and there he lay outstretched on the ground, co- 
 vering 9 acres, with 2 vultures or snakes devouring 
 his liver. His destruction by the arrows of Arte- 
 mis and Apollo was represented on the throne of 
 Apollo at Amyclae. 
 
 Tius or Tium (Ttos, Tiof, also T-riCov : Tios or 
 Tilios)^ a seaport town of Bithynia, on the river 
 Billaeus ; a colony from Miletus, and the native 
 place of Philetaerus, the founder of the Fergamene 
 kingdom. 
 
 Tlepolemua (TA7jTr(JA6/^os), son of Hercules by 
 
 TOLOSA. 785 
 
 .'\styoche, daughter of Phylas, or by Astydamia, 
 daughter of Aniyntor. He was king of Argos, but 
 after slaying his uncle Licymnius, he was obliged 
 to take to Ilight; and» in conformity with the com- 
 mand of an oracle, he settled in Rhodes, where he 
 built the towns of Lindns, lalysus, and Camirus. 
 He joined the Greeks in the Trojan war with 9 
 ships, but was slain liy Sarpedon. 
 
 TloS (TAcDj, gen. TAoi : TAweu's, TAoh'ttis : Pai. 
 near Doover\ a considerable city, in tlie interior 
 of Lycia about 2^ miles E. of the river Xanthus, 
 on the road leading over M. Massicytus to Ci- 
 byra. 
 
 Tmams. [Tomaru.s.] 
 
 Tmolus (T/uoiAoj), god of Mt. Tmolus in Lydia, 
 is dcscrihed as the husband of Pluto (or Omphale) 
 and father of TanUihis, and is said to have decided 
 the nnisical contest between Apollo and Pan. 
 
 Tmolus or Timolus (T^wAus : Kisi/ja Musa 
 Daffh\ a celebrated mountain of Asia Minor, 
 running E. and W. through the centre of Lydia, 
 and dividing the plain of the Hermus, on the N.,- 
 from that of the Cayster, on tlie S. At its E. end 
 it joins M. Messogis, thus entirelj' enclosing the 
 valley of the Cayster. On the W., after tlirowing 
 out the N.W. branch called Sipylus, it runs far 
 out into the Aegean, forming, under the name of 
 Mim^is, the great Ionian peninsula, beyond which 
 it is still further prolonged in the island of Chios. 
 On its N. side are the sources of the Pactolus and 
 the Cogamus ; on its S. side those of the Cayster. 
 It produced wine, saffron, zinc, and gold. 
 
 Togata, Gallia. [Gallia.] 
 
 Tolbiacnm {ZuJpich\ a town of Gallia Belgica, 
 on the road from Colonia Agrippina to Treviri. 
 
 Tolentinum (Tolinas, -atis : Tolmiino), a town 
 of Picenum, on a height on the river Flusor 
 [CItienie). 
 
 Tolenus or Telonius (TaraTio), a river in the 
 land of the Sabines, rising in the country of the 
 Marsi and Aequi, and falling into the Velinus. 
 
 Toletum (Toledo), the capital of the Carpetani 
 in Hispania Tarraconensis, situated on tlie river 
 Tagus, which nearly encompasses the town, and 
 upon 7 hills. According to tradition it was founded 
 by Jews, who fled thither when Jerusalem was 
 taken by Nebuchadnezzar, and who called it To- 
 ledoth, or the "city of generations." It Avas taken 
 by the Romans under the proconsul M. Fulvius, 
 B. c. 192, when it is described as a small but for- 
 tified town. It was celebrated in ancient, as well 
 as in modern times, for the manufactory of swords ; 
 but it owed its greatness to the Gothic kings, wlio 
 made it the capital of their dominions. It still 
 contiiins many Roman remains. 
 
 Tolistobogi, Tolistoboji (ToAio-to^u^ioi, To- 
 AifTTo^oiot, TuKnTToScxtyioi). [Galatia.] 
 
 Tolophon (To\o(pwy ; To\o(pdii/io^), also called 
 Colophon (KoAo^civ), a town of Locris, on the 
 Corinthian gulf. 
 
 Tolosa ( Tolouse)^ a town of Gallia Ntirbonensis, 
 and the capital of the Tectosages, was situated on 
 the Garumna, near the frontiers of Aquitania. It 
 was subsequently made a Roman colony, and was 
 sumamed Palladia. It was a large and wealthy 
 town, and contained a celebrated temple, in which 
 great riches were deposited. In this temple there 
 is said to have been preserved a great part of the 
 booty taken by Bremuis from the temple at Del- 
 phi. The town and temple were plundered by 
 the consul Q. Servilius Caepio, in b. c. IOC ; but thi; 
 
 3b 
 
7»G 
 
 TUl-UMiNluy. 
 
 subsequent destruction of his army and his own 
 unhappy fate were regarded as a divine punishment 
 for liis sacrilegious act. Hence arose the proverb, 
 Aurum Tolosauum hubet. Tiiere are the ruins of a 
 small amphitheatre, and some other Roman re- 
 mains at the modern town. 
 
 Tolumnius, Lax, king of the Veientes, to whom 
 Fidcnae revolted in B. c. 43ii, and at whose insti- 
 gation the inhabitants of Fidenae slew the 4 
 Roman ambassadors, who had been sent to Fidenae 
 to inquire into the reasons of their recent conduct. 
 Statues of these ambassadors were placed on the 
 Rostra at Rome, where they continued till a late 
 time. In the war which followed. Tolumnius was 
 slain in single combat by Cornelius Cossus, who 
 dedicated his spoils in the temple of Jupiter Fcre- 
 trius, the 2nd of the 3 instances in v/hich the 
 spnlia opima were won. 
 
 Tom.eus (To^.l€vs : Kondozoiii)^ a mountain in 
 Messenia, E. of the promontory Coriphasium. 
 
 Tomi or Tomis (To^oi, T6}xis : To/xevs^ To- 
 mita : Tomiswar or Jcrpii Pangola)^ a town of 
 Thrace (subsequently Moesia), situated on the W. 
 shoie of the Euxine, and at a later time the capital 
 of Scythia Minor. According to tradition it was 
 called Tomi (from re/ii/w, "cut"), because Medea 
 here cut to pieces the body of her brother Absyr- 
 tiis. It is said to have been a colony of the Mile- 
 sians. It is reno^vned as the place of Ovid's ba- 
 nishment. 
 
 Tomoras or Tmarus {To/xopos, T/Jidpos : 7b- 
 7naro), a mountain in Epirus, in the district Mo- 
 lossia, between the lake Pambotis and the river 
 Arachthus, near Dodona. 
 
 Tomyris {TSfLvpis), a queen of the Massagetae, 
 who dwelt south of the Araxes (Jaxartes^, by 
 whom Cyrus was slain in battle, b. c. 529. 
 
 Tomadotus. [Physcus, No. 3.] 
 
 Torone {TopcSv-r} : Topiouaios), a town of Mace- 
 donia,, in the district Chalcidice, and on the S.W. 
 side of the peninsula Sithonia, from which the gulf 
 between the peninsulas Sithonia and Pallene was 
 called Sinus Toronaicus. 
 
 Torquatus, the name of a patrician family of 
 the Manila Gens. 1. T. Hanlius Imperiosus 
 Torqxiatus, the son of L. Manlius Capitolinus 
 Imperiosus, dictator b. c. 363, was a favourite hero 
 of Romiin story. Manlius is said to have been 
 dull of mind in his youth, and was brought up by 
 his father in the closest retirement in the country. 
 When the tribune M. Poraponius accused the elder 
 Manlius in b, c. 36'2, on account of the cruelties he 
 had practised in his dictatorship, he endeavoured 
 to excite an odium against him, by representing- 
 him at tiie same time as a cruel and tyrannical 
 father. As soon as the younger Manlius heard of 
 this, he hurried to Rome, obtained admission to 
 Pornpnnius early in tlie morning, and compelled 
 the tribune, by tlireatening him with instant death 
 if he did not take the oath, to swear that he would 
 drop the accusation against his father. In 361 
 Manlius served under the dictator T. Quintius 
 Pennus in the war against the Gauls, and in this 
 campaign earned immortal glory by slaying in 
 single combat a gigantic Gaul, From the dead 
 body of the barbarian be took the chain (iorgues) 
 which had adorned him, and placed it around his 
 own neck ; and from this circumstance he obtained 
 the surname of Torquatus. He was dictator in 
 353, and again in 349. He was also three times 
 consul, namely in 347, 344, and in 340. In the 
 
 TUKQUATUS. 
 
 last of these years Torquatus and his collefijrue P. 
 Decius Mus gained tfte great victor}' over the 
 Latins at the foot of Vesuvius, which established 
 for ever the supremacy of Rome over Latiuui. 
 [Decius.] Shortly before the battle, when the 
 two armies were encamped opposite to one another, 
 the consuls published a proclamation that no Roman 
 should engage in single combat with a Latin on 
 pain of death. Notwithstanding this proclamation, 
 the young Manlius, the son of the consul, provoked 
 by the insults of a Tusculan noble of the name of 
 Mettius Geminus, accepted his challenge, slew his 
 adversary, and bore the bloody spoils in triumph 
 to his father. Death was his reward. The consul 
 would not overlook this breach of discipline : and 
 the unhappj' youth was executed by the lictor m 
 presence of the assembled arm}'. This severe sen- 
 tence rendered Torquatus an object of detestation 
 among the Ptoman youths as long as he lived; and 
 the recollection of his severity was preserved in 
 after ages by the expression Manliana imperia. 
 — 2.T. Manlius Torquatus, consul u. c. 235, 
 when he conquered the Sardinians; censor 231; 
 and consul a 2nd time in 224. He possessed the 
 hereditary sternness and severity of his family ; 
 and we accordingly find him opposing in the senate 
 the ransom of those Romans who had been taken 
 prisoners at the fatal battle of Cannae. In 217 
 he was sent into Sardinia, where he carried on the 
 war with success against the Carthaginians and 
 the Sardinians. He was dictator in 210. -^3. T. 
 Manlius Torquatus, consul 1G5 with Cn. Octa- 
 vius. He inherited the severity of liis ancestors; 
 of which an instance is related in the condemnation 
 of his son, who had been adopted by D. Junius 
 Silanus. [Silanus, No. 1.]— 4. L. Manlius 
 Torquatus, consul b, c. 65 with L. Aurelius Cotta. 
 Torquatus and Cotta obtained the consulship in 
 consequence of the condemnation, on account of 
 bribery, of P. Cornelius Sulla and P. Autronius 
 Paetus, who had been already elected consuls. 
 After his consulship Torquatus obtained the pro- 
 vince of Macedonia. He took an active part in 
 suppressing the Catilinarian conspiracy in 63; and 
 he also supported Cicero when he was banished 
 in 5(1. — 5. L. Manlius Torquatus, son of No. 4, 
 accused of bribery, in 66, the consuls elect, P. 
 Cornelius Sulla and P. Autronius P.aetus, and thus 
 secured the consulship for his father. He was 
 closely connected with Cicero during the praetor- 
 ship (65) and consulship (63) of the latter. In 
 62 he brought a 2nd accusation against P. Sulla, 
 whom he now charged with having been a pnrty 
 to both of Catiline's conspiracies. Sulla was de- 
 fended by Hortensius and by Cicero in a speech 
 which is still e.xtant. Torquatus, like his father, 
 belonged to the aristocratical party, and accordingly 
 opposed Caesar on the breaking out of the civil 
 war in 49. He was praetor in that year, and was 
 stationed at Alba with 6 cohorts. He subsequently 
 joined Pompey in Greece, and in the following 
 year (4ij) he had the command of Oricum intrusted 
 to him, but was obliged to surrender both himself 
 and the town to Caesar, who, however, dismissed 
 Torquatus uninjured. After the battle of Pharsalia 
 Torquatus went to Africa, and upon the defeat of 
 his party in that country in 46 he attempted to 
 escape to Spain along with Scipio and others, but 
 was taken prisoner by P. Sittius at Hippo Regius 
 and slain together with his companions. Torquatus 
 was well acquainted with Greek literature, and is 
 
TORQUATUS. 
 
 praised by Cicero as a man well trained in every 
 kind of learning. He belonged to the Epicurean 
 scbool of philosopliy, and is introduced by Cicero 
 as the advocate of that school in his dialogue De 
 Fmibus, the first book of which is called Torqicaius 
 in Cicero's letters to Atticus. — < 6, A. Manlius 
 TorcLuatus, praetor in 52, when he presided at 
 the trial of Milo for bribery. On the breaking out 
 of the civil war he espoused the side of Pompej', 
 and after the defeat of the latter retired to Athens, 
 where he was living in exile in 45. He was an 
 intimate friend of Cicero, who addressed 4 letters 
 to him while he was in exile. 
 
 Torquatus Silanus. [Silanus.] 
 
 Tozandri, a people in Gallia Belgica, between 
 the Menapii and Morini, on the riglit bank of the 
 Scaldis. 
 
 Ttabea, Q., a Roman comic dramatist who oc- 
 cupies the eighth place in the canon of Volcatiiis 
 Sedigitus [Sedigitus]. The period when he flou- 
 rished is uncertain, but he has been placed about 
 B. c. 130. No portion of his works has been pre- 
 served with the exception of half a dozen, lines 
 quoted by Cicero, 
 
 Trachalus, Galerius, consul ^.d. Go with Silius 
 Italicu3, is frequently mentioned by his contem- 
 porary Quintilian, as one of the most distinguished 
 orators of his age. 
 
 Tracbis or Trachin (Tpaxts, Ion. Tp-nx'^s, Tpa- 
 XiV, Tpaxii^Los). 1. Also called Heraclea Tra- 
 chiniae, or Heraclea Pbtbiotidis, or simply He- 
 raclea {'HpaKKeia TJ eV Tpax'^'t^'S", or 'H. i) eV 
 Tpaxii'Oi a town of Thessaly in the district Mails, 
 celebrated as the residence of Hercules for a time. 
 
 — 2. A town of Phocis, on the frontiers of Boeo- 
 tia, and on the slope of Mt, Helicon in the neigh- 
 bourhood of Lebadea. 
 
 Tracbonitis or Trachou (TpaxwyrTir,Tpax^''}, 
 the N. district of Palestine beyond the Jordan, lay 
 between Antilibanus and the mountains of Arabia, 
 and was bounded on the N. by the territory of 
 Damascus, on the E. by Auranitis, on the S. by 
 Ituraca, and on the W. by Gaulanitis. It was for 
 the most part a sandy desert, intersected by 2 
 ranges of rocky mountains, called Trachones [Tpa~ 
 Xwi/es), the caves in which gave refuge to numerous 
 bands of robbers. For its political relations under 
 the Asmoiiaean and Idumaean princes, see Pa- 
 LAESTINA. Under the Romans, it belonged some- 
 times to the province of Judaea, and sometimes to 
 that of Arabia. It forms part of the Hauran. 
 
 Tragia, Tragiae, orTragias (Tpayia^ Tpayiai, 
 Tpayias), a small island (or more than one) in the 
 Aegean sea, near Samos, probably between it and 
 Phai'macussa, where Pericles gained a naval vic- 
 tory over the Samians, e. c. 43.9. 
 
 Tragiirium {Trau or Trogliie\ a town of Dal- 
 matia in Illyricum, celebrated for its marble, and 
 situated on an island connected with the main land 
 by means of a mole. 
 
 Trajanopolis. 1. (OricJwvo), a town in the in- 
 terior of Thrace, on the Hebrus, founded by Trajan. 
 
 — 2. A to-\vn of Cilicia. [Selinus.] — 3. A town 
 in Mysia on the borders of Phrygia. 
 
 Trajanus, M. XTlpius, Roman emperor a. d. 90 
 — 117, was born at Italica, near Seville, the 18th 
 of September, 52. He was trained to anns, and 
 served with distinction in the East and in Ger- 
 many. He was consul in 91, and at the close of 97 
 be was adopted by the emperor Nerva, who gave 
 him the rank of Caesar and the names of Nerva 
 
 TRAJANUS. 
 
 7fi7 
 
 and Germanicus, and shortly after the title of im- 
 perator, and the tiibunitia potestas. His style and 
 title after his elevation to the imperial dignity 
 were ImpercUor Caesar Nerva Trajanus Auyiistus. 
 He was the first emperor who was born out of 
 Italy. Nerva died in January 99, and was suc- 
 ceeded by Trajan, who was then at Cologne. His 
 accession was hailed with joy, and he did not dis- 
 appoint the expectations of the people. He was a 
 man adapted to command. He was strong and 
 healthy, of a majestic appearance, laborious, and 
 inured to fatigue. Though not a man of letters, 
 he had good sense, a knowledge of the world, and 
 a sound judgment. His mode of living was very 
 simple, and in his campaigns he shared all the 
 sufferings and privations of the soldiers, by wiiom 
 he was both loved and feared. He was a friend 
 to justice, and he had a sincere desire for the hap- 
 piness of the people. Trajan did not return to 
 Rome for some months, being emploji-ed in settling 
 the frontiers on the Rhine and the Danube. He 
 entered Rome on foot, accompanied by his wife 
 Pompeia Plotina, This lady is highly commended 
 by Pliny the younger for her modest virtues, and 
 her aifection to Marciann, the sister of Trajan. 
 Trajan left Rome for his campaign against the 
 Daci. Decebalus, king of the Daci, had compelled 
 Domitian to purchase peace by an annual payment 
 of money; and Trajan determined on hostilities. 
 This war employed Trajan between 2 and 3 years; 
 but it ended with the defeat of Decebalus, who 
 sued for peace at the feet of the Roman emperor. 
 Trajan assumed the name of Dacicus, and entered 
 Rome in triumph (103). In the following year 
 (104) Trajan commenced his second Dacian war 
 against Decebalus, who, it is said, had broken the 
 treaty. Decebalus was completely defeated, and 
 put an end to his life (106). In the course of this 
 war Trajan built (105) a permanent bridge across 
 the Danube at a place called Szemecz. The piers 
 were of stone and of an enormous size, but the 
 arches were of wood. After the death of Decebalus 
 Dacia was reduced to the form of a Roman pro- 
 vince ; strong forts were built in various places, 
 and Roman colonies were planted. It is generally 
 supposed that the column at Rome called the 
 Column of Trajan was erected to commemorate his 
 Dacian victories. On his return Trajan had a 
 triumph, and he exhibited games to the people for 
 123 days. 11,000 animals were slaughtered 
 during these amusements ; and an army of gla- 
 diators, 10,000 men, gratified the Romans by 
 killing one another. — About this time Arabia Pe- 
 traea was subjected to the empire by A- Cornelius 
 Palma, the governor of Syria ; and an Indian em- 
 bassy came to Rome. Trajan constructed a road 
 across the Pomptine marshes, and built magnificent 
 bridges across the streams. Buildings, probably 
 mansiones, were constructed by the side of this 
 road. In 114 Trajan left Rome to make war on 
 the Armenians and the Parthians. He spent the 
 winter of 114 at Antioch, and in the following 
 year he invaded the Parthian dominions. The 
 most striking and brilliant success attended his 
 arms. In the course of 2 campaigns (115 — 116), 
 he conquered the greater part of the Parthian em- 
 pire, and took the Parthian capital of Ctesiplion. 
 In 116 he descended the Tigris and entered the 
 Erythraean Sea (the Persian Gulf). While he was 
 thus engaged the Parthians rose against the 
 Romans, but were again subdued by the generals 
 
 a jf. •> 
 
78S TRAJANUS. 
 
 of Trajan. On liis return to Cteslplion, Trajan 
 determined to give tlie Parthitins a king, and 
 placed the diadem on the head of Parthamaspates. 
 In 117 Trajan fell ill, and as his complaint grew 
 ■worse he set out for Italy. He livt-d to reach Selinus 
 in Cilicia, afterwards called Trajanopolia, where he 
 died in August, 117, after a reign of 19 years, 6 
 months and 15 days. His ashes were taken to 
 Rome in a golden urn, carried in triumphal pro- 
 cession, and deposited under the column which 
 bears his name. He left no children, and he was 
 succeeded by Hadrian. Trajan constructed several 
 great roads in the empire ; he built libraries at 
 Rome, one of which, called the Ulpia Bihliotlieca, 
 is often mentioned ; and a theatre in the Campus 
 Martins. His great work was the Fonim Tra- 
 janum, in the centre of which was placed the 
 column of Trajan. — Under the reign of Trajan lived 
 Sextus Julius Frontinus, C. Cornelius Tacitus, the 
 Younger Pliny, and various others of less note. 
 Plutarch, Suetonius, and Epictetus survived Tra- 
 jan. The jurists Juventius Celsus and Neratius 
 Priscus were living under Trajan. 
 
 Trajanus Portus. [Centum Cellak.] 
 
 Trajectum {Uirec}d\ a town of the Batavi on 
 the Rhine, called at a later time Trajecius li/icni^ 
 ov Ad Rhenum. 
 
 Tralles or Trallis {al TpaAAer^, t) TpdWts : 
 TpaWiauos, Trallianus: Ohiuzel-Huar^ Ru., near 
 Aidin)^ a flourishing commercial city of Asia 
 Minor, reckoned sometimes to Ionia, and some- 
 times to Caria. It stood on a quadrangular height 
 at the S. foot of M. Messogis (with a citadel on a 
 higher point), on the banks of the little river 
 Eudon, a N. tributary of the Maeander, from 
 ■which the city was distant 80 stadia (8 geog. 
 miles). The surrounding country was extremely 
 fertile and beautiful, and hence the city was at 
 first called Anthea (^PLvd^ia.). Under the Seleu- 
 cidae it bore the names of Seleucia and AntiochJa. 
 It was inhabited by a mixed population of Greeks 
 and Carians. There was a less important city of 
 the same name in Phrygia, if indeed it be not the 
 same. 
 
 Tranquillus, Suetonius. [Suetonius.] 
 
 Transcellensis Mens, a mountain of Maure- 
 tania Caesariensis, between Caesarea and the river 
 Chinalaph. 
 
 Trapezopolis (TpaTrefouiroAis), a to'wn of Asia 
 Minor, on the S. slope of M. Cadmus, on the con- 
 finus of Caria and Phrygia. Its site is uncertain. 
 
 Trapezus (TpaTre^oyy ; l!pa-K€^ovvrios and 
 -ovffiQ^). 1, (Near iV/auna), a city of Arcadia, on 
 the Alpheus, the name of which was mythically 
 derived from the rpaTre^o, or altar, on which Ly- 
 caon was said to have offered human sacrifices to 
 Jove. At the time of the building of Megalopolis, 
 the inhabitants of Trapezus, rather than be trans- 
 ferred to the new city, migrated to the shores of 
 the Euxine, and their city fell toruin. — 2. {Tara- 
 bosan, Trabezan^ or Trebizond)^ a colony of Sinope, 
 at almost the extreme E. of the N. shore of Asia 
 Minor. After Sinope lost her independence, Tra- 
 pezus belonged, first to Armenia Minor, and after- 
 wards to the kingdom of Pontus. Under the 
 Romans, it was made a free city, probably by 
 Pompey, and, by Trajan, the capital of Pontus 
 Cappadocius. Hadrian constructed a new harbour ; 
 and the city became a place of first-rate commercial 
 importance. It was also strongly fortified. It 
 Tvas taken by the Goths in the reign of Valerian ; 
 
 TREBONIUS. 
 
 but it had recovered, and was in a flourishing state 
 at tlie time of Justinian, who repaired its fortifica- 
 tions. In the middle ages it was for some time 
 the scat of a fragment of the Greek empire, called 
 the empire of Trebizond. It is now the second 
 commercial port of the Black Sea, ranking next 
 after Odessa. 
 
 Trasimenus Lacus (Lacjo di Perugia)^ some- 
 times, but not correctly, written Thrasymenus, a 
 lake in Etruria, between Clusium and Perusia, 
 memorable for the victory gained by Plannibal over 
 the Romans under Flaminius, B. c. 217. 
 
 Treba (Trebanus : Trevi), a town in Latium, 
 near the sources of the Anio, N. E. of Anagnia. 
 
 Trebatius Testa. [Test^.] 
 
 Trebellius PoUio, one of the 6 Scriptores His- 
 loriae Augudae, flourished under Constantino, and 
 was anterior to Vopiscus. His name is prefixed 
 to the biographies of, 1. The 2 Valeriani, father 
 and son ; 2. The Gallieni ; 3. The Thirty Tyrants ; 
 4, Claudius, the last-named piece being addressed 
 to Constantiue. We learn from Vopiscus that the 
 lives written by Trebellius PoUio commenced with 
 Philippus and extended down to Claudius. Of 
 these, all as far as the Valeriani, regarding whom 
 but a short fragment remains, have been lost. 
 
 Trebia {Trebbia)^ a small river in Gallia Cisal- 
 pina, falling huo the Po near Placentia. It is 
 memorable for the victory which Hannibal gained 
 over the Romans, B.C. 218. This river is gene- 
 rally dry in summer, but is filled with a rapid 
 stream in winter, which was the season when Han- 
 nibal defeated the Romans. 
 
 Treboniua, C, played rather a prominent part 
 in the last days of the republic. He commenced 
 public life as a supporter of the aristocratical party, 
 and in his quaestorship (b, c. 60) he attempted to 
 prevent the adoption of P. Clodius into a plebeian 
 famih'. He changed sides soon afterwards, and in 
 his tribunate of the plebs (55) he was the instru- 
 ment of the triumvirs in proposing that Pompey 
 should have the 2 Spains, Crassus Syria, and 
 Caesar the Gauls and Illyricura for another period 
 of 5 years. This proposal received the approbation 
 of the comitia, and is known by the name of the 
 Lex Trebonia, For this service he was rewarded 
 by being appointed one of Caesar's legates in Gaul, 
 where he remained till the breaking out of the 
 civil war in 49. In the course of the same year 
 he was intrusted by Caesar with the command of 
 the land forces engaged in the siege of Massilia. 
 In 40 Trebonius was city-praetor, and in the dis- 
 charge of his duties resisted the seditious attempts 
 of liis colleague M. Caelius Rufus to obtain by 
 force the repeal of Caesar's law respecting the pay- 
 ment of debts. Towards the end of 47, Trebonius, 
 as pro-praetor, succeeded Q. Cassius Longinus in. 
 the government of Further Spain, but was expelled 
 from the province by a mutin}' of the soldiers who 
 espoused the Pompeian party. Caesar raised him 
 to the consulship in October, 45, and promised 
 him the province of Asia. In return for all 
 these honours and favours, Trebonius was one 
 of the prime movers in the conspiracy to assas- 
 sinate Caesar, and after the murder of his pa- 
 tron (44) he went as proconsul to the province 
 of Asia, In the following year (43) Dolabella, 
 who had received from Antonius the province of 
 Syria, surprised the town of Smyrna, where 
 Trebonius was then residing, and slew him in 
 his bed. 
 
TREBULA. 
 
 Trebula (Trebulanus). 1. ( Treciglila)^ a town 
 in Samnium situated in the S. E. part of the moun- 
 tains of Ccyarzo. — 2. Mutusca, a town of the 
 Sabines of uncertain site. ^3. Snifena, also a town 
 of the Sabines, and of uncertain site. 
 
 Trerus {Sacco\ a river in Latium, and a tri- 
 butary of the Liris. 
 
 Tres Tabernae. 1. A station on the Via Appia 
 in Latium, between Aricia and Forura Appii. It 
 is mentioned in the account of St. Paurs journey 
 to Rome. -^2. {Borglietto\ a station in Gallia Cisal- 
 pina, on the road from Phicentia to Mediolanum. 
 
 Tretlim {Tp-r\r6v : C. Bugiaroni, or Eas Seha 
 lious^ i. e. K^even Capes), a great promontory on 
 the coast of Numidia, forming the W. headland of 
 the Sinus Olcachites {Ba^ of Sioralt). 
 
 Treviri or Treveri, a powerful people in Gallia 
 Belgica, who were faithful allies of the Romans, 
 and whose cavalry was the best in all Gaul. The 
 river Mosella flowed through their territory, which 
 extended W.-ward from tlie Rhine as far as tlie 
 Rem!. Their chief town was made a Roman 
 colony by Augustus, and was called Augusta 
 TreTirorum {Tner ot Treves). It stood on the 
 right bunk of the Mosella, and became under the 
 later empire one of the most flourishing Roman 
 cities N. of the Alps. It was the capital of Bel- 
 gica Prima ; and after the division of the Roman 
 ■world by Diocletian (a. d. 292) into 4 districts, it 
 became the residence of the Caesar, who had the 
 government of Britain, Gaul, and Spain. Here 
 dwelt Constantius Chlorus and his son Constantine 
 the Great, as well as several of the subsequent em- 
 perors. The modern city still contains many in- 
 teresting Roman remains. They belong, however, 
 to the latter period of the empire, and are conse- 
 quentl}-- not in the best style of art. The most im- 
 portant of these remains is 'the Porta Nigra or 
 Black Gate, a large and massive building in an ex- 
 cellent stite of preservation. In addition to this, 
 ■we have extensive remains of the Roman baths, of 
 tlie amphitheatre, and of the palace of Constan- 
 tine. The piers of the bridge over the Mnselle 
 are likewise Roman. At the village of Igel, 
 about 6 miles from Treves, is a beautiful Roman 
 structure, being a 4-sided obelisk, more than 70 
 feet high, covered with carvings, inscriptions, and 
 bas-reliefs. There has been much dispute respect- 
 ing the object for which this building was erected ; 
 but it appears to have been set up by 2 brothers, 
 named Secundini ; parti}- as a funeral monument 
 to their deceased relatives, partly to celebrate their 
 si3ter''s marriage, which is represented on one of 
 the bas-reliefs by the figures of a man and woman 
 joining hands. 
 
 Triarius, Valerius. 1. L., quaestor urbanus 
 B. c. 81; and propraetor in Sardinia 77, when he 
 repulsed Lepidus, who had fled into that island 
 after his unsuccessful attempt to repeal the laws of 
 Sulla. Triarius served under Lucullus as one of 
 his legates in the war against Mithridates, and at 
 first gained considerable distinction by his zeal 
 and activity. In 68 Triarius was despatched to 
 the assistance of Efibius, who had been intrusted 
 with the defence of Pontus, while Lucullus invaded 
 Armenia, and who was now attacked by Mithri- 
 dates with overwhelming numbers. Triarius com- 
 pelled Mithridates to assume the defensive, and 
 early in the following year he commenced active 
 operations against the Pontic king. Anxious to 
 gain the victory over Mithridates before the arrival 
 
 TRIERES. 739 
 
 of Lucullus, Triarius allowed himself to be attacked 
 at a disadvantage, and was defeated with great 
 slaughter near Zela. ^2. P., son of the preceding, 
 accused M. Aemilius Scaui-us, in 54, first of repe- 
 tundae and next of ambitus. Scaurus was defended 
 on both occasions by Cicero. — 3. C, a friend of 
 Cicero, who introduces him as one of tlie speakers 
 in his dialogue De Finibus, and praises his oratory 
 in his Brutus. He fought on Pompey's side at 
 the battle of Pharsalia. Triarius perished in the 
 civil wars, probably in Africa, for Cicero speaks in 
 45 of his death, and adds, that Triarius had left 
 him the guardian of his children. 
 
 Triballi, a powerful people in Thrace, a branch 
 of the Getae dwelling along the Danube, who were 
 defeated by Alexander the Great, B. c. 335, and 
 obliged to sue for peace. 
 
 Tribocci, a German people, settled in Gallia 
 Belgica, between M. Vogesus and the Rhine, in 
 the neighbourhood of Strasburg. 
 
 Triboniauus, a jurist, commissioned by Justi- 
 nianus, with 1(5 others, to compile the Digest or 
 Pandect. For details see Justinianus, 
 
 Tricala. [Triocala.] 
 
 Tricarauon (Tpwctpaz'o;' : Tpi/capai/eus), a for- 
 tress in Phliasia, S. E. of PiiHus, on a mountain of 
 the same name. 
 
 Tricasses, Tricasii, or Tricassini, a people in 
 Gallia Lugdunensis, E. of the Senones, whose 
 chief town was Augustobona, afterwards Tricassae 
 {Troyes), 
 
 Tricastini, a people in Gallia Narbonensis, be- 
 tween the Cavares and Vocontii, inhabiting a nar- 
 row slip of country between the Drome and the 
 Isere. Their chief town was Augusta Tricastino- 
 rum, or simply Augusta (Aousie). 
 
 Tricca, subsequently Tricala {TpiKKT}^ TpiKaXa : 
 Tri/ilcala), an ancient town of Thessaly in the dis- 
 trict Hestiaeotis, situated on the Lethaeus, N. of 
 the Peneus. Homer represents it as governed by 
 the sons of Aesculapius ; and it contained in later 
 times a celebrated temple of this god. 
 
 Tricbonis (Tpix^-^vis : Zygos or Vrakhori), a 
 large lake in Aetolia, E. of Stratos and N. of Mt. 
 Aracynthus. 
 
 Tricbonium (Tpixtoviov : Tpix^^it^t^^s), a town 
 in Aetolia, E. of lake Trichonis. 
 
 Triciptinus, Lucretius. [Lucretia Gens.] 
 
 Tricoloni {TpiKokcovoi : TpiKo\u>feus), a town 
 of Arcadia, a little N. of Megalopolis, of which a 
 temple of Poseidon alone remained in the time of 
 Pausanias. 
 
 Tricorii, a Ligurian people in Gallia Narbo- 
 nensis, a branch of the Sallyi, in the neighbour- 
 hood of Massilia and Aquae Sextiae. 
 
 Tricorythus {TpiKSpudos : TpiKopva-ios)^ a de- 
 mus in Attica, belonging to the tribe Aiantis, 
 between Marathon and Rhamnus. 
 
 Tricrana {TpUpaifa : TrilcJtiri), an island off 
 the coast of Argolis near Hermione. 
 
 Tridentuni (Trent, in Italian Trenio), the 
 capital of tlie Tridentiui, and the chief town of 
 Rhaetia, situated on the river Athesis (Adige), 
 and on the pass of the Alps leading to Verona. 
 Its greatness dates from the Middle Ages, and it 
 is chiefly celebrated on account of the ecclesias- 
 tical council, which assembled within its walla, 
 A. D. 1545. 
 
 Trieres or Trieris (TpiT}pr}si Eit/ch^), a small 
 fortress on the coast of Phoenicia, between Tripolis 
 and the Prom. Theuprosopon. 
 
 3e3 
 
790 TRIFANUiM. 
 
 Trifanum, a to^vn in Liitium of uncertain site, 
 between Minturnae and Siuuessa. 
 
 Trinacria. [Sicilia.] 
 
 Trinemeis or Trinemia (TpLV€/j.€7s, Tpiv4/j.€ia : 
 Tpiv€/j.cvs), a demu3 in Attica, belonging to the 
 tribe Cecropis, on Mt. Parnes. 
 
 TrinolDaiites, one of the most powerful people 
 of Britain, inhabiting the modern Essex. The}"" 
 are mentioned in Caesar's invasion of Britain, and 
 they offered a formidable resistance to the in- 
 vading force sent into the island by the emperor 
 Claudius. 
 
 Triocala or Tricala (Tpi6KaKa, TpiuaKa : Tpi- 
 khATj'os-, Tricalinus : nr. Calata Bellota), a monn- 
 tain fortress in the interior of Sicily, near the Cri- 
 missus, was in the Servile War the head-q^uarters 
 of the slaves, and the residence of their leader 
 Tn-phn;i. 
 
 Triopas {Tpioiras or Tpioip), son of Poseidon 
 and Canace, a daughter of Aeolus, or of Helios 
 and Rhodos, and the father of Iphimedia and Er}-- 
 sichtlion. Hence, his son Eryslchtbon is called 
 Trioptius^ and his .granddaughter Mestra or Metra, 
 the daughter of Erj-'sichthon, Triopcis. Triopas 
 expelled the Pelagians from the Dotian plain, b-ut 
 was himself obliged to emigrate, and werit to Caria, 
 where he founded Cnidus on the Ti'iopian pro- 
 montory- His son Erysichthon was punished by 
 Demeter with insatiable hunger, because he had 
 violated her sacred grove ; but others relate the 
 same of Triopas himself. 
 
 Triopia or Triopion, an early name of Cnidus. 
 
 Triopium {Tpioinov \ C. Ki-io), the promontory 
 which terminates the peninsula of Cnidus, forming 
 the S.W. headland of Caria and of Asia Minor. 
 Upon it was a temple of Apollo, surnaraed Trio- 
 pius, which was the centre of union for the states 
 of Doris. Hence it was also called the Sacred 
 Promontory (aKpwT-ijpLoy Uphv). 
 
 Triphylia {TpKpukia: TpKpvXics), the S. por- 
 tion of Elis, h'ing between the Alpheus and the 
 Neda, is said to have derived its name from the 3 
 different tribes by which it was peopled. Its chief 
 town was Pylos. 
 
 Tripodiscus (Tpnro^icrKos : TpnroZia-Kios nr. 
 Denveni Ru.), a town in the interior of Megaris, 
 N. W. of Megara. 
 
 Tripolis {TpiTToKis : TpLwoXlrr]';), is properly 
 the name of a confederacy composed of 3 cities, or 
 a district containing 3 cities, but it is also applied 
 to single cities which had some such relation to 
 others as to make the name appropriate. 1, In 
 Arcadia, comprising the 3 cities of Callia, Dipoena, 
 and Nonacris : its name is preserved in the modern 
 town of TripoHtza.'—2. T. Pelagonia, in Thes- 
 saly, comprising the 3 towns of Azorus, Doliche, 
 and Pythium. — 3. In Rhodes, comprising the 3 
 Dorian cities, Lindus, lalysus, and Carairus. 
 [Rhodus.]— 4. {KasJi Ymiji)^ a city on the 
 Maeandcr, 12 miles W. of Hierapolis, on the bor- 
 ders of Phrygia, Carin, and Lydia, to each of which 
 it is assigned by different authorities. —5. {Tire- 
 holi), a fortress on the coast of Pontus, on a river 
 of the same name {Tireboli Sii), 00 stadia E. of 
 the Prom. Zephyrium ( C. Zcfreh). — 6. ( TrivoU, 
 Tarahuhts), on the coast of Phoenicia, consisted of 
 3 distinct cities, 1 stadium (600 feet) apart, each 
 having its own walls, but all united in a common 
 constitution, having one place of assembly, and 
 forming in reality one city. They were colonics of 
 Tyre, Sidon, and Aradus respectively. Tripolis 
 
 TRITON. 
 
 stood about 30 miles S. of Aradus, and about the 
 same distance N. of Bylilus, on a bold headland, 
 formed by a spur of M. Lebanon. It had a fine 
 harbour, and a flourishing commerce. It is now a 
 city of about 15,000 inhabitants, and the capital 
 of one of the pachalicka of Syria, that of Ti-ipoli. 
 -"7. Tlie district on the N. coast of Africa, be- 
 tween the 2 Syrfces, comprising the 3 cities of 
 Sabrata (or Abrotonum), Oea, and Leptis Magna, 
 and also called Tripolitana Regio. [Syrtjca.] 
 Its name Is preserved in that of the regency of 
 Tripoli^ the W. part of which answers to it, and 
 in that of the cit}' of Tripoli^ probably the ancient 
 Oea. 
 
 Tripolitana Regio. [Syrtica : Tripolis, 
 No. 7.] 
 
 Triptolemns (TpL7rT6kefj,os\ sonof Celeus, king 
 of EJeusis, and Metanira or Polj'mnia, Others de- 
 scribe him as son of king Eleusis by Cothonea, or 
 of Oceanus and Gaea, or of Trochilus by an Eleu- 
 sinian woman, Triptolemus was the favourite of 
 Demeter, and the inventor of the plough and agri- 
 culture, and of civilisation, which is the result of it. 
 He was the great hero in the Eleusinian mysteries. 
 According to the common legend he hospitably 
 received Demeter at Eleusis, when she was wan- 
 dering in search of her daughter. The goddess, 
 in return, wished to make his son Demophon im- 
 mortal, and placed him in the fire in order to 
 destroy his mortal parts ; but Metanira screamed 
 out at the sight, and the child was consumed by 
 the flames. As a compensation for this bereave- 
 ment, the goddess gave to Triptolemus a chariot 
 with winged dragons and seeds of wheat. In this 
 cliariot Triptolemus rode over the earth, making 
 man acquainted with the blessings of agriculture. 
 On his return to Attica, Celeus endeavoured to 
 kill him, but by the command of Demeter he was 
 obliged to give up his country to Triptolenms, who 
 now established the worship of Demeter, and insti- 
 tuted the Thosmophoria. Triptolemus is repre- 
 sented in works of art as a youthful hero, some- 
 times with the petasus, on a chariot drawn by 
 dragons, and holding in his hand a sceptre and 
 corn ears. 
 
 Tritaea (TptVaia : Tpt-raievs). 1. A town of 
 Phocis, N. W. of Cleonae, on the left bank of the 
 Cephissus and on the frontiers of Locris.^2. One ■ 
 of the 12 cities of Achaia, 120 stadia E. of Pharae 
 and near the frontiers of Arcadia. Augustus made 
 it dependent upon Patrae. 
 
 Trito or Tritogenia {Tptrco or Tpiroyiveia 
 and TpiToyiy-Tis)^ a surname of Athena, which Is 
 explained in different ways. Some derive it from 
 lake Tritonis in Libya, near which she is said to 
 have been bom ; others from the stream Triton 
 near Alalcomenae in Boeotia, where she was wor- 
 shipped, and where according to some statements 
 she was also bom ; the grammarians, lastly, derive 
 the name from rpirw,, which. In the dialect of the 
 Athamanians, is said to signif}'' "head," so that it 
 would be the goddess bom out of the head of her 
 father. 
 
 Triton (TpiTcov), sou of Poseidon and Amphi- 
 trite (or Celaeno), who dwelt with his father and 
 mother in a golden palace In the bottom of the 
 sea, or, according to Homer, at Aegae. Later 
 writers describe him as riding over the sea on 
 horses or other sea-monsters. Sometimes we find 
 mention of Tritons in the plural. Their appear- 
 ance is differently described ; thougb they are 
 
TRITON. 
 
 always conceived as having- the human figure in 
 the upper part of their bodies, and that of a fish 
 in the lower part. The chief characteristic of 
 Tritons in poetr}'- as well as in works of art is a 
 tmnipet made out of a shell [concha), which the 
 Tritons blow at the command of Poseidon, to 
 soothe the restless waves of the sea. 
 
 Triton FL, Tvitonia, or Tritonitis Palus (Tpt- 
 Twj', TptTutvls, TpiTtaytTts)^ a river and lake on the 
 Mediterranean coast of Libya, which are men- 
 tioned in several old Greek legends, especially in 
 the mj'thology of Athenn, whom one account repre- 
 sented as born ou the lake Tritonis, and as the 
 daughter of the nymph of the same name, and of 
 Poseidon : hence her surname of Tpiroy&fia, 
 When the Greeks first became acquainted geo- 
 graphically with the N. coast of Africa, they 
 identified the gulf afterwards called the Lesser 
 SvRTis with the lake Tritonis. This seoms to be 
 the notion of Herodotus, in the stoiy he relates of 
 Jason (iv. 178, 179). A more exact knowledge 
 of the coast showed them a great lake beyond tlie 
 inmost recess of the Lesser Syrtis, to wiiich the 
 narat; Tritonis was then applied. This lake had 
 an opening to the sea, as well as a river flowing 
 into it, and accordingly the geographers represented 
 the river Triton as rising in a mountain, called 
 Zuchabari, and forming the lake Tritonis on its 
 course to the Lesser Syrtis, into which it feil. The 
 lake is undoubtedly the great salt lake, in the S. 
 of Tunis^ called Ei-Sibhih ; but as this lake has 
 no longer an opening to the sea, and the whole 
 coast is much altered by the inroads of the sands 
 of the Sahara^ it seems impossible to identify the 
 river: some suppose that it is represented by the 
 Wady-el- KJiaLs. Some of the ancient writers 
 gave altogether a different locality to the legend, 
 and identify the Triton with the river usually 
 called Lathon, in Cyrenaica; and ApoUonius 
 Rhodius even transfers the name to the Nile. 
 
 TnvTeus (Trivico), a small town in Saranium, 
 situated among the mountains separating Samuium 
 from Apulia. 
 
 Troas (?) Tpcods, sc. x^P°i t^e fern, of the adj. 
 Tpws: T/jwaSeus : C7i«n), the territory of Ilium or 
 Troy, formed the N. W. part of Mysia. It was 
 bounded on the W. by the Aegean sea, from Pr. 
 Lectum to Pr. Sigeum at the entrance of the 
 Hellespont; on the N.W. by the Hellespont, as 
 fiir as the river Rhodius, below Abydus; on the 
 N. E. and E. by the mountains which border the 
 Talley of the Rhodius, and extend from its sources 
 S.-wards to the main ridge of M, Ida, and on tKe 
 S. by the N. coast of the Gulf of Adramyttiura 
 along the S. foot of Ida ; but on the N. E. and E. 
 the boundary is sometimes extended so far as to 
 include the whole coast of the Hellespont and part 
 of the Propontis, and the country as far as tlie 
 river Granicus, thus embracing the district of 
 Dardania, and somewhat more. Strabo extends 
 the boundary still further E., to the river Aesepus, 
 and also S. to the Caicus ; but this clearly results 
 from his including in the territory of Troy that of 
 her neighbouring allies. The Troad is for the 
 most part mountainous, being intersected by M. 
 Ida and its branches: the largest plain is that in 
 which Troy stood. The chief rivers were the 
 Satnois on the S., the Rhodius on the N., and 
 the Scamander and Simois in the centre. These 
 2 rivers, so renowned in the legends of the Trojan 
 War, flow from 2 different points in the chain of 
 
 TROAS. 
 
 7fll 
 
 M. Ida, and unite in the plain of Troy, through 
 which the united stream flows N.W. and falls into 
 the Hellespont E. of the promontory of Sigeum. 
 The Scamander, also called Xanthus, is usually 
 identified with the Mendereft-C/uii, and the Simois 
 with the Gumlrek; but this subject presents diffi- 
 culties which cannot be discussed within the limits 
 of the present article. The precise locality' of the 
 city of Troy, or, according to its genuine Greek 
 name, Ilium, is also the subject still of much dis- 
 pute. First, there is the question, whether the 
 Ilium of Homer had any real existence ; next, 
 whether the Ilium Vetus of tlie historical period, 
 which was visited by Xerxes and by Alexander 
 the Great, was on the same site as the city of 
 Priam. The most probable opinion seems to be 
 that which places tlie original city in the upper 
 part of the plain, on a moderate elevation at the 
 fiiot of M. Ida, and its citadel (called Pergama, 
 riep^a/xa), on a loftier height, almost separated 
 from the city by a ravine, and nearly surrounded 
 by the Scamander. This city seems never to have 
 been restored after its destruction by the Greeks. 
 The Aeolian colonists subsequently built a new 
 cit}', on the site, as they doubtless believed, of the 
 old one, but really much lower down the plain ; 
 and this city is the Troja or Ilium. Vetus of most 
 of the ancient writers. After the time of Alex- 
 ander, this city declined, and a new one was built 
 still further down the plain, below the confluence 
 of the Simois and Scamander, and near the Helles- 
 pont, and this was called Ilium Novum. Under 
 the Romans, this city was honoured with various 
 immunities, as the only existing representative of 
 the ancient Ilium. Its substantial importance, 
 however, was entirely eclipsed by that of Alex- 
 andria Troas. — For the geneml political histon' 
 of the Troad, see Mysia. The Teucrians, by 
 whom it was peopled at a period of unknown an- 
 tiquity, were a Thracian people. Settling in the 
 plain of the Scamander, thej-- founded the city of 
 Ilium, which became the head of an extensive 
 confederacy, embracing not only the N.W. of Asia 
 Minor, but much of the opposite shores of Thrace, 
 and with allies in Asia Minor even as far as 
 Lycia, and evidently much in advance of the 
 Greeks in civilisation. The mythical account of 
 the origin of the kingdom is briefly as follows. 
 Teucer, the first king in the Troad, had a daugh- 
 ter, who married Dardanus, the chieftain of the 
 country N. E. of the Troad. [Dardania.] Dar- 
 danus had 2 sons, Ilus and Erichthonius ; and the 
 latter was the father of Tros, from whom the 
 countiy and people derived the names of Troas 
 and Troes. Tros was the father of Ilus, who 
 founded the cit}', which was called after him 
 Ilxum, and also, after his father, Troja. The next 
 king was Laoriedon, and after him Priam. 
 [Priamus.] In his reign the city was taken and 
 destroyed by the confederated Greeks, after a iO 
 years' siege. [Helena, Alexander, Aga- 
 memnon, Achilles, Hector, Ajax, Ulysses, 
 Neoptolemus, Aeneas, &c. and Homerus.] 
 To discuss the historical value of this legend "is 
 not the province of this work : it is enough to say 
 that we have in it evidence of a great conflict, at 
 a very eariy period, between the great Thracian 
 empire in the N.W. of Asia Minor, and the rising 
 power of the Achaeans in Greece, in which the 
 latter were victorious ; but their victoiy was fmit- 
 less, in consequence of their comparatively low 
 
 3£ 4 
 
792 . TROCML 
 
 civilisation, and especially of their want of mari- 
 time power. The chronolofjei's assigned different 
 dates for the capture of Troy : the calculation 
 most generally accepted placed it in b. c. 1184. 
 This date should be carefully remembered, as it 
 forms th'e starting point of Tarimis computations; 
 but it should also be borne in mind that the date 
 is of no historical authority. (There is not space 
 to explain this matter here.) The subsequent 
 history of the Troad presents an entire blank, till 
 we come to the period of the great Aeolic mi- 
 gration, when it merges in that of Aeolis and 
 Mysia. — In writers of the Roman period, the 
 name Troas is often used by itself for the city of 
 Alexandria Troas. 
 
 Trocmi or -ii. [Galatia.] 
 
 TroeS. [Troas.] 
 
 Troesen (Tpoff-i^r, more rarely Tpoi^-^VTj : Tpai- 
 ^rjfior : Dlcainala), the capital of Troezenia 
 (Tpoi^V^ct), a district in the S-E. of ArgoHs on 
 the Saronic gulf, and opposite the island of Aegina. 
 The town was situated at some little distance from 
 the coas't, on which it possessed a harbour called 
 Pogon (^w7w^'), opposite the island of Calauria. 
 Troezen was a very ancient city, and is said to 
 have been originally called Poseidonia, on account 
 of its worship of Poseidon. It received the name 
 of Troezen from Troezen, one of the sons of Pelops; 
 and it is celebrated in mythology as the place 
 where Pittheus, tiie maternal grandfather of 
 Theseus, lived, and where Theseus himself was 
 born. Troezen was for a long time dependent 
 upon the kings of Argos ; but in the historical 
 period it appears as an independent state. It was 
 a city of some importance, for we read that the 
 Troezen'ians sent 5 ships of war to Salamis and 
 1000 heavy-armed men to Plataea. When the 
 Persians entered Attica the Troezenians distin- 
 guished themselves by the kindness with which 
 they received the Athenians, wiio were obliged to 
 abandon their citj'. 
 
 Trogiliae, 3 small islands, named Psilon, Ar- 
 gennon, and Sandalion, lying off the promontory of 
 Trogilium. [Mycale.] 
 
 Trogitis Lacus. [Pisidia.] 
 
 Troglodytae (Tpw7Ao5tJTaf, i. e. dwellers in 
 caves), the name applied by the Greek geographers 
 to various uncivilised people, who had no abodes but 
 caves, especially to the inhabitants of the W. coast 
 of the Red Sea, along the shores of Upper Egypt 
 and Aethiopia. The whole of this coast was called 
 Troglodytice (TparyAoStrriK-^). There were also 
 Troglodytae in Moesia, on the banks of the Danube. 
 
 Trogus, Pompeius. [Justinus.] 
 
 Troilium. [Trossulum.] 
 
 Troilus (TpoilAoy), son of Priam and Hecuba, 
 or according to others son of Apollo. He fell by 
 the hands of Achilles. 
 
 Troja {Tpoia, Ion. Tpoi-n, Ep. Tpofa: Tpws, 
 Tpcfios, Ep. and Ion. T^wtos, fem. T/^was &.c. : 
 Trus, Troius, Trojanus, fem. Troas, pi. TrOades 
 and Truiades). the name of the city of Troy or 
 Ilium, also applied to the country. [Troas.] 
 
 Tropliomus {Tpo<l>wvios), son of Erginus, king 
 of Orcbomeiuis, and brother of Agamedes. He 
 and his brother built the temple at Delphi and the 
 treasury of king Hyrieus in Boeotia. For details 
 Bee Agaaiedes. Trophonius after his death was 
 worshipped as a hero, and had a celebrated oracle 
 in a cave near Lebadea in Boeotia. (See Diet, of 
 Antiq., art. Oraculam.) 
 
 TUBANTES. 
 
 Tros (TpwF), son of Erichthonius and Astyoch^e, 
 and grandson of Dardanus. He was married to- 
 Callirrhoe, by whom he became the father of Ilus,. 
 Assaracus, and Ganj'medes, and was king of 
 Phrygia, The country and people of Troy derived 
 their name from him. He gave up his son Gany- 
 medes to Zeus for a present of horses. [Gany- 
 
 MEDES.] 
 
 Trossiiluni (Trossulanus ; Trosso\ a town in 
 Etniria, 9 miles from Volsinii, which is said to 
 have been taken by some Roman equites without 
 the aid of foot-soldiers ; whence the Roman equites 
 obuiined tiie name of Trossuli. Some writers. 
 identify this town with Troilium, which was taken 
 by the Romans, b. c. 293; but they appear to 
 have been different places. 
 
 Ti'Otilum. (TpaJTiAoi/ : Trotiielfo), a town of 
 Sicily, on the road from Syracuse to Lconthii. 
 
 Truentum, a town of Picenum on the river 
 Truentus or Truentinus {Tronto). 
 
 Trutulensis Portus, a harbour on the N. E. 
 coast of Britain near the aestuary Taus (Tay), 
 but of which the exact site is unknown. 
 
 TrypModoras (Tpu(pio'5aj/Jos), a Greek gram- 
 marian and poet, was a native of Egypt ; but 
 nothing is known of his personal history. He ia 
 supposed to have lived in the 5th century of the- 
 Christian era. Of his grammatical labours we 
 have no record ; but one of his poems has come 
 dowii to us, entitled '\Kiov aAuKTiy, the Capture of 
 I/ium, consisting of 691 lines. From the small 
 dimensions of it, it is necessarily little but a sketch. 
 Tiie best editions are by Northmore, Cambridge 
 1791, London 1804; by Schiifer, Leipzig liJOiij 
 and by Wernicke, Leipzig 1819. 
 
 Tryphon {Tpucpwv). 1. Diodotns, a usurper 
 of the throne of Syria during the reign of De- 
 metrius II. Nicator. After the death of Alex- 
 ander Balas in b. c. 146, Tryphon first set up- 
 Antiochus, the infant son of Balas, as a pretender 
 against Demetrius ; but in 1 4"2 he murdered 
 Antiochus and reigned as king himself. Tryphon, 
 was defeated and put to death by Antiochus 
 Sidetes, the brother of Demetrius, in 1Ij9, after a 
 reign of 3 years. ^ 2. Saivius, one of the leaders- 
 of the revolted slaves in Sicily, was supposed to 
 have a knowledge of divination, for which reason 
 he was elected king by the slaves in 103. Pie dis- 
 played considerable abilities, and in a short timt?' 
 collected an army of "20,000 foot and 2000 horse^ 
 with which he defeated the propraetor P. Licinius 
 Nerva. After this victory Saivius assumed all the 
 pomp of royalty, and took the surname of Tryphon, 
 probably because it had been borne by Diodotus, 
 the usurper of the Syrian throne. He chose the 
 strong fortress of Triocala as the seat of his new 
 kingdom. Tryphon was defeated by L, Lucullus 
 in 102, and was obliged to take refuge in Triocala. 
 But Lucullus failed in taking the place, and 
 returned to Rome without effecting any thing 
 more. Lucullus wiis succeeded by C. Servilius ; 
 and on the death of Tn-phon, about the same time, 
 the kingdom devolved upon Atbenlon, who wa3 
 not subdued till 101. 
 
 Tryphoninus, Claudius, a Roman jurist, wrots 
 under the reigns of Septimius Severus and Ca- 
 racal la. 
 
 Tubantes, a people of Germany, allies of the 
 Cliernsci, originally dwelt between the Rhine and 
 tlie Yssel ; in the time of Germanicus on the S. 
 bank of the Lippe, between Paderborn, Hamm, 
 
TUBERO. 
 and the Armsberger Wald ; and at a still later 
 time in the neighbourhood of the ThUringer Wald 
 between the Fulda and the Werra. Subsequently 
 they are mentioned as a part of the great league 
 of the Franci. 
 
 Tubero, Aelius. 1. Q., son-in-law of L. Ae- 
 milius Paulug, aerved under the latter in liis 
 ■war against Perseus, king of Macedonia. This 
 Tubero, like the rest of his family, was so poor 
 that he had not an ounce of silver plate, till 
 his father-in-law gave him 5 pounds of plate 
 from the spoils of the Macedonian monarch. 
 — 2. Q., son of the preceding, was a pupil of 
 Panaetiiis, and is called the Stoic. He had a 
 reputation for talent and legal knowledge. He 
 ■was praetor in 123, and consul sufEectus in 118. 
 He was an opponent of Tib. Gracchus, as well as 
 of C.Gracchus, and delivered some speeches against 
 the latter, 123. Tubero is one of the speakers 
 in Cicero's dialogue de Repvhlica. The passages 
 in the Digest in which Tubero is cited do not refer 
 to this Tubero, but to No. 4.-3. L., an intimate 
 friend of Cicero. He was a relation and a school- 
 fellow of the orator, had served with him in the 
 Marsic war, and had afterwards served under his 
 brother Quintus as legate in Asia. On the break- 
 ing out of the civil war, Tubero, who had espoused 
 the Pompeian party, received from the senate 
 the province of Africa ; but ns Atius Varus and 
 Q. Ligarius, who likewise belonged to the aris- 
 tocratical party, would not surrender it to him, 
 he passed over to Pompej'" in Greece. He was 
 afterwards pardoned by Caesar, and returned with 
 his son Quintus to Rome. Tubero cultivated 
 literature and philosophy. He wrote a history, 
 and the philosopher Aenesideraus dedicated to him 
 his work on the sceptical philosophy of Pyrrlion. 
 ^4. Q., son of the preceding. In 46 he made a 
 speech before C. Julius Caesar against Q. Ligarius, 
 who was defended by Cicero in a speech which is 
 extant {Pro Q. Ligario). Tubero obtained con- 
 siderable reputation as a jurist. He had a great 
 knowledge both of Jus Publicum and Privatum, 
 and he wrote several works on both these divisions 
 of law. He married a daughter of Servius Sul- 
 picius, and the daughter of Tubero was the mother 
 of the jurist C. Cassius Longinus. Like his father, 
 Q. Tubero wrote a histor}'. Tubero the jurist, who 
 is often cited in the Digest, is this Tubero ; but 
 there is no excerpt from his writings. 
 
 Tucca, Plotius, a friend of Horace and Virgil. 
 The latter poet left Tucca one of his heirs, and be- 
 queathed his unfinished writings to him and Variua, 
 who afterwards published the Aeneid by order of 
 Augustus. 
 
 Tuder (Tuders, -tis : Todi)^ an ancient town of 
 Umbria, situated on a hill near the Tiber, and on 
 the road from Mevania to Rome. It was sub- 
 sequently made a Roman colony. There are still 
 remains of the polj'gonal walls of the ancient 
 town. 
 
 Tudifeanus, Sempromus. 1. M., consul b. c. 
 240, and censor 230.^2. P., tribune of the sol- 
 diers at the battle of Cannae in 216, and one of 
 the few Roman officers who survived that fatal 
 day. In 214 he was cimile aedile ; in 213 praetor, 
 ■with Ariminum as his province, and was continued 
 in the command for the two following years (212, 
 211). He was censor in 209 with M. Cornelius 
 Cethegus, although neither he nor his colleague 
 had yet held the consulship. In 205 he was sent 
 
 TULLIA. 
 
 793 
 
 into Greece with the title of proconsul, for the pur- 
 pose of opposing Philip, with whom however he 
 concluded a treaty, which was ratified by the Ro- 
 mans. Toditanus was consul in 204, and received 
 Bruttii as his province. He was at first defeated 
 by Hannibal, but shortly afterwards he gained a 
 decisive victory over the Carthaginian general. — - 
 3. C, plebeian aedile 190, and praetor 197, when 
 he obtained Nearer Spain as his province. He 
 was defeated by the Spaniards with great loss, and 
 died shortly afterwards of a wound which he had 
 received in the battle. ^4. M., tribune of the 
 plebs 193; praetor 189, when he obtained Sicily 
 as his province ; and consul 185. In his consul- 
 ship he carried on war in Liguria, and defeated 
 the Apuani, while his colleague was equally suc- 
 cessful against the Ingauni. He was carried off 
 by the great pestilence which devastated Rome in 
 174. — 5. C, praetor 132, and consul 129. In his 
 consulship he carried on war against the lapydes in 
 Illyricum, over whom he gained a victory chiefly 
 through the military skill of his legate, D. Junius 
 Bmtus. Tuditanus was an orator and an historian, 
 and in both obtained considerable distinction. 
 
 Tulcis, a river on the E. coast of Spain near 
 Tarraco. 
 
 Tulingi, a people of Gaul of no great import- 
 ance, who dwelt on the Rhine between the Rau- 
 raci .and the Helvetii. 
 
 Tullia, the name of the 2 daughters of Servius 
 Tuliius, the 6th king of Rome. [Tulijus.] 
 
 Tullia, frequently called by the diminutive Tul- 
 liola, was the daughter of M. Cicero and Terentia, 
 and was probably born n. c. 79 or 78. She was be- 
 trothed in G7 to C. Calpurnius Piso Frugi, whom 
 she married in 63 during the consulship of her 
 father. During Cicero's banishment Tullia lost 
 her first husband. She was married again in bQ 
 to Furius Crassipes, a young man of rank and large 
 property ; but she did not live with him long,, 
 though the time and the reason of her divorce are 
 alike unknown. In 50 she was married to her 3rd 
 husband, P. Cornelius Dolabella, who was a tho- 
 rough profligate. The marriage took place during 
 Cicero"'s absence in Cilicia, and, as might have 
 been anticipated, was not a happy one. On the 
 breaking out of the civil war in 49, the husband 
 and the father of Tullia espoused opposite sides. 
 While Dolabella fought for Caesar, and Cicero 
 took refuge in the camp of Pompey, Tullia re- 
 mained in Italy. On the 19th of May, 49, she 
 was delivered of a 7 months'* child, which died 
 soon afterwards. After the battle of Pharsalia, 
 Dolabella returned to Rome ; but he continued to 
 lead a dissolute and profligate life, and at length 
 (46) a divorce took place by mutual consent. At 
 the beginning of 45 Tullia was delivered of a son. 
 As soon as she was sufficiently recovered to bear 
 the fatigues of a journey, she accompanied her 
 father to Tusculum, but she died there in February. 
 Her loss was a severe blow to Cicero. Among the 
 many consolatory letters which he received on the 
 occasion is the well-known one from the celebrated 
 jurist Serv. Sulpicius {ad Fam. iv, 5). To dissi- 
 pate his grief, Cicero drew up a treatise on Con- 
 solation, 
 
 Tullia Gens, patrician and plebeian. The pa- 
 trician Tullii were one of the Alban houses, which 
 were transplanted to Rome in the reign of Tullus 
 Hostilius. The patrician branch of the gens ap- 
 pears to have become extinct at an early period j 
 
794 
 
 TULLIANUM. 
 
 for aftei the early times of tlie republic no one of 
 the name occurs for some centuries, and the TuUii 
 of a later age are not onlj' plebeians, but, with the 
 exception of their bearing the same name, cannot 
 be regarded as having any connection witli the 
 ancient gens. The first plebeian TuUius who rose 
 to the honours of the state was M. Tullius Decula, 
 consul B. c. 81, and the next was the celebrated 
 orator M. Tullius Cicero. [Cicero.] 
 TuHianum. [Roma, p. 634, b.] 
 Tullius, Servius, tiie (ith king of Rome, The 
 account of the early life and death of Sei-rius Tul- 
 lius is full of marvels, and cannot be regarded as 
 possessing any title to a real historical narrative. 
 His mother, Ocrisia, was one of the captives taken 
 at Comiculum, and became a female slave of Tana- 
 quil, the wife of Tarquinius Priscus. He was bom 
 in the king's palace, and jiotwithstanding liis ser- 
 vile origin was brought up as the king's son, since 
 Tanaquil by her powers of divination had foreseen 
 the greatness of the child ; and Tarquinius placed 
 such confidence iu him, that he gave him his 
 daughter in marriage, and entrusted him with the 
 exercise of the government. His rule was mild 
 and beneticent ; and so popular did he become, 
 that the sons of Ancus Marcius, fearing lest they 
 should be deprived of the throne which they 
 claimed as their inheritance, procured the assas- 
 sination of Tarquinius [Tarquinius]. They did 
 not, however, reap the fruit of their crime, for 
 Tanaquil, pretending that the king's wound was 
 not mortal, told the people that Tarquinius would 
 recover in a few days, and that he had commanded 
 Servius meantime to discharge the duties of the 
 kingly office. Servius forthwith began to act as 
 king, greatly to the satisfaction of the people ; and 
 when the death of Tarquinius could no longer be 
 concealed, he was already in firm possession of 
 the royal power. The reigTi of Servius is almost 
 as barren of militar}'" exploits as that of Nuraa, 
 The only war which Livy mentions is one against 
 Veil, which was brought to a speedy conclusion. 
 The great deeds of Servius were deeds of peace ; 
 and he was regarded by posterity as the author of 
 all their civil rights and institutions, just as Numa 
 was of their religious rites and ordinances. Three 
 important events are assigned to Servius by uni- 
 versal tradition. First, he gave a new constitution 
 to the Roman state. The two main objects of this 
 constitution were to give the plebs political inde- 
 pendence, and to assign to property that influence 
 in the state which had previously belonged to birth 
 exclusively. In order to carry his purpose into 
 effect, Servius made a two-fold division of the 
 Roman people, one territorial, and the other ac- 
 cording to property. For details, see Diet. ofAniiq. 
 art. Comitia. Secondly, lie extended the pomoe- 
 rium, or hallowed boundary of the city, and com- 
 pleted the city by incorporating with it the Quirinal, 
 Viminal, and Esquillne hills. [Roma.] Thirdly, he 
 established an important alliance with the Latins, 
 by which Rome and the cities of Latium became 
 the members of one great league. By his new 
 constitution Servius incurred the hostility of the 
 patricians, who conspired with L. Tarquinius to 
 deprive him of his life and of his throne. His 
 death was the subject of a legend, which ran as 
 follows. Servius, soon after his succession, gave 
 his 2 daughters in marriage to the 2 sons of Tar- 
 quinius Priscus. L. Tarquinius the elder was mar- 
 ried to a quiet and gentle wife ; Aruns, the younger, 
 
 TULLUS. 
 
 to an aspiring and ambitious woman. The character 
 of the two brothers was the very opposite of the 
 wives who had fallen "to their lot ; for Lucius was 
 proud and haughty, but Anins unambitious and 
 quiet. The wife of Aruns, fearing that her hus- 
 band would tamely resign the sovereignt}-- to his 
 elder brother, resolved to destroy both her father 
 and her husband. She persuaded Lucius to mur- 
 der his wife, and she murdered her own husband ; 
 and the survivors straightway married. Tullia 
 now urged her husband to murder her father ; and, 
 it was said tliat their design was hastened by the 
 belief that Servius entertained the thought of lay- 
 ing down his kingly power, and establishing the 
 consular form of government. The patricians were 
 equally alarmed at this scheme. Their mutual 
 hatred and fears united them closely together ; 
 and when the conspiracy was ripe, Tarquinius 
 entered the forum arrayed in the kingly robes, 
 seated himself in the royal cliair in the senate- 
 house, and ordered the senators to be summoned 
 to him as their king. At the first news of the 
 commotion, Servius hastened to the senate-house, 
 and, standing at the door-way, ordered Tarquinius 
 to come down from the throne. Tarquinius sprang 
 forward, seized the old man, and flung him down 
 the stone steps. Covered with blood, the king 
 was hastening home; but, before he reached it, he 
 was overtaken by the servants of Tarquinius, and 
 murdered. Tullia drove to the senate-house, and 
 greeted her husband as king ; but her transports of 
 joy struck even him withhon'or. He bade her go 
 home ; and as she was returning, her charioteer 
 pulled up, and pointed out the corpse of her father 
 l3'ing in his blood across the road. She commanded 
 him to drive on ; the blood of her father spirted 
 over the carriage and on her dress ; and from that 
 day forward the street bore the name of the Vicus 
 Sceleratus, or Wicked Street. The body lay un- 
 buried, for Tarquinius said scoffingly, " Romulus 
 too went without burial ;" and this impious mockerj' 
 is said to have given rise to his surname of Su- 
 perbus. Servius had reigned 44 years. His memorj' 
 was long cherished by the plebeians. 
 
 Tullius Tiro. [Tiro.] 
 
 Tullum (Toul)^ the capital of the Leuci, a 
 people in the S. E. of Gallia Belgica between the 
 Matrona and Mosella. 
 
 Tullus HostUius, 3rd king of Rome, is said to 
 have been the grandson of Hostus Hostillus, who 
 fell in battle against the Sabines in the reign of 
 Romulus. His legend ran as follows: — Tullus 
 Hostilius departed from the peaceful ways of 
 Numa, and aspired to the martial renown of Ro- 
 mulus. He made Alba acknowledge Rome's su- 
 premacy in the war wherein the 3 Roman brothers, 
 the Horatii, fought with the 3 Alban brothers, the 
 Curiatii, at the Fossa Cluilia. Next he warred 
 with Fidenae and with Veil, and being straitly 
 pressed by their joint hosts, he vowed temples to 
 Pallor and Pavor — Paleness and Panic. And after 
 the fight was won, he tore asunder with chariots 
 Mettius Fufetius, the king or dictator of Alba, be- 
 cause he had desired to betray Rome ; and he 
 utterly destroyed Alba, sparing only the temples of 
 the gods, and bringing the Alban people to Rome, 
 where he gave them the Caelian hill to dwell on. 
 Then he turned himself to war with the Sabines; 
 and being again straitened in fight in a wood 
 called tlie Wicked Wood, he vowed a yearly festi- 
 val to Satuni and Ops, and to double the number 
 
TUNES. 
 
 of the Salil, or priests of Mamers. Ami when, by 
 their help, he had vanquished tlie Sabines, he per- 
 fonned his vow, and its records were the feasts 
 Saturnalia and Opalia. In his old age, TiilUis 
 grew weary of warring ; and when a pestilence 
 struck him and his people, and a shower of burn- 
 ing stones fell from heaven on Mt. Alba, and a 
 voice as of the Alban gods came forth from the 
 solitary temple of Jupiter on its summit, he remem- 
 bered the peaceful and happy days of Numa, and 
 sought to win the favour of the gods, as Numa had 
 done, by prayer and divination. But the gods 
 heeded neither his prayers nor his charms, and 
 ^vhen he would inquire of Jupiter Elicius, Jupiter 
 "waa wroth, and smote Tullus and his whole house 
 with fire. Perhaps the only historical fact em- 
 bodied in the legend of Tullus is the ruin of Alba. 
 
 Tunes or Tunis (Tui'tjs, Tovfis: Tuv-qa-aios : 
 Tunis), a strongly fortified city of N. Africa, stood 
 at the bottom of the Carthaginian gulf, 10 miles 
 S. W. of Carthage, at the mouth of the little river 
 Catada. At the time of Augustus it had greatly 
 declined, but it afterwards recovered, and is now 
 the capital of the Regency of Tunis. 
 
 Tnngri, a German people who crossed tlie 
 Rhine, and settled in Gaul in the country formerly 
 occupied by the Aduatici and the Eburones. 
 Their chief town was called Tungri or Aduaca 
 Tongromm (Tongern), on the road from Cas- 
 tellum Mnrinorum to Colonia Agrippina. 
 
 Turdetani, the most numerous people in His- 
 pania Bactica, dwelt in the S. of the province on 
 both banks of the Baetis as far as Lusitania. 
 They were regarded as the most civilised people 
 in all Spain. Their country was called Turde- 
 tania. 
 
 Turduli, a people in Hispania Baetica, situated 
 to the E. and S. of the Turdetani, with whom they 
 were closely connected. The names, in fact, ap- 
 pear identical. 
 
 Tui'ia or Turium {fJaadalaviar)^ a river on the 
 E. coast of Spain, flowing into the sea at Valentia, 
 memorable for the battle fought on its banks be- 
 tween Pompey and Sertorius. 
 
 Turiasso (Turiassonensis : Tarrazo7ia\ a town 
 of the Celtiberi in Hispania Tarraconensis, on the 
 road from Caesaraugusta to Numantia. It pos- 
 sessed a fountain, the water of which was said to 
 be very excellent for hardening iron. 
 
 Tunxus (Tupj'oy). 1. Son of Daunusand Venilia, 
 and king of the Rutuli at the time of the arrival 
 of Aeneas in Italy. He was a brother of Juturna, 
 and related to Amata, the wife of king Latinus ; 
 and he fought against Aeneas, because Latinus had 
 given to the Trojan hero his daughter Lavinia, 
 who had been previously promised to Turnus. He 
 appears in the Aeneid as a brave warrior; but in 
 the end he fell by the hand of Aeneas.^ 2. A 
 Roman satiric poet, was a native of Aurunca, and 
 lived under Vespasian and Domitian. We possess 
 30 hexameters, forming a portion of, apparently, a 
 long satiric poem, the subject being an enumeration 
 of the crimes and abominations which characterised 
 the reign of Nero. These lines are ascribed by 
 some modern scholars to Turnus. 
 
 Tumus Herdonius. [Herdonius.] 
 
 Turones, Tiironi or Turonii, a people in the 
 interior of Gallia Lugdunensis between the Au- 
 lerci, Andes and Pictones. Their chief town was 
 Caesarodunum, subsequently Turoni {Tours) on 
 the Liger {Loire), 
 
 TYANA. 
 
 795 
 
 Tiirpilius, Sestus, a Roman dramatist, whose 
 productions belonged to the department oi Covioe- 
 dia Palliata. The titles of 13 or 1 ^ of his playg 
 have been preserved^ together with a few frag- 
 ments. He died, when very old, at Sinuessa in 
 B c. 101. He stands 7th in the scale of Volcatius 
 Sedigitus. [Sedi(jitt7S.] 
 
 Turpio, L. Ambivius, a very celebrated actor 
 in the time of Terence, in most of whose plays he 
 acted. 
 
 Tunis Hannibalis {Bourj Salekia//, Ru.), a 
 castle on the coast of Byzaceiia, between Thapsus 
 and Acholla, belonging to Hannibal, who embarked 
 here when he fled to Antiochus the Great. 
 
 Turris Stratonis. [Caesarea, No. 3.] 
 
 Tuscania (Tuscaniensis ; ToscaneUa), a town 
 of Etruria on the river Marta, rarely mentioned 
 by ancient writers, biit celebrated in modern times, 
 on account of the great number of Etruscan anti- 
 quities which have been discovered in its ancient 
 tombs. 
 
 Tusci, Tuscia. [Etruria.] 
 
 Tusculum (Tusculanus : nr. Frascaii, Ru.;, an 
 ancient town of Latium, situated about 10 miles 
 S. E. of Rome, on a lofty summit of the mountains, 
 which are called after the town Tusctilani llontes, 
 and which are a continuation of Mens Albanus. 
 Tusculum was one of the most strongly fortified 
 places in all Italy, both by nature and by Jirt. 
 It is said to have been founded by Telegonus, the 
 son of Ulysses; and it was always one of the 
 most important of the Latin towns. Its import- 
 ance in the time of the Roman kings is shown by 
 Tarquinius Superbus giving his daughter in mar- 
 riage to Octavius Mamilius, the chief of Tusculum. 
 At a later time it became a Roman municipium, 
 and was the birth-place of several distinguished 
 Roman families. Cato the Censor was a native of 
 Tusculum. Its proximity to Rome, its salubrity, 
 and the beauty of its situation made it a favourite 
 residence of the Roman nobles during the summer. 
 Cicero, among others, had a favourite villa at this 
 place, which he frequently mentions under the 
 name of Tusculanum. The site of this villa is 
 not exactly known ; some placing it near Grotta 
 Ferrata, on the road from Frascati to the Alban 
 lake ; and others near La Rufinella. The ruins 
 of ancient Tusculum are situated on the summit of 
 the mountain about 2 miles above Frascati. 
 
 T&ticanus, a Roman poet and a friend of Ovid, 
 who had translated into Latin verse a portion of 
 the Odysse3% 
 
 Tutzis {Garshec or Guerfey Hassan, Ru.), a 
 city in the Dodecaschoenus, that is, the part of 
 Aethiopia immediately above Eg}'pt. on the W, 
 bank of the Nile, N. of Pselcis, and S. of Talmis. 
 
 Tyana (Tuai/o : Tvavevs : Kiz Hisar, Ru.), a 
 city of Asia Minor, stood in the S. of Cappadocia, 
 at the N. foot of M. Taurus, on the high road to 
 the Cilician Gates, 300 stadia from Cybistra, and 
 400 from Mazaca, in a position of great natural 
 strength, which was improved by fortifications. 
 Under Caracalla it was made a Roman colony. In 
 B. c. 272 it was taken by Aurelian, in the war 
 with Zenobia, to whose territory it then belonged. 
 Valens made it the chief city of Cappadocia Se- 
 cunda. In its neighbourhood was a great temple 
 of Jupiter, by the side of a lake in a swampy 
 plain ; and near the temple was a remarkable effer- 
 vescing spring called Asmabaeon. Tyana was the 
 , native place of ApoUonius, the supposed worker of 
 
796 
 
 TYCHE. 
 
 miracles. The S. district of Cappadocia, in which 
 the city stood, was called Tyiniitis. 
 
 Tyche. [Fortuna.] 
 
 Tyche. [Syracusae.] 
 
 Tydeus (TuSeuj), son of Oeneus, king of Cal)'- 
 don, and Periboea. He was obliged to leave 
 Calydon in consequence of some murder which he 
 had committed, but which is differently described 
 by the different authors, some saying that he 
 killed his father's brother, Melas, Lycopeus, or 
 Alcathous ; others that he slew Thoas or Apha- 
 reus, his mother's brother ; others that he slew his 
 brother Olenias ; and others again that he killed 
 the sons of Melas, who had revolted against Oe- 
 neus. He fled to Adrastus at Argos, who purified 
 him from the murder, and gave him his daughter 
 De'ipyle in marriage, by whom he became the 
 father of Diomedes, who is hence frequently called 
 Tydides. He accompanied Adrastus in the expe- 
 dition against Thebes, where he was wounded by 
 Melanippus, who, however, was slain by him. 
 When Tydeus lay on the ground wounded, Athena 
 appeared to him with a remedy which she had 
 received from Zeus, and which was to make him 
 immortal. This, however, was prevented by a 
 stratagem of Amphiaraus, who hated Tydeus, for 
 he cut off the head of Melanippus and brought it 
 to Tydeus, who divided it and ate the brain, or 
 devoured some of the flesh. Athena, seeing this, 
 shuddered, and left Tydeus to his fate, who conse- 
 quently died, and was buried by Macon. 
 
 Tylos or Tyros (TuA.or, Typos : Bahrcm\ an 
 island in the Persian Gulf, off the coast of Arabia, 
 celebrated for its pearl fisheries. 
 
 Tymbres or Tembrogius {Purseh\ a river of 
 Phrygia, rising in M. Dindymene, and flowing 
 past Cotyaeum and Dorylaeura into the San- 
 gariua. It was the boundary between Phr}'^gia 
 Epictetus and Phrygia Salutaris. 
 
 Tynmes (Tii|Ui'77s), an epigrammatic poet, whose 
 epigrams were included in the Garland of Mele- 
 ager, but respecting whose exact date we have no 
 further evidence. There are 7 of his epigrams in 
 the Greek Anthology. 
 
 Tymphaei (Ty^^aroi), a people of Epirus, on the 
 borders of Thessaly, so called from Mt. Tympke 
 (Tuf.Kp-q)^ sometimes, but less correctly, written 
 Stym.ph.e {^rvf^ptj). Their country was called 
 Tympliaea {Tu/iipaia). 
 
 Tymphrestus (Tufi<ppT}o-T6s : Elladha)^ a moun- 
 tain in Thessaly, in the country of the Dryopes, in 
 "which the river Spercheus rises. 
 
 Tyndareus (Tu^Sapeos), not Tyndarus, which 
 is not found in classical writers, was son of Peri- 
 eres and Gorgophone, or, according to otners, son 
 of Oebalus', by the nymph Batia or by Gorgophone. 
 Tyndareus and his brother Icarius were expelled 
 by their step-brother Hippocoon and his sons ; 
 whereupon Tyndareus fled to Thestius in Aetolia, 
 and assisted him in his wars against his neigh- 
 bours. In Aetolia Tyndareus married Leda, the 
 daughter of Thestius, and was afterwards restored 
 to Sparta by Hercules. By Leda, Tyndareus 
 became the father of Timandra, Clytaemnestra, 
 and Philonoe. ■ One night Leda was embraced 
 both by Zeus and Tyndareus, and the result was 
 the birth of Pollux and Helena, the children of 
 Zeus, and of Castor and Clytaemnestra, the chil- 
 dren of Tyndareus. The patronymic Tyndaridae 
 is frequently given to Castor and Pollux, and the 
 female patronymic Tyndaris to Helen and Cly- 
 
 TYRANNION. 
 
 taemnestra. When Castor and Pollux had been 
 received among the immortals, Tyndareus invited 
 Menelaus to come to Sparta, and surrendered his 
 kimjdnm tn him. 
 
 Tyndaris or Tyndarmm {TwZapU, Twddpiov : 
 Tj'ndaritanus ; Tindare\ a town on the N. coast of 
 Sicih', with a good harbour, a little W. of Mes- 
 sana, near the promontory of the same name 
 founded b}' the elder Dionysius, b. c. 396, which 
 became an important place. 1 1 was the head- 
 quarters of Agrippa, the general of Octavian, in 
 the war against Sex. Pompey, The greater part 
 of the town was subsequently destroyed by an 
 inundation of the sea. 
 
 Typhon or Typhoeus (Tu^awi', Ti;(/)a)euy, con- 
 tracted into Tu<^£<Jy), a monster of the primitive 
 world, is described sometimes as a destructive 
 hurricane, and sometimes as a fire-breathing giant. 
 According to Homer, he was concealed in the 
 earth in the country of the Arimi (EiV 'Apifiois, 
 of whicli the Latin poets have made I?ianme), 
 which was lashed by Zeus with flashes of light- 
 ning. In Hesiod, Typhaon and Typhoeus are 2 
 distinct beings. Typhaon is represented as a son 
 of Typhoeus, and a fearful hurricane, who by 
 Echidna became the father of the dog Orthus, 
 Cerberus, the Lemaean hydra, Chimaera, and the 
 Sphynx. Typhoeus, on the other hand, is called 
 the youngest son of Tartarus and Gaea, or of Hera 
 alone, because she was indignant at Zeus having 
 given birth to Athena. He is described as a 
 monster with 100 heads, fearful eyes, and terrible 
 voices ; he wanted to acquire the sovereignty of 
 gods and men, but was subdued, after a fearful 
 struggle, by Zeus, with a thunderbolt. He begot 
 the winds, whence he is also called the father of 
 the Harpies ; bat the beneficent winds Notus, 
 Boreas, Argestes, and Zephyrus, were not his sons. 
 Aeschylus and Pindar describe liim as living in a 
 Cilician cave. He is further said to have at one 
 time been engaged in a struggle with all the im- 
 mortals, and to have been killed by Zeus with a 
 flash of lightning; he was buried in Tartarus 
 under Mount Aetna, the workshop of Hephaestus, 
 which is hence called by the poets Typhois Aetna, 
 The later poets frequently connect Typhoeus with 
 Egypt. The gods, it is said, unable to hold out 
 against him, fled to Egypt, where, from fear, they 
 metamorphosed themselves into animals, with the 
 exception of Zeus and Athena. 
 
 Tyragetae, Tyrigetae or Tyrangetae, a people 
 in European Sarmatia, probably a branch of the 
 Getae, dwelling E. of the river Tyras. 
 
 Tyrannion (^vpavvicav). 1. A Greek gramma- 
 rian, a native of Amisus in Pontus, was originally 
 called Theophrastus, but received from his in- 
 structor the name of Tyrannion on account of hia 
 domineering behaviour to his fellow disciples. In 
 B. c. 72 he was taken captive by Lucullus, who 
 carried him to Rome. He was given by Lucullus 
 to Murena, who manumitted him. At Rome 
 Tyrannion occupied himself in teaching. He was 
 also employed in arranging the library of Apelli- 
 con, which Sulla brought to Rome. This library 
 contained the writings of Aristotle, upon which 
 Tyrannion bestowed considerable care and atten- 
 tion. Cicero speaks in the highest terms of the 
 learning and ability of Tyrannion. Tyrannion 
 amassed considerable wealth, and died at a very 
 advanced age of a paralytic stroke. — 2. A native 
 of Phoenicia, the son of Artemldorus, and a 
 
TYRAS. 
 
 disciple of the preceding. His original name was 
 Diodes. He was taken captive in the war be- 
 tween Antony and Octavian, and was purchased 
 hy Dymas, a freedman of tlie emperor. By liini 
 he was presented to Terentia, the wife of Cicero, 
 who manumitted him. He taught at Rome, and 
 wrote a great number of works, which are all lost. 
 Tyras (Tvpas^TupTjs: D7iiesier), subsequently 
 called Danastris, a river in European Sarraatia, 
 forming in the lower part of its course the boundary 
 between Dacia and Sarmatia, and falling into the 
 Pontus Euxiuus, N. of the Danube. At its mouth 
 there was a town of the same name, probably on 
 the site of the modern Adcjermann. 
 
 Tyriaeum {Tuptatov : Jlghun\ a city of Lyca- 
 onia, described by Xenophou (in the Analasis) as 
 2D parasangs W. of Iconium. It lay due "W. of 
 Laodicea. 
 
 T^o (Tupw), daughter of Salmoneus and Al- 
 cidice. She was wife of Cretheus, and beloved by 
 the river-god Enipeus in Thessaly, in whose form 
 Poseidon appeared to her, and became by her the 
 fatlier of Pelias and Neleus. By Cretheus she 
 was the mother of Aeson, Pheres, and Amythaon. 
 Tyrrlieni, Tyrrhema. [Etruria.] 
 Tyrrhenum Mare. [Etruria.] 
 Tyrrhemis {Tu^p7}v6s or Tvpa-Tji^os), son of the 
 Lydian king Atys and Callithea, and brother of 
 Lydus, is said to have led a Pelasgian colony from 
 Lydia into Italy, into the country of tlie Um- 
 brians, and to liave given to the colonists his name, 
 Tyrrhenians. Others call Tyrrhenus a son of 
 Hercules by Omphale, or of Telephus and Hiera, 
 and a brother of Tarchon. The name Tai'chon 
 seems to be only another form of Tyrrhenus. 
 
 Tyrrheus, a shepherd of king Latinus. As 
 Ascanius was hunting, he killed a tame stag be- 
 longing to Tyrrheus, whereupon the country people 
 took up arms, which was the first conflict in Italy 
 between the natives and the Trojan settlers. 
 
 Tyrtaeus {TupToios or TupTatus), son of Ar- 
 cherabrotus, of Aphidnae in Attica. According to 
 the older tradition, the Spartans during the '2nd 
 Messenian war were commanded by an oracle to 
 take a leader from among the Athenians, and thus 
 to conquer their enemies, whereupon they chose 
 Tyrtaeus as their leader. Later writers embellish 
 the story, and represent Tyrtaeus as a lame sciiool- 
 master, of low family and reputation, whom tlie 
 Athenians, when applied to by the Lacedae- 
 monians in accordance with the oracle, pui-posely 
 sent as the most inefficient leader they could select, 
 being unwilling to assist the Lacedaemonians in 
 extending their dominion in the Peloponnesus, but 
 little thinking that the poetry of Tyrtaeus would 
 achieve tliat victory which his physical consti- 
 tution seemed to forbid his aspiring to. Many 
 modern critics reject altogether the account of the 
 Attic origin of Tyrtaeus, and maintain that the 
 extant fragments of his poetry actually furnish 
 evidence of his being a Lacedaemonian. But it is 
 impossible to arrive at any positive decision upon 
 the subject. It is certain, however, that the 
 poems of Tyrtaeus exercised an important influence 
 upon the Spartans, composing their dissensions at 
 home, and animating their courage in the field. 
 In order to appease their civil discords, he com- 
 posed his celebrated elegy entitled *' Legal Order " 
 (EvPoiJ,ia), which appears to have had a wondrous 
 effect in stilling the excited passions of the Spar- 
 tans. But still more celebrated were the poems 
 
 TZETZES. 
 
 797 
 
 by which he animated the courage of the Spnrtans 
 in their conflict with the Messenians. These, 
 poems were of 2 kinds ; namely, elegies, con- 
 taining exhortations to constancy and courage,, and 
 descriptions of the glory of fighting bravely for 
 one's native land ; and more spirited compositions, 
 in the anapaestic measure, which were intended as 
 marching songs, to be performed with the music of 
 the flute. He lived to see the success of his efforts 
 in the entire conquest of the Messenians, and their 
 reduction to the condition of Helots. He tliere- 
 fore flourished down to b. c. 668, winch was tlie 
 last year of the 2nd Messenian war. The best 
 separate edition of the fragments of his poems is 
 by Bach, with the remains of the elegiac poets, 
 Callinus and Asius, Lips. 1831. 
 
 Tyrus (Tupos : Ai-am. Tura : 0. T. Tsor : Tu- 
 pios, Tyrius : Sm-^ Ru.), one of the greatest and 
 most famous cities of the ancient world, stood on 
 the coast of Phoenice, about 20 miles S. of Sidon. 
 It was a colony of the Sidonians, and is tiierefore 
 called in Scripture " the daughter of Sidon." It 
 gradually eclipsed the mother city, and came to be 
 the chief place of all Phoenice for wealth, commerce, 
 and colonising activity. In the time of Solomon, 
 we find its king, Hiram, who was also king of 
 Sidon, in close alliance with the Hebrew monarch, 
 whom he assisted in building the temple and his 
 palace, and in commercial enterprises. Respecting 
 its colonies and maritime enterprise, see Phoenice 
 and Carthago. The Assyrian king Shalma- 
 neser laid siege to Tyre for 5 years, but without 
 success. It was again besieged for 13 years by Ne- 
 buchadnezzar, and there is a tradition that he took 
 it, but the matter is not quite certain. At the 
 pei'iod when the Greeks began to be well ac- 
 quainted with the city, its old site had been aban- 
 doned, and a new city erected on a small island 
 about half a mile from the shore, and a mile in 
 length, and a little N. of the remains of the former 
 city, which was now called Old Tyre {UaXaiTvpos), 
 With the additional advantage of its insular po- 
 sition, this new city soon rose to a prosperity 
 scarcely less than that of its predecessor ; though, 
 under the Persian kings, it seems to have ranked 
 again below Sidon. [Sidon.] In b. c. 322 the 
 Tyrians refused to open their gates to Alexander, 
 who laid siege to the city for 7 months, and united 
 the island on which it stood to the mainland by a 
 mole constructed chiefly of the ruins of Old Tyre. 
 This mole has ever since formed a permanent con- 
 nection between the island and the mainland. 
 After its capture and sack by Alexander, Tyre 
 never regained its former consequence, and its 
 commerce was for the most part transferred to 
 Alexandria. It recovered, however, sufficiently 
 to be mentioned as a strong fortress and flourishing 
 port under the early Roman emperors. Septimius 
 Severus made it a Roman colony. It was the 
 see of a bishop, and Jerome calls it the most beau- 
 tiful city of Phoenicia. It was a place of consider- 
 able importance in medieval history, especially as 
 one of the last points held by the Christians on the 
 coast of Syria. The wars of the Crusades com- 
 pleted its ruin, and its site is now occupied by a 
 poor village ; and even its ruins are for the most 
 part covered by the sea. Even the site of Baby- 
 lon does not present a more striking fulfilment of 
 prophecy, 
 
 Tzetzes (rCerCvs). t Joannes, a Greek gram- 
 marian of Constantinople, flourished about a. d. 
 
70C TZITZIS. : 
 
 ]i50. His writings bear evident tiaces of the 
 extent of his learning, and not less of the inordi- 
 nate self-conceit witli which they had filled him. 
 He wrote a vast number of works, of which several 
 are s-till extant. Of these the 2 following are the 
 most important : 1. Ulaca^ which consists properly 
 of 3 poems, collected into one under the titles Ta 
 irph 'Ofi7}pou, TO, 'OfiTipov^ ical to /i€0' "Ofx-qpov. 
 The whole amounts to 1676 lines, and is written 
 in hexameter metre. It is a very dull composition. 
 Edited by Bekker, Berlin, 1316. 2. CliUiades, 
 consisting in its present fonu of 12,661 lines. 
 This name wag given to it by the first editor, who 
 divided it, without reference to the contents, into 
 13 divisions of 1000 lines, the last being incom- 
 plete. Its subject-matter is of the most miscella- 
 neous kind, but embraces chiefly mythological and 
 historical narratives, arranged under separate titles, 
 and without any further connection'. The follow- 
 ing are a few of them, as thej' occur : Croesus, 
 Midas, Gyges, Codrus, Alcmaeon, &c. It is 
 written in bad Greek, in that abominable make- 
 believe of a metre called political verse. Edited 
 by Kiessling, Lips. 1826.^2. Isaac, brother of 
 the preceding, the author of a valuable coraraentai'y 
 on the Cassandra of Lycophron. The commentary 
 is printed in most of the editions of Lycophron. 
 
 Tzitzis or Tzutzis (Ru. S. of Debout\ a city in 
 the N. of the Dodecaschoenus, that is, the part of 
 Aethiopia immediately above Egypt, a little S. of 
 Parembole, and considerably N. of Taphis. 
 
 U. 
 
 TJbii, a German people, who originally dwelt on 
 the right bank of the Rhine, but were transported 
 across the river by Agrippa in B.C. 37, at their 
 own request, because they wished to escape the 
 hostilities of the Suevi. They took the name of 
 Agrippenses, from their town Cox^onia Agrip- 
 
 PINA. 
 
 Ucalegon {OvKa'Ki'y(»}v^, one of the elders at 
 Troy, whose house was burnt at the destruction of 
 the city. ' 
 
 T^cubis, a town in Hispanla Baetica near Cor- 
 dnba. 
 
 Ufens {Uffente)^ a river in Latium, flowing 
 from Setia, and falling into the Amasenus. 
 
 TJffugum, a town in Bruttium, between Scyl- 
 lacium and Rhegium. 
 
 Ugemimi (Beaucaire), a town in Gallia Nar- 
 bonensis, on the road from Nemausus to Aquae 
 Sextiae, where Avitus was proclaimed emperor. 
 
 TTlia {Moniemayor)^ a Roman municipium in 
 Hispania Baetica, situated upon a hill and upon 
 the road from Gades to Corduba. 
 
 Uliams or Olarionensis Insula (Oleron), an 
 island off the W, coast of Gaul, in the Aquitanian 
 gulf. 
 
 TJlpianus. 1. Domitius Ulpiaiius, a celebrated 
 jurist, derived his origin from Tyre in Phoenicia, 
 but was probably not a native of Tyre himself. 
 The time of his birth is unknown. The greater 
 part of his juristical works were written during 
 the sole reign of Caracalla, especially the 2 great 
 works Ad Edictum and the Lihrl ad SaUnum. 
 He was banished or deprived of hia functions under 
 Elagabalus, who became emperor 217 ; but on the 
 accession of Alexander Severus 222, he became the 
 emperor's chief adviser. The emperor conferred on 
 
 ULYSSES. 
 
 Ulpian the office of Scriniorum magister, and made 
 him a consiliarius. He also held the office of 
 Praefectus Aimonae, and he was likewise made 
 Praefectus Praetorio. Ulpian perished in the reign 
 of Alexander by the hands of the soldiers, who 
 forced their way into the palace at night, and 
 killed him in the presence of the emperor and his 
 mother, 22f]. His promotion to the office of prae- 
 fectus praetorio was probably an unpopular mea- 
 sure. A great part of the numerous writings of 
 Ulpian were still extant in the time of Justinian, 
 and a much greater quantity is excerpted from him 
 by the compilers of the Digest than from any 
 other jurist. The number of excerpts from Ulpian 
 is said to be 2462 ; and many of the excerpts are 
 of great length, and altogether they form about one- 
 third of the whole body of the Digest. The ex- 
 cerpts from Paulus and Ulpian together make about 
 one half of the Digest. Ulpian's style is perspi- 
 cuous, and presents fewer difficulties than that of 
 many of the Roman jurists who are excerpted in 
 the Digest. The great legal knowledge, the good 
 sense, and the industry of Ulpian place him among 
 the first of the Roman jurists; and he has exer- 
 cised a great influence on the jurisprudence of 
 modern Europe, through the copious extrp-cts from 
 his writings which have been preserved by the 
 compilers of Justinian's Digest, We possess a 
 fragment of a work under tlie title of Domiiii Ul- 
 piani Fragmenta ; it consists of 29 titles, and is a 
 valuable source for the history of the Roman law. 
 The best editions are by Hugo, Berlin, 1834, and 
 by Bdcking, Bonn, 1836.^2. Of Antioch,a sophist, 
 lived in the time of Constantine the Great, and 
 wrote several rhetoricfd works. The name of Ul- 
 pianus is prefixed to extant Commentaries in Greek, 
 on 18 of the orations of Demosthenes ; and it is 
 usually stated that they were written by Ulpianus 
 of Antioch. But the Commentaries have evidently 
 received numerous additions and interpolations from 
 some grammarian of a very late period. They are 
 printed in several editions of the Attic orators. 
 
 XJlpius Trajanus. [Trajanus,] 
 
 Tutor, "the avenger," a surname of Mars, to 
 whom Augustus built a temple at Rome in the 
 forum, after taking vengeance upon the murderers 
 of his great-uncle, Julius Caesar. 
 
 TJlubrae (Ulubranus, Uluhrensis), a small town 
 in Latium, of uncertain site, but in the neighbour- 
 hood of the Pontine Marshes. 
 
 Ulysses, Ulyxes, or Ulixes, called Odysseus 
 ('05i;(To-€us) by the Greeks, one of the principal 
 Greek heroes in the Trojan war. According to 
 the Homeric account, he was a son of Laertes and 
 Anticlea, the daughter of Autolycus, and was mar- 
 ried to Penelope, the daughter of Icarius, by whom 
 he became the father of Telemachus. But accord- 
 ing to a later tradition he was a son of Sisyphus 
 and Anticlea, who, being with child by Sisyphus, 
 was married to Laertes, and tlms gave birth to 
 him either after her arrival in Ithaca, or on her 
 way thither. Later traditions further state that 
 besides Telemachus, Ulysses became by Penelope 
 the father of Arcesilaus or Ptoliporthus ; and, by 
 Circe, the father of Agrius, Latinus, Telegonus, 
 and Cassiphone ; by Calypso of Nausithous and 
 Nauslnous or Auson, Telegonus, and Teledamus ; 
 and lastly, by Evippe of Leontophron, Doryclus or 
 Enryalus. The name Odysseus is said to signify 
 tJie avgt-y. The story of Ulysses ran as follows :— 
 When a young man, Ulysses went to see his 
 
ULYSSES. 
 
 705 
 
 grandfather Autol3'cu3 near Mt. Parnassus, There, 
 while engaged in the chase, he wiss wounded by a 
 boar in his knee, by the scar of wliich h« was sub- 
 sequently recognised by Eiiryclia. Even at that 
 age he was distinguished for courage, for knowledge 
 of navigation, for eloquence and for skill as a nego- 
 tiator; and, on one occasion, when the Mcssenians 
 had carried off some sheep from Itliaca, Laertes 
 sent him to Messene to demand reparation. He 
 there met with Ipliitus, who was seeking the horses 
 stolen from him, and who gave him the famous 
 bow of Eurytus. This bow Ulysses used only in 
 Ithaca, regarding it as too great a treasure to be 
 employed in the field, and it was so strong that 
 none of the suitors was able to handle it. Accord- 
 ing to some accounts he went to Spf^rta as one of 
 the suitors of Helen ; and he is said to have ad- 
 vised Tyndareus to make the suitors swear, that 
 they would defend the chosen bridegroom against 
 any one who should insult him on Helen's account. 
 Tyndareus, to show him his gratitude, persuaded 
 his brother Icarius to give Penelope in marriage to 
 Ulysses ; or, according to others, Ulysses gained 
 her by conquering his competitors in the footrace. 
 Homer, however, mentions nothing of all this, and 
 states that Agamemnon, who visited Ulysses in 
 Ithaca, prevailed upon him only with great diffi- 
 culty to join the Greeks in their expedition against 
 Troy. Other traditions relate that he was visited 
 by Menelaua and Agamemnon, and that Palamedes 
 more especially induced him to join the Greeks. 
 When Palaraedes came to Ithaca, Ulysses pre- 
 tended to be mad ; lie yoked an ass and ox to a 
 plough, and began to sow salt. Palamedes, to try 
 him, placed the infant Telcmachus before the 
 plough, whereupon the father could not continue to 
 play his part. He stopped the plough, and was 
 obliged to undertake the fulfilment of the promise 
 he had made when he was one of the suitors of 
 Helen. This occurrence is said to have been the 
 cause of his hatred of Palamedes, Being now him- 
 self gained for the undertaking, he contrived to 
 discover Achilles, who was concealed among the 
 daughters of king Lycomedes. [Achilles.] Be- 
 fore, however, the Greeks sailed from home, Ulysses 
 in conjunction with Menelaus went to Troy for 
 the purpose of inducing the Trojans to restore Helen 
 and her treasures. When the Greeks were assem- 
 bled at Aulis, Ulysses joined them with 12 ships 
 and men from Cephallene, Ithaca, Neriton, Cro- 
 cylia, Zacynthus, Samos, and the coast of Epirus. 
 During the siege of Troy he distinguished himself 
 as a valiant and undaunted warrior, but more par- 
 ticularly as a cunning spy, and a prudent and elo- 
 quent negotiator. After the death of Achillea, Ulysses 
 contended for his armour with the Telamonian 
 Ajax, and gained the prize. He is said by some 
 to have devised the stratagem of the wooden horse, 
 and he was one of the heroes concealed within it. 
 He is also said to have taken part in carrying off 
 the palladium. — But the most celebrated part of 
 his story consists of his adventures after the de- 
 struction of Troy, which form the subject of the 
 Homeric poem called after him, the Odyssey. After 
 the capture of Troy he set out on his voyage home, 
 but was overtaken by a storm and thrown upon 
 the coast of Israarus, a 'town of the Cicones, in 
 Thrace, N. of the island of Lemnos. He plundered 
 the town, but several of his men were cut off by 
 the Cicones. From thence he was driven by a N. 
 ■wind towards Malea and to the Lotophagi on the 
 
 coast of Libya. Some of his companions were so 
 much delighted with the tjiste of the lotus that 
 they wanted to remain in the country, but Ulysses 
 compelled them to embark ngain, and continued his 
 voyage. In one day he reached the goat-island, 
 situated N. of the country of the Lotophagi, Ho 
 there left behind 11 ships, and with one he sailed 
 to the neighbouring island ot the Cyclopes (the 
 western coast of Sicily), where with 12 companions 
 he entered the cave of the Cyclops Polyphemus, a 
 son of Poseidon and Thoosa. This giant devoured 
 one after another 6 of the companions of Ulysses, 
 and kept the unfortunate Ulysses and the 1) others 
 as prisoners in his cave. In order to save himself 
 Ulysses contrived to make the monster drunk with 
 wine, and then with a burning pole deprived him 
 of bis one eye. He now succeeded in making his 
 escape with his friends, by concealing himself and 
 them under the bodies of the sheep which the 
 Cyclops let out of his cave. In this way Ulysses 
 reached his ship. The Cyclops implored his father 
 Poseidon to take vengeance upon Ulysses, and 
 henceforth the god of the sea pursued the wander- 
 ing king with implacable enmity. Ulj'^sses next 
 arrived at the island of Aeolus ; and the god on 
 his departure gave him a bag of winds, which were 
 to carry him liome ; but the companions of Ulysses 
 opened the bag, and the winds escaped, whereupon 
 the ships were driven back to the island of Aeolus, 
 who indignantly refused all further assistance. 
 After a voyage of 6 days, Uh'sses arrived at Te- 
 lepylos, the city of Lamus, in which Antipbates 
 ruled over the Laestrygones, a sort of cannibals. 
 This place must probably be sought somewhere in 
 the N. of Sicily. Ulysses escaped from them with 
 only one ship; and his fate now carried him to a 
 western island, Aeaea, inhabited by the sorceress 
 Circe. Part of his people were sent to explore the 
 island, but they were changed by Circe into swine. 
 Eurylochus alone escaped, and brought the sad 
 news to Ulysses, who, when he was hastening to 
 the assistance of his friends, was instructed by 
 Hermes by what means he could resist the magic 
 powers of Circe, He succeeded in liberating his 
 companions, who were again changed into men, 
 and were most hospitably treated by the sorceress. 
 When at length Ulysses begged for leave to de- 
 part, Circe desired him to descend into Hades and 
 to consult the seer Tiresias. He now sailed W. 
 right across the river Oceanus, and having landed 
 on the other side in the country of the Cimme- 
 rians, where Helios does not shine, he entered 
 Hades, and consulted Tiresias about the manner 
 in which he might reach his native island. Tire- 
 sias informed him of the danger and difficulties 
 arising from the anger of Poseidon, but gave him 
 hope that all would yet turn out well, if Ulysses 
 and his companions would leave the herds of Helios 
 in Thrinacia uninjured. Ulysses now returned to 
 Aeaea, where Circe again treated the strangers 
 kindly, told them of the dangers that yet awaited 
 them, and of the means of escaping. The wind 
 which she sent with them carried them to the 
 island of the Sirens, somewhere near the W. coast 
 of Italy. The Sirens sat on the shore, and with 
 their sweet voices attracted all that passed by, and 
 then destroyed them. Ulysses, in order to escape 
 the danger, filled the ears of his companions with 
 wax, and fastened himself to the mast cf his ship, 
 until he was out of the reach of the Sirens'" song. 
 His ship next sailed between Scylla and Charyb- 
 
800 
 
 ULYSSES. 
 
 dis, two rocks between Thriiiacia and Italy. As 
 the ship passed between them, Soylla, the monster 
 inhabiting the rock of the same name, carried off 
 and devoured 6 of the companions of Ulysses. 
 Frum thence he came to Thrinacia, the island of 
 Helios, wlio there kept his sacred herds of oxen. 
 Mindful of the advice of Tiresias and Circe, 
 Ulysses wanted to sail past, but his companions 
 compelled him to land. He made them swi^ar not 
 to touch any of the cattle ; but as they were de- 
 tained in the island by storms, and were hungry, 
 they killed the finest of the oxen while Ulysses 
 was asleep. After some days the storm abated, 
 and they sailed away, but soon another storm came 
 on, and their ship was destroyed by Zeus with a 
 flash of lightning. All were drowned with the ex- 
 ception of Ulysses, who saved himself by means of 
 the mast and planks, and after 10 days reached 
 the island of Ogygia, inhabited by the nymph 
 Calypso. She received him with kindness, and 
 desired him to marry her, promising immortality 
 and eternal youth, if he would consent, and forget 
 Ithaca. But he could not overcome his longing 
 after his own home. Athena, who had always 
 protected Ulysses, induced Zeus to promise that 
 her favourite hero, notwithstanding tlie anger of 
 Poseidon, should one day return to his native 
 island, and take vengeance on the suitors of Pene- 
 lope. Hermes carried to Calypso the command of 
 Zeus to dismiss Ulysses. The nymph obeyed, and 
 taught him how to built a raft, on which, after 
 remaining 8 years with her, he left the island. In 
 lo days he cfime in sight of Scheria, the island of 
 the Phaeacians, when Poseidon sent a storm, 
 which cast hira off the raft. By the assistance of 
 Leucotiiea and Athena he reached Scheria by dint 
 of swimming. The exhausted hero slept on the 
 shore, until he was awoke by the voices of maidens. 
 He found Nausicaa, the daughter of king Alcinous 
 and Arete, who conducted the hero to her father's 
 court. He was there honoured with, feasts and 
 contests, and the minstrel Demodocus sang of tlie 
 fall of Tro}', which moved Ulysses to tears, and 
 being questioned about the cause of his emotion, 
 lie related his whole history. At length he was 
 sent home in a ship. One night as he had fallen 
 asleep in his ship, it reached the coast of Ithaca ; 
 the Phaeacians who had accompanied him carried 
 him on shore, and left him. He had now been 
 away from Ithaca for 20 years, and when he awoke 
 he did not recognise his native land, for Athena, 
 that he might not be recognised, had enveloped 
 liim in a cloud. As he was lamenting his fate the 
 goddess informed him where he was, and advised 
 him how to take vengeance upon the enemies of 
 his house. During his absence his father Laertes, 
 bowed down by grief and old age, had withdrawn 
 into the country, his mother Anticlea had died of 
 sorrow, his son Telemachus had grown up to man- 
 hood, and his wife Penelope had rejected all the 
 offers that had been made to her by the importu- 
 nate suitors from the neighbouring islands. During 
 the last few years more than a hundred nobles of 
 Ithaca, Same, Dulichium, and Zacynthus had been 
 suing for the hand of Penelope, and in their visits 
 to her house had treated all that it contained as if 
 it had been their own. That he might be able to 
 take vengeance upon them, it was necessary that 
 he should not be recognised. Athena accordingly 
 metamorphosed him into an unsightly beggar, and 
 he was kindly received by Eumaeus, the awine- 
 
 UMBRIA. 
 
 herd, a faithful servant of his house, "While staying 
 with Eumaeus, his son Telemachus returned from 
 Sparta and Pylos, whither he had gone to obtain 
 information concerning his father. Ulysses made 
 himself known to him, and with him deliberated 
 upon the plan of revenge. In the disguise of a 
 beggar he accompanied Telemachus and Eumaeus 
 to the town. The plan of revenge was now carried 
 into effect. Penelope, with great difficulty, was made 
 to promise her hand to him who should conquer the 
 others in shooting with the bow of Ulysses. As 
 none of the suitors was able to draw this bow,Ulysse3 
 himself took, it up and then began to attack the 
 suitors. He was supported by Athena and his son, 
 and all fell by his hands. Ulysses now made 
 himself known to Penelope, and went to see hia 
 aged father. In the meantime the report of the 
 death of the suitors was spread abroad, and their 
 relatives rose in arms against Ulysses ; but 
 Athena, who assumed the appearance of Mentor, 
 brought about a reconciliation between the people 
 and the king. It has already been remarked that 
 in the Homeric poems Ulysses is represented as a 
 prudent, cunning, inventive, and eloquent man, but 
 at the same time as a brave, bold, and persevering 
 warrior, whose courage no misfortune or calamity 
 could subdue, but later poets describe hira as a 
 cowardly, deceitful, and intriguing personage. 
 Respecting the last period of his life the Homeric 
 poems give us no information, except the prophecy 
 of Tiresias, who promised him a painless death in 
 a happy old age ; but later writers give us different 
 accounts. According to one, Telegonus, the son 
 of Ulysses by Circe, was sent out by his mother 
 to seek his father, A storm cast him upon Ithaca, 
 which he began to plunder in order to obtain pro- 
 visions. Ulysses and Telemachus attacked him, 
 but he slew Ulysses, and his body was afterwards 
 carried to Aeaea. According to some, Circe re- 
 called Ulysses to life again, or on his arrival in 
 Tyrrhenia he was burnt on Mt, Perge. In works 
 of art Ul3'sses is commonly represented as a sailor, 
 wearing a semi-oval cap, 
 
 Umbria, called by the Greeks Ombrica (tj 'O^- 
 €piK7i), a district of Italy, bounded on the N, by 
 Gallia Cisalpina, from which it was separated by 
 the river Rubicon ; on the E. by the Adriatic sea ; 
 on the S. by Picenum, from which it v/as separated 
 by the river Aesis, and by the land of the Sabines, 
 from which it was separated by the river Nar; and 
 on the W. by Etruria, from which it was separated 
 by the Tiber. Under Augustus it formed the 6th 
 Regio of Italy, The Apennines ran through the 
 W. part of the country, but it contained many fertile 
 plains on the coast. Its inhabitants, the TJmbri 
 (sing. Umber), called by the Greeks "Umbrici 
 {^OfiSpiKoi)^ were one of the most ancient peoples 
 of Italy, and were connected with the Opicans, 
 Sabines, and those other iribes whose languages 
 were akin to the Greek, The Umbri were at a 
 very early period the most powerful people in 
 central Italy, and extended across the peninsula 
 from the Adriatic to the Tyrrhene seas. Thus 
 they inhabited the country afterwards called Etru- 
 ria ; and we are expressly told that Crotona, Pe- 
 rusia, Clusium, and other Etruscan cities, were 
 built by the Umbrians, They were afterwards de- 
 pri\;ed of their possessions W. of the Tiber by the 
 Etruscans, and confined to the country between, 
 this river and the Adriatic. Their territories were 
 still further diminished by the Senones, a Gallic 
 
UMBRO. 
 
 people, who took possession of tlie whole country on 
 the coast, from Ariminum to the Aesis. The Um- 
 bri were subdued by the Romans, b. c. 307 ; and 
 after the conquest of the Senones by the Romans 
 in 283, they again obtained possession of the country 
 on the coast of the Adriatic. This district, how- 
 ever, continued to be called Ager Gallkiis down to 
 a late period. The chief towns of Umbria were 
 Ariminum, Fanum Fortunae, Mevania, 
 TuDKR, Narnia, and Spoletium. 
 
 Umbro {Omhrone)^ one of the largest rivers in 
 Etruria, falling into the Tyrrhene sea, near a to\vn 
 of the same name. 
 ^ TTmmidius Quadratus. [Quadratus.] 
 
 TTnelli, a people on the N. coast of Gaul, on a 
 promontory opposite Britain (the modern Coiantin)^ 
 belonging to the Armorici, 
 
 TTpis (OSTTiy), 1. A surname of Artemis, as the 
 goddess assisting women in child-birth. — 2. The 
 name of a mythical being, who is said to have 
 reared Artemis, and who is mentioned by Virgil as 
 one of the nymphs in her train. The masculine 
 Upis is mentioned by Cicero as the father of 
 Artemis. 
 
 Ur. [Edessa.] 
 
 tJrania {Ovpavia). 1. One of the Muses, a 
 daughter of Zeus by Mnemosyne. The ancient 
 bard Linus is called her son by Apollo, and Hyme- 
 naeus also is said to have been a son of Urania. 
 She was regarded, as her name indicates, as the 
 Muse of Astronomy, and was represented with a 
 celestial globe, to which she points with a small 
 staff. — 2. Daughter of Oceanus and Tethys, who 
 also occurs as a nymph in the train of Persephone. 
 — 3. A surname of Aphrodite, describing her as 
 '' the heavenly," or spiritual, to distinguish her 
 from Aphrodite Pandemos. Plato represents her 
 as a daughter of Uranus, begotten without a. 
 mother. Wine was not used in the libations offered 
 to her. 
 
 TTranus {OhpavSs) or Heaven, sometimes called 
 a son, and sometimes the husband of Gaea (Earth). 
 ^Y Gaea Uranus became the father of Oceanus, 
 Coeus, Crius, Hyperion, lapetus, Thia, Rhia, 
 Themis, Mnemosyne, Phoebe, Tethys, Cronos ; of 
 the Cyclopes, — Brontes, Steropes, Arges ; and of 
 the Hecatoncheires — Cottus, Briareus, and G^-^es. 
 According to Cicero, Uranus also was the father of 
 Mercury by Dia, and of Venus by Hemera. Ura- 
 nus hated his children, and immediately after their 
 birth he confined them in Tartarus, in consequence 
 of which he was unmanned and dethroned by 
 Cronos at the instigation of Gaea. Out of the 
 drops of his blood sprang the Gigantes, the Melian 
 nymphs, and according to some, Silenus, and from 
 the foam gathering around his limbs in the sea 
 sprang Aphrodite. 
 
 XTrbigenus Pagus. [Helvetil] 
 
 TTrbinum (Urbinas, -atis). 1. Horteuse (fZ)-- 
 &eno), a town in Umbria and a municipium, situated 
 on a steep round rock. —3. Metaurense {Urha- 
 nia\ a town in Umbria on the river Metaurue, and 
 not far from its source. 
 
 Urbs Salvia. [Pollentia, No. 2.] 
 IJrci, a town of the Bastetani in Hispania Tar- 
 raconensis, on the coast, and on the road from Cas- 
 tulo to Malaca. 
 
 Urcinium {Orcine), a town on the W. coast of 
 Corsica. 
 
 TTrgo or Gorgon (Gorgona), an island off the 
 coast of Etruria, N. of Ilva. 
 
 uxir. 
 
 801 
 
 TJria (Uriiis : Ona), called Hyria ("Tply}) by 
 Herodotus, a town in Calabria on the road from 
 Brundisium to Tarentum, was the ancient capital 
 of lapygia, and is said to have been founded by 
 the Cretans under Minos, 
 
 TJrium, a small town in Apulia, from which 
 the Sinus Unas took its name, being the bay on 
 the N. side of Mt. Garganus opposite the Diome- 
 dean islands. 
 
 TJrseius Ferox. [Ferox.] 
 
 "Ursus, a contemporary of Domitian, whom he 
 dissuaded from killing his wife Domitia. Statins 
 addressed to him a poem of consolation on the 
 death of a favourite slave {SUv. iL 6), and he also 
 mentions him in the Preface to the 2d book of his 
 Silvae. 
 
 TJscana, a large town in Illyria, on a tributary 
 of the Aous and in the district Penestiana. 
 
 TJsipetes or Usipii, a German people, who, being 
 driven out of their abodes by the Suevi, crossed 
 the Rhine and penetrated into Gaul ; but they 
 were defeated by Caesar, and compelled to recrosa 
 the river. They were now received by the Sigam- 
 bri, and allowed to dwell on the N. bank of the 
 Lippe ; but we afterwards find them S. of the 
 Lippe ; and at a still later time they become lost 
 mider the geneml name of Alemanni. 
 
 Ustica, a valley near the Sabine villa of Horace.. 
 
 Utica {7} 'iTwci} or OiiTiKrj : 'iTu/coToy, Uti- 
 censis : Bou-Skater, Ru.), the greatest city of 
 ancient Africa, after Carthage, was a Phoeniciarb 
 colonj', older (and, if the chronologers are to be 
 tnisted, much older) than Carthage. Like others of 
 the very ancient Phoenician colonies in the territory 
 of Carthage, Utica maintained a comparative inde- 
 pendence, even during the height of the Punic 
 power, and was rather the ally of Carthage than. . 
 her subject. It stood on the shore of the N. part 
 of the Carthaginian Gulf, a little \V, of the mouth 
 of the Bagradas, and 27 Roman miles N. W. of 
 Carthage; but its site is now inland, in conse- - 
 quence of the changes effected by the Bagradas in 
 the coast-line. [Bagradas,] In the 3d Punic 
 "War, Utica took part with the Romans against 
 Carthage, and was rewarded with the greatest part, 
 of the Carthaginian territory. It afterwards be- 
 came renowned to all future time as the scene 
 of the last stand made by the Pompeian party 
 against Caesar, and of the glorious, though mis-- 
 taken, self-sacrifice of the younger Cato. [Cato.] 
 
 T7tu3 ( Vid), a river in Moesia and a tributary of." 
 the Danube, falling into the latter river at tSc 
 town Utus. It is perhaps the same river as the 
 Artanes of Herodotus. 
 
 TTxama {Osma\ a town of tlie Arevaci in His- 
 pania Tarraconensis, on the road from Asturica to 
 Caesaraugusta, 50 miles W. of Numantia. 
 
 ITsantis {Uskant), an island off the N. W. 
 coast of Gaul. 
 
 trxellodumim, a town of the Cadurci in Gallia 
 Aquitanica, situated on a steep hill, rising out of 
 the plain, at the foot of wliich a river flowed. It 
 is probably the same as the .modern Capdcriac on 
 the Lot. 
 
 TTxentum (Uxentinus : Tfgento), a town in Ca- 
 labria,^ N. W. of the lapygian promontory. 
 
 TTxii (Of^^tot), a warlike people, of predatory 
 habits, who had their strongholds in M. Para- 
 choathras, on the N. border of Persia, in the district 
 called Uxia (Ou|fa), but who also extended over 
 a considerable tract of country in Media. 
 
 3p 
 
802 
 
 VACCA. 
 
 Tacca, Vaga, or Valia {Oiiaya^ Bdya ; Beja), 
 a city of Zeugitana in N. Africa, on the borders of 
 Numidia, on an E. tributary of the river Tnsca, 
 a good day's journey S, of Utica. It was a 
 great emporium for the trade between Hippo, 
 Utica, and Carthage, and tbe interior. It was de- 
 Btroyed by Metellua in the Jugurthine War, but 
 was restored and colonised by the Romans. Its 
 fortifications were renewed by Justinian, who 
 named it Theodorias in honour of his wife. 
 
 Vaccaei, a people in the interior of Hlspania 
 Tarraconensis, occupying the modern Jbro, PaJen- 
 ■da, Burgos^ and Valladolid, E. of the Astures, S. 
 of- the Cantabri, W. of the Celtiberi, and N. of 
 the Cantabri. Their chief towns were Pallantia 
 and Intercatia. 
 
 Vada. 1. A fortress of the Batavi in GalHa 
 Belgica, E. of Batavodurura. — 2. Vada Sabbatia 
 ( Vado), a town of Liguria on the coast, which was 
 the harbour of Sabbata or Savo. ^ 3. Vada Vola- 
 terrana {Torre di Vado), a small town on the 
 coast of Etruria, in the territory of Volaterrae. 
 
 Vadicassii, a people in Gallia Belgica, near the 
 sources of the Sequana. 
 
 Vadimonis Lacns (Logo di Bassano\ a small 
 iake of Etruria of a circular form, with sulphureous 
 waters, and renowned for its floating islands, a 
 minute description of which is given by the younger 
 Pliny. It is celebrated in history for the defeat of 
 the Etruscans in 2 great battles, first by the dic- 
 tator Papirius Cursor, in b. c. 309, from tlie effects 
 of which the Etruscans never recovered ; and again 
 in 283, when the allied forces of the Etruscans and 
 Gauls were routed by the consul Cornelius Dola- 
 bella. The lake has so shrunk in dimensions in 
 modern times as to be only a small stagnant pond, 
 almost lost in the tall reeds and bulrushes which 
 grow in it. 
 
 Vagedruaa, a small river in Sicily, between Ca- 
 marina and Gela. 
 
 Vagienni, a small people in Liguria, whose 
 ■chief town was Augusta Vagiennorum. Their site 
 is uncertain, but they perhaps dwelt near Saluzzo. 
 
 VSliSlis. [Rhenus.] 
 
 V^lens, emperor of the East a. d. 364 — 378, 
 was born about a. d. 328, and was made emperor 
 by his brother Valentinian. [Valentinianus.] 
 The greater part of Valens' reign is occupied by 
 his wars with the Goths. At first he gained great 
 advantages over the barbarians, and concluded a 
 peace with them in 370, on the condition that they 
 should not cross the Danube. In 376 the Goths 
 were driven out of their country by the Huns, and 
 were allowed by Valens to cross the Danube and 
 settle in Thrace and the country on the borders of 
 the Danube. Dissensions soon arose between the 
 Romans and these dangerous neighbours; and in 
 377 the Goths took up arms. Valens collected a 
 powerful army, and marched against the Goths ; 
 but he was defeated by thera with immense 
 slaughter, near Hadrianople, on the 9th of August, 
 378. Valens was never seen after the battle; 
 some say he died on the field j and others relate 
 that he was burnt to death in a peasant's house, 
 to which he was carried, and which the barbarians 
 set fire to without knowing who was in it. The 
 reign of Valens is important in the history of the 
 empire on account of the admission of the Goths 
 
 VALENTINIANUS. 
 
 into the countries S. of the Danube, the commence- 
 ment of the decline of the Roman power. The 
 furious contests between the rival creeds of the 
 Catholics and the Arians also characterise this 
 reign. 
 
 Valens, Abumus, also called Aburnius, one 
 of the jurists who are excerpted in the Digest, be- 
 longed to the school of theSabinians, He flourished 
 under Antoninus Pius. 
 
 Valens, Fabius, one of the principal generals 
 of the emperor Vitellius in a. d. 69, marched into 
 Italy through Gaul, and, after forming a junction 
 with the forces of Caecina, defeated Otho in the 
 decisive battle of Bedriacum, which secured for 
 Vitellius the sovereignty of Italy. Vitellius 
 raised Valens and Caecina to the consulship, and 
 he left the whole government in their hiinds. 
 Valens remained faithful to Vitellius, when An- 
 tonius Primus, the general of Vespasian, marched 
 into Italy ; but as he had not sufficient forces to 
 oppose Antonius after the capture of Cremona, he 
 resolved to sail to Gaul and rouse the Gallic pro- 
 vinces to espouse the cause of Vitellius ; but he 
 was taken prisoner at the islands of the Stoe- 
 chadae (Hieres), off Massilia, and was shortly 
 afterwards put to death at Urbinum {U7bino). 
 
 Valentia. 1. ( Valencia), the chief town of the 
 Edetani on the river Turia, 3 miles from the coast, 
 and on the road from Carthago Nova to Castulo. 
 It was founded by Junius Brutus, who settled 
 here the soldiers of Viriathus ; it was destroyed 
 by Pompey, but it was soon afterwards rebuilt and 
 made a Roman colony. It continued to be an im- 
 portant place down to the latest times. — 2. ( Vo' 
 lence), a town in Gallia Narbonensis on the Rhone, 
 and a Roman colony. Some writers trail it a town 
 of the Cavares, and others a town of the Segellauni. 
 — 3. A town of Sardinia of uncertain site, but 
 which some writers place on the E. coast between 
 Portus Sulpicii and Sorabile. ^4. Or Valentiiun, 
 a town in Apulia, 10 miles from Brundusium. ^ 
 5. A province in the N. of Britain, beyond the 
 Roman wall, which existed only for a short time. 
 [Britannia. J 
 
 Valentiiuanus. I., Roman emperor a. d. 364 
 — 375, was the son of Gratianus, and was bom 
 A. D. 321, at Cibalis in Pannonia. His first wife 
 was Valeria Severa, by whom he became the father 
 of the emperor Gratianus. He held important 
 military commands under Julian and Jovian ; and 
 on the death of the latter in February, 364, Va- 
 lentinian was elected emperor by the troops at 
 Nicaea. A few weeks after his elevation Valen- 
 tinian elected his brother Valens emperor, and as- 
 signed to him the East, while he himself undertook 
 the government of the West. Valentinian was a 
 Catholic, though his brother Valens was an Arian; 
 but he did not persecute either Arians or heathens. 
 He possessed good abilities, prudence, and vigour 
 of character. He had a capacity for military 
 matters, and was a vigilant, impartial, and laborious 
 administrator ; but he sometimes punished with 
 excessive severity. The greater part of Valen- 
 tinianus reign was occupied by the wars against 
 the Alemannl, and the other barbarians on the 
 Roman frontiers. His operations were attended 
 with success. He not only drove the Alemanni 
 out of Gaul, but on more than one occasion crossed 
 the Rhine, and carried the war into the enemy's 
 country. His usual residence wasTreviri (Treves), 
 In 375 he went to Carnuntum on the Danube, ia 
 
VALERIA. 
 
 order to repel the Quadi and Sarmatians, who had 
 invaded Pannonia. After an indecisive campaign 
 he tooic up his winter-quarters at Bregetio. In 
 this place, while giving an audience to the deputies 
 of the Quadi, and speaking with great heat, lie fell 
 down in a fit and expired suddenly on the 17th of 
 November. ^11., Roman emperor a. d. 375 — 3S2, 
 younger son of the preceding, was proclaimed Au- 
 gustus by the army after his father^s death, though 
 he was then only 4 or 5 years of age. His elder 
 brother Gratianus, who had been proclaimed Au- 
 gustus during the lifetime of their father, assented 
 to the choice of the army, and a division of the 
 "West was made between the 2 brothers. Valen- 
 tinian had Italy, lUyricum, and Africa. Gratian 
 had the Gauls, Spain, and Britain. In 383 Gratian 
 was defeated and slain by Maximus, who left 
 Valentinian a precarious authority out of fear for 
 Theodosius, the emperor of the East ; but in 387, 
 Valentinian was expelled from Italy by Maximus, 
 and fled for refuge to Theodosius. In 388, Theo- 
 dosius defeated Maximus, and restored Valentinian 
 to his authority as emperor of the West. Theo- 
 dosius returned to Constantinople in 391 ; and in 
 the following year (392) Valentinian was murdered 
 by the general Arbogastes, who raised Eugenius 
 to the throne. Valentinian perished on the 1.5th 
 of May, being only a few months above 20 years 
 of age. His funeral oration was pronounced by 
 St. Ambrose. — IIL, Roman emperor a. d. 425— 
 455, was bom 419, and was the son of Constantius 
 III. by Placidia, the sister of Honorius, and the 
 daughter of Theodosius I. He was declared Au- 
 gustus in 425 by Theodosius II., and was placed 
 over the West, but as he was only 6 years of age 
 the government was intrusted to his mother Pla- 
 cidia. During his long reign the empire was re- 
 peatedly exposed to the invasions of tlie barbarians; 
 and it was only the military abilities of Aetius 
 which saved the empire from ruin. In 429 the 
 Vandals under Genseric crossed over into Africa, 
 which they conquered, and of which they continued 
 in possession till the reign of Justinian. The 
 Goths likewise established themselves in Gaul ; 
 but Aetius finally made peace with them (439), 
 and with their assistance gained a great victory 
 over Attila and the vast army of the Huns at 
 Chalons in 451. The power and influence of 
 Aetius excited the jealousy and fears of Valentinian, 
 who murdered his brave and faithful general in 
 454. In the following year the emperor himself 
 was slain by Petronius Maximus, whose wife he 
 had violated. He was a feeble and contemptible 
 prince, and had all the vices that in a princely 
 station disgrace a man's character. 
 
 Valeria. 1. Sister of P. Valerius Publicola, 
 advised the Roman matrons to ask Veturia, the 
 mother of Coriolanus,to go to the camp of Coriolanus 
 in order to deprecate his resentment.— 2. The last 
 wife of Sulla, was the daughter of M. Valerius Mes- 
 sala, and bore a daughter soon after Sulla's death. 
 — >3. Galeria Valeria, daughter of Diocletian and 
 Prisca was, upon the reconstruction of the empire 
 in A. D. 292, united to Galerius, one of the new 
 Caesars. After the death of her husband in 31 1 
 Valeria rejected the proposals of his successor 
 Maximinus, who in consequence stripped her of her 
 possessions, and banished her along with her 
 mother. After the death of Maximinus, Valeria 
 and her mother were executed by order of Licinius, 
 315.-4. Messalina. [Messalina.] 
 
 VALERIUS. 
 
 803 
 
 Valeria Gens, one of the moat ancient patrician 
 houses at Rome. The Valerii were of Sabine 
 origin, and their ancestor Volesus or Volusus is 
 said to have settled at Rome with Titus Tatius. 
 One of the descendants of this Volesus, P. Valerius, 
 afterwards surnumed Publicola, plays a distin- 
 guished part in the story of the expulsion of the 
 kings, and was elected consul in the first year of 
 the republic, b. c. 509. From this time forward 
 down to the latest period of the empire, for nearly 
 1000 years, the name occurs more or less frequently 
 in the Fasti, and it was borne by the emperors 
 Maximinus, Maximianus, Maxentius, Diocletian, 
 Constantius, Constantino the Great, and others. 
 The Valeria gens enjoyed extraordinary honours 
 and privileges at Rome. Their house at the 
 bottom of the Velia was the only one in Rome of 
 which the doors were allowed to open back into 
 the street. In the Circus a conspicuous place was 
 set apart for them, where a small throne was 
 erected, an honour of which there was no other 
 example among the Romans. They were also 
 allowed to bury their dead within the walls. The 
 Valerii in early times were always foremost in 
 advocating the rights of the plebeians, and the 
 laws which they proposed at various times were 
 the great charters of the liberties of the second 
 order. (See Diet, of Antiq. s. v. Leges Vateriae.) 
 The Valeria gens was divided into various families 
 under the republic, the most important of which 
 bore the names of CoRVUs, Flaccus, Laevinus, 
 Messala, Publicola, and Triarius. 
 
 Valeria, a province in Pannonia formed by Ga- 
 lerius, and named in honour of his wife. [Pan- 
 nonia."! 
 
 V21erianus. 1. Roman emperor, a. d. 253 — 
 260, whose full name was P. Licinius Vale- 
 RiANUs. Valerian was proclaimed emperor by the 
 troops whom he was leading against the usurper 
 Aemilianus. Valerian proclaimed his son Gal- 
 lienus Augustus, and first carried on war against 
 the Goths, whom he defeated (257). But though 
 the barbarians still threatened the Roman fron- 
 tiers on the Danube and the Rhine, the conquests 
 of the Persians, who had crossed the Euphrates 
 and stormed Antiocb, compelled him to hasten to 
 the East. For a time his measures were both 
 vigorous and successful. Antioch was recovered, 
 and the Persian king Sapor was compelled to fall 
 back behind the Euphrates ; but the emperor, 
 flushed by his good fortune, followed too rashly. 
 He was surrounded, in the vicinity of Edessa, by 
 the countless horsemen of his active foe ; he was 
 entrapped into a conference, taken prisoner (260), 
 and passed the remainder of his life in captivity, 
 subjected to every insult which Oriental cruelty 
 could devise. After death his skin was stuffed and 
 long preserved as a trophy in the chief temple of 
 the nation. — 2. Son of the preceding, but not by 
 the same mother as Gallienus. He perished along 
 with Gallienus at Milan in 268. [Gallienus.] 
 
 Valerius. [Valeria Gens.] 
 
 VSleritis Voliisiis Mazimns, M'., was a brother 
 of P. Valerius Publicola, and was dictator in B. c. 
 494, when the dissensions between the burghers 
 and commonalty of Rome de Nexis were at the 
 highest. Valerius was popular with the plebs 
 and induced them to enlist for the Sabine and 
 Aequian wars, by promising that when the enemy 
 was repulsed, the condition of the debtors (neid) 
 should be alleviated. He defeated and triumphed 
 
 Sf 2 
 
804 
 
 VALERIUS. 
 
 over the Sabines; but, unable to fulfil bis promise 
 to the commons, resigned his dictatorship. The 
 pleba, seeing that Valerius at least had kept faith 
 with them, escorted him honourably home. As 
 he was advanced in life at the time of hia dictator- 
 ship, he probably died soon after. — There were 
 several descendants of this Valerius Maximus, but 
 none of them are of sufficient importance to re(juire 
 special mention. 
 
 Vfileritis Maximus, is known to us as the 
 compiler of a large collection of historical anec- 
 dotes, entitled De Faciis Dicthque Memorahilihus 
 LibH IX. y arranged under ditfereut heads, the 
 sayings and doings of Roman worthies being, 
 moreover, kept distinct in each division from 
 those of foreigners. He lived in the reign of the 
 emperor Tiberius, to whom he dedicated his work. 
 Of his personal history we know nothing, except 
 the solitary circumstance, recorded by himself, 
 that he accompanied Sex. Pompeius into Asia 
 (ii. 6. § 8), the Sextus Pompeius apparently who 
 was consul A. d. 14, at the time when Augustus 
 died. The subjects treated of in the work are of 
 a character so miscellaneous, that it would be im- 
 possible, without transcribing the short notices 
 placed at the head of each chapter, to convey a 
 clear idea of the contents. In some books the 
 topics selected for illustration are closely allied to 
 each other, in others no bond of union can be 
 traced. Thus the Istbook is entirely devoted to 
 matters connected with sacred rites ; the 2nd book 
 relates chiefly to certain remarkable civil institu- 
 tions ; the 3rd, 4th, 5th, and 6th, to the more pro- 
 minent social virtues ; but in the 7th the chapters 
 De Strategematis^ De Repuhis, are abniptly fol- 
 lowed by those De Necessitate^ De Tesiamentis 
 RescisstSj De Ratis Tesiamentis et hisperatis. In 
 an historical point of view the work is by no 
 means without value, since it preserves a record of 
 many curious events not to be found elsewhere ; 
 but from the errors actually detected upon points 
 where we possess more precise information, it is 
 manifest that we must not repose implicit con- 
 fidence in the statements unless where they are 
 corroborated by collateral testimony. The work 
 of Valerius Maximus became very popular in the 
 later times of the empire and in the middle ages. 
 It was frequently abridged, and we still possess an 
 abridgment of it made by Julius Paris. The best 
 editions of the original work are by Toixenius, 
 Leid. 1726, and by Kappius, Lips. 17ii2. 
 
 Valerius Flaccus. [Flaccus.] 
 
 Valgius Eufus, C, a Roman poet, and a con- 
 temporary of Virgil and Horace, the latter of whom 
 ranks him along with Varius, Maecenas, and Virgil, 
 among those friends of genius whose approbation 
 far more than compensated for the annoyance 
 caused by the attacks of his detractors. 
 
 Vandali, Vandalii, or Vindalii, a confederacy 
 of German peoples, probably of the great Suevic 
 race, to which the Burgundiones, Gothones, Gepi- 
 dae, and Rugii belonged. They dwelt originally 
 on the N. coast of Germany, but were afterwards 
 settled N, of the Marcomanni in the Riesengebirge, 
 which are hence called Vandalici Montes. They 
 subsequently appear for a short time in Dacia and 
 Pannonia ; but at the beginning of the 5th cen- 
 tury (a. d. 409) they traversed Germany and Gaul, 
 and invaded Spain. In this country they subju- 
 gated the Alani, and fuunded a powerful kingdom, 
 the name of which is still preserved in Andalusia 
 
 VARRO 
 
 (Vandalusia). In A. d. 429 they crossed over into- 
 Africa, under their king Genseric, and conquered! 
 all the Roman dominions in that country. Gen- 
 seric subsequently invaded Italy, and took and 
 plundered Rome in 455. The Vandals continued 
 masters of Africa till 535, when their kingdom was 
 destroyed by Belisarius, and annexed to the By- 
 zantine empire. 
 
 Van^ones, a German people, dwelling along 
 the Rhine, in the neighbourhood of the modern 
 Worms. 
 
 Varagri. EVeragri.] 
 
 Vardiili, a people in HIspania Tarraconensis, 
 W. of the Vascones, in the modem Guipuzcoa and 
 Alava. 
 
 Vargunteius, a senator and one of Catiline'a- 
 conspirators, undertook, in conjunction with C.Cor- 
 nelius, to murder Cicero in B. c. 63, but their plan 
 was fnistrated by information conveyed to Cicero 
 througli Fulvia. He was afterwards brought to 
 trial, but could find no one to defend him. 
 
 Varia (^area), a town of the Berones in His- 
 pania Tarraconensis on the Iberus, which was 
 navigable from this town. 
 
 Varini, a people of Germany, on the right bank 
 of the Albis, N. of the Langobardi. 
 
 Varius. 1. Q. Varius Hybrida, tribune of the- 
 plebs, B. c. 90, was a native of Sucro in Spain, and 
 received the surname of Hybrida, because his mo- 
 ther was a Spanish woman. In his tribuneship he 
 carried a lex de vmjedate, in order to punish all 
 those who had assisted or advised the Socii to take 
 up arms against the Roman people. Under this- 
 law many distinguished senators were condemned ;, 
 but in the following year Varius himself was con- 
 demed under his ovra law, and was put to death.. 
 — 2. L. Varius Etifus, one of the most distin- 
 guished poets of the Augustan age, the companion 
 and friend of Virgil and Horace. By the latter he 
 is placed in the foremost rank among the epic bards,, 
 and Quintilian has pronounced that his tragedy of 
 Thyestes might stand a comparison with any pro- 
 duction of the Grecian stage. He enjoyed the' 
 friendship of Maecenas, and it was to the recom- 
 mendation of Varius in conjunction with that of 
 Virgil, that Horace was indebted for an introduc- 
 tion to the minister, about b, c. 39. Virgil ap- 
 pointed Plotius Tucca and Varius his literary exe- 
 cutors, and they revised the Aeneid. Hence Varius 
 was alive subsequent to b. c. 19, in which year 
 Virgil died. Only the titles of 3 works of Varius 
 have been preserved : \.De Moiie. 2. Panegt/i-icus 
 in Caesarein Octavianum. 3. The tragedy Thyestes. 
 Only a very few fragments of these poems are 
 extant. 
 
 Varro, Atacinus. [See below, Varro, No. 3.] 
 
 Varro, Cingonius, a Roman senator under Nero, 
 supported the claims of Nymphidins to the throne 
 on the death of Nero, and was put to death in con- 
 sequence by Galba, being at the time consul de- 
 signatus. 
 
 Varro, Terentius. 1 C, consul b. c, 216 with 
 L. Aemilius Paulus. Varro is said to have been 
 the son of a butcher, to have carried on business 
 himself as a factor in his early years, and to have 
 risen to eminence by pleading the causes of tlie 
 lower classes in opposition to the opinion of all 
 good men. Notwithstanding the strong opposition 
 of the aristocracy, he was raised to the consulship 
 by the people, who thought that it only needed a 
 man of energy at the head of an overwhelming force 
 
VARRO. 
 
 to bring the war against Hannibal to a close. His 
 colleague was L. Aemilius Paulua, one of the leaders 
 of the aristocratical party. The 2 consuls were de- 
 feated by Hannibal at the memorable battle of 
 Cannae. [Hannibal.] The battle was fought by 
 Varro against the advice of Paulus. The Roman 
 army was all but annihilated, Paulus and almost all 
 the officers perished. Varro was one of the few who 
 ■escaped and reached Venusia in safety, with about 
 70 horsemen. His conduct after the battle seems to 
 have been deserving of high praise. He proceeded 
 to Canusium, where the remnant of the Roman army 
 iad taken refuge, and there adopted every pre- 
 caution which the exigencies of the case required. 
 His conduct was appreciated by the senate and 
 the people, and his defeat was forgotten in the 
 services lie had lately rendered. On his return to 
 the city all classes went out to meet him, and the 
 senate returned him thanks because he had not 
 ■despaired of the commonwealth. He continued to 
 be employed in Italy for several successive years 
 in important military commands till nearly the close 
 iof the Punic war. — 2. The celebrated writer, 
 whose vast and varied erudition in almost every 
 department of literature, earned for him the title of 
 the " most learned of the Romans.*' He was born 
 B. c. 1 1 6, and was trained under the superintendence 
 of L. Aelius Stilo Praeconinus, and he afterwards 
 received instruction from Antiochus, a philosopher 
 of the Academy. Varro held a high naval com- 
 mand in the wars against the pirates and Mithri- 
 .dates, and afterwards served as the legatus ofPom- 
 j)eius in Spain in the civil war, but was compelled 
 to surrender his forces to Caesar. He then passed 
 over into Greece, and shared the fortunes of the 
 Pompeian party till after the battle of Pharsalia ; 
 when be sued for and obtained the forgiveness of 
 ^Caesar, who employed him in superintending the 
 collection and arrangement of the gi'eat library 
 designed for public use. For some years after this 
 period Varro remained in literary seclusion, passing 
 his time chiefly at his country seats near Cumae 
 .and Tusculum, occupied with study and compo- 
 sition. Upon the formation of the 2nd triumvirate, 
 his name appeared upon the list of the proscribed ; 
 but he succeeded in making his escape, and, after 
 having remained for some time concealed, he ob- 
 tained the protection of Octavian. The remainder 
 'Of his career was passed in tranquillity, and he 
 continued to labour in his favourite studies, although 
 his magnificent library had been destroyed, a loss 
 .to him irreparable. His death took place B.C. 28, 
 when he was in his 89th year. Not only was 
 Varro the most learned of Roman scholars, but he 
 was likewise the most voluminous of Roman au- 
 thors. We have his own authority for the asser- 
 tion that he had composed no less than 490 books; 
 but of these only 2 works have come down to us, 
 ^nd one of them in a mutilated form. The follow- 
 ing is a list of the principal works, both extant and 
 lost ; — 1. De Re Rusiica Libri III.^ still extant, 
 was written when the author was 80 years old, 
 .and is the most important of all the -treatises upon 
 ancient agriculture now extant, being far superior 
 to the more voluminous production of Columella, 
 with which alone it can be compared. The best 
 editions are in the Scriptores Rei Rusticae veteres 
 Laiini by Gesner, 4to. 2 vols. Lips. 1735, and by 
 Schneider, 8vo. 4 vols. Lips. 1794—1797. 2. De 
 Li-ngtui Latina^ a grammatical treatise which ex- 
 lended to 24 books; but 6 only (v. — x.) have been 
 
 VARUS. 
 
 805 
 
 preserved, and these are in a mutilated condition. 
 The remains of this treatise are particularly valu- 
 able, in 80 far as they have been the means of 
 preserving many terras and forms which would 
 otherwise have been altogether lost, and much 
 curious information is here treasured up connected 
 with the ancient usages, both civil and religious, 
 of the Romans. The best editions are by Spengel, 
 8vo. Berol. 1826, and by Miiller, 8vo. Lips. 1833. 
 
 3. Sententiae. 165 Sententiae, or pithy sayings, 
 have been published by De\'it under the name of 
 Varro, Patar. 1843. It is manifest that these 
 sayings were not strung together by Varro himself, 
 but are scraps gleaned out of various works, pro- 
 bably at different times and by different hands. 
 
 4. Antiquitatum Libri^ divided into 2 sections. An~ 
 iiquitaies Rerum huTnancerum^ in 25 books, and 
 Antiqidtates Rerum divinarum, in 16 books. This 
 was VaiTo's great work ; and upon this chiefly his 
 reputation for profound learning was based ; but 
 unfortunately only a few fragments of it have 
 come down to us. With the 2nd section of the 
 work we are, comparatively speaking, familiar, 
 since Augustine drew very largely from this 
 source in his "City of God." 5. Saturae, 
 which were composed, not only in a variety of 
 metres, but contained an admixture of prose also, 
 Varro in these pieces copied to a certain extent the 
 productions of Menippus the Gadarene [Menip- 
 Pus], and hence designated them as Saturae Me- 
 nippeae s. Cyiiicae. They appear to have been a 
 series of disquisitions on a vast variety of subjects, 
 frequently, if not uniformly, couched in the shape 
 of dialogue, the object proposed being the incul- 
 cation of moral lessons and serious truths in a 
 familiar, playful, and even jocular style. The best 
 edition of the fragmenta of these Saturae is by 
 Oehler, M. Tereniii Varronis Saturarum Menip~ 
 pearum Reliquiae^ Quedlingb. 1844. Of the re- 
 maining works of Varro we possess little except 
 a mere catalogue of titles. ^ 3. P., a Latin poet 
 of considerable celebrity, surnamed Atacinus, 
 from the Alax, a river of Gallia Narbonensis bis 
 native province, was born b. c. 82. Of his personal 
 history nothing further is known. He is believed 
 to have been the composer of tlie following works, 
 of which a few inconsiderable fragments only have 
 come down to us ; but some of them ought perhaps 
 to be ascribed to his illustrious contemporary M. 
 Terentius Varro : — 1. Argonatttica^ probably a free 
 translation of the well-known poem by Apollonius 
 Pthodius. Upon this piece the fame of Varro 
 chiefly rested. It is referred to by Propertius, by 
 Ovid, and by Statins. 2. Chorographia s. Cosmo- 
 graphia^ appears to have been a metrical system of 
 .astronomy and geography. 3. Lih-i Navales, ap- 
 pears to have been a poem upon navigation. 
 
 Varus, a cognomen in many Roman gentes, sig- 
 nified a person who had his legs bent inwards, and 
 was opposed to Valgus, which signified a person 
 having his legs turned outward. 
 
 Varus, Alfenus. 1. A Roman jurist, was a 
 pupil of Servius Sulpicius, and the only pupil of 
 Servius from whom there are any excerpts in the 
 Digest.' The scholiast on Horace (i'a^i.3.130) tells 
 us that the "Alfenus -^afer" of Horace was the law- 
 yer, and that he was a native of Cremona, where he 
 carried on the trade of a barber or a botcher of 
 shoes (for there are both readings, sutor and ton- 
 Bor) ; that he came to Rome, where he became a 
 pupil of ServiuB Sulpicius, attained the dignity of 
 
 3f 3 
 
806 
 
 VARUS. 
 
 the consulship, and was honoured with a public 
 funeral. ^2, A general of Vitellius, in the civil 
 war in A. D. 69, and perhaps a descendant of the 
 jurist* 
 
 Varus, Atius. 1. P., a zealous partisan of Poia- 
 pey in the civil war, was stationed in Picenum on 
 the breaking out of the civil war in b. c. 49. He 
 subsequently crossed over into Africa, and took 
 possession of the province, which was then go- 
 Temed by Q. Ligarius. [Ligarius.] In conse- 
 quence of his having been propraetor of Afnca a 
 few years previously. Varus was well acquainted 
 with the country and the people, and was thus able 
 to raise 2 legions without much difficulty. Mean- 
 time, L. Aelius Tubero, who had received from the 
 senate the province of Africa, arrived to take the 
 command ; but Varus would not even allow him 
 to land, and compelled him to sail away. In 
 the course of the same year Varus, assisted by 
 king Juba, defeated Curio, Caesar's legate, who had 
 crossed over from Sicily to Africa. [Curio.] Varus 
 fought with the other Pompeians in Africa against 
 Caesar in 46; but after the battle of Thapsus he 
 sailed away to Cn. Pompey in Spain. He fell at 
 the battle of Munda, and his head was carried to 
 Caesar. —2. Q, Atius Vaxus, commander of the 
 cavalry under C. Fabius, one of Caesar's legates in 
 Gaul, and probably the same as the Q. Varus, who 
 commanded the cavalry under Domitius, one of 
 Caesar's generals in Greece in the war with Pom- 
 pey. It is supposed by many modem writers that 
 he is the same person as the Varus to whom Virgil 
 dedicated his 6th eclogue, and whose praises the 
 poet also celebrates in the ninth (ix. 27), from 
 which poems we leam that Varus had obtained 
 renown in war. 
 
 Vams, Quintilius. 1. Sex., quaestor b. c. 49, 
 belonged to the Pompeian party. He fell into 
 Caesar's hands at the capture of Corfinium, but 
 was dismissed by Caesar. He afterwards fought 
 under Brutus and Cassius against the triumvirs; 
 and after the loss of the battle of Philippi, he fell 
 by the hands of bis freedmen, who slew him at 
 his own request.— 2. P., son of the preceding, was 
 consul B. c. \'d, and was subsequently appointed to 
 the government of Syria, where he acquired enor- 
 mous wealth. Shortly after his return from Syria 
 he was made governor of Germany (probably about 
 A. D. 7). Drusus had conquered a great part of 
 central Germany as far as the Visurgis {Weser) ; 
 and Varus received orders from Augustus to intro- 
 duce the Roman jurisdiction into the newly con- 
 quered country. The Germans, however, were not 
 prepared to submit thus tamely to the Roman 
 yoke, and found a leader in Arminius, a noble chief 
 of the Cherusci, who had previously served in the 
 Roman army. Arminius organised a general revolt 
 of all the German tribes between the Visurgis and 
 the Weser, but kept his design a profound secret 
 from Varus, with whom he continued to live on the 
 most friendly terras. When he had fidly matured 
 his plans, he suddenly attacked Varus, at the head 
 of a countless host of barbarians, as the Roman 
 general was marching with his 3 legions through a 
 pass of the Scdtus Teutoburgiensis, a range of hills 
 covered with wood, which extends N. of the Lippe 
 from Osnabriick to Paderbom, and is known in 
 the present day by the name of the Teutoburger- 
 wald or Lippische Wald. The battle lasted 3 
 days, and ended with the entire destruction of the 
 Roman army Varus put an end to his own life. 
 
 VATINIUS. 
 
 His defeat was followed by the loss of all the Ro- 
 man possessions between the Weser and the Rhine, 
 and the latter river again became the boundary of 
 the Roman dominions. When the news of this 
 defeat reached Rome, the whole city was thrown 
 into consternation; and Augustus, who was both 
 weak and aged, gave way to the most violent grief, 
 tearing his garments and calling upon Varus to give 
 him back his legions. Orders were issued, as if 
 the very empire was in danger; and Tiberius was 
 despatched with a veteran anny to the Rhine. 
 
 Varus (Var^ or Varo), a river in GalHa Nar- 
 bonensis, forming the boundary between this pro- 
 vince and Italy, rises in Mt. Cema in the Alps, 
 and falls into the Mediterranean Sea, between 
 Antipolis and Nicaea. 
 
 Vasates, a people in Gallia Aquitanica, on the 
 Gdrumna, whose chief town was Cossium (Bazas), 
 on the road from Burdigala to Elusa, 
 
 Vascones, a powerful people on the N. coast of 
 Hispania Tarraconensis, between the Iberus and 
 the Pyrenees, in the modem Navarre and Gui- 
 puzco. Their chief towns were Pompelon and 
 Calagurris. They were a brave people, and 
 fought in battle bare-headed. Under the empire 
 they were regarded as skilful diviners and prophets. 
 Their name is still retained in that of the modem 
 
 Vasconum Saltus. [Pyrene.] 
 
 Vasio ( Faisow), a considerable town of the Vo- 
 contii in Gallia Narbonensis. 
 
 Vatia Isauricos, P. Servilius. 1. Consul in 
 B. c. 79, was sent in the following year as pro- 
 consul to Ciiicia, in order to clear the seas of the 
 pirates, whose ravages now spread far and wide. 
 He carried on the war with great ability and suc- 
 cess, and from his conquest of the Isauri, he 
 obtained the surname of Isauricus. After giving 
 Ciiicia the organisation of a Roman province, he 
 entered Rome in triumph in 74. After his return 
 Servilius took a leading part in public affairs. In 
 70 he was one of the judices at the trial of Verres; 
 in GQ he supported the rogation of Manilius for 
 conferring upon Pompey the command of the war 
 against the pirates; in 63 he was a candidate for 
 the dignity of pontifex maximus, but was defeated 
 by Julius Caesar; in the same year he spoke in 
 the senate in favour of inflicting the last penalty of 
 the law upon the Catilinarian conspirators; in 57 
 he joined the other nobles in procuring Cicero's 
 recall from banishment; in 56 he opposed the 
 restoration of Ptolemy to his kingdom; and in 55 
 he was censor with M. Valerius Messala Niger- 
 He took no part in the civil wars, probably on ac- 
 count of his advanced age, and died in 44. ^ 2. 
 Praetor 54, belonged originally to the aristocratical 
 party, but espoused Caesar's side on the breaking' 
 out of the civil war, and was consul with Caesar in 
 4B. In 46 he governed the province of Asia as 
 proconsul, during which time Cicero wrote to him 
 several letters. After the death of Caesar in 44, 
 he supported Cicero and the rest of the aristo- 
 cratical party, in opposition to Antony. But he 
 soon changed sides again, became reconciled to 
 Antony, and was made consul a second time in 41. 
 
 Vatinius. 1. P., a political adventurer in the 
 last days of the republic, who is described by 
 Cicero as one of the greatest scamps and villains 
 that ever lived. His personal appearance was un- 
 prepossessing; his face and neck were covered with 
 swellings, to which Cicero alludes, calling him the 
 
VATRENUS. 
 
 struma civitatis. Vatinius was quaestor b. c. 63, 
 and tribune of the plebs 59, when he sold his ser- 
 vices to Caesar, who was then consul along with 
 Bibulus. It was Vatinius who proposed the bill 
 to the people, by which Caesar received the pro- 
 vinces of Cisalpine Gaul and Illyricura for 5 years. 
 Vatinius continued to take an active part in poli- 
 tical affairs. In 56 he appeared as a witness against 
 Milo and Sestius, two of Cicero's friends, in conse- 
 quence of which the orator made a vehement attack 
 upon the character of Vatinius, in the speech which 
 has come down to us. Vatinius was praetor in 55, 
 and in the following year (54) he was accused by 
 C. Licinius Calvus of having gained the praetor- 
 Bhip by bribery. He was defended on this occa- 
 sion by Cicero, in order to please Caesar, whom 
 Cicero had offended by his former attack upon 
 Vatinius. Soon afterwards Vatinius went to Gaul, 
 where we find him serving in 51, He accom- 
 panied Caesar in the civil war, and was made 
 consul suffectus for a few days, at the end of 
 December 47. At the beginning of the follow- 
 ing year, be was sent into Illyricura, where he 
 carried on the war with success. After Caesar's 
 death he was compelled to surrender Dyrrhachium 
 and bis army to Brutus who had obtained posses- 
 sion of Macedonia, because his troops declared in 
 favour of Brutus. — 2. Of Beneventuni, one of the 
 vilest and most hateful creatures of Nero's court, 
 equally deformed in body and in mind. He was 
 originally a shoemaker's apprentice, next earned his 
 living as one of the lowest kinds of ncurrae or buf- 
 foons, and finally obtained great power and wealth 
 by accusing the most distinguished men in the 
 state. A certain kind of diinking-oups, having nasi 
 or nozzles, bore the name of Vatinius, probably 
 hecause he brought them into fashion. Juvenal 
 alludes (v. 46.) to a cup of this kind. 
 
 Vatrenus. [Padus.] 
 
 Vectis or Vecta [Isle of WtgM), an island off the 
 S. coast of Britain, with which the Romans became 
 acquainted before their conquest of Britain, by 
 means of the inhabitants of Massilia, who were ac- 
 customed to visit this island for the purpose of ob- 
 taining tin. It is related by Diodoms that at low 
 water the space between Vectis and the coast of 
 Britain was almost entirely dry, so that the Britons 
 used to bring tin to the island in waggons. It was 
 conquered by Vespasian in the reign of Claudius. 
 
 Vedius Pollio. [PoLLio.] 
 
 Vegetius, Flavius Keaatus, the author of a 
 treatise, Met Militaris Instituia, or Epitome Rei 
 Miliiaris, dedicated to the emperor Valentinian II. 
 The materials were derived, according to the de- 
 claration of the writer himself, from Cato the Cen- 
 sor, De Disciplina Militari, from Cornelius Celsus, 
 from Frontinus, from Patemus, and from the im- 
 perial constitutions of Augustus, Trajan, and Had- 
 rian. The work is divided into 5 books. The 1st 
 treats of the levying and training of recruits, in- 
 cluding instructions for the fortification of a camp; 
 the 2nd, of the different classes into which soldiers 
 are divided, and especially of the organisation of 
 the legion; the 3rd, of the operations of an army in 
 the field; the 4th, of the attack and defence of for- 
 tresses; the 5th, of marine warfare. The value of 
 this work is much diminished by the fact that the 
 usages of periods the most remote from each other 
 are mixed together into one confused mass, and not 
 unfrequently, we have reason to suspect, are blended 
 with arrangements which never existed, except in 
 
 VEIOVIS. 807 
 
 the fancy of the author. The best edition is by 
 Schwebelius, Norimberg, 1767; and by Oudeii- 
 dorp and Bessel, Argent. 1806. 
 
 Veiento, Fabridus, was banished in the reign 
 of Nero, a. d. 62, in consequence of his having 
 published several libels. He afterwards returned 
 to Rome, and became in the reign of Domitian 
 one of the most infamous informers and batterers 
 of that tyrant. He also enjoyed the friendship of 
 Nerva. 
 
 Veil (Veiens, -entis, Veientanus: Isola Far- 
 Tiese), one of the most ancient and powerful cities of 
 Etruria, situated on the river Cremera, about 12' 
 miles from Rome, It possessed a strongly fortified 
 citadel, built on a hill rising precipitously from the- 
 deep glens which bound it, save at the single point 
 wiiere a narrow ridge unites it to the city. It 
 was one of the 12 cities of the Etruscan Confede- 
 ration, and apparently the largest of all. As far 
 as we can judge from its present remains, it was 
 about 7 miles in circumference, which agrees with 
 the statement of Dionysius, that it was equal in 
 size to Athens. Its territory {Ager Veiens) was 
 extensive, and appears originally to have extended 
 on the S. and E. to the Tiber ; on the S.W. to the 
 sea, embracing the salinae or salt-works, at the 
 mouth of the river ; and on the W. to the territory 
 of Caere. The Ciminian forest appears to have 
 been its N. W. boundary ; on the E. it must 
 have embraced all the district S, of Socrate and E.- 
 ward to the Tiber. The cities of Capena and Fi- 
 denae were colonies of Veii. Veii was a powerful 
 city at the time of the foundation of Rome, and 
 the most formidable and dangerous of her neigh- 
 bours. The Veientes were engaged in almost un- 
 ceasing hostilities with Rome for more than 3 cen- 
 turies and a half, and we have records of 14 distinct 
 wars between the 2 peoples. Veii was at length 
 taken by the dictator Camillus, after a siege which 
 is said to have lasted 10 years. The city fell into 
 his hands, according to the common storj--, by means 
 of a cuniculus or mine, which was carried by Ca- 
 millus from the Roman camp under the city into 
 the citadel of Veii. So well built and spacious was 
 Veii, that the Romans were anxious, after the de- 
 struction of their own city by the Gauls in 390, to 
 remove to Veii, and are said to have been only 
 prevented from carrying their purpose into effect by 
 the eloquence of Camillus. From this time Veii 
 was abandoned ; but after the lapse of ages it was 
 colonised afresh by Augustus, and made a Roman 
 municipium. The new colony, however, occupied 
 scarcely a 3rd of the ancient city, and had again 
 sunk into decay in the reign of Hadrian. From 
 this time Veii disappears entirely from historj"", and, 
 on the revival of letters, even its site was long an 
 object of dispute. It is now settled, however, be- 
 yond a doubt, that it stood in the neighbourhood 
 of the hamlet of Isola Famese, where several re- 
 mains of the ancient city have been discovered. 
 Of these the most interesting is its cemetery ; but 
 there is now only one tomb remaining open, which 
 was discovered in the winter of 1842-3, and con- 
 tains many interesting remains of Etruscan art. 
 
 VSiovis, a Roman deity, whose name is ex- 
 plained by some to mean "little Jupiter;'' while 
 others interpret it "the destructive Jupiter," and 
 identify him with Pluto. Veiovis was probably 
 an Etruscan divinity of a destructive nature, whose 
 fearful lightnings produced deafness in those who 
 were to be struck by them, even before they 
 
 3p4 
 
80S 
 
 VELABRUM. 
 
 were actually hurled. His temple at Rome stood 
 between the Capitol and the Tarpeian rock; he was 
 represented as a youthful god armed with arrows. 
 Velabrum. [Roma, p. 650, b.] 
 Velauni or Vellavi, a people in Gallia Aqui- 
 tanica, in the modern Vclayy who were originally 
 Bubject to the Arverni, but subsequently appear as 
 an independent people. 
 
 Veleda, a prophetic virgin, by birth belonged to 
 the Bructeri, and was regaided as a divine being 
 by most of the nations in central Germany in the 
 reign of Vespasian. She inhabited a lofty tower 
 in the neighbourhood of the river Luppia (Lippe). 
 She encouraged Civilis in his revolt against the 
 Romans, but she was afterwards taken prisoner and 
 carried to Rome. 
 
 Velia or Elea, also called Hyele ('EXea, 'TeA-Tj, 
 the diiFerent forms are owing to the word having 
 originally the Aeolic digamma, which the Romans 
 changed into V : Velienses or Eleates, pi. : Cas~ 
 ieW a Mare delta Brucca), a Greek town of Lu- 
 cania on the W. coast between Paestum and Bux- 
 entum, was founded by the Phocaeans, wlio had 
 abandoned their native city to escape from the 
 Persian sovereignty, about B.C. 543. It was si- 
 tuated about 3 miles E. of the river Hales, and 
 possessed a good harbour. It is celebrated as tlie 
 birthplace of the philosophers Parmenides and 2eno, 
 who founded a school of philosophy usually known 
 under the name of the Eleatic. It possessed a ce- 
 lebrated temple of Demeter (Ceres). Cicero, who 
 resided at Velia at one time, frequently mentions it 
 in his correspondence ; and it appears to have been 
 reckoned a healthy place. (Hor. Ep. L 15.) In 
 the time of Strabo it had ceased to be a town of 
 importance. 
 
 Velinus ( Velino), a river in the territory of the 
 Sabines, rising in the central Apennines, and fall- 
 ing into the Nar. This river in the neighbourhood 
 of Reate overflowed its banks and formed several 
 small lakes, the largest of which was called Lacus 
 Velinus {Fiedi Lugo^ also Lago ddle Mormore). 
 In order to carry off these waters, a channel was 
 cut through the rocks by Curias Dentatus, the con- 
 queror of the Sabines, by means of which the waters 
 of the Velinus were carried through a narrow gorge 
 to a spot where they fall from a height of several 
 hundred feet into the river Nar. This fall, which 
 is one of the most celebrated in Europe, is known 
 at the present day by the name of the fall of Temi, 
 or the cascade delle Marmore. 
 
 Velitrae (Velitemus : Vellein)^ an ancient town 
 of the Volscians in Latium, but subsequently be- 
 longing to the Latin League, It was conquered 
 by the Romans, and colonised at an early period, 
 but it frequently revolted from Rome. It is chiefly 
 celebrated as the birthplace of the emperor Augustus. 
 Velius LongTlS, a Latin grammarian, known to 
 ns from a treatise, De OrtkograpJiia, still extant, 
 printed in the '* Graramaticae Latinae Auctores 
 Antiqui," of Putschius, 4to. Hanov. 1605. Velius 
 also wrote a commentary on Virgil, which is men- 
 tioned by Macrobius. 
 
 Vellaimodliiiiiin (Beaune), a to^vn of the Se- 
 nones in Gallia Lugdunensis. 
 Vellavi, [Velauni.] 
 Velleius Paterculus. [Paterculus.] 
 Vellocassea, a people in Gallia Lugdunensis, 
 N.W. of the Parisii, extending along the Bequana 
 as far as the ocean ; their chief town was Rato- 
 
 JUAOUS. 
 
 VENETIA. 
 
 Venafrum (Venafranus : Feno/W), a town in the 
 N. of Samnium, near the river Vultumus, and on 
 the confines of Latium, celebrated for the excellence 
 of its olives. 
 
 Venedi or Venedae, a people in European Sar- 
 matia, dwelling on the Baltic E. of the Vistula. 
 The Sinus Venedicua {Gulf of Riga)^ and the 
 Venedici Montes, a range of mountains between 
 Poland and East Prussia, were called after this 
 people. 
 
 Veneris Promontorium. [Pyrenes Prom.] 
 
 Veneris Portna or Pyrenaei Portus, a seaport 
 town of the Indigetes in Hispania Tarracoiiensia, 
 near the Prom. Veneris, and on the frontiers of Gaul. 
 
 Venetia. 1. A district in the N. of Italy, was 
 originally included under the general name of 
 Gallia Cisalpina, but was made by Augustus the 
 10th Regio of Italy. It was bounded on the W, 
 by the river Athesis, which separated it from Gallia 
 Cisalpina ; on the N. by the Camic Alps ; on the 
 E. by the river Timavus, which separated it from 
 Istria ; and on the S. by the Adriatic Gulf. This 
 country was, and is, very fertile ; and its inhabit- 
 ants enjoyed great prosperity. The chief pro- 
 ductions of the country were excellent woo], a sweet 
 but much prized wine, and race-horses. Dionysius, 
 the tyrant of Syracuse, is said to have kept a stud 
 of race-horses in this country. — Its inhabitants, 
 the Veneti, frequently called Heueti ('E;/eTot) by 
 the Greeks, were commonly said to be descendants 
 of the Paphlagonian Heneti, whom Antenor led 
 into the country after the Trojan war ; but thia 
 tale, like so many others, has evidently arisen from 
 the mere similarity of the name. Others supposed 
 the Veneti to be a branch of the Celtic Veneti in 
 Gaul ; but this supposition is disproved by the ex- 
 press testimony of Polybius, that they spoke a lan- 
 guage entirely different from the Celtic : and that 
 they had no connexion with the Celts, may be in- 
 ferred from the fact that they were always on hostile 
 terms with the Celtic tribes settled in Italy. He- 
 rodotus regards them as an Illyrian race ; and all 
 writers are agreed that they did not belong to the 
 original population of Italy. In consequence of 
 their hostility to the Celtic tribes in their neigh- 
 bourhood, they formed at an early period an alliance 
 with Rome ; and their country was defended by 
 the Romans against their dangerous enemies. On 
 the conquest of the Cisalpine Gauls, the Veneti 
 likewise became included under the Roman do- 
 minions ; and they were almost the only people in 
 Italy who became the subjects of Rome without 
 offering any resistance. The Veneti continued to 
 enjoy great prosperity down to the time of the Mar- 
 comannic wars, in the reign of the emperor Aure- 
 lius ; but "from this time their country was fre- 
 quently devastated by the barbarians who invaded 
 Italy; and at length, in the 5th century, many of 
 its inhabitants, to escape the ravages of the Huns 
 under Attila, took refuge in the islands off their 
 coast, on which now stands the city of Venice. 
 The chief towns of Venetia in ancient times were, 
 Patavium, Altinum, and Aquileia. The 2 
 latter carried on an extensive commerce, and ex- 
 ported, among other things, large quantities of 
 amber, which was brought from the Baltic through 
 the interior of Europe to these cities. —2. A district 
 in the N. W. of Gallia Lugdunensis, inhabited by 
 the Veneti, who were a brave people, and the best 
 sailors in all Gaul. Off their coast was a group 
 of islands called Insulae Veneticae. 
 
VENETUS LACUS. 
 
 Venetus Lacos. [Brigantinus Lacus.] 
 
 Venilia, a nymph, daughter of Pilumnua, sister 
 of Amata, wife of king Latinus, and mother of 
 Turnus and Juturna by Daunua. 
 
 Yennones, a people of Rhaetia, and according to 
 Strabo the most savage of the Ehaetian tribes, in- 
 habiting the Alps near the sources of the Athesis 
 (Adige). 
 
 Venta. L Belgarum (WincJtesier), the chief 
 town of the Belgae in Britain. The modem city 
 £till contains several Roman remains. — 2. Ice- 
 norxun. [Iceni.] —3. Silurum {Caerweni), a 
 town of the Silures in Britain, in Monmouthshire. 
 
 Venti (icc^uoi), the winds. They appear per- 
 sonified, even in the Homeric poems, but at the 
 same time tbey are conceived as ordinary phe- 
 nomena of nature. The master and ruler of all 
 the winds is Aeolus, who resides in the island 
 Aeolia [Aeolus] ; but the other gods also, espe- 
 cially Zeus, exercise a power over them. Homer 
 mentions by name Boreas (N. wind), Eurus (E. 
 wind), Notus (S. wind), and Zephyrus (W. wind). 
 When the funeral pile of Patroclus could not be 
 made to burn, Achilles promised to offer sacrifices 
 to the winds ; and Iris accordingly hastened to 
 them, and found them feasting in the palace of 
 Zephyrus in Thrace. Boreas and Zephyrus there- 
 upon straightway crossed the Thracian sea into 
 Asia, to cause the fire to blaze. According to 
 Hesiod, the beneficial winds, !Notus, Boreas, Ar- 
 ^estes, and Zephyrus, were the sons of Astraeus 
 and Eos; and the destructive ones, such as Typhon, 
 are said to be the sons of Typhoeus. Later, 
 especially philosophical, writers endeavoured to 
 define the winds more accurately, according to 
 their places in the compass. Thus Aristotle, 
 "besides the 4 principal winds (Boreas or Aparctias, 
 Eurus, Notus, and Zephyrus), mentions 3, the 
 Meaes, Caicias, and Apeliotes, between Boreas 
 and Eurus ; between Eurus and Notus he places 
 the Phoenicias ; between Notus and Zephyrus he 
 has only the Lips; and between Zephyrus and 
 Boreas he places the Argestes (Olympias or Sclron ) 
 and the Thrascias. It must further be observed 
 that, according to Aristotle, the Eurus is not due E. 
 but S. E. In the Museum Pio-CIcmentinura there 
 exists a marble monument upon which the winds 
 are described with their Greek and Latin names, 
 viz. Septentrio (Aparctias), Eurus (Euros or S.E.), 
 and between these 2 Aquilo (Boreaa), Vultumus 
 (Caicias) and Solanus (Apheliotes). Between 
 Eurus and Notus (Notos) there is only one, the 
 Euroauster (Euronotus) ; between Notus and 
 Favonius (Zephyrus) are marked Austro-Africus 
 (Libonotus), and Africus (Lips) ; and between 
 Favonius and Septentrio we find Chrus (lapyx) 
 and Circius (Thracius). The winds were repre- 
 sented by poets and artists in different ways ; the 
 latter usually represented them as beings with 
 wings at their heads and shoulders. The moat 
 remarkable monument representing the winda is 
 the octagonal tower of Andronicus Cyrrhestes at 
 Athens. Each of the 8 sides of the monument 
 represents one of the 8 principal winds in a flying 
 attitude. A moveable Triton in the centre of the 
 cupola pointed with his staff to the wind blowing 
 at the time. All these 8 figures have wings at 
 their shoulders, all are clothed, and the peculia- 
 rities of the winds are indicated by their bodies 
 and various attributes. Black lambs were offered 
 ^s sacrifices to the destructive winds, and white 
 
 VENUS. 809 
 
 ones to favourable or good winda, Boreas had a 
 temple on the river Ilissus in Attica ; and Ze- 
 phyrus had an altar on the sacred road to Eleusis, 
 
 Ventidius Sassus, P., a celebrated Roman 
 general, was a native of Picenum, and was taken 
 prisoner by Pompeius Strabo in the Social war 
 (b. c, 89), and carried to Rome. When he grew 
 up to man's estate, he got a poor living by under- 
 taking to furnish mules and vehicles for those 
 magistrates who went from Rome to administer a 
 province. In this humble emplo}Tnent he became 
 known to C. Julius Caesar, whom he accompanied 
 into Gaul. In the Civil war he executed Caesar's 
 orders with ability, and became a favourite of his 
 great commander. He obtained the rank of tribune 
 of the plebs, and was made a praetor for b. c. 43. 
 After Caesar's death Ventidius sided with M. An- 
 tony in the war of Mutina (43), and in the same 
 year was made consul suffectus. In 3.9 Antony 
 sent Ventidius into Asia, to oppose Labienus and 
 the Ptirthians, He conducted this war with dis- 
 tinguished ability and success. In the 1st cam- 
 paign (39) he defeated the Parthians and Labienus, 
 the latter of whom was slain in his flight after 
 the battle ; and in the 2nd campaign ( 30) Ventidius 
 gained a still more brilliant victory over the Par- 
 thians, who had again invaded Syria. Pacorus, 
 the king's son, fell in this battle. Antony, how- 
 ever, far from being pleased with the success of 
 Ventidius, showed great jealousy of him, and 
 dismissed him from his employment. Yet his ser- 
 vices were too great to be overlooked ; and he had 
 a triumph in November, 38. Nothing more is 
 known of him. Ventidius was often cited aa an 
 instance of a man who rose from the lowest con- 
 dition to the highest honours ; a captive became a 
 Roman consul and enjoyed a triumph ; but this 
 was in a period of revolution. 
 
 Venus, the goddess of love among the Romans. 
 Before she was identified with the Greek Aphro- 
 dite, she was one of the least important divinities 
 in the religion of the Romans ; but still her wor- 
 ship seems to have been established at Rome at 
 an early time. There was a atone chapel with an 
 image of Venus Murtca or Murcia in the Circus 
 near the spot where the altar of Census was con- 
 cealed. This surname was said to be the same as 
 Myrtea (from myrtus, a myrtle), and to indicate 
 the fondness of the goddess for the myrtle-tree. In 
 ancient times there is said to have been a myrtle- 
 grove in front of her sanctuary below the Aven- 
 tine. Another ancient surname of Venus was 
 CloaciJia, which ia aaid to have been derived from 
 her image having been found in the great aewer 
 (cloaca) ; but this tale is nothing but an etymolo- 
 gical inference from the name. It is supposed by 
 modem writers that this surname signifies the 
 "Purifier" from doare or du^re *' to wash" or 
 " purify." The statue of Venus under this sur- 
 name was set up by T. Tatius in a temple near 
 the forum, A 3rd ancient surname of Venus is 
 Calva, under wliich ahe had 2 temples in the 
 neighbourhood of tiie Capitol. Some believed that 
 one of them had been built by Ancus Marcius, 
 because his wife was in danger of losing her hair ; 
 others thought that it was a monument of a pa- 
 triotic act of the Roman women, who during the 
 siege of the Gauls cut off their hair and gave it 
 to the men to make strings for their bows ; and 
 others again supposed it to refer to the fancies and 
 caprices of lovers, calvcre signifying " to teaze," 
 
810 
 
 VENUSIA. 
 
 Bat it probably refers to the fact that on her wed- 
 ding day the bride, either actually or symbolically, 
 cut off a lock of hair to sacrifice it to Venus. In 
 these, the most ancient surnames. of Venus, we 
 must recognise her primitive character and attri- 
 butes. — In later times her worship became much 
 more extended, and her identification with the 
 Greek Aphrodite introduced various new attributes. 
 At the beginning of the second Punic war, the 
 worship of Venus Erycina was introduced from 
 Sicily, and a temple was dedicated to her on the 
 Capitol, to which subsequently another was added 
 outside the Colline gate. In the year b. c. 114, a 
 Vestal virgin was killed by lightning ; and as the 
 general moral corruption, especially among the 
 Vestals, was believed to be the cause of this dis- 
 aster, the Sibylline books, upon being consulted, 
 commanded that a temple should be built to Venus 
 Verticordia (the goddess who turns the hearts of 
 men) on the via Salaria. After the close of the 
 Samnite war, Fabius Gurges founded the worship 
 of Venus Obsequena and Poatvorta ; Scipio Africa- 
 nus the younger, that of Venus Genitrix, in which 
 he was afterwards followed by Caesar, who added 
 that of Venus Victrix. The worship of Venus was 
 promoted by Caesar, who traced his descent from 
 Aeneas, who was supposed to be the son of Mars 
 and Venus. The month of April, as the beginning 
 of spring, was thought to be peculiarly sacred to 
 the goddess of love. Respecting the Greek goddess 
 Bee Aphrodite. 
 
 Venusia (Venusinus : Venosa), an ancient town 
 of Apulia, S. of the river Aufidus, and near Mt. 
 Vultur, situated in a romantic country, and me- 
 morable as the birthplace of the poet Horace. It 
 was originally a town of the Hirpini in Samnium ; 
 and after its original Sabellian inhabitants had been 
 driven out by the Romans, it was colonised by the 
 latter, b. c. 291, and formed an important military 
 station. Here the remnants of the Roman army 
 took refuge after the fatal battle of Cannae, 216. 
 
 Veragri or Vaxagri, a people in Gallia Belgica, 
 on the Pennine Alps, near the confluence of the 
 Dranse and the Rhone. 
 
 Verbanus Lacus {Lago Maggiore)^ a lake in 
 Gallia Cisalpina, and the largest lake in all Ital^', 
 being about 40 miles in length from N. to S. : its 
 greatest breadth is 8 miles. It is formed by the 
 river Ticinus and other streams descending from the 
 Alps ; and the river Ticinus issues from its southern 
 extremity. 
 
 Vercellae (Vercellensis : Vercelli), the chief 
 town of the Libici in Gallia Cisalpina, and subse- 
 quently d Roman municipium, and a place of con- 
 siderable importance. 
 
 Tercingetorix, the celebrated chieftain of the 
 Arvemi, who carried on war with great ability 
 against Caesar in b. c. 52, The history of this 
 war occupies the 7th book of Caesar's Commen- 
 taries on the Gallic war. Vercingetorix fell into 
 Caesar's hands on the capture of Alesia, was sub- 
 sequently taken to Rome, where he adorned the 
 triumph of his conqueror in 45, and was afterwards 
 put to death. 
 
 Veretum. (Veretinus : Alessano), more anciently 
 called Baris, a town in Calabria, on the road from 
 Leuca to Tarentum, and 600 stadia S. E. of the 
 latter city. 
 
 Vergac, a town in the interior of Bruttium, of 
 nncertain eite. 
 
 Vergellus, a rivulet in Apulia crossing the plain 
 
 VERRES. 
 
 of Cannae, which is said to have been choked by 
 the dead bodies of the Romans slain in the me- 
 morable battle against Hannibal. 
 
 Vergillus. [Virgilius.] 
 
 Verginius. [Virginius.] 
 
 Verolamium or Venilamium {Old Verulam, 
 near St. Albans), the chief town of the Catuellani 
 in Britain, probably the residence of the king Cas- 
 sivellaunus, which was conquered by Caesar. It 
 was subsequently made a Roman municipium. It 
 was destroyed by the Britons under Boadicea, in 
 their insurrection against the Romans, but was 
 rebuilt and continued to be an important place. 
 
 Veromandui, a people in Gallia Belgica, be- 
 tween the Nervii and Suesslones, in the modem 
 Vermandois, Their chief town was Augusta Vero- 
 manduorum {St. Quentin). 
 
 Verona (Veronensis : Verona)^ an important 
 town in Gallia Cisalpina, on the river Athesis, was 
 originally the capital of the Euganei, but subse- 
 quently belonged to the Cenomani. At a still later 
 time it was made a Roman colony, with the sur- 
 name Augusta ; and under the empire it was one 
 of the largest and most flourishing towns in the N. 
 of Italy. It was the birthplace of Catullus ; and, 
 according to some accounts, of the elder Pliny, 
 though others make him a native of Comura. It 
 is celebrated on account of the battle fought in its 
 neighbourhood in the Campi Raudii, by Marius 
 against the Cimbri, and also by the victory of Theo- 
 doric the Great over Odoacer. Theodoric took up 
 his residence in this town, whence it is called by 
 the German writers of the middle ages Dietrichs 
 Bern, to distinguish it from Bern in Switzerland. 
 There are still many Roman remains at Verona, 
 and among others an amphitheatre in a good state 
 of preservation. 
 
 Verres, C, was quaestor b. c. 82, to Cn. Papi- 
 rius Carbo, and therefore at that period belonged 
 to the Marian party. He, however, deserted Carbo 
 and went over to Sulla, who sent him to Beneven- 
 tum, where he was allowed a share of the confis- 
 cated estates. Verres next appears as the legate 
 of Cn. Cornelius Dolabella, praetor of Cilicia in 80 
 — 79, and one of the most rapacious of the provin- 
 cial governors. On the death of the regular quaestor 
 C. Malleolus, Verres became the pro-quaestor of 
 Dolabella. In Verres Dolabella found an active 
 and unscrupidous agent, and, in return, connived 
 at his excesses. But the pro-quaestor proved as 
 faithless to Dolabella as he had been to Carbo, and 
 turned evidence against him on his prosecution by 
 M. Scaurus in 78. Verres was praetor urbanus in 
 74, and afterwards propraetor in Sicily, where he re- 
 mained nearly 3 years (73 — 71). The extortions 
 and exactions of Verres in the island have become 
 notorious through the celebrated orations of Cicero, 
 No class of the inhabitants of Sicily was exempted 
 from his avarice, his cruelty, or his insults. The 
 wealthy had money or works of art to yield up ; 
 the middle classes might be made to pay heavier 
 imposts ; and the exports of the vineyards, the 
 arable land, and the loom, he saddled with heavier 
 burdens. By capricious changes or violent abro- 
 gation of their compacts, Verres reduced to beg- 
 gary both the producers and the farmers of the 
 revenue. His three years' rule desolated the island 
 more effectually than the two recent Servile wars, 
 and than the old struggle between Carthage and 
 Rome for the possession of the island. So diligently 
 did he employ his opportunities, that he boasted of 
 
VERRES. 
 
 having amasaed enough for a life of opulence, even 
 if he were compelled to disgorge two-thirds of hia 
 plunder, in stifling inquiry or purchasing an ac- 
 quittal. As soon as he left Sicily, the inhabitants 
 resolved to bring him to trial. They committed 
 the prosecution to Cicero, who had been Lilybaean 
 quaestor in Sicily in 75, and had promised his 
 good offices to the Sicilians whenever they might 
 demand them. Cicero heartily entered into the 
 cause of the Sicilians, and spared no pains to secure 
 a conviction of the great criminal. Verres was 
 defended by Plortensius, and was supported by the 
 whole power of the aristocracy. At first his parti- 
 sans attempted to stop the prosecution by bribes, 
 flatteries, and menaces ; but finding this to be im- 
 possible, they endeavoured to substitute a sham 
 prosecutor in the place of Cicero. Hortensius 
 therefore offered as prosecutor Q. Caecilius Niger, 
 who had been quaestor to the defendant, had quar- 
 relled with him, and had consequently, it was 
 alleged, the means of exposing officially his abuse 
 of the public money. But the Sicilians rejected 
 Caecilius altogether, not merely as no match for 
 Hortensius, but as foisted into the cause by the 
 defendant or his advocate. By a technical process 
 of the Roman law, called Divinalio^ the judices, 
 without hearing evidence, determined from the 
 arguments of counsel alone, who should be ap- 
 pointed prosecutor. They decided in Cicero's fa- 
 vour. The oration which Cicero delivered on this 
 occasion, was the Divinatio in Q. CaecUium, The 
 pretensions of Caecilius were thus set aside. Yet 
 hope did not yet forsake Verres and his friends. 
 Evidence for the prosecution was to be collected in 
 Sicily itself. Cicero was allowed 110 days for 
 the purpose. Verres once again attempted to set 
 up a sham prosecutor, who undertook to impeach 
 him for his former extortions in Achaia, and to 
 gather the evidence in 108 days. But the new 
 prosecutor never went even so far as Brundisium 
 in quest of evidence, and the design was aban- 
 doned. Instead of the 110 days allowed, Cicero, 
 assisted by his cousin Lucius, completed his re- 
 searches in. 50, and returned with a mass of evi- 
 dence and a crowd of witnesses gathered from all 
 parts of the island, Hortensius now grasped at his 
 last chance of an acquittal, and it was not an un- 
 likely one. Could the impeachment be put off to 
 the next year, Verres was safe. Hortensius him- 
 self would then be consul, with Q. Metellus for his 
 colleague, and M. Metellus would be praetor lu*- 
 banu3. For every firm and honest judex whom 
 the upright M. Acilius Glabrio, then praetor ur- 
 banus, had named, a partial or venal substitute 
 would be found- Glabrio himself would give 
 place as quaesitor or president of the court to M. 
 Metellus, a partisan, if not a kinsman, of the de- 
 fendant. It was already the month of July. The 
 games to be exhibited by Cn. Pompey were fixed 
 for the middle of August, and would occupy a 
 fortnight ; the Roman games would immediately 
 succeed them, and thus 40 days intervene between 
 Cicero's charge and the reply of Hortensius, who 
 again, by dexterous adjournments, would delay the 
 proceedings until the games of Victory, and the 
 commencement of the new year. Cicero therefore 
 abandoned all thought of eloquence or display, and 
 merely introducing his case in the first of the 
 Verrine orations, rested all his hopes of success on 
 the weight of testimony alone. Hortensius was 
 quite unprepared with counter-evidence, and after 
 
 VERUS. 
 
 811 
 
 2. Orations 
 founded on 
 the Deposi- 
 tions. 
 
 the first day he abandoned the cause of Verres. 
 Before the nine days occupied in hearing evidence 
 were over, Verres quitted the city in despair, and 
 was condemned in his absence, He retired to 
 Marseilles, retaining so many of his treasures oi 
 art as to cause eventually his proscription by 
 M. Antony in 43. Of the 7 Verrine oratione 
 of Cicero, 2 only, the Divinaiio and the Actio 
 Prima^ were spoken, while the remaining 5 were 
 compiled from the depositions after the verdict. 
 Cicero's own division of the impeachment is the 
 following : 
 
 {1. In Q. Caecilium or Divinatio. 
 2. Proemium — Actio Prima — 
 Statement of the Case. 
 These alone were spoken. 
 
 ,B. Verres's official life to b. c. 73. 
 
 4. Jurisdictio Siciliensis. 
 
 5. Oratio Frumentaria. 
 
 6. De Signis. 
 
 7. De Suppliciis. 
 
 These were circulated as documents or mani- 
 festoes of the cause after the flight of Verres. 
 
 Verriigo, a town of the Volsci in Latium, ol 
 uncertain site. 
 
 Vertiicordia. [Venus.] 
 
 Vertumnus or Vortumnus, is said to have 
 been an Etruscan divinity whose worship was in- 
 troduced at Rome by an ancient Vulsinian colony 
 occupying at first the Caelian hill, and afterwards 
 the vicus Tuscus. The name is evidently con- 
 nected with verto^ and formed on the analogy oi 
 alumnus from ah, whence it must signify "• the 
 god who changes or metamorphoses himself." Foi 
 this reason the Romans connected Vertumnus with 
 all occurrences to which the verb verto applies, 
 such as the change of seasons, purchase and sale, 
 the return of rivers to their proper beds, &c. But 
 in reality the god was connected only with the 
 transformation of plants and their progress from 
 blossom to fruit. Hence the story, that when 
 Vertumnus was in love with Pomona, he assumed 
 all possible forms, until at last he gained hia end 
 by metamorphosing himself into a blooming youth, 
 Gardeners accordingly offered to him the first 
 produce of their gardens and garlands of budding 
 flowers. The whole people celebrated a festival to 
 Vertumnus on the 23rd of August, under the name 
 of the Vortumjialia, denoting the transition from 
 the beautiful season of autumn to the less agreeable 
 one. He had a temple in the vicus Tuscus, and a 
 statue of him stood in the vicus Jugarius near the 
 altar of Ops. The story of the Etruscan origm 
 seems to be sufficiently refuted by his genuine 
 Roman name, and it is much more probable that 
 the worship of Vertumnus was of Sabine origin. 
 The importance of the worship of Vertumnus al 
 Rome is evident from the fact, that it was attended 
 to by a special flamen {Jiamen VoHumnalis). 
 
 Venilae (Verulanus : VeroU), a town of the 
 Hernici in Latium, S. E. of Aletrium, and N. oi 
 Frusino, subsequently a Roman colony. 
 
 Venilamium. [Verolamium.] 
 
 Verus, L. Aurelius, the colleague of M. Aure- 
 lius in the empire, a. d, 161 — 169. He was bora 
 in 130, and his original name was L. Ceioniut 
 Commodus. His father L. CeionJus Commoduj 
 was adopted by Hadrian in 136; and on the death 
 of his father in 138, he was, in pursuance of the 
 command of Hadrian, adopted, along with M, 
 Aurelius, by M. Antoninus. On the death oi 
 
812 
 
 VESCINUS. 
 
 Antoninus in 161, lie succeeded to the empire 
 along with. M. Aurelius. The history of his reign 
 13 given under Aurelius. Verus died suddenly 
 at Altinum in the country of Veneti, towards the 
 close of 169. He had been married to Lucilla, 
 the daughter of his colleague. 
 
 Vescinus Ager. [Suessa Aurunca.] 
 Vesevus. [Vesuvius.] 
 
 Vesontio (Besaji^on), the chief town of the Se- 
 quani in Grallia Belgica, situated on the river Dubis 
 {Vottbs), which flowed around the town, with the 
 exception of a space of 600 feet, on which stood a 
 mountain, forming the citadel of the town, and con- 
 nected with the latter by means of walls. Veson- 
 tio was an important place under the Romans, and 
 still contains ruins of an aqueduct, a triumphal 
 afch, and other Roman remains. 
 
 Vespasianua, T. Flavins Sahinus, Roman 
 emperor, a. d. 70—79, was bora iu the Sabine 
 country on the 17th of November, a. d. 9. His 
 father was a man of mean condition, of Reate, in 
 the country of the Sabini. His mother, Vespasia 
 Polla, was the daughter of a praefectus castrorum, 
 and the sister of a Roman senator. She was left 
 a widow with 2 sons, Flavins Sabinus and Vespa- 
 sian, Vespasian served as tribunus milltum in 
 Thrace, and was quaestor in Crete and Cyrene. 
 He was afterwards aedile and praetor. About 
 this time he took to wife Flavia Domitilla, the 
 daughter of a Roman eques, by whom he had 2 
 sons, both of whom succeeded him. In tlie reign 
 of Claudius he was sent into Germany as legatus 
 legionis ; and in 43 he held the same command in 
 Britain, and reduced the Isle of Wight. He was 
 consul in 51, and proconsul of Africa under Nero. 
 He was at this time very poor, and was accused of 
 getting money by dishonourable means. But he 
 had a great military reputation, and he was liked 
 by the soldiers, Nero afterwards sent him to the 
 East (66), to conduct the war against the Jews. 
 His conduct of the Jewish war had raised his re- 
 putation, when the war broke out between Otho 
 and Vitellius after the death of Galba. He was 
 proclaimed emperor at Alexandria on the 1 st of 
 July 69, and soon after all through the East. 
 Vespasian came to Rome in the following year 
 (70), leaving his son Titus to continue the war 
 against the Jews. Titus took Jerusalem after a 
 siege of 5 months ; and a formidable insurrection 
 of the Batavi, headed by Civilis, was put down 
 about the same period. Vespasian, on his arrival 
 at Rome, worked with great industry to restore 
 order in the city and in the empire. He disbanded 
 some of the mutinous soldiers of Vitellius, and 
 maintained discipline among his own. He co- 
 operated in a friendly manner with the senate in 
 the public administration. The simplicity and 
 Irugality of his mode of life formed a striking con- 
 trast with the profusion and luxury of some of his 
 predecessors, and his example is said to have done 
 more to reform the morals of Rome than all the 
 laws which had ever been enacted. He lived 
 more like a private person than a man who pos- 
 sessed supreme power : he was affable and easy of 
 access to all persons. The personal anecdotes of 
 such a man are some of the most instructive records 
 of his reign. He was never ashamed of the mean- 
 ness of his origin, and ridiculed all attempts to 
 make out for him a distinguished genealogy. When 
 Vologeses, the Parthian king, addressed to hum a 
 ietter commencing in these terms, " Axaaces, king 
 
 VESTA 
 
 of kings, to Flavius Vespasianua," the answer be- 
 gan, " Flavius Vespasianus to Arsaces, king of 
 kings." If it be true, as it is recorded, that he 
 was not annoyed at satire or ridicule, he exhibited 
 an elevation of character almost unparalleled in 
 one who filled so exalted a statbn. He knew the 
 bad character of his son Doraitian, and as long as 
 he lived he kept hira under proper restraint. The 
 stories that are told of his avarice and of his modes 
 of raising money, if true, detract from the dignity 
 of bis character ; and it seems that he had a taste 
 for little savings, and for coarse humour. Yet it 
 is admitted that he was liberal in all his expendi- 
 ture for purposes of public utility. In 71 Titus 
 returned to Rome, and both father and son tri- 
 umphed together on account of the conquest of the 
 Jews. The reign of Vespasian was marked by 
 few striking events. The most important was the 
 conquest of North Wales and the island of Angle- 
 sey by Agricr)la, who was sent into Britain in 78. 
 In the summer of 79 Vespasian, whose health was 
 failing, went to spend some time at his paternal 
 house in the mountains of the Sabini. By drink- 
 ing to excess of cold water he damaged his stomach, 
 which was already disordered. But he still at- 
 tended to business, just as if he had been in perfect 
 health ; and on feeling the approach of death, he 
 said that an emperor should die standing ; and in 
 fact he did die standing in this attitude, on the 
 24th of June 79, being 69 years of age. 
 
 Vesta, one of the great Roman divinities, iden- 
 tical with the Greek Hestia, both in name and 
 import. She was the goddess of the hearth, and 
 therefore inseparably connected with the Penates ; 
 for Aeneas was believed to have brought the eternal 
 fire of Vesta from Troy, along with the images of 
 the Penates; and the praetors, consuls, and dicta- 
 tors, before entering upon their official functions, 
 sacrificed, not only to the Penates, but also to Vesta 
 at Lavinium. In the ancient Roman house, the 
 hearth was the central part, and around it all the 
 inmates daily assembled for their common meal 
 (coena) ; every meal thus taken was a fresh bond 
 of union and affection among the members of a 
 family, and at the same time an act of worship of 
 Vesta, combined with a sacrifice to her and the 
 Penates. Every dwelling-house therefore was, in 
 some sense, a temple of Vesta ; but a public sanc- 
 tuary united all the citizens of the state into one 
 large family. This sanctuary stood in the Forum, 
 between the Capitoline and Palatme hills, and not 
 far from the temple of the Penates. The temple 
 was round with a vaulted roof, like the impluvium. 
 of private houses, so that there is no reason to 
 regard that form as an imitation of the vault of 
 heaven. The goddess was not represented in her 
 temple by a statue, but the eternal fire burning on 
 her hearth or altar was her living symbol, and was 
 kept up and attended to by the Vestals, her virgin 
 priestesses. As each house, and the city itself, so 
 also the country had its own Vesta, and the latter 
 was worshipped at Lavinium, the metropolis of tha 
 Latins, where she was worshipped and received 
 the regular sacrifices at the hands of the highest 
 magistrates. The goddess herself was regarded as 
 chaste and pure like her symbol, the fire ; and the 
 Vestals who Jcept up the sacred fire were likewise 
 pure maidens. Respecting their duties and obli- 
 gations, see Diet, of A7itiq. art. Vestales. On the 
 Ist of March in every year her sacred fire, and the 
 laurel tree which shaded her hearth, were renewed, 
 
VESTINI. 
 
 and on, the loth of June her temple was cleaned 
 and purified. The dirt was carried into an angi- 
 portus behind the temple, which was locked by a 
 gate that no one might enter it. The day on which 
 this took place was a dies nefastus, the first half of 
 which was thought to be so inauspicious, that the 
 priestess of Juno was not allowed to comb her liair 
 or to cut her nails, while the second half was very 
 favourable to contracting a marriage or entering 
 upon other important undertakings. A few days 
 before that solemnity, on the 9th of June, the 
 Vestalia was celebrated in honour of the goddess, 
 on which occasion none but women walked to the 
 temple, and that with bare feet. On one of these 
 occasions an altar had been dedicated to Jupiter 
 Pistor. Respecting the Greek goddess see Hestia, 
 
 Vestini, a Sabellian people in central Italy, 
 lying between the Apennines and the Adriatic sea, 
 and separated from Picenum by the river Matri- 
 nus, and from the Marrucini by the river Atemus. 
 They are mentioned in connexion with the Marai, 
 Mai-nicini, and Peligni ; but they subsequently 
 separated from these peoples, and joined the Sam- 
 nites in their war against Rome. They were con- 
 quered by the Romans, b. c. 328, and from this 
 time appear as the allies of Rome. They joined 
 the other allies in the Marsic war, and were con- 
 quered by Pompeius Strabo in fl9. They made a 
 particular kind of cheese, which was a great 
 favourite with the Romans. 
 
 Vesiilus. [Alpbs.] 
 
 Vesuvius, also called Vesevus, Vesbms, or 
 Ves'rfus, the celebrated volcanic mountain in Cam- 
 pania, rising out of the plain S. E. of Neapolis. 
 There are no records of any eruption of Vesuvius 
 before the Christian era, but the ancient writers 
 were aware of its volcanic nature from the igneous 
 appearance of its rocks. The slopes of the moun- 
 tain were extremely fertile, but the top was a 
 rough and sterile plain, on which Spartacus and 
 his gladiators were besieged by a Roman army. In 
 A. D. 63 the volcano gave the first symptoms of 
 agitation in an earthquake, which occasioned con- 
 siderable damage to several towns in its vicinity; 
 and on the 24th of August a. d. 79, occurred the 
 first great eruption of Vesuvius, which overwhelmed 
 the cities of IStabiae, Herculaneum, and Pompeii. 
 It was in this eruption that the elder Pliny lost 
 his life. [Pliniu.s.] There have been numerous 
 eruptions since that time, which have greatly 
 altered the shape of the mountain. Its present 
 height is 3200 feet. 
 
 Vetera or Castra Vetera. [Castra, No. 5.] 
 
 Vetranio, commanded the legions in Illyria and 
 Pannonia, at the period (a. d. 350) when Constans 
 was treacherously destroyed, and his throne seized 
 by Magnentius. Vetraijio was proclaimed emperor 
 by his troops; but at the end of 10 months he 
 resigned his pretensions in favour of Constantius, 
 by whom he was treated with great kindness, and 
 permitted to retire to Prusa, in Bithynia, where 
 he passed the remaining 6 years of his life. 
 
 Vettius, L., a Roman eques, in the pay of 
 Cicero in B.C. 63, to whom he gave some valuable 
 information respecting the Catilinarian conspiracy. 
 He again appears in 59, aa an informer. In that 
 year he accused Curio, Cicero, L. LucuUus, and 
 many other distinguished men, of having formed a 
 conspiracy to assassinate Pompey. This conspiracy 
 was a slieer invention for the purpose of injuring 
 Cicero, Curio, and others ; but there is difficulty 
 
 VETUS. 
 
 813 
 
 in determining who were the inventors of it- 
 Cicero regarded it as the work of Caesar, who 
 used the tribune Vatinius as his instrument. At 
 a later period, when Cicero had returned from 
 exile, and feared to provoke the triumvir, he threw 
 the whole blame upon Vatinius. Vettius gave 
 evidence first before the senate and on the next 
 day before the assembly of the people; but his 
 statements were regarded with great suspicion^ 
 and on the following morning he was found 
 strangled in prison, to which the senate had sent 
 him. It was given out that he had committed 
 suicide; but the marks of violence were visible on 
 his body, and Cicero at a later time charged Va- 
 tinius with the murder. 
 
 Vettius Scato. [Scato.] 
 
 Vettones or Vectones, a people in the interior 
 of Lusitania, E. of the Lusitani and W. of the 
 Carpetani, extending from the Durius to the Tagus. 
 
 Vetiiloiua, Vetuloiiiuin, or Vetulonii, an an- 
 cient city of Etruria, and one of the 12 cities o£ 
 the Etruscan confederation. From this city the 
 Romans are said to have borrowed the insignia of 
 their magistrates — the fasces, sella curulis, and 
 toga praetexta — as well as the use of the brazen 
 tpampet in war. After the time of the Roman 
 kings we find no further mention of Vetulonia, 
 except in the catalogues of Pliny and Ptolemy, 
 both of whom place it among the inland colonies of 
 Etruria. Pliny also states that there were hot 
 springs in its neighbourhood not far from the sea, 
 in which fish were found, notwithstanding the 
 warmth of the water. The very site of the ancient 
 city was supposed to have been entirely lost ; but 
 it has been discovered within the last few years 
 near a small village called Magllano^ between the 
 river Osa and the Albegna, and about miles in- 
 land. It appears to have had a circuit of at least 
 41 miles. 
 
 Veturia Geas, anciently called Vetusia, pa- 
 trician and plebeian. The Veturii rarely occur in 
 the later times of the republic, and after B.C. 206. 
 when L. Veturius Philo was consul, their name 
 disappears from the Fasti. The most distinguished 
 families in the gens bore the names Calvinus. 
 CicuRiNus, and Philo. 
 
 Veturius Mamurius is said to have been the 
 armourer who made the 11 ancilia exactly like 
 the one that was sent from heaven in the reign ol 
 Numa. His praises formed one of the chief sub- 
 jects of the songs of the Salii. Even the ancients 
 themselves doubted in the reality of his existence : 
 Varro interpreted his name as equivalent to vetiu 
 memona. Some modern writers regard Marauriuf 
 Veturius as an Etruscan artist, because he is said 
 to have made a brazen image of the god Vertumnus. 
 
 Vetus, Antistius. 1. Propraetor in Furthei 
 Spain about B. c. 68, under whom Caesar served 
 as quaestor. ^ 2. C, son of the preceding, quaestoi 
 in 61, and tribune of the plebs in 57, when h( 
 supported Cicero in opposition to Clodius. In tht 
 Civil war he espoused Caesar's party, and we fine 
 him in Syria in 45, fighting against Q. Caeciliuf 
 BassuB. In 34 Vetus carried on war against the 
 Salassi, and in 30 \yas consul suffectus. He ac' 
 companied Augustus to Spain in 25, and on tht 
 illness of the emperor continued the war againsi 
 the Cantabri and Astures, whom he reduced tc 
 submission. ^3. C, son of No. 2., consul u. c. 6 
 and as he lived to see both his sons consuls, ht 
 must haye been alive at least as late as a, d, 28 
 
814 
 
 ^UDUS. 
 
 He was a friend of Velleius Paterculus. — 4. L. 
 grandson of No. 3, and consul with the emperor 
 Nero, A. D. 55. In 58 he commanded a Roman 
 army in Germany, and formed the project of con- 
 necting the Mosella (MoseUe) and the Arar (Saone) 
 by a canal, and thus forming a communication be- 
 tween the Mediterranean and the Northern Ocean, 
 as troops could be conveyed down the Rhone and 
 the Saone into the Moselle through the canal, and 
 down the Moselle into the Rhine, and so into the 
 Ocean. Vetus put an end to his life in 65, in 
 order to anticipate his sentence of death, which 
 Nero had resolved upon, Vetus was the father- 
 in-law of Rubellius Plautus. 
 
 Viadiis {Oder)j a river of Germany, falling into 
 the B-iltic. 
 Vibius Pansa. [Pansa.] 
 Vibiua Sequester. [Sequester.] 
 Vibo (Vibonensis : Bivona), the Roman form of 
 the Greek town Hipponium {'lirwwviov : 'linrco- 
 yiaTTjs), situated on the S. W. coast of Bruttium, 
 and on a gulf called after it Sinus Vibonensis or 
 Hipponiates. It is said to have been founded by 
 the Locri Epizephyrii ; but it was destroyed by 
 the elder Dionysius, who transplanted its inha- 
 bitants to Syracuse. It was afterwards restored ; 
 and at a later time it fell into the hands of the 
 Bruttii, together with the other Greek cities on 
 this coast. It was taken from the Bruttii by the 
 Romans, who colonised it b. c. 194, and called it 
 Vibo Valentia. Cicero speaks of it as a muni- 
 cipium ; and in the time of Augustus it was one of 
 the most flourishing cities in the S- of Italy. 
 
 Vibulanus, the name of the most ancient family 
 of the Fabia Gens. It was so powerful in the 
 early times of the republic, that 3 brothers of the 
 family held the consulship for 7 years in succession, 
 B. c. 485 — 479. The last person of the gens who 
 bore this surname was Q. Fabius Vibulanus, consul 
 4] 2. This Vibulanus assumed the agnomen of 
 Ambustus ; and his descendants dropt the name of 
 Vibulanus and took that of Ambustus in its place. 
 In the same way Ambustus was after a time sup- 
 planted by that of Maximus. — 1. Q. Fabius Vi- 
 bulanus, consul 485, when he carried on war with 
 success against the Volsci and Aequi, and consul a 
 2nd time in 482. In 480 he fought under his 
 brother Marcus [No. 31] against the Etruscans, 
 and was killed in battle. —2. K., brother of the 
 preceding, was quaestor parricidii in 485, and along 
 with his colleague L. Valerius accused Sp. Cassius 
 Viscellinua, who was in consequence condemned 
 by the votes of the populus. He was consul in 
 484, when he took an active part in opposing the 
 agrarian law, which the tribunes of the people 
 attempted to bring forward. In 481 he was consul 
 a 2nd time, and in 479 a 3rd time, when he es- 
 poused the cause of the plebeians, to whom he had 
 become reconciled. As his propositions were re- 
 jected with scorn by the patricians, he and his 
 house resolved to quit Rome altogether, where 
 they were regarded as apostates by their own 
 order. They determined to found a settlement on 
 the banks of the Creraera, a small stream that falls 
 into the Tiber a few miles above Rome. According 
 to the legend, the consul Kaeso went before the 
 senate and said, that the Fabii were willing to 
 carry on the war against the Veientes, alone and 
 at their own cost. Their offer was joyfully ac- 
 cepted, for the patricians were glad to see them 
 expose themselves voluntarily to such dangers. On 
 
 VICTOR. 
 
 the day after Kaeso had made the proposal to the 
 senate, 306 Fabii, all patricians of one gens, as- 
 sembled on the Quirinal at the house of Kaeso, 
 and from thence marched with the consul at their 
 head through the Carraental gate. They proceeded 
 straight to the banks of the Creraera, where they 
 erected a fortress. Here they took up their abode 
 along with their families and clients, and for 2 
 years continued to devastate the territory of Veli, 
 They were at length destroyed by the Veientes in 
 477. Ovid says that the Fabii perished on the 
 Ides of February ; but all other authorities state 
 that they were destroyed on the day on which the 
 Romans were subsequently conquered by the Gauls 
 at the Allia, that is, on the 15th before the Kalends 
 of Sextilis, June the 18th. The whole Fabia gens 
 perished at the Creraera with the exception 
 of one individual, the son of Marcus, from 
 whom all the later Fabii were descended. ^3. M., 
 brother of the 2 preceding, was consul 483, and a 
 2nd time 480. In the latter year he gained a 
 great victory over the Etruscans, in which however 
 his colleague the consul Cincinnatus and his brother 
 Q. Fabius were killed. — 4, Q., son of No. 3, is 
 said to have been the only one of the Fabii who 
 survived the destruction of his gens at the Cremera, 
 but he could not have been left behind at Rome 
 on account of his youth, as the legend relates, since 
 he was consul 10 years afterwards. He was con- 
 sul 467, a 2nd time in 465, and a 3rd time in 459, 
 Fabius was a member of the 2nd decemvirate 
 (450), and went into exile on the deposition of the 
 decemvirs, 
 
 Vibullius Eufus, L., a senator and a friend of 
 Pompey, who made him praefectus fabrum in the 
 Civil war. He was taken prisoner by Caesar at 
 Corfinium (49), and a 2nd time in Spain later in 
 the year. When Caesar landed in Greece in 48, 
 he despatched Vibullius to Pompey with offers of 
 peace. Vibullius made the greatest haste to reach 
 Pompey, in order to give him the earliest intelli- 
 gence of the arrival of his enemy in Greece. 
 
 Vicentia or Vicetia, less correctly Vincentia 
 (Vicentinus : Vicenza), a town in Venetia in the 
 N. of Italy, and a Roman municipium on the river 
 Togisonus. 
 
 Victor, Sex. Aurelius, a Latin writer, flourished 
 in the middle of the 4th century under the em- 
 peror Constantius and bis successors. He was bom 
 of humble parents, but rose to distinction by his 
 zeal in the cultivation of literature. Having at- 
 tracted the attention of Julian when at Sirmium, 
 he was appointed by that prince governor of one 
 division of Pannonia. At a subsequent period, he 
 was elevated by Theodosius to the high office of 
 city praefect, and he is perhaps the same as the 
 Sex. Aurelius Victor, who was consul along with 
 Valentinian in a. d. 373. The following works, 
 which present in a very compressed form a con- 
 tinuous record of Roman affairs, from the fabulous 
 ages down to the death of the emperor Theodosius, 
 have all been ascribed to this writer ; but the evi- 
 dence upon which the determination of authorship 
 depends, is very slender, and in all probability the 
 3rd alone belongs to the Sex. Aurelius Victor 
 whom we have noticed above: — 1. Ot-igo Gentis 
 Romanae^ in 23 chapters, containing the annals of 
 the Roman race, from Janus and Satumus down 
 to the era of Romulus. It is probably a production 
 of Borao of the later grammarians who were desirous 
 of prefixing a suitable introduction to the series. 
 
VICTOR. 
 
 2. De Viris Ulusirihus Urhis Romae, in 86 chapters* 
 commencing with the birth of Romulus and Remus, 
 and concluding with the death of Cleopatra. 3. 
 De CaesaHbus^ in 42 chapters* exhibiting short 
 biographies of the emperors, from Augustus to 
 Constantius. 4. Epitome de Caesaribus^ in 48 
 chapters, commencing with Augustus and con- 
 cluding with Theodosius. These lives agree for 
 the most part almost word for word with the 
 preceding, but variations may here and there be 
 detected. Moreover, the first series terminates 
 with Constantius, but the second comes down as 
 low as Arcadius and Honorius. The best edition 
 of these 4 pieces is by Amtzenius, Amst. et Traj. 
 Bat. 1733, 4to. 
 
 Victor, Fublius, the name prefixed to an enu- 
 meration of the principal buildings and monuments 
 of ancient Rome, distributed according to the 
 regions of Augustus, which has generally been 
 respected as a work of great authority by Italian 
 antiquaries. The best modem scholars, however, 
 are agreed that this work, and a similar production 
 ascribed to Sextus Rufqs, cannot be received in 
 their present state as ancient at all, but must be 
 regarded as mere pieces of patchwork, fabricated 
 not earlier than the 15th century. 
 
 Victoria, the personification of victory among 
 the Romans. It is said that Evander by the 
 command of Minerva dedicated on mount Palatine 
 a temple of Victoria, the daughter of Pallas. On 
 the site of this ancient temple a new one was 
 built by L. Postumius, during the war with the 
 Samnites ; and M. Porcius Cato added to it a 
 chapel of Victoria Virgo. In later times there 
 existed 3 or 4 sanctuaries of Victory at Rome. 
 Respecting the Greek goddess of Victory see 
 Nice. 
 
 Victoria or Victorina, the mother of Victo- 
 rinus, after whose death she was hailed as the 
 mother of camps i^Maier Castrorum) ; and coins 
 were struck, bearing her effigy. Feeling herself 
 unequal to the weight of empire, she transferred 
 her power first to Marius, and then to Tetricus, 
 by whom some say that she was slain, while 
 others affirm that she died a natural death. 
 - Victoriuus. 1. One of the Thirty Tyrants, 
 was the 3rd of the usurpers who in succession 
 ruled Gaul during the reign of Gallienus. He was 
 assassinated at Agrippina by one of his own 
 officers in a. d, 268, after reigning somewhat more 
 than a year. — 2. Bishop of Pettaw on the Drave 
 in Styria, hence distinguished by the epithet Pe- 
 tavionensis, or Pictaviensis^ flourished A. D. 270 — 
 290, and suffered martyrdom during the perse- 
 cution of Diocletian, probably in 303. He wrote 
 commentaries on the Scriptures, but all his works 
 are lost. — 3. C. Maritis Victorinus, sumamed 
 Afer from the country of his birth, taught rhetoric 
 at Rome in the middle of the 4th century, with so 
 much reputation that his statue was erected in the 
 forum of Trajan. In his old age he embraced 
 Christianity ; and when the edict of Julian, pro- 
 hibiting Christians from giving instruction in po- 
 lite literature, was promulgated, Victorinus chose 
 to shut up his school rather than deny his religion. 
 Besides his commentaries on the Scriptures, and 
 other theological works, many of which are extant, 
 Victorinus wrote : — Commentarius b. JEjcpositio in 
 Cieeronis libros de Tnventioney the best edition of 
 which is in the 6th volume of Orelli's edition of 
 Cicero. 2. Ars Grammatka da Oi-ihographia et 
 
 VINDELICIA. 
 
 815 
 
 Ratione Metrorum^ a complete and voluminous 
 treatise upon metres, in 4 books, printed in the 
 Grammaticae Laiinae Auctores Ardiqui of Puts- 
 chius, Hannov. 1605. The fame enjoyed by Vic- 
 torinus as a public instructor does not gain any 
 accession from his works. The exposition of the 
 De Inventione is more difficult to comprehend than 
 the text which it professes to explain. ^4. Maxi- 
 mus Victorinus. We possess three short tracts 
 — 1. De Re Grammatica ; 2. De Carmine He- 
 roico ; 3. De Ratione Metrorum ; all apparently 
 the work of the same author, and usually ascribed 
 in MSS. to a Maximus Victorinus ; but whether 
 we ought to consider him the same with the rhe- 
 torician who flourished under Constantius, or as 
 an independent personage, it is impossible to 
 decide. They were printed in the collection of 
 Putschius, Hannov. 1605, and in that of Linde- 
 mann, Lips. 1831. 
 
 Victrix. [Venus.] 
 
 Viducasses, a tribe of the Armorici In Gallia 
 Lugdunensis, S. of the modem Caen. 
 
 Vienna (Viennensis : Vienne), the chief town of 
 the Allobroges in Gallia Lugdunensis, situated on 
 the Rhone, S. of Lugdunum. It was subsequently 
 a Roman colony, and a wealthy and flourishing 
 town. Under the later emperors it was the capital 
 of the province called after it Gallia Viennensis. 
 The modern town contains several Roman remains, 
 of which the most important is a temple, supposed 
 to have been dedicated to Augustus, and now con- 
 verted into a museum. 
 
 Villius Annalis. [Annalis.] 
 
 Vtmmalis. [Roma.] 
 
 Vincentins, surnamed Lirinensis, from the 
 monastery in the island of Lerlns, where he offi- 
 ciated as a presbyter. He was by birth a native 
 of Gaul, and died in the rejgn of Theodosius and 
 Valentinian, about A. D. 450. His fame rests 
 upon a treatise against heretics, composed in 434. 
 It commonly bears the title Commonitorium pro 
 CathoHcae fdei antiquiiaie et universitate adversus 
 prqfanas omnium Haereticorum novitates. The 
 standard edition is that of Baluzius, 8vo, Paris, 
 1663, 1669, 1684. 
 
 Vindalum, a town of the Cavares in Gallia Nar- 
 bonensis, situated at the confluence of the Sulgas 
 and the Rhone. 
 
 Vindelicia, a Roman province S. of the Danube, 
 bounded on the N. by the Danube, which separated 
 it from Germany, on the W. by the territory of 
 the Helvetii in Gaul, on the S. by Rhaetia, and on 
 the E. by the river Oenus (/««), which separated 
 it from Noricum, thus corresponding to the N.E. 
 part of Switzerland, the S.E. of Baden, the S. of 
 Wurtemberg and Bavaria, and the N. part of the 
 Tyrol. It was originally part of the province of 
 Rhaetia, and was conquered by Tiberius in the 
 reign of Augustus. At a later time Rhaetia was 
 divided into two provinces, Rliaeiia Prima and 
 Rhaetia Seouiida, the latter of which names was 
 gradually supplanted by that of Vindelicia. It 
 was drained by the tributaries of the Danube, of. 
 which the most important were the Licias, or Licus 
 {Leek), with its tributary the Vindo, Vinda, or 
 Virdo (Werlach), the Isarua (Isar), and Genua 
 (Inn). The E. part of the Lacua Brigantinus {Lake 
 of Constance) also belonged to Vindelicia. The 
 greater part of Vindelicia was a plain, but the S. 
 portion was occupied by the N. slopes of the Alpes 
 Rhaeticae. It derived its name from its chief in- 
 
816 
 
 VINDEX. 
 
 halaitants, the Vindelici, a warlike people dwelling 
 5n the S. of the country. Their name is said to 
 have been formed from the 2 rivers, Vinda and 
 Licus ; but it IB more likely connected with the 
 Celtic word Vind, which is found in the names 
 Vindohonn, Vindomagas, Fi'nrfonissa, &c. The 
 Vindelici were a Celtic people, and were closely 
 connected with the Rhaeti, with whom they are 
 frequently spoken of by the ancient writers, and 
 along with whom they were subdued by Tiberius, 
 as is mentioned above. The other tribes in Vinde- 
 liuia were the Brigantii on the Lake of Constance, 
 the Licatii or Licates on the Lech, and the Breuni 
 m the N. of Tyrol on the Brenner. The chief 
 town in the province was Augusta Vindelicorum 
 {^Augsburg), at the confluence of Vindo and the 
 Licus, which was made a Roman colony, A. d. 14, 
 and was the residence of the governor of the pro- 
 vince. This town, together with the other towns 
 of Vindelicia, fell into the hands of the Alemanni 
 in the 4th century, and from this time the popu- 
 lation of the country appears to have been entirely 
 Germanized. 
 
 Vindex, C. Julius, propraetor of Gallia Celtica 
 in the reign of Nero, was the first of the Roman 
 governors who disowned the authority of Nero 
 (a. d. 68). He did not, however, aspire to the 
 empire himself, but offered it to Galba. Vir- 
 ginias Rufus, the governor of Upper Germany, 
 marched with his army against Vindex. The two 
 generals had a conference before Vesontio {Be- 
 sangon)^ in which they appear to have come to 
 some agreement ; but as Vindex was going to 
 enter the town, he was attacked by the soldiers of 
 Virglnius, and put an end to his own life. 
 
 Vindicius, a slave, who is said to have given 
 information to the consuls of the conspiracy, which 
 was formed for the restoration of the Tarquins, 
 and who was rewarded in consequence with liberty 
 and the Roman francliise. He is said to have been 
 the first slave manumitted by the Viiidicta^ the 
 name of which was derived by some persons from 
 that of the slave ; but it is unnecessary to point 
 out the absurdity of this etymology. 
 
 Vindili. [Vandili.] 
 
 Vindilis {Belle Isle), one of the islands of the 
 Veneti off the N. W. coast of Gaul. 
 
 Vindius or Vinnius, a mountain in the N. W. 
 of Hispania Tarraconensis, forming -the boundary 
 between the Cantabri and Astures. 
 
 Vindobona {Vienna^ Engl. ; Wien^ Germ.), a 
 town in Pannonia, on the Danube, was originally 
 a Celtic place, and subsequently a Roman muni- 
 cipium. Under the Romans it became a town of 
 importance ; it was the chief station of the Roman 
 fleet on the Danube, and the head quarters of a 
 Roman legion. It was taken and plundered 'hy 
 Attila, but continued to be a flourishing town under 
 the Lombards. It was here that the emperor M. 
 Aurelius died, A. d. 180. 
 
 Vindonissa ( Windisch), a town in Gallia Bel- 
 gica, on the triangular tongue of land between the 
 Aar and Reuss, was an important Roman fortress 
 in the country of the Helvetii. Several Roman 
 remains have been discovered on the site of the 
 ancient town ; and the foundations of walls, the 
 traces of an amphitheatre, and a subterranean aque- 
 duct, are still to be seen. 
 
 Vinius, T., consul in a. d. 69 with the emperor 
 Galba, and one of the chief advisers of the latter 
 during hia brief reign. He recommended Galba 
 
 VIRGILIUS. 
 
 to choose Otho rs hia successor, but he was not- 
 withstanding killed by 0tho''3 soldiers, after the 
 death of Galba. 
 
 Vipsania Agrippina. L Daughter of M. Vip- 
 sanius Agrippa by his first wife Pomponia, the 
 daughter of T. Pomponius Atticus, the friend of 
 Cicero, Augustus gave her in marriage to his 
 step-son Tiberius, by whom she was much beloved; 
 but after she had borne him a son, Drusus, Ti- 
 berius was compelled to divorce her by the com- 
 mand of the emperor, in order to marr}'^ Julia, 
 the daughter of the latter. Vipsania afterwards 
 married Asinius Gallus. She died in a. d. 20.^ 
 2. Daughter of M. Vipsani'is Agrippa by his second 
 wife Julia, better known by the name of Agrip- 
 pina. [Agrippina.] 
 
 Vipsanius Agrippa, M. [Agrippa.] 
 
 Virbius, a Latin divinity worshipped along 
 with Diana in the grove at Aricia, at the foot of 
 the Alban Mt. He is said to have been the same 
 as Hippoiytus, who was restored to life by Aescu- 
 hipius at the request of Diana, He was placed 
 by this goddess under the care of the nymph 
 Aricia, and received the name of Virbius. By this 
 njinph he became the father of a son, who was 
 also called Virbius, and whom his mother sent to 
 the assistance of Tumus against Aeneas. 
 
 Virdo. [Vindelicia.] 
 
 Virgilius or VergUius Maro, P., the Roman 
 poet, was bom on the 15th of October, b. c. 70, 
 at Andes {Pletola)^ a small village near Mantua 
 in Cisalpine Gaul. Virgil's father probably had a 
 small estate which he cultivated : his mother's 
 name was Maia. He was educated at Cremona 
 and Mediolanum {Milan), and he took the toga 
 virilis at Cremona on the day on which he com- 
 menced his 16th year in 55. It is said that he 
 subsequently studied at Neapolis {Naples) under 
 Parthenius, a native of Bithynia, from whom he 
 learned Greek. He was also instructed by Syron 
 an Epicurean, and probably at Rome. Virgil's 
 writings prove that he received a learned education, 
 and traces of Epicurean opinions are apparent in 
 them. The health of Virgilius was always feeble, 
 and there is no evidence of his attempting to rise 
 by those means by which a Roman gained dis- 
 tinction, oratory and the practice of arms. After 
 completing his education, Virgil appears to have 
 retired to his paternal farm, and here he may have 
 written some of the small pieces, which are attri- 
 buted to him, the Citlexj Ciris, Moretum, and 
 others. After the battle of Philippi (42) Octavian, 
 assigned to hia soldiers lands in various parts of 
 Italy ; and the neighbourhood of Cremona and 
 Mantua was one of the districts in which the 
 soldiers were planted, and from which the former 
 possessors were dislodged. Virgil was thus de- 
 prived of his property. It is said that it was 
 seized by a veteran named Claudius or Clodius, 
 and that Asinius Pollio, who was then governor 
 of Gallia Transpadana, advised Virgil to apply to 
 Octavian at Rome for the restitution of his land, 
 and that Octavian granted his request. It is 
 supposed that Virgilius wrote the Eclogue which 
 stands first in our editions, to commemorati? his 
 gratitude to Octavian. Virgil became acquainted 
 with Maecenas before Horace was, and Horace 
 (Sat. i. 5, and 6. 55, &c.) was introduced to Mae- 
 cenas by Virgil. "Whether this introduction was 
 in 41, or a little later, is uncertain; but we may 
 perhaps conclude from the name of Maecenas not 
 
VIRGILIUS. 
 being mentioned in the Eclogues of Virgil, that he 
 himself was not on those intimate terras with 
 Maecenas which ripened into friendship, until 
 after they were written. Horace, in one of his 
 Satires {SiU. i. 5), in which he describes the 
 journey from Rome to Brundusium, mentions 
 Virgil as one of the party, and in language which 
 shows that they were then in the closest intimacy. 
 The most finished work of Virgil, his Georgica^ 
 an agricultural poem, was undertaken at the sug- 
 gestion of Maecenas (Georg. iii. 41). The con- 
 cluding lines of the Georgica were written at 
 Naples {Georg. iv. 559), and the poem was com- 
 pleted after the battle of Actiura B.C. 31, while 
 Octavian was in the East. (Comp. Georg. iv. 560, 
 and ii. 171.) His Eclogues had all been com- 
 pleted, and probably before the Georgica were 
 begun ( Georg. iv. 565). The epic poem of Virgil, 
 the Aetteid^ was probably long contemplated by 
 the poet. While Augustus was in Spain (27), 
 he wrote to Virgil to express his wish to have 
 some monument of his poetical talent. Virgil 
 appears to have commenced the Aeneid about this 
 time. In '23 died Marcellus, the son of Octavia, 
 Ciiesar's sister, by her first husband ; and as Virgil 
 lost no opportunity of gratifying his patron, he 
 introduced into his 6th book of the Aeneid (883) 
 the well-known allusion to the virtues of this 
 youth, who was cut off by a premature death. 
 Octavia is said to have been present when the 
 poet was reciting this allusion to her son and to 
 have fainted from her emotions. She rewarded 
 the poet munificently for his excusable flattery. 
 As Marcellus did not die till 23, these lines were 
 of course written after his death, but that does 
 not prove that the whole of the 6th book was 
 written so late, A passive in the 7th book (606) 
 appears to allude to Augustus receiving back the 
 Parthian standards, which event belongs to 20. 
 When Augustus was returning from Samos, where 
 he bad spent the winter of 20, he met Virgil at 
 Athens. The poet, it is said, had intended to 
 make a tour of Greece, but he accompanied the 
 emperor to Megara and thence to Italy. His 
 health, which had been long declining, was now 
 cnmpletely broken, and he died soon after his 
 arrival at Brundusium on the 22d of September, 
 19, not having quite completed his 51st year. 
 His remains were transferred to Naples, which 
 had been his favourite residence, and placed on 
 the road from Naples to Puteoli {Pozzuoli)., where 
 a monument is still shown, supposed to be the 
 tomb of the poet. The inscription said to have 
 been placed on the tomb, 
 
 " Mantua me genuit, Calahri rapuere, tenet nunc 
 Parthenope. Cecini pascua, rura, duces,'" 
 
 we cannot suppose to have been written by the 
 poet. Virgil named, as heredes in his testament, 
 his half-brother Valerius Proculus, to whom he 
 left one-half of his property, and also Augustus, 
 Maecenas, L. Varius and Plotius Tucca. It is 
 said that in his last illness he wished to bum the 
 Aeneid, to which he had not given the finishing 
 touches, but his friends would not allow him. 
 Whatever he may have wished to be done with 
 the Aeneid, it was preserved and published by his 
 friends Varius and Tucca. The poet had been 
 enriched by the liberality of his patrons, and he 
 left behind him a considerable property and a 
 house on the Esquiline Hill near the gardens of 
 
 VIRGILIUS. 
 
 817 
 
 Maecenas. He used his wealth liberally, and his 
 library, which was doubtless a good one, was easy 
 of access. He used to send his parents money 
 every year. His father, who became blind, did 
 not die before his son had attained a mature age. 
 Two brothers of Virgil also died before him. In 
 his fortunes and his friends Virgil was a happy 
 man. Munificent patronage gave him ample 
 means of enjoyment and of leisure, and he had 
 the friendship of all the most accomplished men of 
 the day, among whom Horace entertained a strong 
 affection for him. He was an amiable good-tem- 
 pered man, free from the mean passions of envy 
 and jealousy; and in all but health he was pros- 
 perous. His fame, which was established in his 
 lifetime, was cherished after his death, as an in- 
 heritance in which every Roman had a share ; and 
 his works became school-books even before the 
 death of Augustus, and continued such for cen- 
 turies after. The learned poems of Virgil soon 
 gave employment to commentators and critics. 
 Aulus Gellius has numerous remarks on Virgil, 
 and Macrohius, in his Saturnalia, has filled four 
 books (iii — vi.) with his critical remarks on 
 Virgil's poems. One of the most valuable com- 
 mentaries of Virgil, in which a great amount of 
 curious and instructive matter has been preserved, 
 is that of Servius [ServiusJ. Virgil is one of 
 the most difficult of the Latin authors, not so 
 much for the form of the expression, though that 
 is sometimes ambiguous enough, but from the 
 great variety of knowledge that is required to 
 attain his meaning in all its fulness. Virgil was 
 the great poet of the middle ages too. To him 
 Dante paid the homage of his superior genius, and 
 owned him for his master and his model. Among 
 the vulgar he had the reputation of a conjurer, a 
 necromancer, a worker of miracles : it is the fate 
 of a great name to be embalmed in fable. — The 
 10 short poems called Bitcolica were the earliest 
 woiks of Virgil, and probably all written between 
 41 and 37. These Bucolica are not Bucolica in 
 the same sense as the poeras of Theocritus, which 
 have the same title. They have all a Bucolic 
 form and colouring, but some of them have nothing 
 more. They are also called Eclogae or Selections, 
 but this name may not have originated with the 
 poet Their merit consists in their versification, 
 which was smoother and more polished than the 
 hexameters which the Romans had yet seen, and 
 in many natural and simple touches. But as an 
 attempt to transfer the Syracusan muse into Italy, 
 they are certainly a failure, and we read the 
 pastorals of Theocritus and of Virgil with a very 
 different degree of pleasure. The 4th Eclogue, 
 entitled PolHo, which may have been written in 
 40, after the peace of Brundusium, has nothing of 
 the pastoral character about it. It is allegorical, 
 mystical, half historical and prophetical, aenig- 
 matical, anything in fact but Bucolic. The 1st 
 Eclogue is Bucolic ui form and in treatment, with 
 an historical basis. The 2nd Eclogue, the Alexis, 
 is an amatory poem, with a Bucolic colouring, 
 which indeed is the characteristic of all Virgil's 
 Eclogues, whatever they may be in substance. 
 The 3rd, the 5th, the 7th, and the 9th are more 
 cleariy modelled on the form of the poems of his 
 Sicilian prototype ; and the 8th, th& Pharma- 
 ceutria, is a direct imitation of the original Greek. 
 The 10th, entitled Gallus, perhaps written the 
 last of all, is a love poem, which, if written in 
 
 3 G 
 
818 
 
 VIRGILIUS. 
 
 elegiac verse, would be more appropriately called 
 an elegy than a Bucolic. — The Georgica or "Agri- 
 cultural Poem " in 4 books is a didactic poem, 
 wliich Virgil dedicated to Jiis patron M ecenas. 
 He treats of the cultivation of the soil in the first 
 book, of fioiit trees in the second, of horses and 
 other cattle in the third, and of bees in the fourth. 
 In this poem Virgil shows a great improvement 
 both in his taste and in his versificntion. Neither 
 In the Georgics nor elsewhere has Virgil the merit 
 of striking originality ; his chief merit consists in 
 the skilful handling of borrowed materials. His 
 subject, which was by no means promising, he 
 treated in a manner both instructive and pleasing; 
 for he has given many useful remarks on agri- 
 culture and diversified the dryness of didactic 
 poetry by numerous allusions and apt embellish- 
 ments, and some occasional digressions without 
 wandering too far from his main matter. In the 
 first book he enumerates the subjects of his poem, 
 among which is the treatment of bees ; yet tiie 
 management of bees seems but meagre mateiial 
 for one fourth of the whole poem, and the author 
 accordingly had to complete the fourth book with 
 matter somewhat extraneous — the long stoiy of 
 Aristaeus. The Georgica is the most finished 
 specimen of the Latin hexameter which we have; 
 and the rude vigour of Lucretius and the anti- 
 quated rudeness of Ennius are here replaced by a 
 versification, which in its kind cannot be sur- 
 passed. The Georgica are also the most original 
 poem of Virgil, for he found little in the Works 
 arid Days of Hesiod that could furnish him with 
 hints for the treatment of his subject, and we are 
 not aware that there was any work which he could 
 exactly follow as a whole. For numerous single 
 lines he was indebted to his extensive reading of 
 the Greek poets. — T\\q Aejieid^ or adventures of 
 Aeneas after the fall of Troy, is an epic poem on 
 the model of the Homeric poems. It was founded 
 upon an old Roman tradition that Aeneas and his 
 Trojans settled in Italy, and were the founders 
 of the Koman name. In the 1st book we have 
 the story of Aeneas being driven by a storm on 
 the coast of Africa, and being hospitably received 
 by Dido queen of Carthage, to whom he relates 
 in the episode of the 2nd and 3rd books the fall 
 of Troy and his wanderings. In the 4th book 
 the poet has elaborated the story of the attach- 
 ment of Dido and Aeneas the departure of Aeneas 
 in obedience to the will of the gods, and the sui- 
 cide of the Carthaginian queen. The 5th book 
 contains the visit to Sicily, and the 6th the landing 
 of Aeneas at Cumae in Italy, and his descent to 
 the infernal regions, where he sees his father An- 
 chises, and has a prophetic vision of the glorious 
 destinies of his race and of the future heroes of 
 Rome. In the first 6 books the adventures of 
 Ulysses in the Odyssey are the model, and these 
 books contain more variety of incident and situ- 
 ation than those which follow. The critics have 
 discovered an anachronism in the visit of Aeneas 
 to Carthage, which is supposed not to have been 
 founded until two centuries after the fall of Troy, 
 but this is a matter which we may leave without 
 discussion, or admit without allowing it to be a 
 poetical defect. The last 6 books, the history of 
 the struggles of Aeneas in Italy, are founded on 
 the model of the battles of the Iliad. Latinus, 
 the king of the Latini, offers the Trojan hero his 
 daughter Lavinia in marriage, who had been be- 
 
 VIRGILIUS. 
 
 trothed to Tumus, the warlike king of the Rutuli, 
 The contest is ended by the death of Turnus, who 
 falls by the hand of Aeneas. The fortunes of 
 Aeneas and his final settlement in Italy are the 
 subject of the Aeneid, but the glories of Rome 
 and of the Julian house, to which Augustus be- 
 longed, are indirectly the poet's theme. In the 
 first book the foundation of Alba Longa is pro- 
 mised by Jupiter to Venus {Aeneid^ i. 254), and 
 the transfer of empire from Alba to Rome ; from 
 the line of Aeneas will descend the " Trojan 
 Caesar," whose empire will only be limited by 
 the ocean, and whose glory by the heavens. The 
 future rivalry between Rome and Carthage, and 
 the ultimate triumphs of Rome are predicted. The 
 poems abound in allusions to the history of Rome ; 
 and the aim of the poet to confirm and embellish 
 the popular tradition of the Trojan origin of the 
 Roman state, and the descent of the Julii from 
 Venus, is^pparent all through the poem. Ii is ob- 
 jected to the Aeneid that it has not the unit}' of 
 construction either of the Iliad or of the Odyssey, 
 and that it is deficient in that antique simplicity 
 which characterises these two poems. Aeneas, the 
 hero, is an insipid kind of personage, and a much 
 superior interest is ex:cited by the savage Mezen- 
 tius, and also by Turnus, the unfortunate rival 
 of Aeneas. Virgil imitated other poets besides 
 Homer, and he has occasionally borrowed from 
 them, especially from Apollonius of Rhodes. If 
 Virgil's subject was difficult to invest with in- 
 terest, that is his apology ; but it cannot be denied 
 that many parts of his poem are successfully ela- 
 borated, and that particular scenes and incidents 
 are treated with true poetic spirit. The historical 
 colouring which pervades it, and the great amount 
 of antiquarian learning which he has scattered 
 through it, make the Aeneid a study for the his- 
 torian of Rome, Virgil's good sense and taste are 
 always conspicuous, and make up for the defect 
 of originality. As a whole, the Aeneid leaves no 
 strong impression, which arises from the fact that 
 it is not really a national poem, like the Iliad or 
 the Odyssey, the monument of an age of which 
 we have no other literary monument ; it is a 
 learned poem, the production of an age in which it 
 does not appear as an embodiment of the national 
 feeling, but as a monument of the talent and in- 
 dustr}' of an individual. Virgil has the merit of 
 being the best of the Roman epic poets, superior 
 both to Ennius who preceded him, and on whom 
 he levied contributions, and to Lucan, Silius Itali- 
 cus, and Valerius Flaccxis, who belong to a later 
 age. The passion for rhetorical display, which 
 characterises all the literature of Rome, is much 
 less offensive in Virgil than in those who followed 
 him in the line of epic poetry. — The larger editions 
 of Virgil contain some short poema, which are 
 attributed to him, and may have been among his 
 earlier works. The Culex or Gnat is a kind of 
 Bucolic poem in 413 hexameters, often very ob- 
 scure ; the Ciria^ or the mythus of Scylhi the 
 daughter of Nisus, king of Megnra, in 54 1 hexa- 
 meters, has been attributed to Cornelius Gallus 
 and others ; the Moretum, in 123 verses, the name 
 of a compound mesa, is a poem in hexameters, on 
 the daily labour of a cultivator, but it conuina 
 only the description of the labours of the first part 
 of the day, which consist in preparing the More- 
 tum ; the Copa, in elegiac verse, is an invitation 
 by a female tavern keeper or servant attached to 
 
VIRGINIA. 
 
 a Caupona, to passengers to come in and enjoy 
 theiuaelves. There are also 14 short pieces in 
 various metres, chissed under the general name of 
 Cutalecta. That atldressed ^ Ad Venerem" shows 
 that the writer, whoever he was, had a talenf for 
 elegiac poetry. Of the numerous editions of Virgil 
 the best are by Burmann. Amsterdam, 1746, 4 
 vols. 4to. ; by Heyne, 1767—1775, Lips. 4 vols. 
 8vo., of which the 4th edition contains important 
 improvements, by Wagner, Lips. 1830, 4 vols. 
 8vo. ; and by Forbiger, Lips, 1845 — 1846, 3 vols. 
 8vo. 
 
 Virginia, daughter of L. Virginius, a brave 
 centurion, was a beautiful and innocent girl, be- 
 trothed to L. Icilius. Her beauty excited the 
 lust of the decemvir Appius Claudius, who got one 
 of his clients to seize the damsel and claim her as 
 his slave. The case was brought before the de- 
 cemvir for decision ; her friends begged him to 
 postpone his judgment till her father could be 
 fetched from the camp, and offered to give security 
 for the appearance of the maiden. Appius, fearing 
 a riot, agreed to let the cause stand over till the 
 next day ; but on the following morning he pro- 
 nounced sentence, assigning Virginia to his freed- 
 man. Her father, who had come from the camp, 
 seeing that all hope was gone, prayed the decemvir 
 to be allowed to speak one word to the nurse in 
 bis daughter''s hearing, in order to ascertain whe- 
 ther she was really his daughter. The request was 
 granted ; Virginius drew them both aside, and 
 snatching up a butcher's knife from one of tlie 
 stalls, plunged it in his daughter's breast, exclaim- 
 ing, "There is no way hut this to keep thee free." 
 In vain did Appius call out to stop him. The 
 crowd made way for him ; and holding his bloody 
 knife on high, he rushed to the gate of the city, 
 and hastened to the Roman camp. The result is 
 known. Both camp and city rose against the de- 
 cemvirs, who were deprived of their power, and the 
 old form of government was restored. L. Virginius 
 ■was the first who was elected tribune, and he has- 
 tened to take revenge upon his cruel enemy. By 
 his orders Appius was dragged to prison to await 
 his trial, and he there put an end to his own life 
 in order to avoid a more ignominious death. 
 
 Virginia or Verginia Gens, patrician and ple- 
 beian. The patrician Virginii frequently filled the 
 highest honours of the state during the early years 
 of the republic. They all bore the cognomen of 
 Tricostus^ but none of them are of sufficient import- 
 ance to require a separate notice. 
 
 Virginias, L., father of Virginia, whose tragic 
 fate occasionfd the downfall of the decemvirs, b. c. 
 449. [Virginia.] 
 
 Virginius Ruius, consul a. d. 63, and governor 
 of Upper Germany at the time of the revolt of 
 Julius Vindex in Gaul (68). The soldiers of 
 Virginius wished to raise him to the empire ; 
 but he refused the honour, and marched against 
 Vindex, who perished before Vesontio. [Vindex.] 
 After the death of Nero, Virginius supported the 
 claims of Galba, and accompanied hira to Rome. 
 After Otho's death, the soldiers again attempted 
 to proclaim Virginius emperor, and in consequence 
 of his refusal of the honour, he narrowly escaped 
 ■with his life. Virginius died in the reign of 
 Nerva, in his 3rd consulship, A. d. Q1, at 83 years 
 of age. He was honoured -with a public funeral, 
 and his panegj'ric was pronounced by the historian 
 Tacitus, who was then consul. The younger 
 
 VITELLIUS. 
 
 819 
 
 Pliny, of whom Virginius had been the tutor or 
 guardian, also mentions him with praise. 
 
 Viriathus, a celebrated Lusitanian, is described 
 by the Romans as originally a shepherd or hunts- 
 man, and afterwards a robber, or, as he would be 
 called in Spain in the present day, a guerilla chief. 
 His character is drawn very favourably by many 
 of the ancient writers, who celebrate his justice and 
 equity, which was particularly shown in the fair 
 division of the spoils he obtained from the enemy. 
 Viriathus was one of the Lusitanians who escaped 
 the treacherous and savage massacre of the people 
 by the proconsul Galba in b. c. 150. [Galba, 
 No. 2.J He was destined to be the avenger of 
 his country's wrongs. He collected a formidable 
 force, and for several successive years he defeated 
 one Roman army after another. At length, in 140, 
 the proconsul Fabiua Servilianus concluded a peace 
 with Viriathus, in order to save his army, which 
 had been enclosed by the Lusitanians in a moun- 
 tain pass, much in the same way as their ancestors 
 had been by the Samnites at the Caudine Forks. 
 The treaty was ratified by the senate ; but Ser- 
 vilius Caepio, who had succeeded to the command 
 of Further Spain in 140, renewed the war, and 
 shortly afterwards procured the assassination of 
 Viriathus by bribing 3 of his friends. 
 
 Viridomarus. 1. Or Britomartus, the leader 
 of the Gauls, slain by Marcellus. [Marcellus, 
 No. 1.] — 2. Or VirdumaruB, a chieftain of the 
 Aedui, whom Caesar had raised from a low rank 
 to the highest honour, but who afterwards joined 
 the Gauls in their great revolt in b. c. 52. 
 
 Virtus, the Roman personification of manly 
 valour. She was represented with a short tunic, 
 her right breast uncovered, a helmet on her head, 
 a spear in her left hand, a sword in the right, and 
 standing with her right foot on a helmet. A 
 temple of Virtus was built by Marcellus close to 
 one of Honor. [Honor.] 
 Viscellinus, Sp. Cassius. [Cassius, No. 1.] 
 Vistula ( Vistula^ Engl. ; Weic/isel^ Germ.), an 
 important river of Germany, forming the bounditry 
 between Germany and Sarmatia, rising in the Her- 
 cynia Silva and falling into the Mare Suevicura or 
 the Bjiltic. 
 
 Visurgis (Weser\ an important river of Ger- 
 many, falling into the German Ocean. Ptolemy 
 makes it rise in M. Meliboeus, because the Romans 
 were not acquainted with the southern course of 
 the Weser below Minden. 
 
 Vitellius. 1. 1., father of the emperor, was a 
 consummate flatterer, and by his arts he gained 
 promotion. After being consul in a. d. 34. he had 
 been appointed governor of Syria, and had made 
 favourable terms of peace with Artabanus. But 
 all this only excited Caligula's jealousy, and he 
 sent for Vitellius to put hira to death. The 
 governor saved himself by his abject humiliation 
 and the gross flattery which pleased and softened 
 the savage tyrant. He paid the like attention to 
 Claudius and Messalina, and was rewarded by 
 being twice consul with Claudius, and censor. — • 
 
 2. L., son of the preceding, and brother of the 
 emperor, was consul in 48. He was put to death 
 by the party of Vespasian on his brother's fall. — 
 
 3. A., Roman emperor, from January 2nd to De- 
 cember 2'2nd, A. D. 69, was the son of No. 1. He 
 was consul during the first 6 months of 48, and 
 his brother Lucius during the 6 following months. 
 He had some knowledge of letters and some elo 
 
 3o 2 
 
820 
 
 VITRUVIUS. 
 
 queiice. His vices made him a favourite of Ti- 
 berius, Caiua Caligula, Claudius, and Nero, who 
 loaded him with favours. People were much sur- 
 prised when Galba chose such a man to command 
 the legions in Lower Germany, for hu bad no 
 military talent. His great talent was eating and 
 drinking. The soldiers of Vitellius proclaimed 
 him emperor at Colonia Agrippinensis {Cologne) 
 on the 2nd of January, QQ. His generals Fabius 
 Valens and Caeclna marched into Italy, defeated 
 Otho's troops at the decisive battle of Bedriacum, 
 and thus secured for Vitellius the undisputed 
 command of Italy. The soldiers of Otho, after the 
 death of the latter, took the oath of fidelity to 
 Vitellius. Vitellius reached Rome in July. He 
 did not disturb any person in the enjoyment of 
 what had been given by Nero, Galba, and Otho; 
 nor did he confiscate any person's property. 
 Though some of Otho's adherents were put to 
 death, he let the next of kin take their property. 
 But though he showed moderation in this part of 
 his conduct, he showed none in his expenses. He 
 was a glutton and an epicure, and his chief amuse- 
 ment was the table, on which he spent enormous 
 suras of money. Meantime Vespasian, who had 
 at first taken the oath of allegiance to Vitellius, 
 was proclaimed emperor at Alexandria on the 1st 
 of July. Vespasian was speedily recognised by 
 all the East ; and the legions of Iliyricum under 
 Antonius Primus entered the N. of Italy and de- 
 clared for Vespasian. Vitellius despatched Cae- 
 cina with a powerful force to oppose Primus ; but 
 Caecina was not faithful to the emperor. Primus 
 defeated the VitellJans in two battles, and after- 
 wards took and pillaged the city of Cremona. 
 Piimus then marched upon Rome, and forced his 
 way into the cit}', after much fighting. Vitellius 
 was seized in the palace, led through the streets 
 with every circumstance of ignominy, and dragged 
 to the Geraoniae Scalae, where he was killed with 
 repeated blows. His head was carried about 
 Rome, and his body was dragged into the Tiber; 
 but it was afterwards interred by his wife Ga- 
 leria Fundana. A few days before the death of 
 Vitellius, the Capitol had been burnt in the assault 
 made by his soldiers upon this building, where 
 Flavius Sabinus, the brother of the emperor 
 Vespasian, had taken refuge. 
 
 Vitruvius Pollio, M., the author of the cele- 
 brated treatise on Architecture, of whom we know 
 nothing except a few facts contained in scattered 
 passages of his own work. He appears to have 
 served as a military engineer under Julius Caesar, 
 in the African war, B.C. 46, and he was broken 
 down with age when he composed his work, which 
 is dedicated to the emperor Augustus. (The 
 name of the emperor is not mentioned in the 
 dedication, but there can be no doubt that it was 
 Augustus.) The object of his work appears to 
 have had reference to himself, as well as to his 
 subject. He professes his intention to furnish 
 the emperor with a standard by which to judge 
 of the buildings he had already erected, as well 
 as of those which he might afterwards erect ; 
 which can have no meaning, unless he wished to 
 protest against the style of architecture which pre- 
 vailed in the buildings already erected. That this 
 ■was really his intention appears from several other 
 arguments, and especially from his frequent refer- 
 ences to the unworthy means by which architects 
 obtained wealth and favour, with which he con- 
 
 VOLANDUM. 
 
 trasts his own moderation and contentment in hia 
 more obscure position. In a word, comparatively 
 unsuccessful as an architect, for we have no build- 
 ing of his mentioned except the basilica at Fanum, 
 he attempted to establish his reputation as a 
 writer upon the theory of his art; and in this he 
 has been tolerably successful. His work is a 
 valuable compendium of those written by nume- 
 rous Greek architects, whom he mentions chiefly 
 in the preface to his 7th book, and by some Roman 
 writers on architecture. Its chief defects are its 
 brevity, of Y^hich Vitruvius himself boasts, and 
 which he ofien carries so far as to be unintelli- 
 gible, and the obscurity of the style, arising in 
 part from the natural difficulty of technical lan- 
 guage, but in part also from the author's want of 
 skill in writing, and sometimes from his imperfect 
 comprehension of his Greek authorities. His work 
 is entitled De Architecticra Lihri X. In the First 
 Book, after the dedication to the emperor, and a 
 general description of the science of architecture, 
 and an account of the proper education of an archi- 
 tect, he treats of the choice of a proper site for a 
 city, the disposition of its plan, its fortifications, 
 and the several buildings within it. The Second 
 Book is on the materials used in building. The 
 Third and Fourth Books are devoted to temples 
 and the four orders of architecture employed in 
 them, namely, the Ionic, Corinthian, Doric, and 
 Tuscan. The Fifth Book relates to public build- 
 ings, the Siccih to private houses, and the Seve7iih 
 to interior decorations. The Eighth is on the 
 subject of water; the mode of finding it ; its dif- 
 ferent kinds ; and the various modes of conveying 
 it for the supply of cities. The Ninth Book treats 
 of various kinds of sun-dials and other instruments 
 for measuring time ; and the Tenth of the machines 
 used in building, and of military engines. Each 
 book has a preface, upon some matter more or less 
 connected with the subject; and these prefaces 
 are the source of most of our information about the 
 author. The best editions of Vitruvius are those 
 of Schneider, 3 vols. Lips. 1B07, 1808, 8vo. ; of 
 Stratico, 4 vols., Udine, 1825-30, with plates 
 and a Lescicon Vitrtivianum ; and of Marini, 
 4 vols., Rom. 1836, fol. 
 
 Vocates, a people in Gallia Aquitanica, dwell- 
 ing in the neighbourhood of the Tarusates, Sossiates, 
 and Elusatea, probably in the modern Tursan or 
 Teursan. 
 
 Vocetius {BQzherg\ a mountain in Gallia Bel- 
 gica, an eastern branch of the Jura. 
 
 Voconius Saxa. [Saxa.] 
 
 Tocontii, a powerful and important people in 
 Gallia Narbonensls, inhabiting the S. E. part of 
 Dauphin^, aiid a part of Provence between the Dr;ic 
 and the Burance, bounded on the N. by the Alio- 
 broges, and on the S. by the Salyes and Albioeci. 
 Their country contained large and beautiful valleys 
 between the mountains, in which good wine was 
 grown. They were allowed by the Romans to 
 live under |their own laws, and, though in a Ro- 
 man province, they were the allies and not the 
 subjects of Rome. 
 
 Vogesua or Tosgesus {Vosges\ a range of 
 mountains in Gaul in the territory of the Lingones, 
 running parallel to the Rhine, and sepjirating its 
 basin from that of the Mosella. The rivers Se- 
 quana (Seine), Arar {Same), and the Mosella 
 {Moselle), rise in these mountains. 
 
 Volandum, a strong fortress in Armenia Major, 
 
VOLATERRAE. 
 
 •ome days' journey "W. of Artaxata, mentioned by 
 Tacitus (Ann. xiii. 39). 
 
 Volaterrae (Volaterranua : Vblaterra), called by 
 the Etruscans Velathri, one of the 12 cities of 
 the Etruscan Confederation, was built on a lofty 
 hill, about 1800 English feet above the level of the 
 sea, rising from a deep valley, and precipitous on 
 every side. The city was about 4 or 5 miles in 
 circuit. It was the most N.-ly city of the Con- 
 federation, and possessed an extensive territory. 
 Its dominions extended E.-ward as far as the ter- 
 ritory of Arretium, which was 50 miles distant ; 
 W.-ward as far as the Mediterranean, which was 
 more than 20 miles off ; and S.-ward at least as 
 far as Populonia, which was either a colony or an 
 acquisition of Volaterrae. In consequence of pos- 
 sessing the 2 great ports of Luna and Populonia, 
 Volaterrae, though so far inland, was reckoned as 
 one of the powerful maritime cities of Etruria. Vo- 
 laterrae is mentioned as one of the 5 cities which, 
 acting independently of the rest of Etruria, deter- 
 mined toaid the Latins against Tarquinius Prisons ; 
 but its name is rarely mentioned in connection with 
 the Romans, and we have no record of its conquest 
 by the latter. Volaterrae, like most of the Etrus- 
 can cities, espoused the Marian party against Sulla ; 
 and such was the strength of its fortifications, that 
 it was not till after a siege of two years that the 
 city fell into Sulla's hands. Cicero speaks of Vola- 
 terrae as a municipium, and a military colony was 
 founded in it under the triumvirate. It continued 
 to be a place of importance even after the fall of 
 the Western Empire ; and it was for a time the 
 residence of the Lombard kings, who fixed their 
 court here on account of the natural strength of the 
 site. The modem town covers but a small portion 
 of the area occupied by the ancient city. It con- 
 tains, however, several interesting Etruscan remains. 
 Of these the most important, in addition to the 
 ancient walls, are the family tomb of the Caecinae, 
 and a double gateway, nearly 30 feet deep, united 
 by parallel walls of very massive character. 
 Volaterrana Vada. [Vada, No. 3.] 
 Volcae, a powerful Celtic people in Gallia Nar- 
 bonensis, divided into the 2 tribes of the Volcae 
 Tectosages and Volcae Arecomici, extending from 
 the Pyrenees and the frontiers of Aquitania along 
 the coast as far as the Rhone. They lived under 
 their own laws, without being subject to the Ro- 
 man governor of the province, and they also pos- 
 sessed the Jus Latii. The Tectosages inhabited 
 the western part of the country from the Pyrenees 
 as far as Narbo, and the Arecomici the E. part 
 from Narbo to the Rhone. The chief town of the 
 Tectosages was Tolosa. A portion of the Tec- 
 tosages left their native country under Brennus, 
 and were one of the 3 great tribes into which the 
 Galatians in Asia Minor were divided. [Galatia.] 
 Volcatius Sedigitus. [Sedigitus.] 
 VoXci or Vulci 1. (Volcientes, pi. : Vvlci)^ an 
 inland city of Etruria, about 18 miles N. W, of 
 Tarquinii, was about 2 miles in circuit, and was 
 situated upon a hill of no great elevation. Of the 
 history of this city we know nothing. It is only 
 mentioned in the catalogues of the geographers, and 
 in the Fasti Capitolini, from which we learn that 
 its citizens, in conjunction with the Volsinienses, 
 were defeated by the consul Tib. Coruncanius, B. c. 
 280, But its extensive sepulchres, and the vast 
 treasures of ancient art which they contain, prove 
 that Vulci must at one time have been a powerful 
 
 VOMANUS. 
 
 821 
 
 and flourishing city. These tombs were only 
 discovered in 1828. and have yielded a greater 
 number of works of art than have been discovered 
 in any other parts of Etruria. — 2. (Volcentes, 
 Volcentani. pi. ; Vallo), a town in Lucania, 36 
 miles S. E. of Paestum, on the road to Buxentum. 
 Volero Pubinius. [Publiuus,] 
 Tologeses, the name of 5 Icings of Parthia. 
 [Arsaces XXIII., XXVII., XXVIIL, XXIX., 
 XXX.] 
 
 Volsci, an ancient people in Latium, but ori- 
 ginally distinct from the Latins, dwelt on both 
 sides of the river Liris, and extended down to the 
 Tyrrhene sea. Their language was nearly allied 
 to the Umbrian. They were from an early period 
 engaged in almost unceasing hostilities with the 
 Romans, and were not completely subdued by the 
 latter till b. c. 338, from which time they disappear 
 from history. 
 
 Volsinii or Vulsinii (Volsiniensis : Bolsena), 
 called Velsina or Velsuna by the Etruscans, one 
 of the most ancient and most powerful of the 12 
 cities of the Etruscan Confederation, was situated 
 on a lofty hill on the N. E. extremity of the lake 
 called after it, Lacua Volslniensis and Vulsinien- 
 sis {Lago di Bolsena), Volsinii is first mentioned 
 in B. 0. 392, when its inhabitants invaded the Ro- 
 man territory, but were easily defeated by the 
 Romans, and were glad to purchase a 20 years' 
 truce on humiliating terms. The Volsinienses also 
 carried on war with the Romans in 31 1, 294, and 
 280, but were on each occasion defeated, and in the 
 last of these years appear to have been finally sub- 
 dued. On their final subjugation their city was 
 razed to the ground by the Romans, and its inha- 
 bitants were compelled to settle on a less defensible 
 site in the plain. The new city, on which stands 
 the modem Bolsena^ also became a place of im- 
 portance. It was the birth-place of Sejanus, the 
 favourite of Tiberius. Of the ancient city there 
 are scarcely any remains. It occupied the sum- 
 rait of the highest hill, N. E. of Bolsena, above the 
 remains of a Roman amphitheatre. From the 
 Lacus Volsiniensis the river Marta issues ; and the 
 lake contains 2 beautiful islands. 
 
 Volturcius, or Vulturcius, T., of Crotona, one 
 of Catiline's conspirators, was sent by Lentulus to 
 accompany the ambassadors of the Allnbroges to 
 Catiline. Arrested along with the ambassiidors 
 on the Mulvian bridge, and brought before the 
 senate by Cicero, Volturcius turned informer upon 
 obtaining the promise of pardon. 
 
 Volumnia, wife of Coriolanus. [Coriolanur.J 
 Volupia, or Voluptas, the person ificiUi on of 
 sensual pleasure among the Romans, who was 
 honoured with a temple near the porta Romanula. 
 Volusianus, son of the emperor Trebonianus 
 Gallus, upon wbom his father conferred the title of 
 Caesar in A. D. 251, and of Augustus in 2.^2. He 
 was slain along with his father in 254. [Gallus.] 
 L. Volusius Maeci'&iius, a jurist, was in tlie 
 consilium of Antoninus Pius, and was one of the 
 teachers of M. Aurelius. Maeclanus wrote several 
 works ; and there are 44 excerpts fi-om his writings 
 in the Digest. A treatise, De Asse et Pojideribus^ is 
 attributed to him, but there is some doubt about the 
 authorship. It is edited by Bcicking, Bonn, 1831. 
 Volusus or Volesua, the reputed ancestor of the 
 Valeria gens, who is said to have settled at Rome 
 with Titus Tatius. [Valeria Gens.] 
 Yomanus ( Vomano)^ a small river in Picenum. 
 
822 VONONES, 
 
 Vonones, the name of two kings of Parthia. 
 [Ars.aces XVIIT.. XXII.] 
 
 Vopiacus, a Roman praenomen, signified a twin- 
 ciiild, who was bora safe, while the other twin 
 died before biitli. Like many other ancient Ro- 
 man praenuinens, it was afterwards used as a cog- 
 nomen. 
 
 Vopiacus. Flaviu3, a native of Syracuse, and 
 one of the 6 Scriplores Hlsloriae Auyustae^ flou- 
 rished about A. D, 300. His name is prefixed to 
 the biographies of — 1. Aurelianus ; 2. Tacitus ; 
 3. Floriaiiiis; 4. Probus ; 5. The four tyrants, 
 Firmus, Saturiiinus, Prnculus, and Bonosus ; 6. Ca- 
 ms ; 7. Nuraerianus; 8. Cafinus ; at this point he 
 stops, declaring that Diocletian, and those who 
 follow, demand a more elevated style of compo- 
 sition. For editions, see Capitolinus. 
 
 Vosgesus. [ VoG Es us. ] 
 
 Votienua I!iIoiitanu3. [Mont an us.] 
 
 Tulcauiae Insulae. [Aeoliae Insulae.] 
 
 Vulcanus, the Roman god of fire, whose name 
 seems to be connected with fulgere, fuUjur^ and 
 fulmen. His worship was of considerable political 
 importance at Rome, for a temple is said to have 
 been erected to him close by the comitium as early 
 as the time of Romulus and Tatius, in which the 
 2 kings used to meet and settle the affairs of the 
 state, and near which the popular assembly was 
 held. Tatius is reported to have established the 
 worship of Vulcan along with that of Vesta, and 
 Romulus to have dedicated to him a quadriga 
 after his victory over the Fidenatans, and to have 
 set up a statue of himself near the temple. Ac- 
 cording to others the temple was built by Romulus 
 himself, who also planted near it the sacred lotus- 
 tree which still existed in the days of Pliny. 
 These circumstances, and what is related of the 
 lotus-tree, show that the temple of Vulcan, like 
 that of Vesta, was regarded as a central point of the 
 ■whole state, and hence it was perhaps not without 
 a meaning that the temple of Concord was subse- 
 quently built within the same district. The most 
 ancient festival in honour of Vulcan seems to have 
 been the Fomacalia or Furnalia, Vulcan being the 
 god of furnaces ; but his great festival was called 
 Vulcanalia, and was celebrated on the 23d of 
 August. The Roman poets transfer all the stories 
 ■which are related of the Greek Hephaestus to their 
 own Vulcan, the two divinities having in the course 
 of time been completely identified. Respecting 
 the Greek divinity, see Hephaestus. 
 
 Vulci. [VoLci.] 
 
 Tul^entes, an Alpine people in Gallia Narbo- 
 nensis, whose chief town was Apta Julia {Apt). 
 
 Vulsinii. [ VoLbiNii. ] 
 
 Tulso, Manlius. L L., consul b. c. 256 with 
 M. Atilius Regulus. He invaded Africa along 
 with his colleague. [For details see Regulus, 
 No. 3.] Viilso returned to Italy at the fall of the 
 year with half of the armj', and obtained the ho- 
 nour of a triumph. In 250 Vulso was consul a 
 second time with T. Atilius Regulus Serranus, and 
 with his colleague commenced the siege of Lily- 
 baeum,^2. Cn., cunile aedile 197, praetor with 
 Sicily as his province 195, and consul 189. Pie 
 was sent into Asia in order to conclude the peace 
 which Scipio Asiaticus had made with Antiochus, 
 and to arrange the affairs of Asia. Pie attacked 
 and conquered the Gallograeci or Galatians in Asia 
 Minor without waiting for any formal instructions 
 from the senate. He set out on bis return to Italy 
 
 XANTHUS. 
 
 in 1 88, but in his march through Thrace he Buf- 
 fered much from the attacks of the Thracians, and 
 lost a considerable part of the booty he had ob- 
 tained in Asia. He reached Rome in 187. His 
 triumph was a brilliant one, but his campaign in 
 Asia had a pernicious influence upon the morals of 
 his countrymen. He had allowed his army every 
 kind of licence, and his soldiers introduced into 
 the city the luxuries of the East. 
 
 Tultur, a mountain dividing Apulia and Lu- 
 cania near Venusia, is a branch of the Apennines. 
 It is celebrated by Horace as one of the haunts of 
 his youth. From it the S. E. wind was called 
 Valtumus by the Romans. 
 
 Vulturnum {Casiel di Vollwnio), a town in 
 Campania, at the mouth of the river Vulturnus, 
 was originally a fortress erected by the Romans in 
 the 2nd Punic war. At a later time it was made 
 a colony. 
 
 Vultunms ( VoUumo), the chief river in Cam- 
 pania, rising in the Apennines in Samnium, and 
 falling into the Tyrrhene sea. Its principal affluents 
 are the Calor {Calore}, Tamarus (JVimaro), and 
 Sabatus [Sahato). 
 
 X. 
 
 Xanthippe {"Eai/O'nnnT)^ wife of Socrates, said 
 to be a woman of a peevish and quarrelsome dispo- 
 sition. 
 
 Xanthippua CEdvOiirirus). 1. Son of Ariphron 
 and father of Pericles. In b. c. 490, he impeached 
 Miltiades on his return from his unsuccessful ex- 
 pedition against the island of Paros. He suc- 
 ceeded Themistocles as commander of the Athenian 
 fleet in 479, and commanded the Athenians at the 
 decisive battle of M3'cale.— 2. The elder of the 
 2 legitimate sons of Pericles, Paralus being the 
 younger. For details, see Paralus. — 3. The 
 Lacedaemonian, who commanded the Carthaginians 
 against Regulus. For details, see Regulus, No. 3. 
 Xanthippus appears to have left Carthage a short 
 time after his victory over Regulus. 
 
 Xantlius {"Edudos) 1. A lyric poet, older than 
 Stesichorus, who mentioned him in one at least of 
 his poems, and who borrowed from him in some of 
 them. Xanthus may be placed about b. c. 650. 
 No fragments of his poetry survive. — 2. A cele- 
 brated Lydian historian, older than Herodotus, 
 who flourished about b. c. 480. The genuineness 
 of the Four Books of Lydian History which the 
 ancients possessed under the name of Xanthus, 
 and of which some considerable fragments have 
 come down to us, was questioned by some of the 
 ancient grammarians themselves. There has been 
 considerable controversy respecting the genuineness 
 of this work among modern scholars. It is certain 
 that much of the matter in the extant fragments is 
 spurious ; and the probability appears to be that 
 the work from which they are taken is the pro- 
 duction of an Alexandrian grammarian, founded 
 upon the genuine work of Xanthus. 
 
 Xanthus (Hav0os), rivers. 1. [Scamander.] 
 ^2. (Echen Chai), the chief river of Lycia, rises 
 in M. Taurus, on the borders of Pisidia and Lycia, 
 and flows S. through Lycia, between M. Cragus 
 and M. Massicytus, in a large plain called the 
 Plain of Xanthus (rb s.dfdioy ireSW), falling at 
 last into the Mediterranean Sea, a little W. of 
 Patara. Though not a large river, it is navigable 
 for a considerable part of its course. 
 
XANTHUS 
 
 Xantlms [adudos : 'EdfOio^, Xanthius : Gunik^ 
 Ru.), the most famous city of Lycia, stood on the 
 W. bank of the river of the same name, 60 stadia 
 from its mouth. Twice in the course of its history 
 it sustained sieges, which terminated in the self- 
 destruction of the inhabitants with their property, 
 first against the Persians under Harpagus, and long 
 afterwards against the Romans under Brutus. The 
 city was never restored after its destruction on the 
 latter occasion. Xanthus was rich in temples and 
 tombs, and other monuments of a most interesting 
 character of art. Among its temples the most 
 celebrated were those of Sarpedon and of the 
 Lycian Apollo ; besides which there was a re- 
 nowned sanctuary of Latona (rb Atjtwoi/), near 
 the river Xanthus, 10 stadia from its mouth, and 
 60 stadia from the city. The splendid ruins of 
 Xanthus have recently been thoroughly explored 
 by Sir C. Fellowes and his coadjutors, and several 
 important remains of its works of art are now ex- 
 hibited in the British Museum under the name of 
 the Xanthian Marbles. 
 
 Xenarchus (HeVapxoO- !• Son of Sophron, 
 and, like his father, a celebrated writer of mimes. 
 He flourished during the Rhegian War (b. c. 
 399—389), at the court of Dionysius. — 3. An 
 Athenian comic poet of the Middle Comedy, who 
 lived as late as the time of Alexander the Great.— 
 3. Of Seifucia in Cilicia, a Peripatetic philosopher 
 and grammarian, in the time of Strabo, who heard 
 him. He taught first at Alexandria, afterwards at 
 Athens, and last at Rome, where he enjoyed the 
 friendship of Augustus. 
 
 Xeniades (EepidSTjs), a Corinthian, who be- 
 came the purchaser of Diogenes the Cynic, when 
 he was taken by pirates and sold as a slave. 
 
 Xenippa (prob. Uratippa)^ a city of Sogdiana, 
 mentioned by Curtius. 
 
 Xeuocles {s.^vokK^s). 1. An Athenian tragic 
 poet, son of Carcinus, who was also a tragic poet, 
 and a contemporary of Aristophanes, who attacks 
 him on several occasions. His poetry seems to 
 have been indifferent, and to have resembled the 
 worse parts of Euripides ; but he obtained a victory 
 over Euripides, b. c. 415. There was another tragic 
 poet of the name of Xenocles, a grandson of the 
 preceding, of whom no particulars are recorded. 
 — 2. An Athenian architect, of the demos of 
 Cholargos, was one of the architects who superin- 
 tended the erection of the temple of Demeter, at 
 Eleusis, in the time of Pericles. 
 
 Xenocrates { "EtvoKpar-ris). 1. The philosopher, 
 was a native of Chalcedon. He was born b. c. 
 396, and died 314 at the age of 82. He attached 
 himself first to Aeschines the Socratic, and after- 
 wards, while still a youth, to Plato, whom he 
 accompanied to Syracuse. After the death of 
 Plato he betook himself, with Aristotle, to Her- 
 mias, tyrant of Atameus ; and, after his return to 
 Athens, he was repeatedly sent on embassies to 
 Philip of Macedonia, and at a later time to 
 Antipater during the Lamian war. He is said 
 to have wanted quick apprehension and natural 
 grace ; but these defects were more than compen- 
 sated by persevering industry, pure benevolence, 
 freedom from all selfishness, and a moral earnest- 
 ness which obtained for him the esteem and confi- 
 dence of the Athenians of his own age. Yet he 
 is said to have experienced the fickleness of popular 
 favour, and being too poor to pay the protection- 
 money {jiiToiKtov), to have been saved only by 
 
 XENOPHON. 823 
 
 the courage of the orator Lycurgus. He became 
 president of the Academy even before the death 
 of Speusippus, who wjis bowed down by sickness, 
 and he occupied that post for 25 years. — The 
 importance of Xenocrates is shown by the fact 
 that Aristotle and Thenphrastus wrote upon his 
 doctrines, and thatPanaetius and Cicero entertained 
 a high regard for him. Of his numerous wtirks 
 only the titles have come down to ua. — 2. A 
 physician of Aphrodisias in Cilicia, lived about 
 the middle of the 1st century after Christ. Be- 
 sides some short fragments of his writings there is 
 extant a little essay by him, entitled Tlepl tt\s aTrh 
 tS)v 'EuvSp(au Tpotpjjs, " De Alimento ex Aqua- 
 tilibua," which is an interesting record of ihe 
 state of Natural History at the time in which he 
 lived. Edited by Franz, 1774, Lips., and by 
 Coray, 1794, Neap., and 1014, Paris. — 3. A 
 statuary of the school of Lysippus, was the pupil 
 either of Tisicrates or of Euthycrates. He also 
 wrote works upon the art. He flourished about 
 B. c. 260. 
 
 Xenocritus (Eex/rf/cptTos), of Locri Epizephyrii, 
 in Lower Italy, a musician and lyric poet, was oine^ 
 of the leaders of the second school of Dorian miwitJ^ 
 which was founded by Thaletas, and was a com- 
 poser of Piieans. 
 
 Xenophanes (Eei/oi^ai/ijs), a celebrated philo- 
 sopher, was a native of Colophon, and flourished 
 between b. c. 540 and 500. He was a poet as 
 well as a philosopher, and considerable fragments 
 have come down to us of his elegies, and of a 
 didactic poem " On Nature." According to the 
 fragments of one of his elegies, he had left his 
 native land at the age of 25, and had already 
 lived 67 years in Hellas, when, at the age of 92, 
 he composed that elegy. He quitted Colophon as 
 a fugitive or exile, and must have lived some time 
 at Elea (Velia) in Italy, as he is mentioned as the 
 founder of the Eleatic school of philosophy. He 
 sung in one of his poems of the foundation of 
 Velia. Xenophanes was usually regarded in an- 
 tiquity aa the originator of the Eleatic doctrine of 
 the oneness of the universe. The Deity was in 
 his view the animating power of the universe, 
 which is expressed by Aristotle in the words, that, 
 directing his glance on the whole universe, Xeno- 
 phanes said, " God is the One." 
 
 Xenophon (He^/o^wz/). 1 The Athenian, was 
 the son of Gryllus, and a native of the demus 
 Erchia. The time of his birth is not known, but 
 it is approximated to by the fact that Xenophon 
 fell from his horse in the flight after the battle of 
 Delium, and was taken up by Socrates, the philo- 
 sopher, on his shoulders and carried a distance of 
 several stadia. The battle of Delium was fought 
 B. c. 424 betwaen the Athenians and Boeotians, 
 and Xenophon therefore could not well have been 
 born after 444. The time of hia death also is not 
 mentioned by any ancient writer. Luuian says 
 that he attained to above the age of 90, and 
 Xenophon himself mentions the assassination of 
 Alexander of Pherae, which happened in 357. 
 Between 424 and 357, there is a period of 67 
 years, and thus we have evidence of Xenophon 
 being alive nearly 70 years after Socrates saved 
 his life at Delium. Xenophon is said to have 
 been a pupil of Socrates at an early age, which is 
 consistent with the intimacy which might have 
 arisen from Socrates saving his life. The most 
 memorable event in Xenophon'a life is his con- 
 
 3 ti 4 
 
824 
 
 XENOPHON. 
 
 nection with the Greek army, "which marched 
 Tinder Cynis against Artaxerxes in 401. Xeno- 
 photi himself mentiong {A?2cib. lii. 1) the circum- 
 stances under which he joined this army. Proxenus, 
 a friend of Xennphon, was already with Cyrus, 
 and lie invited Xenophon to come to Sardis, and 
 promised to introduce him to the Persian prince. 
 Xen phon consulted his master Socrates, who ad- 
 vised him to consult the oracle of Delphi, for it 
 w:is rather a hazardous matter for him to enter the 
 service of Cyrus, who was considered to be the 
 friend of the Lacedaemonians and the enemy of 
 Athens. Xenophon went to Delphi, but he did 
 not ask the god whether he should go or not: he 
 probably had made up his mind. He merely asked 
 to wliat gods he should sacrifice in order that he 
 might be successful in his intended enterprise. 
 Socrates Was not satisfied with his piipil's mode of 
 consulting the oracle, bvit as he had got an answer, 
 he told him to go ; and Xenophon went to Sardis, 
 which Cyrus was just about to leave. He accom- 
 panied Cyrus into Upper Asia. In the battle of 
 Cunaxa, Cyrus lost his life, his barbarian troops 
 were dispersed, and the Greeks were left alone on 
 the wide plains between the Tigi'lg and the Eu- 
 phrates. It was after the treacherous massacre of 
 Clearcbus and other of the Greek commanders by 
 the Persian satrap Tissaphemes, that Xenophon 
 carae forward. He had held no command in the 
 army of Cyrus, nor had he in fact served as a 
 soldier. He was now elected one of the generals, 
 and took the principal part in conducting the 
 Greeks in their memorable retreat along the Tigris 
 over the high table lands of Armenia to Trapezus 
 (Trebizond), on the Black Sea. From Trapezus 
 the troops were conducted to Chrysopolis, which is 
 opposite to Byzantium. The Greeks were in great 
 distress, and some of them under Xenophon en- 
 tered the service of Seuthes, king of Thrace. As 
 the Lacedaemonians under Thimbron were now at 
 war with Tissaphemes and Phamabazus, Xeno- 
 phon and his troops were invited to join the army 
 of Thimbron, and Xenophon led them back out of 
 Asia to join Thimbron 399, Xenophon, who was 
 very poor, made an expedition into the plain of the 
 Caicns with his troops before they joined Thimbron, to 
 plunder the house and property of a Persian named 
 Asidates. The Persian, with his women, children, 
 and all his moveables was seized; and Xenophon, by 
 this robbery, replenished his empty pockets (Anab. 
 vii. 8. 23). He tells the story himself as if he were 
 not ashamed of it. Socrates was put to death in 
 399, and it seems probable that Xenophon was 
 banished either shortly before or shortly after that 
 event. Xenophon was not banished at the time 
 when he was leading the troops back to Thimbron 
 [Anab. vii. 7- 57), but his expression rather seems 
 to imply that his banishment must have followed 
 soon after. It is not certain what he was doing 
 after the troops joined Thimbron. As we know 
 nothing of his movements, the conclusion ought to 
 be that he stayed in Asia, and probably with 
 Thimbron and his successor Dercyllidas. Agesi- 
 laus, the Spartan king, was commanding the Lace- 
 daemonian forces in Asia against the Persians in 396, 
 and Xenophon was with him at least during part 
 of the campaign. When Agesilaus was recalled 
 (394), Xenophon accompanied him; and be was 
 on the side of the Lacedaemonians in the battle 
 which they fought at Coronea (394) against the 
 Athenians. It seems that he went to Sparta with 
 
 XENOPHON. 
 
 Agesilaus after the battle of Coronea, and soon 
 after he settled at Scillus in Elis not far from 
 Olympia, a spot of which he has given a descrip- 
 tion in the Anabasis (v. 3. 7, &c.). Here he was 
 joined by his wife Philesia and his children. His 
 children were educated in Sparta. Xenophon was 
 now an exile, and a Lacedaemonian so far as he 
 could become one. His time during his long resi- 
 dence at Scillus was employed in hunting, writing, 
 and entertaining his friends ; and perhaps the 
 Anahobis and part of the Hellenica^ were composed 
 here. The treatise on hunting and that on the 
 horse were probably also written during this time, 
 when amusement and exercise of that kind formed 
 part of his occupation. Xenophon was at last ex- 
 pelled from his quiet retreat at Scillus by the 
 Eleans after remaining there about 20 years. 
 The sentence of banishment from Athens was 
 repealed on the motion of Eubulus, but it is 
 uncertain in what year. In the battle of Man- 
 tinea, which was fought 362, the Spartans and the 
 Athenians were opposed to the Thebans, and 
 Xenophon's 2 sons, Gryllus and Diodoius, fought 
 on the side of the allies. Gryllua fell in the same 
 battle in which Epaminnndas lost his life. There 
 is no evidence that Xenophon ever returned to 
 Athens. He is said to have retired to Corinth 
 after his expulsion from Scillus, and as we know 
 nothing more, we assume that he died there. The 
 Hipparchicics was written after the repeal of the 
 decree of banishment, and the treatise on the 
 revenues of Athens. The events alluded to in 
 the Epilogus to the Cyropaedia (viii. 8. 4) show 
 that the Epilogus at least was written after 362. 
 The time of his death may have been a few years 
 later. The following is a list of Xenophon's works. 
 1. The Jnabasis {'AvdSaais) or the History of the 
 Expedition of theYounger Cyrus, and of the retreat 
 of the Greeks, who formed part of his army. It is 
 divided into 7 books. This work has immortalised 
 Xenophon's name. It is a clear and pleasing nar- 
 rative, written in a simple style, free from affecta- 
 tion ; and it gives a great deal of curious infonna- 
 tion on the country which was traversed by the 
 retreating Greeks, and on the manners of the 
 people. It was the first work which made the 
 Greeks acquainted with some portions of the Per- 
 sian empire, and it showed the weakness of that 
 extensive monarchy. The skirmishes of the re- 
 treating Greeks with their enemies and the battles 
 with some of the barbarian tribes are not such 
 events as elevate the work to the character of a 
 military histor}', nor can it as such be compared 
 with Caesar's Commentaries. 2. The Hellenica 
 {'EW7}t/tKd) of Xenophon are divided into 7 books, 
 and comprehend the space of 48 years, from the 
 time when the history of Thucydides ends [Thu- 
 CYDiDEs] to the battle of Mantinea, 362. The 
 Helltnica is generally a dry narrative of events, 
 and there is nothing in the treatment of them 
 which gives a special interest to the work. Some 
 events of importance are briefly treated, but a few 
 striking incidents are presented with some parti- 
 cularity. 3. The Q/ropaedia (KupoTraiSeia) in 8 
 books, is a kind of political romance, the basis of 
 which is the history of Cyrus, the founder of the 
 Persian monarchy. It shows how citizens are to 
 be made virtuous and brave ; and Cyrus is the 
 model of a wise and good ruler. As a history it 
 has no authority at all. Xenophon adopted the 
 current stories as to Cyrus and the chief events of 
 
XENOPHON. 
 
 his reign, without any intention of subjecting them 
 to a critical examination ; nor have we any reason 
 to suppose that his picture of Persian morals and 
 Persian discipline is any thing more than a fiction. 
 Xenophon's object was to represent what a state 
 might be, and he placed the scene of his fiction far 
 enoug;h off to give it the colour of possibility. His 
 own philosophical notions and the usages of Sparta 
 were the real materials out of which he constructed 
 his political system. The Cyropaedia is evidence 
 enough that Xenophon did not like the political 
 constitution of his own country, and that a well- 
 ordered monarchy or kingdom appeared to him 
 preferable to a democracy like Athens. 4. The 
 Agesitaus ('A77J (TiXaos) is a panegyric on Agesi- 
 laus II., king of Sparta, the friend of Xenophon. 
 5. The Hifyparchicus ('I7r7rapx"t'iy) is a treatise on 
 the duties of a commander of cavalry, and it con- 
 tains many military precepts. (). The De Re 
 EqucHb-iy a treatise on the Horse {^Ifnruii]), was 
 written after the Hipparchicus, to which treatise 
 he refers at the end of the treatise on the Horse. 
 The treatise is not limited to horsemanship, as 
 regards the rider: it shows how a man is to avoid 
 being cheated in buying a horse, how a horse is to 
 be trained, and the like. 7. The CynegeLicus 
 (Kui'7j7eTiK(J?) is a treatise on hunting ; and on 
 the dog, and the breeding and training of dogs ; on 
 the various kinds of game, and the mode of taking 
 them. It is a treatise- written by a genuine sports- 
 man, who loved the exercise and the excitement of 
 the chase ; and it may be read with delight by any 
 sportsman who deserves the name. 8, 9. The 
 RespvhUca Lacedaemoniorum and Respubliea Athe- 
 niensium, the 2 treatises on the Spartan andAthenian 
 states (AaKGBcuiJ.oj/ia}V UoKireiaj and ^AdTjvaicoy 
 Hu\iTeia\ were not always recognised as genuine 
 works of Xenophon, even by the ancients. They 
 pass, however, under his name, and there is 
 nothing in the internal evidence that appears to 
 throw any doubt on the authorship. The writer 
 clearly prefers Spartan to Athenian institutions. 
 10. The De Vectigalibus^ a treatise on the Revenues 
 of Athens {U6poi ^ mrepl npoo-<J5a»j') is designed to 
 show how the public revenue of Athens maybe 
 improved. 11. The Memorabilia of Socrates, in 4 
 books (' A^ro^lv■T||J.ovsvfJ.ara 2w«poT0i's), was written 
 by Xenophon to defend the memory of his master 
 against the charge of irreligion and of corrupting 
 the Athenian youth. Socrates is represented as 
 holding a series of conversations, in which he 
 developes and inculcates moral doctrines in his 
 peculiar fashion. It is entirely a practical work, 
 such as we might expect from the practical nature 
 of Xenophon's mind, and it professes to exhibit 
 Socrates as lie taught. It is true that it may 
 exhibit only one side of the Socratic argumenta- 
 tion, and that it does not deal in those subtleties 
 and verbal disputes which occupy so large a space 
 in some of Plato's dialogues. Xenophon was a 
 hearer of Socrates, an admirer of his master, and 
 anxious to defend his memory. The charges 
 against Socrates for which he suffered were, that 
 '* Socrates was guilty of not believing in the gods 
 which the state believed in, and in introducing 
 other new daemons [Saifidvia) : he was also guilty 
 of corrupting the youth." Xenophon replies to 
 these two charges specifically ; and he then goes 
 on to show what Socrates' mode of life was. The 
 whole treatise is intended to be an answer to the 
 charge for which Socrates was executed, and it is, 
 
 XERXES. 825 
 
 therefore, in its nature, not intended to be a com- 
 plete exhibition of Socrates. That it is a genuine 
 picture of the man, is indisputable, and it is the 
 most valuable memorial that we have of the prac- 
 tical philosophy of Socrates. 12. The Apology 
 of Socrates {'Airo\oyla ^uKparovi irphs rovs 
 BiKaa-rds) is a short speech, containing the reasons 
 which induced Socrates to prefer death to life. It 
 is not a first-rate performance ; and is considered 
 by some critics not to have been written by Xeno- 
 phon. 1 3. The Symposiu/n ( Su/xTrtitrior), or Banquet 
 of Philosophers, in which Xenophon delineates the 
 cliaracter of Socrates. The speakers are su|ipnsed 
 to meet at the house of Callias, a rich Athenian, at 
 the celebration of the great Panathenaea. Socrates 
 and others are the speakers. The piece is in- 
 teresting as a picture of an Athenian drinking 
 party, and of the amusement and conversation with 
 which it was diversified. The nature of love and 
 friendship is discussed. 14. The Hiero {'lipwv ^ 
 TvpavviK6i) is a dialogue between king Hiero and 
 Simonides, in which the king speaks of the dangers 
 and difficulties incident to an exalted station, and 
 the superior happiness of a private man. The poet, 
 on the other hand, enumerates the advantages 
 which the possession of power gives, and the means 
 which it offers of obliging and doing services. 15. 
 The Oeconomicus (OlKOfOfiiKos) is a dialogue be- 
 tween Socrates and Critobulus, in which Socrates 
 gives instruction in the art called Oeconnmic, 
 which relates to the administration nf a household 
 and of a man's property. This is one of the best 
 treatises of Xenophon. — All antiquity and ail 
 modern writers agree in allowing Xenophon great 
 merit as a writer of a plain, simple, perspicuous, 
 and unaffected style. His mind was not adapted 
 for pure philosophical speculation : he looked to the 
 practical in all things ; and the basis of liis philo- 
 sophy was a strong belief in a divine mediation in 
 the government of the world. The best edition of 
 Xenophon's complete works is by Schneider, Lips. 
 1815, 6 vols. 8vo. — 3. The Ephesian, the author 
 of a romance, still extant, entitled Epliedaca^ or 
 the Loves of Anthia and Abrocomas ('E^eaia/ra, 
 TO Kara 'Awfli'ar koL 'A€poK6fATjv). The stvle of 
 the work is simple, and the story is conducted 
 without confusion, notwithstanding the number of 
 personages introduced. The adventures are of a 
 very improbable kind. The age when Xenophon 
 lived is uncertain. He is probably the oldest of 
 the Greek romance writers. The best editions of 
 his work are by Peerlkamp, Harlem, 1818, and by 
 Passow, Lips. 1833. 
 
 Xerxes (Eep^Tjs). I. King of Persia b. c. 48.5 — 
 465. The name is said by Herodotus (vi. 98) to 
 signify the warrior, but it is probably the same 
 word as the Zend ksaihra and the Sanscrit ksluUra^ 
 " a king." Xerxes was the son of Darius and 
 Atossa. Darius was married twice. By his first 
 wife, the daughter of Gobryas, he had 3 children 
 before he was raised to the throne ; and by his 
 second wife, Atossa, the daughter of Cyrus, he had 
 4 children after he had become king. Artabazanes, 
 the eldest son of the former marriage, and Xerxes, 
 the eldest son of the latter, each laid claim to the 
 succession ; but Darius decided in favour of 
 Xerxes, no doubt through the influence of his 
 mother Atossa, who completely ruled Darius. 
 Xerxes succeeded his father at the beginning of 
 485. Darius had died in the midst of his pre- 
 parations against Greece, which had been inter- 
 
82G XERXES. 
 
 rupted by the revolt of the Egyptians. The first 
 care of Xerxes was to reduce the latter people to 
 Biibjection, He accordingly invaded Egypt at the 
 beginning of the 2d year of bis reign (b. c. 484), 
 compelled the people again to submit to the Per- 
 sian yoke, and then returned to Persia, leaving his 
 brother Achaeraenes governor of Egypt. The 
 next 4 years were devoted to preparations for the 
 invasion of Greece. In the spring of 480 he set 
 out from Sardis on his memorable expedition 
 against Greece. He crossed the Hellespont by a 
 bridge of boats, and continued his march through 
 the Thracian Chersonese till he reached the plain 
 of Uoriscus, which is traversed by the river Hebrus. 
 Here he resolved to number both his land and naval 
 forces. Herodotus has left us a most minute and 
 interesting catalogue of the nations comprising this 
 mighty army with their various military equip- 
 ments and different modes of fighting. The land 
 forces contained 46 nations. (Herod, vii. 61, 
 foil.) In his march through Thrace and Mace- 
 donia, Xerxes received a still further accession 
 of strength ; and wlien he reached Thermopylae 
 the land and sea forces amounted to 2,641,610 
 fighting men. This does not include the at- 
 tendants, the slaves, the crews of the provision 
 ships, &c., which according to the supposition of 
 Herodotus were mere in number than the fight- 
 ing men ; but supposing them to have been equal, 
 the total number of male persons who accompanied 
 Xerxes to Thermopylae reach the astounding figure 
 of 5,283,220 ! Such a vast number must be dis- 
 missed as incredible ; but, considering that this 
 army was the result of a maximum of effort 
 throughout the empire, and that provisions had 
 been collected for 3 years before along the line of 
 march, we may well believe that the numbers of 
 Xerxes were greater than were ever assembled in 
 ancient times, or perhaps at any known epoch of 
 history. After the review of Doriscus Xerxes 
 continued his march through Thrace. On reaching 
 Acanthus, near the isthmus of Athos, Xerxes left 
 his fleet, which received orders to sail through the 
 canal that had been previously dug across the 
 isthmus — and of which the remains are still visible 
 [Athos] — and await his arrival at Therme, after- 
 wards called Thessalonica. After joining his fleet 
 at Therme, Xerxes marched through Macedonia 
 and Thessaly without meeting with any opposition 
 till he reached Thermopylae. Here the Greeks 
 resol ved to make a stiind. Leonidas, king of 
 Sparta, conducted a land force to Thennopylae ; 
 and his colleague Eurybiades sailed with the 
 Greek fleet to the N. of Euboea, and took up his 
 position on the N. coast, which faced Magnesia, and 
 was called Artemisium from the temple of Artemis 
 belonging to the town of Hestiaea. Xerxes arrived 
 in safety with his land forces before Thermopylae, 
 but his fleet was overtaken by a violent storm and 
 hurricane off the coast of Sepias in Magnesia, by 
 ■which at least 400 ships of war were destro3'ed, 
 as well as an immense number of transports. 
 Xerxes attempted to force his way through the pass 
 of Thermopylae, but his troops were repulsed 
 again and again by Leonidas ; till a Malian, of the 
 name of Ephialtes, showed the Persians a pass 
 over the mountains of Oeta, and thus enabled 
 them to fall on the rear of the Greeks. Leonidas 
 and his Spartans disdained to fly, and were all 
 slain. [Leonidas.] On the same days on which 
 Leonidas was fighting with the land forces of 
 
 XIPHONIA. 
 
 Xerxes, the Greek ships at Artemisium attacked 
 the Persian fleet In the first battle, the Greeks 
 had the advantage, and in the following night the 
 Persian ships suffered still more from a violent 
 storm. Two days afterwards the contest was 
 renewed : and both sides fought with the greatest 
 courage. Although the Greeks at the close still 
 maintained their position, and had destroyed a 
 great number of the enemy's ships, yet their own 
 loss was considerable, and half the Athenian ships 
 were disabled. Under these circumstances the 
 Greek commanders abandoned Artemisium and 
 retired to Salamis, opposite the S. W. coast of 
 Attica. It was now too late to send an army into 
 Boeotia, and Attica thus lay exposed to the full 
 vengeance of the invader. The Athenians re- 
 moved their women, children, and infirm persons to 
 Salamis, Aegina, and Troezdn. Meantime Xerxes 
 marched through Phocis and Boeotia, and at length 
 reached Athens. About the same time as Xerxes 
 entered Athens, his fleet arrived in the bay of 
 Phalerum. He now resolved upon an engagement 
 with the Greek fleet. The history of this memor- 
 able battle, of the previous dissensions among the 
 Greek commanders, and of the glorious victory of the 
 Greeks at the last, is related elsewhere. [Themis- 
 TOCLEa.] Xerxes witnessed the battle from a lofty 
 seat, which was erected for him on the shore of the 
 mainland on one of the declivities of Mount Aega- 
 leos, and thus beheld with his own eyes the defeat 
 and dispersion of his mighty annament. Xerxes 
 now became alarmed for his own safety, and re- 
 solved to leave Greece immediately. He was 
 confirmed in his resolution by Mardonius, who 
 undertook to complete the conquest with 300,000 
 of his troops. Xerxes left Mardonius the number 
 of troops which he requested, and with the remain- 
 der set out on his march homewards. He reached 
 the Hellespont in 45 days from the time of his 
 departure from Attica. On' arriving at the Helles- 
 pont, he found the bridge of boats destroyed 
 by a storm, and he crossed over to Asia by ship. 
 He entered Sardis towards the end of the year 
 480. In the following year, 479, the war was 
 continued in Greece ; but Mardonius was defeated 
 at Plataea by the combined forces of the Greeks, 
 and on the same day another victory was gained, 
 over the Persians at Mycale' in Ionia. Next year, 
 478, the Persians lost their last possession in 
 Europe by the capture of Sestos on the Hellespont. 
 Thus the struggle was virtuklly brought to an end, 
 though the war still continued for several j'ears 
 longer. We know little more of the personal his- 
 tory of Xerxes. He was murdered in 465, after a 
 reign of 20 years, by Artabanus, who aspired to 
 become king of Persia. Xerxes was succeeded by 
 his son Artaserxes I. ^II. The only legitimate 
 son of Artaxerxes I., succeeded his father as king 
 of Persia in 425, but was murdered after a short 
 reign of only 2 months by his half-brolher Sog- 
 dianus, who thus became king. 
 
 Xiphilinus (Ei^iATi^os), of Trapezns, was a 
 monk at Constantinople, and made an abridgement 
 of Dion Cassius from the 36th to the 80th book at 
 the command of the emperor Michael VII. Ducas, 
 who reigned from a. d. 107] to 1078. The work 
 is executed with carelessness, and is only of value 
 as preserving the main facts of the original, the 
 greater part of which is lost. It is printed along 
 with Dion Cassius. 
 
 Xiphonia {"Bitpccvla : Capo di S. Croce), a pro- 
 
XOIS. 
 
 montory on the E. coast of Sicily, above Syracuse, 
 with a harbour {"EKpcoveios Xifiijv). 
 
 X8i8 or Chois {Z6is, Eotjs, XrfVs), an ancient 
 city of Lower Egypt, N. of Leontopolis, on an 
 island of the Nile, in the Nomos Sebennyticus, 
 the seat, at one time, of a dynasty of Egyptian 
 kings. It appears to have entirely perished under 
 the Roman empire, and its site is very doubtful. 
 Some identify it with the Paprerais of Herodotus, 
 
 Xiith.118 (Houfios), son of Hellen by the nymph 
 Orsfcis, and a brother of Dorus and Aeolus. He 
 was king of Peloponnesus, and the husband of 
 Creuaa, the daughter of Erechtheus, by whom he 
 became the father of Achaeus and Ion. Others 
 state that after the death of his father Hellen, 
 Xuthus was expelled from Thessaly by his 
 brothers, and went to Athens, where he married 
 the daughter of Erechtheus. After the death of 
 Erechtheus, Xuthus being chosen arbitrator, ad- 
 judged the kingdom to his eldest brother-in-law, 
 Cecrops, in consequence of which he was expelled 
 by the other sons of Erechtheus, and settled in 
 Aeg'ialus in Peloponnesus. 
 
 Xyline, a town of Pisidia, between Corbasa 
 and Termessus, mentioned by Livy (xxxviii. 15). 
 
 Xynia or Xyniae {Ewia ; Uwlgvs : Tauldi), a 
 town of Thessaly in the district Phthiotis, E, of 
 the lake of the aarae name {t} awias KIixvt\: Ni- 
 gxro or Dereli). 
 
 Xypete (avTrdrti -. EuTreTOiwj', "EvireTScov, Eut€- 
 raiitiveusy EuTrgTeuy, EuTrerjos), said to have been 
 anciently called Troja, a demus of Attica belonging 
 to the tribe Cecropis, near Piraeus. 
 
 Z. 
 
 Zabatus (ZdSaros). [Lycus, No, 5.] 
 Zabe (Zd§77), a name applied, under the later 
 emperors, to the S. part of Numidia, as far as tlie 
 border of the Great Desert. 
 
 Zacynthua {ZaKvt/dos : ZanvvQios^ Zacynthius : 
 Zajite)^ an island in the Ionian sea off the coast of 
 Elis, about 40 miles in circumference. It con- 
 tained a large and flourishing town of the same 
 name upon the E. coast, the citadel of which was 
 called Psophis. There are 2 considerable chains of 
 mountains in the island. The ancient writers 
 mention M. Elatus, which is probably the aarae as 
 the modern Scopo in the S- E. of the island, and 
 which rises to the height of 1.609 feet. Zacynthus 
 was celebrated in antiquity for its pitch wells, 
 which were visited by Herodotus, and which still 
 supply a large quantity of bitumen. About 100 
 tons of bitumen are at the present day annually 
 extracted from these wells. — Zacynthus was in- 
 habited by a Greek population at an early period. 
 It is said to have derived its names from Zacynthus, 
 a son of Dardanus, who colonised the island from 
 Psnphis in Arcadia ; and according to an ancient 
 tradition, the Zacynthians founded the town of 
 Saguntum in Spain. [Saguntum.] The island is 
 frequently mentioned by Homer, who speaks of it 
 as the " woody Zacynthus." It was afterwards 
 colonised by Achaeans from Peloponnesus. It 
 formed part of the maritime empire of Athens, and 
 continued faithful to the Athenians during the 
 Peloponnesian war. At a later time it was subject 
 to the Macedonian monarchs, and on the conquest 
 of Macedonia by the Romans passed into the 
 hands of the latter. It is now one of the Ionian 
 islands under the protection of Great Britain. 
 
 ZALMOXIS. 
 
 027 
 
 Zadracarta (ZaSpa/capra), one of the capital 
 cities and royal residences in HyrcanJa, lay at the 
 N. foot of the chief pass through M. Coronus. 
 (Comp. Tapae.) 
 
 Zagreus {Zayp^vs\ a surname of the mystic 
 Dionysus {Aidwaos x^tii'ios), whom Zeus, in the 
 form of a dragon, is said to have begotten by Per- 
 sephone (Proserpina), before she was carried ofif 
 by Pluto. He was torn to pieces by the Titans ; 
 and Athena carried his heart to Zeus. ^ 
 
 Zagros or -us {b Zdypos and rh Zdypiou opor, 
 Mts. of Kurdistan and Louristan), the general 
 name for the range of mountains forming the S. E. 
 continuation of the Taurus, and the E. margin of 
 the Tigris and Euphrates valley, from the S- W. 
 side of the Lake Arsissa {Van) in Armenia, to 
 the N. E. side of the head of the Persian Gulf, 
 and dividing Media from Assyria and Susiana. 
 More specifically, the name Zagros was applied to 
 the central part of the chain, the N. part being 
 called the mountains of the Cordueni or Gordjaei, 
 and the S. part Parachoathras. 
 
 Zaitha or Zautha (Zau0a), a town of Mesopo- 
 tamia, on the E. bank of the Euphrates, 20 Roman 
 miles S. of Circesium, remarkable as the place at 
 which a monument was erected to the murdered 
 emperor Gordian by his soldiers. 
 
 Zaleucus (ZciXeuKor), the celebrated lawgiver 
 of the Epizephyrian Locrians, is said by some to 
 have been originally a slave, but is described by 
 others as a man of good family. He could not 
 however have been a disciple of Pythagoras, as 
 some writers state, since he lived upwards of 100 
 years before Pythagoras, The date of the legis- 
 lation of Zaleucus is assigned to b. c. 660. His 
 code is stated to have been the first collection of 
 written laws that the Greeks possessed. The 
 general character of his laws was severe ; but they 
 were observed for a long period by the Locrians, 
 who obtained, in consequence, a high reputation 
 for legal order. Among other enactments we are 
 told that the penalty of adultery was the loss of 
 the eyes. There is a celebrated story of the son 
 of Zaleucus having become liable to this penalty, 
 and the father himself suffering the loss of one eye 
 that his son might not be utterly blinded. It is 
 further related that among his laws was one for- 
 bidding any citizen under penalty of death to 
 enter the senate house in arms. On one occasion, 
 however, on a sudden emergency in time of war, 
 Zaleucus transgressed his own law, which was 
 remarked to him by one present ; whereupon he 
 fell upon his own sword, declaring that he would 
 himself vindicate the law. Other authors tell the 
 same story of Charondas, or of Diodes. 
 
 Zalmoxis or Zamolxis (Zdkfxo^is, Zd/xoX^is), 
 said to have been so called from the bear's skin 
 (ZtiAjUoy) in which he was clothed as soon as he 
 was born. He was, according to the story current 
 among the Greeks on the Hellespont, a Getan, 
 who had been a slave to Pythagoras in Samos. but 
 was manumitted, and acquired not only great 
 wealth, but large stores of knowledge from Py- 
 thagoras, and from the Egyptians, whom he visited 
 in the course of his travels. He returned among 
 the Getae, introducing the civilisation and the re- 
 ligious ideas which he had gained, especially re- 
 gtirding the immortality of the soul. He was said 
 to have lived in a subterraneous cave for 3 years, 
 and after that to have again made his appearance 
 I among the Getae. Herodotus inclines to place 
 
828 
 
 ZAMA. 
 
 the age of Zalmoxis a long time before Pythagoras, 
 and expresses a doubt not only about the story 
 itself, bat as to whether Zalmoxis were a man, or 
 an indigenous Getan deity. The latter appears to 
 have been the real state of the case. The Getae 
 believed that the departed went to him. 
 
 Zama Kegia {Zd/j-a : Zamensis : Zowareen^ 
 S. E. of Kaff")^ a strongly fortified city in the 
 interior of Numidia, on the borders of the Cartha- 
 ginian territory. It was the ordinary residence of 
 King Juba, who had here his treasury and his 
 harem. It was the scene of one of the most im- 
 portant battles in the history of the world, that in 
 whicli Hannibal was defeated by Scipio, and the 
 2iid Punic War was ended, b. c. 202. Strabo 
 tells us that it was destroyed by the Romans ; but 
 if so, it must have been restored, for we find it 
 mentioned under the empire as a colony and a 
 bishop's see. Pliny and Vitruvius speak of a 
 fountain in its neighbourhood. — There were un- 
 important places of the same name in Cappadocia 
 and Mesopotamia. 
 
 Zancle. [Messana.] 
 
 Zapaortene, a city in the S. E. of Parthia, in 
 the miiniitains of the Zapaorteni. 
 
 Zaradms {Sutlej)^ a river of N. India, now the 
 S. boundary of the Punjab, It rises from 2 prin- 
 cipal sources beyond the Himalaya^ and falls into 
 the Hyphasis (G/iarra). 
 
 Zaraagae or -i, or Sarangae (Zapdyyoi, 2a- 
 pdyyai)^ n people in the N. of Drangiana, on the 
 confines of Aria. The close resemblance of their 
 name to the generic name of all the people of 
 Drangiana, that is, Drangae, suggests a doubt 
 whether they ought to be specifically distinguished 
 from them. 
 
 Zarax or Zarex (Zapa^, Zdpr}^). 1. The cen- 
 tral part of the chain of mountains, extending along 
 the E. coast of Laconica from Mt. Parnon, on the 
 frontiers of Argnlis, down to the promontory Ma- 
 lea.*— •2. {Jeraka\ a town on the E. coast of 
 Laconica, at the foot of the mountain of the same 
 nnme. 
 
 Zariaspe. [Bactra.] 
 
 Zariaspia, an earlier, probably the native name 
 for the river on which Bactra stood, and which is 
 usually called Bactrus, fBACXHA.] The people 
 on its banks were called Zaiiaspae. 
 
 Zela or Ziela (ra ZTjAa : ZUlek), a city in the 
 S. of Pontus, not far S. of Amasia, and 4 days' 
 journey E. of Tavium. It stood on an artificial 
 hill, and was strongly fortified. Near it was an 
 ancient and famous temple of Anai'tis and other 
 Persian deities, in wliich great religious festivals 
 were held. The surrounding district was called 
 Zeletis or Zelitis. At Zela the Roman general 
 Valerius Triarius was defeated by Mithridates ; but 
 the city is more celebrattd for another great battle, 
 that in which Julius Caesar defeated Pharnaces, 
 and of which he wrote this despatch to Rome: — 
 Veni; Vidi: Vici. 
 
 Zelasium, a Thessalian town in the district 
 Phthiotis of uncertain site. 
 
 Zelia (ZeAeta), an ancient city of Mysia, at 
 the foot of M. Ida, and on the river Aesepus, 80 
 stadia from its mouth, belonging to the territory of 
 Cyzicus. At the time of Alexander's inrasion the 
 head-quarters of the Persian army were fixed here. 
 
 Zelus (ZtjAos), the personification of zeal or 
 strife, is described as a son of Pallas and Styx, and 
 a brother of Nice. 
 
 ZENO. 
 
 Zeno, Zenon {Z-r\viav). 1. The founder of the 
 Stoic philosophy, was a native of Citium in Cyprus, 
 and the son of Mnaseas. He began at an early 
 age to study philosophy through the writings of 
 the Socratic philosophers, which his father was 
 accustomed to bring back from Athens when be 
 went thither on trading voyages. At the age of 
 22, or, according to others, of 30 years, Zeno was 
 shipwrecked in the neighbourhood of Piraeus ; 
 whereupon he was led to settle in Athens, and 
 to devote himself entirely to the study of philo- 
 sophy. According to some writers he lost all his 
 property in the shipwreck ; according to others, 
 he still retained a large f^tune ; but whichever of 
 these accounts is correct, his moderation and con- 
 tentment became proverbial, and a recognition of 
 his virtues shines through even the ridicule of the 
 comic poets. The weakness of his health is said 
 to have first determined him to live rigorously and 
 simply ; but his desire to make himself inde- 
 pendent of all external circumstances seems to have 
 been an additional motive, and to have led him to 
 attach himself to the cynic Crates. In opposition 
 to the advice of Crates, he studied under Stilpo of 
 the Megaric school ; and he subsequently received 
 instruction from the 2 other contemporary Megarics, 
 Diodorus Cronus and Philo, and from the Aca- 
 demics, Xenocrates and Polemo. The period which 
 Zeno thus devoted to study is said to have ex- 
 tended to 20 years. At its close, and after he had 
 developed his peculiar philosophical system, he 
 opened his school in the porch adorned with the 
 paintings of Polygnotus {Stoa Poecile)^ which, at an 
 earlier time, had been a place in which poets met. 
 From this place his disciples were called Sloics. 
 Among the warm admirers of Zeno was Antigo- 
 nus Gonatas, king of Macedonia. The Athenians 
 likewise placed the greatest confidence in him, and 
 displayed the greatest esteem for him ; for al- 
 though the well-known story that they deposited 
 the keys of the fortress with him, as the most 
 trustworthy man, may be a later invention, there 
 seems no reason for doubting the authenticity of 
 the decree of the people by which a golden crown 
 and a public burial in the Ceramicus were awarded 
 to him. The Athenian citizenship, however, he 
 is said to have declined, tltat he migiit not become 
 unfaithful to his native land, where in return he 
 was highly esteemed. We do not know the year 
 either of Zeno's birth or death. He is said to 
 have presided over his school for 58 years, and to 
 have died at the age of 98. He is said to have 
 been still alive in the 130th Olympiad (b. c. 260). 
 Zeno wrote numerous works ; but the writings of 
 Chrysippus and the later Stoics seem to have ob- 
 scured those of Zeno, and even the warm ad- 
 herents of the school seem seldom to have gone 
 back to the books of its founder. Hence it is 
 difficult to ascertain how much of the later Stoic 
 philosophy really belongs to Zeno. — 2. The Eleatic 
 philosopher, was a native of Elea (Velia) in Italy, 
 son of Teleutagoras, and the favourite disciple of 
 Parmenides. He was bom about B.C. 488, and at 
 the age of 40 accompanied Parmenides to Athens. 
 [Parmenides.] He appears to have resided 
 some time at Athens, and is said to have unfolded 
 his doctrines to men like Pericles and Callias for 
 the price of 100 minae. Zeno is said to have 
 taken part in the legislation of Parmenides, to the 
 maintenance of which the citizens of Elea had 
 pledged themselves every year by an oath. His 
 
ZENOBIA. 
 
 love of freedom is shown by the courage with 
 which he exposed his life in order to deliver his 
 native country from a tyrant. Whether he 
 perished in the-attempt, or survived the fall of the 
 tyrant, is a point on which the authorities vary. 
 They also state the name of the tyrant differently. 
 Zeno devoted all his energies to explain and de- 
 velop the philosophical system of Parmenides. 
 [Parmenides.] ^3. An Epicurean philosopher, 
 a native of Sidon, was a contemporary of Cicero, 
 who heard him when at Athens. He was some- 
 times termed Corypliueus Epicureorum. He seems 
 to have been noted for the disrespectful terms in 
 which he spoke of other philosophers. For in- 
 stance, he called Socrates the Attic buffoon. He 
 was a disciple of Apollodorus, and is described as 
 a clear-headed thinker and perspicuous expounder 
 of his views. 
 
 Zenobia, queen of Palmyra. After the death 
 of her husband, Odenathus, whom, according to 
 some accounts, she assassinated (a. d. 266), she 
 assumed the imperial diadem, as regent for her 
 sons, and discharged all the active duties of a 
 sovereign. Bat not content with enjoying the 
 independence conceded by GalHenus and tolerated 
 by Claudius, she sought to include all Syria, Asia, 
 and Egypt within the limits of her sway, and to 
 make good the title which she claimed of Queen 
 of the East. By this rash ambition she lost both 
 her kingdom and her liberty. She was defeated 
 by Aurelian, taken prisoner on the capture of 
 Palmyra (273), and carried to Rome, where she 
 adorned the triumph of her conqueror (274). Her 
 life was soared by Aurelian, and she passed the 
 remainder of her years with her sons in the vi- 
 cinity of Tibur {Tivoli). Longinus lived at her 
 court, and was put to death on the capture of Pal- 
 myra. [Longinus.] 
 
 Zenobia {Z7)vQSia : CheleU or Zdehi)^ a city of 
 Chalybnnitis, in Syria, on the W. bank of the 
 Euphrates, 3 days' journey both from Sura and 
 from Circesium. It was founded by Zenobia. 
 
 Zenobius {Zi)v6Sios)^ lived at Rome in the time 
 of Hadrian, and was the author of a collection of 
 proverbs in Greek, which have come down to ua. 
 In this collection the proverbs are arranged alpha- 
 betically, and divided into hundreds. The last 
 division is incomplete, the total number collected 
 being 552. It is printed in the collection of 
 Schottus (Hapoi^tai 'EAAijnKctf, Antwerp, 1612). 
 
 Zenodorus, a Greek artist, who made for Nero 
 the colossal statue of that emperor, which he set 
 up in front of the golden house, and which was 
 afterwards dedicated afresh by Vespasian as a 
 statue of the Sun. It was 110 feet in height. 
 
 Zenodotium or -ia {ZtivoUtiqv^ Ztji^oSotio), a 
 fortress in the N. of Mesopotamia, on the small 
 tributary of the Euphrates called Bilecha, a little 
 above Nicephorlum, and below Ichnae. It was a 
 Macedonian settlement, and the only one of the 
 Greek cities of Mesopotamia which did not revolt 
 from the ParthJans at the approach of Crassus. 
 
 Zenodotus {Z'riv6ZoTos), L Of Ephesns, a 
 celebrated grammarian, was the first superintend- 
 ent of the great library at Alexandria, and flou- 
 rished under Ptolemy Philadelphus about B. c. 
 208. Zenodotus was employed by Philadelphus 
 together with his 2 great contemporaries, Alex- 
 ander the Aetolian and Lycophron the Chalcidian, 
 to collect and revise all the Greek poets. Alex- 
 ander, we are told, undertook the task of collecting 
 
 ZETES. 
 
 829 
 
 the tragedies, Lycophron the comedies, and Zeno- 
 dotus the poems of Homer, and of the other illus- 
 trious poets. Zenodotus, however, devoted his 
 chief attention to the Iliad and Odyssey. Hence 
 he is called the first Reviser {AiopdriT7]i) of Homer, 
 and his recension (ALdpSiacris) of the Iliad and 
 Odyssey obtained the greatest celebrity. The 
 corrections which Zenodotus applied to the text of 
 Homer were of three kinds. 1. He expunged 
 verses. 2. He marked them as spurious, but left 
 them in his copy. 3. He introduced new read- 
 ings or transposed or altered verses. The great 
 attention which Zenodotus paid to the language of 
 Homer caused a new epoch in the grammatical 
 study of the Greek language. The results of his 
 investigations respecting the meaning and the use 
 of words were contained in two works which he 
 published under the title of a Glossary {FKaxTaai), 
 and a Dictionary of barbarous or foreign phrases. 
 
 — 2. Of Alexandria, a grammarian, lived after 
 Aristarchus, whose recension of the Homeric poems 
 he attacked. 
 
 Zephyra. [Halicarnassus.] 
 
 Zephyrium (Z^cpupiov^ sc. aKpioTTjpiov^ i. e. tlie 
 W. promontory), the name of several promontories 
 of the ancient world, not all of which, however, 
 faced the W. The chief of them were the follow- 
 ing: — I. In Europe. 1. ((7. di Brussano)^ a 
 promontory in Bruttium, forming the S. E. ex- 
 tremity of the country, from .which the Locri, 
 who settled in the neighbourhood, are said to have 
 obtained the name of Epizephyrii. [See p. 387, b.] 
 
 — 2. A promontory on the W. coast of Cyprus. 
 
 II. In Asia. 1. In Pontus (C. Zefreh)^ a headland 
 W. of Tripoljs, with a fort and harbour of the 
 same name. ^ 2. [Caria.] —3. In Cilicia (prob. 
 C. Cavatiere)^ a far-projecting promontory, W. of 
 Prom. Sarpedon. Some make it the headland E. 
 of Prom. Sarpedon, and just S. of the mouth of 
 the Calycadnua, which Polybius, Appian. and Livy 
 call by the same name as the river, Cal^'cadnus, ^ 
 
 III. In Africa (Kasser Maaruh)^ a headland on 
 the N. E. coast of Cyrena'ica, W. of Darnis. 
 
 Zephyrus (Zef^upoy), the personification of the 
 W. wind, is described by Hesiod as a son of As- 
 traeus and Eos. Zephyrus and Boreas are frequently 
 mentioned together by Homer, and both dwelt 
 together in a palace in Thrace. By the Harpy 
 Podarge, Zephyrus became the father of the horses 
 Xanthus and Balius, which belonged to Achilles; 
 but he was married to Chloris, whom he had car- 
 ried off by force, and by whom he had a son Carpus. 
 
 Zerynthus {ZiipvvQos^ Zrjpwdios), a town of 
 Thrace in the territory of Aenos, with a temple of 
 Apollo and a cave of Hecate, who are hence called 
 Zeryniliius and Zeryntliia respectively. Some 
 writers, however, place the Zerynthian cave of 
 Hecate in Samothrace. 
 
 Zetes (Ztjttjs) and Calais (KaAaVs), sons of 
 Boreas and Orithyia, frequently called the Borea- 
 dae, are mentioned among the Argonauts, and aie 
 described as winged beings. Their sister Cleo- 
 patra, who was married to Phineus, king of Sal- 
 mydessus, had been thrown with her sons into 
 prison by Phineus at the instigation of his second 
 wife. Here she was found by Zetes and Calais, 
 when they arrived at Salmydessus in the Ar- 
 gonautic expedition. They liberated their sister 
 and his children, gave the kingdom to the latter, 
 and sent the second wife of Phineus to her own 
 country, Scythia. Others relate that the Boreadae 
 
830 
 
 ZETHUS. 
 
 delivered Phineus from the Harpies; for it had 
 been foretold that the Harpies might be killed by 
 the sons of Boreas, but that the sons of Boreas must 
 die, if they should not be able to overtake the 
 Harpies. Others again state that the Boreadae 
 perished in their pursuit of the Harpies, or that 
 Hercules killed them vi^ith his arrows near the 
 island of Tenos. Different stories were related to 
 account for the anger of Hercules against tho Bo- 
 readae. Their tombs were said to be in Tenos, 
 adorned with sepulchral stelae, one of which moved 
 whenever the wind blew from the north, Calais 
 is also mentioned as the founder of the Campanian 
 town of Cales. 
 
 Zethiia (ZtJ^os-), son of Zeus and Antiope, and 
 brorher of Amphion. For details see Amphion. 
 
 Zeugis, Zeugitana Eegio (^ ZetryiTarT] : N. 
 part of Tunis), the N. district of Africa Propria. 
 [Africa.] 
 
 Zeugma (Zevyfxa, i. e. JuTiction : prob. Rum- 
 hileh), a city of Svria, on the borders of Com- 
 magene and Cyrrhestice, built by Seleucus Nicator, 
 on the W. bank of the Euphrates, at a point where 
 the river was crossed by a bridge of boats, which 
 had been constructed by Alexander the Great ; 
 hence the name. Afterwards, when the ford of 
 Thapsacus became impassable for travellers, on 
 account of the hordes of Arabs who infested the 
 banks of the Lower Euphrates, the bridge at 
 Zeugma gave the only passage over the river. 
 
 Zeus (Zeus), called Jiipiter by the Romans, the 
 greatest of the Olympian gods, was a sou of Cronos 
 and Rhea, a brother of Poseidon, Hades (Pluto), 
 Hestia, Demeter, Hera, and was also married to 
 his sister Hera. When Zeus and his brothers 
 distributed among themselves the government of 
 the world by lot, Poseidon obtained the sea, Hades 
 the lower world, and Zeus the heavens and the 
 upper regions, but the earth became common to all. 
 According to the Homeric account Zeus dwelt on 
 Mt. Olympus in Thessaly, which was believed to pe- 
 netrate with its lofty summit into heaven itself. He 
 is called the father of gods and men, the most high 
 and powerful among the immortals, whom all others 
 obey. He is the supreme ruler, who with his 
 counsel manages everything; the founder of kingly 
 power, and of law and of order, whence Dice, 
 Themis, and Nemesis are his assistants. For the 
 same reason he protects the assembly of the people 
 (ayopatos)^ the meetings of the council ($ov\aios), 
 and as he presides over the whole state, so also 
 over every house and family (kpKelos). He also 
 ■watched over the sanctity of the oath {opKios) and 
 the laws of hospitality (leViOj), and protected sup- 
 pliants (i/eeffios). He avenged those who were 
 ■wronged, and punished those who had committed 
 a crime, for he watched the doings and sufferings 
 of all men {iird^^ios). He was further the original 
 source of all prophetic power, from whom all pro- 
 phetic signs and sounds proceeded {irai/o/j.(t}aios). 
 Every thing good as well as bad comes from Zeus; 
 according to his own choice he assigns good or evil 
 to mortals; and fate itself was subordinate to him. 
 He is armed with thunder and lightning, and the 
 shaking of his aegis produces storm and tempest: 
 a number of epithets of Zeus in the Homeric poems 
 describe him as the thunderer, the gatherer of 
 clouds, and the like. He was married to Hera, by 
 whom he had two sons. Ares and Hephaestus, and 
 one daughter, Hebe. Hera sometimes acts as an 
 independent divinity; she is ambitious and rebels 
 
 ZEUS. 
 
 against her lord, but she is nevertheless inl 
 him, and is punished forher opposition ; his ai jrs 
 with other goddesses or mortal women are not con- 
 cealed from her, though they generally rouse her 
 jealousy and reveng* during the Trojan w;ir, 
 Zeus, at the request o uetis, favoured the Tro- 
 jans, until Agamemni. paired the wrong he had 
 done to Achilles. ZeuL. .-.o doubt, was originally 
 a god of a portion of nati^-e. Hence the oak with 
 its eatable fruit and the fertile doves were sacred 
 to him at Dodona and in Arcadia. Hence also 
 rain, storms, and the seasons were regarded as his 
 work; and hence, likewise, the Cretan stories of 
 milk, honey, and cornucopia. In the Homeric 
 poems, however, this primitive character of a per- 
 sonification of certain powers of nature is already 
 effaced to some extent, and the god appears as a 
 political and national divinity, as the king and 
 father of men, as the founder and protector of all 
 institutions hallowed by law, custom, or religion. 
 Hesiod also calls Zeus the son of Cronos and Rhea, 
 and the brother of Hestia, Demeter, Hera, Hades, 
 and Poseidon. Cronos swallowed his children im- 
 mediately after their birth, but when Rhea was 
 pregnant with Zeus, she applied to Uranus and 
 Ge to save the life of the child. Uranus and Ge 
 therefore sent Rhea to Lyctos in Crete, requesting 
 her to bring up her child there. Rhea accordingly 
 concealed Zeus in a cave of Mount Aegaeon, and 
 gave to Cronos a stone wrapped up in cloth, which 
 he swallowed in the belief that it wds his son. 
 Other traditions state that Zens was born and 
 brought up on Mount Dicte or Ida (also the Trojan 
 Ida), Ithome in Messenia, Thebes in Boeotia, 
 Aegion in Achaia, or Olenos in Aetolia. Accord- 
 ing to the common account, however, Zeus grew 
 up in Crete. In the meantime Cronos by a cunning 
 device of Ge or Metis was made to bring up the 
 children he had swallowed, and first of all the 
 stone, which was afterwards set up by Zeus at 
 Delphi. The young god now delivered the Cy- 
 clopes from the bonds with which they had been 
 fettered by Cronos, and they in their gratitude 
 provided him with thunder and lightning. On 
 the advice of Ge, Zeus also liberated the hundred- 
 armed Gigantes, Briareos, Cottus, and Gyes, that 
 they might assist him in his fight against the Ti- 
 tans. The Titans were conquered and shut up in 
 Tartarus, where they were henceforth guarded by 
 the Hecatoncheires. Thereupon Tartarus and Ge 
 begot Typhoeus, who began a fearful struggle with 
 Zeus, but was conquered. Zeus now obtained the 
 dominion of the world, and chose Metis for his 
 wife. When she was pregnant with Athena, he 
 took the child out of her body and concealed it in 
 his head, on the advice of Uranus and Ge, who 
 told him that thereby he would retain the supre- 
 macy of the world. For if Metis had given birth 
 to a son, this son (so fate had ordained it) would 
 have acquired the sovereignty. After this Zeus 
 became the father of the Horae and Moerae, by his 
 second wife Themis ; of the Charites by Eurynome; 
 of Persephone by Demeter; of the Muses by 
 Mnemosyne; of Apollo and Artemis by Leto; and 
 of Hebe, Ares, and Ilithyia by Hera. Athena 
 was born out of the head of Zeus ; while Hera, on 
 the other hand, gave birth to Hephaestus without 
 the co-operation of Zeus. The family of the 
 Cronidae accordingly embraces the 12 great gods 
 of Olympus, Zeus (the head of them all), Poseidon, 
 Apollo, Ares, Hermes, Hephaestus, Hestia, De- 
 
ZEUXIDAMUS. 
 
 meter, Hera, Athena, Aphrodite, and Artemis. 
 These 12 Olympian gods, who in some places were 
 worshipped as a body, were recognised not only by 
 the Greeks, but were adopted also by the Romans, 
 who, in particular, identified their Jupiter with 
 the Greek Zeus. In surveying the different local 
 traditions about Zeus, it would seem that originally 
 there were several, or at least 3, divinities which 
 in their respective countries were supreme, but 
 which in the course of time became united in the 
 minds of the people into one great national divinity. 
 We may accordingly speak of an Arcadian, Do- 
 donaean, Cretan, and a national Hellenic Zeus, 1, 
 TheArcadian Zeus{Zfbs AvKa7os) was born, accord- 
 ing to the legends of the country, in Arcadia, either 
 on Mt Parrhasium, or on Mt. Lycaeus. He was 
 brought up there by the nymphs Thisoa, Neda, and 
 Hagno. Lvcaon, a son of Pelasgus, erected a temple 
 to Zeus Lycaeus on Mt. Lycaeus, and instituted the 
 festival of the Lyceain honour of him [Lycaeus; 
 Lycaon]. No one was allowed to enter this 
 sanctuary of Zeus Lycaeus on Mt. Lycaeus. 2. 
 The Dodonaean Zeus (Zeus AwSaifaiOS or tle\a(r- 
 yiK6s) possessed the most ancient oracle in Greece, 
 at Dadona in Epirus, from which he derived his 
 name. At Dodona Zeus was mainly a prophetic 
 gud, and the oak tree was sacred to him ; but there 
 too he was said to have been reared by the Dodo- 
 naean nymphs (Hyades). Respecting the Dodo- 
 naean oracle of Zeus, see Diet, of Aniiq. art. 
 Oraeulum. 3. The Cretan Zeus (Zei/s A.iKraios or 
 KpT/Ta^ev^s). We have already given Hesiod's 
 account of this god. He was broaght up in a cave 
 of mount Dicte, by the Curetes and the nymphs 
 Adrastia and Ida, the daughters of Melisseus. They 
 fed him with the milk of the goat Amalthea, and the 
 bees of the mountain provided him with honey. 
 Crete is called the island or nurse of the great 
 Zeus, and his worship there appears to have been 
 very ancient. 4. The national Hellenic Zeus, neav 
 whose temple at Olympiain Ells, the great national 
 panegyris was celebrated once in 4 years. There 
 too Zeus was regarded as the father and king of 
 gods and men, and as the supreme god of the Hel- 
 lenic nation. His statue there was executed by 
 Pliidias, a few years before the outbreak of the Pelo- 
 ponnesian war, the majestic and sublime idea of this 
 statue having been suggested to theartist by the words 
 of Homer (i7. i. 5*27). [Phidias.]— The Greek 
 and Latin poets give to Zeus or Jupiter an immense 
 number of epithets and surnames, which are derived 
 partly from the places where he was worshipped, 
 and partly from his powers and functions. The 
 eagle, the oak, and the summits of mountains were 
 sacred to him, and his sacrifices generally consisted 
 of goats, bulls, and cows. His usual attributes are, 
 the sceptre, eagle, thunderbolt, and a figure of 
 Victory in his hand, and sometimes also a cornu- 
 copia. The Olympian Zeus sometimes wears a 
 wreath of olive, and the Dodonaean Zeus a wreath 
 of oak leaves. In works of art Zeus is generally 
 represented as the omnipotent father and king of 
 gods and men, according to the idea which had been 
 embodied in the statue of the Olympian Zeus by 
 Phidias. Respecting the Roman god see Jupiter. 
 Zeuxidamus (Zeu^iSa^os). 1. King of Sparta, 
 and 10th of the Eurypontidae. He was grandson 
 of Theopompus, and father of Anaxidamus, who 
 succeeded him. ^2 Son of Leotychides, king of 
 Sparta. He was also named Cyniscus. He died 
 before his father, leaving a son, Archidamus II. 
 
 ZION. 
 
 831 
 
 Zeuxis (ZeOlts), the celebrated Greek painter, 
 who excelled all his contemporaries except Par- 
 rhasius, was a native of Heraclea (probably of the 
 city of this name on the Euxine), and flourished 
 B. c. 424 — 400. He came to Athens soon after 
 the beginning of the Peloponnesian War, when he 
 had alread}' achieved a great reputation, although 
 a young man. He passed some time in Mace- 
 donia, at the court of Archelaiis, for whom he 
 decorated the royal palace at Pella with paintings, 
 probably ^on after 413. He must have spent 
 some time in Magna Graecia, as we learn from the 
 story respecting the picture of Helen, which he 
 painted for the city of Croton ; and it is also pro- 
 bable that he visited Sicily, as we are told that he 
 gave away one of his pictures to the Agrigentines. 
 His travels through Greece itself were no dnubt 
 extensive. We find him at Olympia, where he 
 made an ostentations display, before the eyes of 
 all Greece, of the wealth which his art had brought 
 him, by appearing in a robe embroidered with his 
 own name in letters of gold. After acquiring a 
 great fortune by the exercise of his art, he adopted 
 the custom of giving away his pictiires, because no 
 adequate price could be set upon them. The time 
 of his death is unknown. The masterpiece of 
 Zeuxis was his picture of Helen, in painting which 
 he had as hia models the 5 most beautiful virgins 
 of Croton, whom he was allowed to select for this 
 purpose from among all the virgins of the city. It 
 was painted for the temple of Juno at Croton. 
 This picture and its history were celebrated by 
 many poets, who preserved the names of the 5 
 virgins upon whom the choice of Zeuxis fell. The 
 accurate imitation of inanimate objects was a de- 
 partment of the art which Zeuxis and his younger 
 rival Parrhasius appear to have carried almost to 
 perfection. The well-known story of the trial of 
 skill in that species of painting between these two 
 artists, if not literally true, indicates the opinion 
 which was held in ancient times of their powers of 
 imitation. In this contest the picture of Zeuxis 
 represented a bunch of grapes, so naturally painted 
 that the birds flew at the picture to eat the fruit; 
 upon which the artist, confident in this proof of his 
 success, called upon his rival no longer to delay to 
 draw aside the curtain and show his picture : but 
 the picture of Parrhasius was the curtain itself, 
 which Zeuxis had mistaken for real drapery. On 
 discovering his error, Zeuxis honourably yielded 
 the palm to Parrhasius, saying that he himself had 
 deceived birds, but Parrhasius an artist. Besides 
 this accuracy of imitation, many of the works of 
 Zeuxis displayed great dramatic power. This 
 appears to have been especially the case with Ins 
 Infant Hercules strangling tlie Serpent^ where the 
 chief force of the composition consisted in the terror 
 of Alcmena and Amphitryon, as they witnessed 
 the struggle. Another picture, in which he showed 
 the same dramatic power, applied to a very different 
 subject, was his Female Hippoceiitaur, and which 
 was lost in a shipwreck off Cape Malea, on its way 
 to Rome, whither it had been sent by Sulla. 
 
 Ziklag (SeVeAAa, 2e'/C€\a), a town in the S.W. 
 of Palestine, belonging to the Philistines of Gath, 
 whose king Achish gave it to David for a residence 
 during his exile from the court of Saul. On 
 David's accession to the kingdom, it was united to 
 Judah. 
 
 Zioberis (Jinjeran), a river of Parthia. 
 
 Zion. [Jerusaleiu.] 
 
832 ZOAR. 
 
 Zoar or Tsoar, Zoara or Zoaras (Z6ap^ Z6apa ; 
 hX X. 27)7fip and Z6yopa : prob, Rii. in Ghor el 
 Mfzraa on the Wadi/ el Deraah)^ originally called 
 Bela, a city on the S. E. of the Dead Sea, be- 
 lon^'ing first to the Moabites. and afterwards to 
 the Arabs. In the time of Abraham it was the 
 smallest of the "cities of the plain," and was 
 saved, at the intercession of Lot, from the de- 
 struction which fell upon Sodom and Gomorrba, 
 Zoetium or Zoeteum {Zo'mov^ Zoheiov ; Zoi- 
 T6i6i'y), a town of Arcadia in the district Eutresia, 
 N. of Megalopolis. 
 
 Zoilus (ZwtXos), a grammarian, was a native of 
 Amphipolis, and flourished in the time of Philip 
 of Macedon. He was celebrated for the asperity 
 with which he assailed Homer. He found fault 
 with him principally for introducing fabulous and 
 incredible stories in his poems. From the list 
 that we have of his writings, it also appears that 
 he attacked Plato and Isocrates. His name be- 
 came proverbial for a captious and malignant 
 critic. 
 
 Zonaras, Joannes {'IwawTjy 6 Zuvapus)^ a 
 celebrated Byzantine historian and theologian, 
 lived in the l"2th century under the emperors 
 Alexus I. Comnenus and Calo-Joannes. Besides 
 his theological works there are still extant : 1. An- 
 nales (xport/c(ff), in 18 books, from the creation of 
 the world to the death of Alexis in 1110. It is 
 compiled from various Greek authors, whose very 
 words Zonaras frequently retains. The earlier 
 part is chiefly taken from Josephus ; and in the 
 portion which relates to Roman history he has for 
 the most part followed Dion Cassius. In conse- 
 quence of the latter circumstance the Annals of 
 Zonaras are of great importance in studying the 
 early history of Rome. Of the first 20 books of 
 Dion Cassius we have nothing but the abstract of 
 Zonaras ; and even of the later books, of which 
 Xiphilinus has made a more full epitome, Zonaras 
 has presented many statements of Dion which are 
 entirely omitted by Xiphilinus. The best editions 
 are by Du Fresne Du Cange, Paris, 3686, foL; 
 and by Pinder, Bonn, 1841, 8vo. 2. A Leaicon, 
 edited by Tittmann, Lips. 1808, 4to. 
 
 Zone {Z(i>vr]\ ZcufoToj), a town of Thrace on a 
 promontory of the same name in the Aegaean, 
 where Orpheus is said to have sung. 
 
 Zopyrus (ZaJTrypos). 1. A distinguished Per- 
 sian, son of Megabyzus. After Darius Hystaspis 
 had besieged Babylon for 20 months in vain, Zo- 
 pyrus resolved to gain the place for his master by 
 the most extraordinary self-sacrifice. Accordingly, 
 one day he appeared before Darius, with his body 
 mutilated in the most horrible manner ; both his 
 ears and nose were cut off, and his person other- 
 wise disfigured. After explaining to Darius his 
 intentions, he fled to Babylon as a victim of the 
 cruelty of the Persian king. The Babj'-lonians 
 gave him their confidence, and placed him at the 
 head of their troops. He soon found means to 
 betray the city to Darius, who severely punished 
 the inhabitants for their revolt. Darius appointed 
 Zopyrus satrap of Babylon for life, with the enjoy- 
 ment of its entire revenues. ^2. The Physio- 
 gnomist, attributed many vices to Socrates in an 
 assembly of his disciples, who laughed at him and 
 at his art in consequence ; but Socrates admitted 
 
 ZYGANTES. 
 
 that such were his natural propensities, but said 
 that they had been overcome by philosophy. ^3. 
 A surgeon at Alexandria, the tutor of ApoUoniua 
 Citiensis and Posid-onius, about the beginning of 
 the 1st century B.C. He invented an antidote, 
 used by Mitliridates, king of Pontus; 
 
 ZorSaster or Zoroastres {Zwpad(rTp7]s\ the 
 Zarathnstra of the Zendavesta, knd the Zer- 
 dush.t of the Persians, was the founder of the 
 Magian religion. The most opposite opinions 
 have been held both by ancient and modern writ ra 
 respecting the time in which he lived; but it is 
 quite impossible to come to any conclusion on the 
 subject. As the founder of the Magian religinn 
 he must be placed in remote antiquity, and it may 
 even be questioned whether such a person ever 
 existed. This religion was probably of Bactriaii 
 origin, and from thence spread E.-ward ; and the 
 tradition which represents Zoroaster a Mede sprang 
 up at a later time, when the chief seat of his rf- 
 Hgion was in Media, and no longer in the further 
 East. There were extant in the later Greek lite- 
 rature several works bearing the name of Zoro- 
 aster; but these writings were forgeries of a later 
 age, and belong to the same class of writings as 
 the works of Hermes Trismegistus, Orpheus, &c. 
 There is still extant a collection of oracles ascribed 
 to Zoroaster, which are of course spurious. They 
 have been published by Morell, Paris, 1595 ; by 
 Obsnpaeus, Paris, 1507, and by others. 
 
 Zosimus {Zcl/(Ti/j.os), a Greek historian, who 
 lived in the time of the younger Theodosius. He 
 wrote a history of the Roman empire in 6 books, 
 which is still extant. This work must have been 
 written after A. n. 425, as an event is mentioned 
 in it which took place in that year. The Ist 
 book comprises a sketch of the history of the early 
 emperors, down to the end of the reign of Dio- 
 cletian (305). The 2d, 3d, and 4th books 
 are devoted to the history of the 4th century, 
 which is treated much less concisely. The 5th 
 and 6 th books embrace the period from '695 to 
 410, when Attalus was deposed. The work of 
 Zosimus is mainly (though not altogether) an 
 abridgment or compilation of the works of pre- 
 vious historians. His style is concise, clear, pure, 
 and not unpleasing. His chief fault as an his- 
 torical writer is his neglect of chronology. Zosi- 
 mus was a pagan, and comments severely upon 
 the faults and crimes of the Christian emperors. 
 Hence his credibility has been assailed by several 
 Christian writers. There are no doubt numerous 
 errors of judgment to be found in the work, and 
 sometimes (especially in the case of Conatantine) 
 an intemperate expression of opinion, which some- 
 what exaggerates, if it does not distort the truth. 
 But he does not seem fairly chargeable with de- 
 liberate invention or wilful misrepresentation. 
 The best edition is by Reitemeier, Lipa. 1784. 
 
 Zoster (C. of Vari), a promontory on the W. of 
 Attica, between Phalerum and Sunium. It was a 
 sacred spot, and contained altars of Leto, Artemis, 
 and Apollo. 
 
 Zygantes or Gygantes (ZuyavT^s, TvyaifTts), 
 a people of Libya, whom Herodotus places on the 
 W. side of the lake Triton. Qtliera mention a 
 city Zygantis and a people Zyges on the coast of 
 Marmarica. 
 
 London; 
 
 SroTTiswooDF-s and Siiaw, 
 
 Kpiir.ctrppr.-SHuare.