CORNELL UNIVERSITY LIBRARY BOUGHT WITH THE INCOME OF THE SAGE ENDOWMENT FUND GIVEN IN 1891 BY HENRY WILLIAMS SAGE Cornell University Library G73 .R88 Report of the proceedlnos of the Socety olin 3 1924 029 843 137 The original of this book is in the Cornell University Library. There are no known copyright restrictions in the United States on the use of the text. http://www.archive.org/details/cu31924029843137 ROYAL GEOGRAPHICAL SOCIETY, REPORT OF THE PROCEEDINGS OF THE SOCIETY IN EEFERENCE TO THE IMPROVEMENT OF GEOGRAPHICAL EDUCATION. LONDON: JOHN MUKEAY, ALBEMARLE STREET. 1886. LONDON! FEINTED BY WILLIAM CLOWES AND SONS, LIMITED, STAMFORD STREET AND CHARING CROSS. CONTENTS. L PAGE REPOET TO THE COUNCIL. By J. Scott Keltie, the Society's Inspector of Geographical Education . . ... 1 II. THE EXHIBITION OF EDUCATIONAL APPLIANCES— OPENING OF THE EXHIBITION 159 LECTURES AND DISCUSSIONS:— 1. " The Aims and Methods of Geographical Education." By E. G. Ravenstein . . . . . . . . . . 163 2. "On Appliances used in Teaching Geography." By J. Scott Keltie . . . . . . . . . . . . 182 3. "Geography in its Relation to History." By James Bryce, m.p. , . . . . . . . . . . . 204 4. " Scientific Aspects of Geographical Education.'' By Prof. H. N. Moseley, f.r.s. . . . . . . . . 225 III. MEASURES ADOPTED BY THE COUNCIL .. .. 237 ' lY. CATALOGUE OF THE EXHIBITION 245 SUPPLEMENT TO THE CATALOGUE 329 REPOKT TO THE COUNCIL OP THB ROYAL GEOGRAPHICAL SOCIETY, By J. SCOTT KELTIE, THE SOCIKTY'S INSPECTOR OF GEOaRAPHICAL EDUCATION, CONTENTS. Introduction Great Britain. Institutions dealt with ..... Previous Efforts of the Council Primary Schools ...... High and Middle-Class Schools. — General Position Geography does not '^ pay ' .... *^ Physical Geography*' .... Geography should not he hrohen up . Geography and History .... Prizes ....... Methods and Apparatus .... Maps ........ Text-hooks ....... The Universitiet^ Local Examinations Geography as a School Suhject The Universities ...... The Field of Geography as a University Suhject Geography in the Public Services . The Science and Art Department . Conclusion as to Great Britain The Continent. General Position ...... Germany. General Position .... Heimatskunde . . . Map-reading .... Geography in the Higher German Schools Examples of Lessons in Geography Conclusions as to Higher Schools . The Germain Universities Geography in the Degree of Ph.D. . The Facultas Docendi in Geography Professor Beings Course Professor Wagner's Course PAQB 9 11 12 13 14 16 17 18 19 20 20 21 23 24 25 26 31 33 36 36 36 37 39 41 43 45 48 48 49 49 50 62 B 2 CONTENTS. Germany. — continued. The German Conception of the Field of Geography Professor Richthofen^s Course . Professor Kirchhoff*8 Course . Professor H. Kiepert's Course Breslau University Commercial Geography in Germany Geography in the Military Academy Austria. Geography in Austrian Universities Geography in Austrian Schools Tlie Vienna Commercial Academy . The Austrian Cadet School . France. Recent Progress in France Geography in French Higher Schools French Universities Geography in French Military Schools French Normal Schools The Musee Pedagogique Italy. General Position .... Italian Universities Switzerland. General Position . Heimatskunde at Zurich Zurich Higher Schools . Swiss Cartography Industrial Schools Geneva Belgium. Belgian Universities General Regulations Higher Schools Holland. Dutch Universities Dutch Schools . Sweden. National Schools . . . . . Higher Public Schools' . . . . The Universities . . . . . Spain ....... General Conclusions ab to the Continent PAGE 54 55 57 57 58 58 58 59 59 60 61 61 62 63 63 64 64 65 66 66 66 67 68 68 68 68 69 69 69 70 72 73 73 73 74 CONTENTS. 5 North America, page United States ............ 74 Canada ... •..*..... 74 Conclusions and Scggestions as to the Position of Geographical Teaching IN England 75 The Exhibition of Geographical Appliances ...... 78 APPENDJCES. A. — ^LisT of British Schools dealt with by the Inspector , ... 79 B. — 1. Extract from a Letter sent to the Vice-Chancellors op the Univer- sities of Oxford and Cambridge, from the President and Council of the Eotal Geographical Society 79 2. Memorial sent, with separate covering Letters, to H.M. Commis- sioners op the University of Oxford, to those of Cambridge, and to the governing Bodies of either University ..... 81 Subjects for Historical Prize Essays proposed from time to time at THE University of Oxford, more or less Geographical ... 83 B*. — Elementary Schools. — ^Programme prescribed by Education Depart- ment, FOR instruction IN GEOGRAPHY .... 84 C. — 1. Examination Paper in Sixth B'orm, University College School, London 84 2. Eton. — Examination Papers 85 D. — 1. Programme op the Glasgow Academy . ..... 88 2. Dulwich College. — ^Programme in Geography 8i) E. — Opinions of Head-Masters op English Public Schools as to the value OF Geography and the position it ought to have in Schools and Universities 90 F. — 1. Harrow School. — General Paper set for Lady Strangford's Geo- graphy Prize 96 2. Eton.— Natural Science Prize, 1883 97 Natural Science Prizes, 1884 98 3. Subjects for Geography Prize at Rugby ,98 F*.— Universities' Local Examinations 99 F**. — 1. Oxford. — Communication from the Rev. H. F. Tozer . . .104 2. Cambridge. — Communication from the Rev. Coutts Trotter . . 104 3. Cambridge. — Communication from Professor G. H. Darwin, F.R.S. . 105 3a. Cambridge. — Communications from Professor A. Newton, F.R.S., to the late Mr. Rye and to Mr. Keltie . ... 106, 107 4. Cambridge.— Communication from Professor McKenny Hughes, F.R.S. 107 , 5, Cambridge. — Extract from Syllabus of the Geological Chair. —Prof. McKenny Hughes, F.R.S 108 6 CONTENTS. 6. Owens College.— Communication from Prof. Boyd Dawkins, F.R.S. . 109 7. Extract from Syllabus of Lectures in Physiography, Geology, and Palaeontology, at Owens College, Manchester— Professor Boyd Dawkins, F.E.S 109 8. Letter from Professor Ward (History) to Professor Boyd Dawkins . 110 9. London University. — Geography Paper for Matriculation . . 110 G. — " Instruction '^ as to the Scope and Method of Geographical Study to be observed at the BLbiegs-Akademie, Berlin . . . . .111 G*. — Oxford. — Examination Papers . . 112 H.— Koyal Military College, Sandhurst 113 I.— H.M.S. • Britannia,* .... .... 114 I*. — Science and Art Examinations. — Physiography 114 K. — Heimatskunde. — Extract prom the directions as to Geographical Teaching prom the ' Instructionen fur den Unterricht an den Gym- NASiEN IN Oesterreich.' Vienna, 1884 IIG L.— 1. Books and Apparatus used in teaching Geography at the Real- gymnasium, Leipzig .......... 121 2-— Apparatus used in teaching Geography in the Wohlerschule, Frankfurt. — Dr. Kortigarn 122 ^- — Tasks and Methods of the Geography op our Day. By Professor von KiCHTHOFEN ••••.... 125 Extract from Prof. H. Wagner's Paper on the Present Standpoint of Geography in the ' Geographisches Jahrbuch ' 128 N.-GuiDE to Lectures in General Geography. By Professor A. Kirchhoff. ^^"^ 129 O.— Berlin University . ,0, •••... lol P.-COMMUNIOATION ON Geoghaphy k Beeslau Univeesitt. By Peofessob ■ '"'™''= 131 ^■"^ZTTn^ ^^' ^^'^^''^ ^"^^^^ (-K^^i-^- of the Geographical CoUee- s.ALr4^Ax:v.2A.^"~ ^-'— — - ,3, ^"""ZZTlS^r"^""^ "" '^"™' ''^'^' ^°™^^ "^ ^'^^ CO^EEOIAL ' . . 137 '•"''TTzr.^rr '^r "^ ^=^ ^^"-^ - ^«-™. --.,.0 ™ deoeee OP 22nd January, 1885 . 137 T.-Geographical Programme of Coll^ de France fob the year 1884-85 . 140 CONTENTS. 7 FAGB U. — Syllabus of Geographical Knowledge required by Candidates in order TO obtain Admission to the Ecole Specialb Militaire of France, 1885 141 U*. — France. — Ecole Superieure de Guerre 143 V. — Italy. — Normal School Programme in Geography 147 W. — The Position of Geography in the Canton of Geneva. By Professor P. Chaix 148 X. — Geographical Programme of the " Athenees Eoyaux" in Belgium. . 150 Y. — The Methods and Importance of Geographical Instruction in the Uni- versities AND Schools of Spain 152 Z. — Letter from Dr. James Bryce, M.P,, on Geography as a University Subject 154 REPORT. INTEODUCTION. The following copy of the Memorandum, which was drawn up for my guidance, will explain the object which the Council had in view in undertaking this inquiry, and the special points on which they desired information. The object of the Council in appointing an Inspector of Geographical Education is to obtain fuller information than they now possess regarding the position and methods of Geographical education in this country and abroad. I. As regards the United Kingdom — A. The Inspector will ascertain, by means of correspondence or by actual inspection : (1) the extent to which Geography of any kind is taught in our Universities and public schools, and what special rewards are offered for proficiency in it ; (2) the actual subjects taught under that name, and the comparative time allotted to them ; (3) the methods and appliances used in teaching these subjects ; (4) the attitude of teachers and professors with regard to Geography generally; (5) the value allotted to Geography in University examinations, and with what subjects it is united B. The Inspector will consult the Reports of the Examiners for the R.G.S. Public Schools Medals. 0. He will ascertain the comparative position of Geography in the examina- tions for the English PubUc Services, and will acquaint himself with the experiences of their examiners. II. As regards the Continent of Europe — The Inspector will be expected to visit Germany, Austria, France, Switzer- land, Italy, Belgium, Holland, and Sweden. In making his inquiries on the Continent the Inspector should keep the following points in view : — A. The position allotted to' Geography, especially in High Schools and Universities, as shown (1) by the extent to which it is taught, the maps and other appliances provided, and the rewards offered in it ; (2) by the time allotted to it as compared with other subjects ; (3) by its com- parative value in examinations ; (4) by the comparative number, status and emoluments of Professors of Geography in Universities, as compared with those of Professors of other subjects; (5) by the attendance of students in the geographical classes. B. The extent of the field covered by geographical teaching in High Schools and Universities, and the standpoint from which geography is taught, — 10 REPORT. whether (1) from that of physical science ; (2) from that of history and politics ; or (3) from that of commerce. C. The methods of instruction adopted at various stages from the primary school upwards. Whether the subject ever attains the position of a discipline, as distinguished from a mere exercise of memory ; whether it has been found possible to set habitually geographical problems for solution. Also the methods adopted in teaching pupils to read maps. III. As regards America — The Inspector will ascertain, by correspondence with the proper authorities, the condition of Geographical Education in the United States of America. IV. In the prosecution of his inquiries, both in the United Kingdom and abroad, the Inspector will coUect specimens of the best text-books, maps, globes, diagrams, models, and other apparatus used in teaching the various branches of Geography. These he will arrange and classify on the Society's premises, for the information of the Council. Where it is impracticable to obtain specimens, the Inspector will report upon such contrivances as seem to him effective aids to geographical instruction, or to developing the geographical imagination. V. On the conclusion of his inquiries, the Inspector will prepare a Eeport embodying (1) a summary statement of the work done by him ; (2) The results of his inquiries in the various directions indicated above ; (3) The steps which he would recommend the Council to take in order to improve and extend geographical education in the United Kingdom. July 2Gth, 1884. I began operations immediately after my appointment, by entering into correspondence with, those likely to be of service to me in accom- plishing the Council's purpose. After the reassembling of the schools in autumn I began the work of visiting, which I have carried on at intervals up to the present date. The months of November and December, 1884, and April, 1886, I spent mostly on the Continent. I have found everywhere the greatest readiness to co-operate with me in prosecuting this inquiry. In this country I have been received with courtesy and in many cases with sympathy. Information has been generally most willingly accorded, and exceptional facilities afforded me for personal inspection of schools of all classes. To those who have thus given me their assistance, I can only tender my best thanks in the name of the Council ; I cannot attempt to give their names. On the Continent I was welcomed with cordiality proportionate to the greater interest taken there in geography and geographical education. I have specially to acknowledge the courtesy of their Excellencies the French Ministers of War and of Education, for according me permission (through the Consul-General of France in London) to visit the establish- ments under their departments; His Excellency General Bronsart von Schellendorf, Prussian Minister of War, for permission to visit the Kriegs-Akademio, Berlin ; the Belgian Ministry of Public Instruc- REPORT. 11 tion, for valuable documents placed at my disposal; the Heads of the General Staffs of Austria and Belgium, for allowing me to inspect the cartographic establishments and operations of these countries ; Colonel Niox, for kindly conducting me over the School of War in Paris ; M. Greard, Vice -Kector of the University of France, for much useful guidance and information. I have also to acknowledge valuable services rendered me by Professor H. Wagner, of Gottingen, probably one of the greatest living authorities on geographical education ; Professor Baron von Richthofen, of Leipzig ; Professor Rein, of Bonn ; Professor Kirchhoff, of Halle ; Professor Kiepert, of Berlin ; Professor Partsch, of Breslau. Also Dr. W. Reiss, President of the Berlin Geographical Society ; Professor Virchow, Dr. Bastian, Dr. Marthe, and Dr. Jagor, of Berlin. In Paris I received much useful aid from M. Maunoir, of the Paris Geographical Society ; M. James Jackson, Librarian of that Society, who put himself to much trouble on my behalf; Professor Himly, of the Sorbonne, and Professor Levasseur, of the College de France. Li Vienna, Herr Hugo Holzel arranged everything for me ; and I must also refer to the courtesies of Professor Simony, General Crusic, and several members of the Vienna Geographical Society. In Italy, I was much indebted to Professor Cavaliere Guido Cora ; as also in Switzerland, to Professor Heim, of the Polytechnic ; Herr Kappeler, Director of the Polytechnic ; the Director of Education in Zurich ; and Herr KoUer, Sekundarlehrer. In Brussels, Professor du Fief was of the greatest service to me ; in Amsterdam, Professor Kan ; while for Scandinavia, Baron Nordenskjold', Dr. Dahlgren and Mr. Broekstad have done much to help me. In the United States, the Hon. John Eaton, Director of the Education Bureau, has instituted an extensive inquiry on behalf of the Society ; and I am indebted to the courtesy of W. Mac- pherson, Esq., H.M. Consul at Madrid, for an interesting statement with reference to Spain. There were many others from whom I received assistance ; and some of their names will come up in the course of the Report. Geographical publishers, both in this country and on the Continent, have shown perfect willingness to send specimens of their best pro- ductions to the Exhibition of Geographical Materiel used in education ; the collection has increased considerably beyond what was originally contemplated. Any special remarks I may have to make on apparatus I shall reserve for the Catalogue. GREAT BRITAIN. Institutions dealt with. — In our own country, I took as my guide the list of schools invited to compete for the Society's medals ; for these may be taken to fairly represent our higher class schools, the class 12 REPORT. whicli I believe the Council had mainly in view in instituting this inquiry. The list of such schools dealt with will be found in the Appendix (A). I have further obtained information as to the position of geography in normal and primary schools, in the various training institutions for the Army and Navy, and in the examinations for the public services. I have also endeavoured to ascertain the attitude of our principal Universities to the subject, especially those of Oxford and Cambridge. In this way, I have dealt with somewhere about eighty representative Educational Institutions. My method of procedure has been to com- municate with the heads of the Institutions, sending them the Presi- dent's Circular Letter, the Memorandum of Instructions, and a list of questions which I drew up, mainly to serve as a guide to the points on which information was desired. With scarcely an exception, I have got fairly full replies to my inquiries. At the same time I selected a certain number of schools, which seemed to me representative, for the purpose of inspection ; these are marked with an asterisk in the Appendix (A). In nearly all cases, indeed, I asked permission to visit the schools should I deem it advisable ; and invariably I was made welcome to do so. True, in not a few instances, the head-masters confessed that I should learn nothing by actual in- spection, either because they considered it a fallacious method of obtaining information, or because they had told me in writing all that was to be learned, or because the subject had admittedly only a pariah's place on their programmes. In most cases I not only had instructive interviews with the masters, but actually saw the classes at work, and inspected the stock of apparatus in use. Previous Efforts of the Council. — The Council did not require to insti- tute this inquiry in order to discover that the position of geography in most of our public schools and in the Universities is unsatisfactory. That fact has been known for years, and the Council have taken various steps to obtain such recognition for geography in English education as it deserves. In 1869 the Public Schools Medals were instituted, and were continued for sixteen years, until in 1884 the Society was induced to discontinue them by the unsatisfactory nature of the residts. As a matter of fact, the sixty-two medals offered by the Society in sixteen years were awarded among only sixteen schools ; and of these sixteen schools two (Dulwich College and Liverpool College) carried off thirty. I need only refer to the series of lectures which were given, under the auspices of the Society for three successive years, by eminent specialists in various departments of science related to geography ; to the letter addressed to the yice-Chancellors of Oxford and Cambridge by the Pre- sident and Council in 1871, with reference to the Universities Schools Examinations, in connection with which the Society continues to award REPORT. 13 medals for the Geography papers ; and to the Memorial sent to the University Commissioners and to the Governing Bodies of the Universi- ties in 1874. Extracts from these I think it well to reproduce in the Appendix (B), as they state the case fairly and ably on behalf of geo- graphy both for schools and Universities. This brief retrospect shows that the Society has deemed it its duty for many years past to exert itself for the improvement of geographical edu- cation. Its efforts have not been altogether unsuccessful; the subject certainly has a place in the programmes of the Oxford and Cambridge Schools Examinations, which, I believe, have done much to improve the position of geography in middle-class schools ; and in several schools, at least, the Society's medals have acted as a stimulus to improved teaching. Primary Schools. — Since the State undertook the charge of elementary education, the position of geography, as of other subjects in primary schools, has greatly improved. Geography has been made compulsory, and must be taught according to a generally prescribed method which, if carried out everywhere with intelligence and enthusiasm, would be nearly all that could be desired. Under some of the School Boardf^, such as those of London, Birmingham, Edinburgh, and Glasgow, great progress has been made, to a considerable extent on the basis of what is known in Germany as " Heimatshunde." (See p. 39, and Appen- dix K.) In each of the London Board Schools, for example, there are a special map of the neighbourhood of each school, a map of the division in which the school is situated, and a map of London and its environs. Too much importance, it seems to me, still attaches to books, and too little to good large-scale wall-maps, geographical pictures, good reliefs, accurate and carefully- executed sheet-maps or atlases, and the living voice of the teacher himself. In some of the Board Schools visited bv me, I found individual masters who took a real and intelligent interest in the subject, and who put themselves to some trouble to devise methods and apparatus that might attract the interest and draw out the intelli- gence of the pupils. In some schools we find large-scale maps of the surrounding district, relief maps of various kinds, not always of a satis- factory character, large wall-pictures of a geographical nature, specimens of products, mineral and vegetable, raw . and manufactured, not to mention, as a rule, a fair stock of wall-maps, which, in number at least, are in marked contrast to the empty walls of most of our great public schools. More than ten years ago Sir Charles Wilson, in his address at the Dublin Meeting of the British Association, pointed out the great importance of having the Ordnance Survey maps of school districts hung up in the schools. In Appendix B* will be found the programme prescribed by the Education Department for instruction in geography, and here I quote the directions as to how the programme should be carried out, contained 14 REPORT. in the Eevised Instructions to H.M.'s Inspectors, 1886, directions which might be studied with advantage by teachers of all grades :— " Geographical teaching is sometimes too much restricted to the pointing out of places on the map, and to the enumeration of such details as the names of rivers, towns, capes, and political divisions. It is hardly necessary to say that geography, if taught to good purpose, includes also a description of the physical aspects of the countries, and seeks to establish some association between the names of places and those historical, social, or industrial facts which alone makes the names of places worth remembering. It is especially desirable in your examination of the fourth and higher standards that attention should be called to the English colonies, and their productions, government, and resources, and to those climatic and other con- ditions which retider our distant possessions suitable fields for emigration and for honourable enterprise. In order that the conditions laid for the geographical teach- ing of the lower classes may be fulfilled, good maps, both of the county and of the parish or immediate neighbourhood in which the school is situated, should be affixed to the walls, and the exact distances of a few near and familiar places should be known. It is useful to mark on the floor of the schoohoom the meridian line, in order that the points of the compass should be known in relation to the school itself as well as on a map." But, as the Society's inquiry is concerned mainly with our great public schools and uniTcrsities, it is unnecessary to dwell upon the position in our primary schools. High and Middle- Class Schools. — General Position. — In all the schools concerning which I have obtained information, either by correspondence or by direct observation, and which may be taken as representative of the mass of English public middle-class and higher schools, geography, or what passes under that name, has at least a nominal place. The general reply given to my inquiry as to whether the subject was compulsory, and, if so, up to what form, has been that it is, and up to about the third or fourth form, or in the lower half of the school. The time nominally allotted to it may be taken as on an average 1 J hour per week, varying in different classes and different sections from 1 to 2^ hours, as contrasted with an average of 8 to 16 hours to classics, and 4 to 8 to mathematics. This, it should be remembered, is what is usually known as political geography, with which there seems to be sometimes mingled what is popularly regarded as special physical geography— names and situations of mountain ranges, river courses, coast features, and such-like. The teachers of this kind of geography are invariably the ordinary class-masters— men who, as a rule, have had only a classical training. It sometimes happens that a class-master has a particular liking for the subject, and takes some pains to master it, and to devise effective methods of teaching it. When this is the case the subject under his hands assumes considerable importance. Probablv in about eight of the schools in the list in the Appendix, the subject, in all its phases, is fairly well taught throughout the school, and, iu four or REPORT. 15 fi7e of them, it is nearly as well taught as in a German Eealscliiile. In one of them it is so taught that the boys in the school are expected to give answers to the paper in Appendix (C, No. 1), a paper in which even a professional geographer might be plucked, if he had not been coaching himself in the subject immediately before. In another, on the Modern side, such papers are set as will be found in Appendix (C, No. 2). AVith very few exceptions there exists no general plan, whereby it is secured that the pupils who pass through the entire curriculum of a school, shall have a complete course of geographical teaching, embracing the elements of the various departments of the subject, and the special geography of all the continents and their sub-divisions, not to mention that of the oceans. In one of our greatest public schools it seemed to me that a boy might pass through the complete curriculum and never get a single lesson in geography, and at best the instruction he might get would be fragmentary and meagre. I must say, however, that in certain lower middle class schools, and especially in some of the Scotch schools, attempts are being made, as far as an over-crowded programme and other discouragements will admit, to give the subject a substantial place, and to teach it after a systematic method and with approximate exhaustiveness. The most complete programme that has been sent to me comes from a Glasgow school ; and I therefore give it in the Appen- dix (D), where also will be found the brief programme which has been drawn up by Mr. J. Kobinson for Dulwich College. But, even when the subject is on a fairly satisfactory footing, teachers often seem to me to be groping in the dark ; they have only a vague notion of the varied and interesting field embraced in the subject; have seldom had any training in the best methods of teaching it ; and almost uniformly complain of the dearth of satisfactory text-books, good maps, and other apparatus. To my inquiry as to the field covered by each department of geography, the subjects included in physical and in political geography, replies were often returned which showed that the teachers had but a very inadequate conception of what geography really is. A few seemed quite aware of the width of the geographical field, and alive to the educational value of the subject both as a body of knowledge and as a discipline ; but admitted that it was impossible for them to teach it otherwise than in the old-fashioned humdrum way, as consisting of so many names to be learned by heart, and so many places to be pointed out on the map. The following statement by the head-master of one of our greatest public schools, may be taken as representing the position in schools of that class : — " Except in the two lowest forms, we have no systematic geography teaching in the school; that is, there are no definite lessons given in geography, nor any separate masters for geography. History is taught throughout the school, and into 16 REPORT. the history lessons as well as the classical lessons a certain amount of geography is introduced, but only incidentally. In two out of the three terms of the year, a course of teaching in physical geography is carried on ; this course may be considered as partly scientific, partly geographical. In the two lowest forms of the school, two short lessons a week are given in geography by the ordinary form master. We also require a certain amount of knowledge of geography at an entrance examination, and set a paper on geography for our scholarships, with a view to encouraging the teaching of geography at the preparatory schools. "No regular text-book is used; but the boys are instructed to study some particular country or part of a coimtry in whatever way they can, and a catechetical lecture is given on the district by the master. The various countries of Europe alone are ordinarily taken. The boys are required from time to time, say once a fortnight, to draw maps of the countries they are studying ; and considerable credit and marks are given for these maps. " I ought to add that occasionally we set a subject of geography as a holiday task, to be studied in the Christmas holidays, and an examination is given in this subject immediately after the boys return to school. " I cannot say that, with our provisions here, there is any guarantee that a boy on leaving the school would carry away a satisfactory knowledge of geography. In the multiplicity of subjects we teach, geography does no doubt somewhat get crowded out ; and I doubt the possibility of teaching it effectively all through the school without a regular ' master in geography,' and more elaborate arrangements than at present we see our way to making." Geography does not ^^pay" — On the whole, I am bound to admit that the unsatisfactory position allotted to geography in our public schools is not so much the fault of the teachers as of the conditions upon which they are compelled to regulate their programmes and their methods. A perusal of the statements in the Appendix (E), in which many head-masters have favoured me with their views on the geographical situation, will give the conviction that the present position of geography in our public schools is almost entirely due to the exigencies of examina- tions. Geography, we are told in so many words, does not " pay." It is not recognised at the Universities by either professorship or reader- ship ; it does not find a real place in any of their examinations ; while in the Army and Navy examinations it is at a discount, and such geography as is given is of a very partial character, and is left mainly to crammers. The head-master of one of our oldest public schools told me he deliberately warns his pupils to keep their eyes steadily fixed upon the examinations they have in view, and the careers for which they are destined, and to neglect every subject, including geography, which in that view will not pay. " There can be no doubt of the practical or educational value of geography, no doubt of the great interest attaching to its study," writes to me the head-master of one of our greatest public schools, and a recog- nised authority on all matters pertaining to education. This master has himself, both in his present and former school, offered a special prize yearly to encourage the study of the subject, and he evidently promotes REPORT. 17 it as far as the conditions under which he is bound to work admits. Another head-master of a school in which geography is unusually well taught, writes — " Geography can be made an extremely valuable and interesting educational instrument, and there is scope for it in * modern schools ; ' but it is not made the most of at present, even there. Examin- ing bodies might do much more than they do at present to insure that the subject is new as an intellectual discipline. * University ' examiners are quite in the dark as to the capabilities of this subject." " The subject," another head-master writes, " will never be taught as a special subject at English schools till it is better recognised at the Universities." This may be regarded as pretty fully summing up the whole matter. There is no encouragement to give the subject a prominent place in the school curriculum ; no provision, except at elementary normal schools, for the training of teachers in the facts and principles of the subject, and in the best methods of teaching it; no inducement to publishers to produce maps, globes, pictures, reliefs, and other apparatus of the quality and in the variety to be found on the Continent ; while our ordinary text-books are, with few exceptions, unskilful compilations by men who have no special knowledge of their subject. In short, in the present condition of things, it is thought that geography, like English, can be taught by anybody. In the few cases where I find masters anxious to give the subject its proper place, it is evident that they work under considerable discouragement, and often with want of knowledge. I have found individual masters here and there who do their best to elevate the subject above the wretched position it has hitherto occupied. I find them resorting to all sorts of contrivances for lack of good apparatus — making their own maps, or sending to the Continent for good maps in dissatisfaction with those procurable in this country. In the very rare cases in which the head-master of a school has a full appreciation of the importance of the subject, it is generally fairly well taught, as far as other and more payable subjects permit. But all this goes to prove that the subject has no recognised place in our great public schools ; either it is regarded as too elementary, too trivial, a thing suited only for a dame's school, or it is deliberately snubbed in favour of the subjects that " pay." One of the best and most successful teachers of geography in this country assured me that the head-master (a purely classical man) and the assistant masters bring the strongest pressure to bear on the boys to give up geography entirely ; and he fears they will succeed. ^^ Physical Geograjphy" — In those schools which have a modern or science side " physical geography " is one of the subjects usually taught, and not unfrequently well taught. Such physical geography is, as a rule, what is known in Germany as " AUgemeine Physische Erdkunde," c 18 REPORT,- and is indeed often geology, and little more. I find again, in not a few instances, that what is really taught under the name is " physio- graphy," with Professor Huxley's well-known manual as a text-book. In such schools the pupils at some stage of their course get a certain amount of teaching of this kind ; and if at a later stage they choose the modern side in preference to the classical side, and go in for geology, they will be carried still further in general physical geography. Thus, a certain amount of physical geography is actually taught on the modern side of most public schools of good standing, taught sometimes as a compulsory subject to the pupils at a certain stage, or as a voluntaiy subject to those who select it as their special study. There can be no doubt that the institution of science scholarships at Oxford and Cambridge has had some influence in this direction, as in these, geology at least, occasionally finds a place. In some of those schools — about half-a-dozen of those on the list — from which pupils proceed to Army examinations, there is generally a special class for their benefit ; and as " geography and geology " finds a place as one subject in these examinations, the combined subject enters into the curriculum, and, considering the general position of geography in this country, the standard demanded in these entrance examinations is fairly high. At the best, however, only a fragment of the whole subject finds a recognised place alongside other " modern " or science subjects in our public schools. To what is considered physical geography proper j to 2J hours a week may be given when its turn comes as a science subject. Geography in the general acceptation of the term, including special political and physical geography, is almost invariably in the schools with which I have dealt, left to the ordinary class-masters, and these are as a rule, as I have said, classical masters. They are expected on the lower forms to give on the average one hour a week to the subject, generally accompanied by exercises in map-drawing. Here, again, the extent and method of teaching depends entirely on the master. If he does not care for the subject, he either does not teach it at all, or simply goes through the farm of teaching it. In short, except what is included, as above indicated, under physical geography, the subject can hardly be said to have a serious place in the bulk of our great public schools. Geography should not he broken up.— The separation which at present exists in most middle and higher schools between the difierent sections of geography seems to me to be mischievous. We do not find the general principles of chemistry separated from the great body of pheno- mena to which they are applicable ; botany and zoology are not divided up, and relegated to different sections of a school and to different masters. I do not mean that the different sections of geography should necessarily REPORT. ] 9 be taught by one master. There would not be much harm in having general physical geography taught by the science master, and political and special physical geography by a properly qualified class-master* But the two sections should be taught according to a common programme^ a programme so constructed that the intimate connection between the matters treated of in the different sections would be clearly brought out and impressed upon the pupils. Were geography taught by qualified teachers as one single subject, all the parts of which are intimately con- nected, it would not only form a body of knowledge of high value, and cease to be the barren task which it is as now taught, but it could not fail to become a real discipline. As taught in German higher schools and universities, it not only borrows from all other sciences, but is made to render valuable service to many other fields of inquiry. Political geo- graphy, as it is called, is the result of the interaction which takes place between man and his physical surroundings ; and were teachers competent to show the connection between cause and effect in this respect, geography would become a very different subject of study from what it is at present. The only serious attempt to work out a geography on this basis that I know of in this country, is the late Mr. Green's * Short Geography of the British Islands.' It is not a very examinable book under the existing con- ditions of examination in this country, and, as a consequence, it has not made much way in schools. It is a book which old and young may read with pleasure and profit, which is much more than can be said of almost any other English text-book. Only one out of the many schools from which I obtained returns is it given as a class-book. The late Professor Hughes, it will be seen from the preface to one of his text-books, had a sound notion of the intimate relation between physical and political geography, though it cannot be said that he carried his idea out very thoroughly in actual practice. I do not find such an inadequate idea of geography to exist in any country of Europe that I have visited ; but then there is proper encouragement in those countries to treat it seriously and scientifically. Geography and History. — I found in not a few instances a recogni- tion of the indispensability of geography to a thorough understanding of history. One eminent historian, a master in one of our most famous schools, told me that more than half of his history-teaching is geography. Professor Freeman and the late Mr. Green have had much to do in demonstrating this intimate connection between history and geography. Professor Freeman's ' Historical Atlas ' is well known, and the school edition of Spruner's * Historical Atlas ' has a considerable circulation in this country. Probably there is no department of knowledge in which geography is calculated to throw more light than on history ; for' is not history, in its completest sense, the result, to a large extent, of the interaction not only between man and man, but between uian and his •■ 2 20 REPORT. physical surroundings? So we find in France the custom (happil)? being done away with) of combining chairs of geography and history under one professor ; and this has also been the case in Germany. Bui invariably it is found that under such circumstances history becomei everything, and geography nothing, not even much of a handmaid t( history. The tendency now is to entirely separate the two subjects, an^ place each in the hands of a distinct professor. Prizes. — ^In a few schools, special prizes are given for proficiency in geography. Lady Strangford's prizes at Harrow, for instance excite considerable interest among the boys ; but those who go in for them have to be specially coached. The standard aimed at in the papers is certainly high, and were the school as a whole led up to i1 the most exacting geographer should be satisfiedo Specimens of the examination papers will be found in the Appendix (F). On an average from 30 to 35 boys, I am informed, go in for these prizes. At Eton the governing body award a prize for physical geography and geology. " The subjects included and the standard aimed at will be seen from the papers given in the Appendix (F). At Kugby the head-master gives a prize for competition on a special subject or book, but as a rule not more than a dozen boys present themselves. The list of subjects thus set at Rugby in recent years will be found in the Appendix (F). Such prizes no doubt help to keep the subject alive and up to a fair standard ; but 1 do not find they have any great influence on the position of the subject in the school generally. Under a satisfactory programme, such prizes given for competition in class-work would be of real service. Methods and Apparatus.— As to the methods and appliances used ir teaching geography in English high-grade schools, they might almosi be described as the naval officer described the customs and manners of the savages he visited— the appliances are bad, and as for method there is none. In elementary schools both methods and appliancej have greatly improved, along with the improved position of th( subject. A visit to the store of the London School Board would ii itself be an education to teachers of higher schools who desirec information as to the appliances within reach of those desirous o improving the geographical position. In certain of the girls' schools modelled on the type of the North London Collegiate School, much has also been done to improve both appliances and methods. Map-drawing one finds in nearly every school ; but that is seldom more than child's play. The great object of map-drawing, in my estimation, should be t( tram the pupils to read or interpret the features of ordinary maps But the principles of cartography are scarcely known among the teacheri of this country, and rarely well illustrated in the maps in general use Neatness and not accuracy is mostly aimed at. Any kind of vagui REPORT. 21 BcratcMng serves for a mountain ; the principles of hill-shading, easily enough learned, are not at all understood. The only purpose served by such, map-drawing is that the situation of a few places may be impressed on an attentive boy's memory. Maps are given out to draw, but as these are generally copied, perhaps by means of tracing paper, from another map, the exercise counts for very little. In one well-known school I found that map-drawing was relegated to the drawing-master, who naturally judges the result from his own artistic point of view. In another school, the map to be copied is placed on a pane of glass, behind which a fag holds a candle, while the indus- trious pupil copies his exercise on a sheet of paper laid over his copy. Anything like the precise and careful map-drawing generally insisted on in Germany is probably not to be found in England. I found in one or two schools a free use made of the black-board with coloured chalk, to sketch the special features of a region before the pupils. In one school, all the rooms are lined with black-boards, at which the pupils stand and do their work under the eyes of the teachers. I was present at an interesting lesson in Mathematical Geography in the school, the pupils working out an elaborate problem on the boards. In other schools — a ladies' school and an elementary school, I must say — sand was used to excellent purpose in building up the salient features of a country. In Manchester Grammar School, one of the masters, with a genuine love of his subject, ha« devised what at first sight seems a burdensome,, but in practice, I believe, a successful method for accomplishing memory work. He makes his pupils learn by heart, and with constant reference to the map, the latitude and longitude of all the principal places and natural features of tbe various continents ; and exercises them in drawing from memory maps of particular regions defined only by the parallels and meridians. Thus, in my presence, a class of about thirty boys drew a map of the regions between 30° and 90° east longitude and north of the Equator. The maps thus drawn will be found in the Exhibition. Other teachers have made considerable collections of photographs, which are constantly used to illustrate the lessons. But with rare exceptions there is a complete want of any general, well-devised, and eiffective method of teaching geography in this country ; the natural result of its unsatisfactory position in education.* Maps, — In a very few of the great English public schools will be found a good store of the best maps procurable in this country, and here and there a few of the best maps issued in Germany and France. At Dulwich, as might be expected, the stock of apparatus, physical and * Since the above was written, I learned when in Aberdeen that a very admirable system of teaching geography exists in Gordon's Hospital in that city. Among other things the pupils are taken out to the country, and in a simple, rough, but effective, and to them interesting and instructive way, are taught to draw maps of a small area for themselves. 22 REPORT. political wall-maps, globes, &c., in the upper school is abundant, and has been selected with intelligence. At Charterhouse considerable pains have been taken to provide the school with an ample supply, not only of the best school wall-maps, but in the library with excellent library maps, easily accessible to pupils desirous of con- sulting them. In other schools, of a somewhat lower grade, those in which the bulk of the pupils do not look forward to the Universities, but to commercial and non-" liberal " pursuits, and whose programme is regulated to some extent by the Universities' Local Examinations, and where the head-master or one of the assistants has an intelligent enthusiasm for the subject, I find a fair stock of maps, not always selected with knowledge. In most schools, however, the supply of apparatus is on a par vdth the position of the subject. In one of our oldest and most celebrated public schools, I could find only two maps ; one a large map of the Dominion of Canada, presented by the High Commissioner, ornamenting one of the passages, and another wretched school wall-map, exhumed after much searching from a remote recess. In another school with a great reputation, and in which physical geography is well taught, a few dusty maps, mostly out of date, were brought out from a closet. In not a few schools I find a fair stock of classical maps, mostly Kiepert's, with a meagre supply of poor modem maps. In most schools there is no systematic provision for procuring maps ; if the assistant masters want them they must make them or buy them. The result is what might be expected. A school with from a dozen to twenty maps would consider itself amply stocked. As to the beautiful and accurate and attractive geographical pictures, ethnological pictures, reliefs, mineralogical, botanical, zoological, and industrial specimens, and other apparatus to be found even in elementary schools on the Continent, in such poor countries even as Switzerland and Italy, few teachers in England ever heard of them. At the same time I must confess that I found a very general complaint of the want of good apparatus in this country, and especially of satisfactory maps. There are indeed a few creditable maps produced by one or two good publishers in this country, especially since geography has assumed an important place in our Board Schools. But with rare exceptions, as will be seen from the specimens in the Exhibition, they are not to be compared in execution, precision, and variety, vdth the maps produced on the Continent. Some publishers seem to think that the more eccentric their maps are, the more claim have they to originaHty and utility ; they aim at making their publications as unlike as possible to the maps which the pupils will have to read when they grow up to be men and women— a fatal mistake in my estimation. Equally useless and misleading are some of the elaborate and ingenious combinations of globes to illustrate astronomical geography which we find produced every now and then. For the REPORT. 23 more elementary stages, at least, tlie simpler the apparatus used the better ; young pupils are apt to carry away the notion that all the parts of an apparatus represent the actual conditions. As to relief maps, these are making their way, especially in Scotch schools. Good large reliefs of limited areas, in which the two scales are as nearly as possible the same, are, in my opinion, of great service in geographical teaching ; but relief maps of large areas, constructed and coloured, as I have seen some of those much advertised in this country, by unskilled mechanics, in which the scale of altitude is indefinitely magnified, are exceedingly mischievous except in the hands of a first-rate teacher. The chief use of reliefs, in my opinion, is to teach the student to read maps, and in several schools on the Continent, notably in the Cadet school of Wiener-Neustadt, and in Zurich, I have seen them used for this end with excellent results. English publishers are scarcely to be blamed for the unsatisfactory condition of the map market ; it is a case of supply and demand. If they found it would pay them to improve the quality and increase the variety of their maps and other apparatus, there is no doubt they would do so. As I have said, the improvement in elementary teaching of geography has had some good effect. But in this country there is not the market for high-class school wall-maps and atlases that there is on the Continent, and teachers, as a rule, are quite incapable of judging between good and bad maps. I hope to write in more detail on the subject of apparatus generally in connection with the Exhibition Catalogue. Text-boohs. — It is with text-books as with maps. So far as general physical geography goes, such manuals as those of Mr. Geikie and Mrs. SomervUle leave little to be desired ; but then these authors had complete knowledge of their subject. Of ordinary geographical text-books there is no end. Quite recently elementary manuals, modelled after those which in Germany are used for " Heimatskunde," have been introduced into elementary schools. This is hopeful. Geographical " readers " have also become common ; and, when used only as an adjunct to the systematic teaching of the subject, they are of service. In the higher grade schools, some one or other of the ordinary familiar text-books are used. We all know their features. They are almost invariably compiled by persons who have no special knowledge of geography, for in this country it is believed that, as anybody can teach the subject, so anybody can write a text-book of it. Since teachers themselves are, as a rule, quite ignorant, and as in England we find none of the instructive manuals for the use of teachers to be found on the Continent, it is the duty of the compiler to put everything into his work, the most prominent features of which, as a rule, are long lists of names. The advanced manuals are thus far too bulky, and the kind of information given is of a superficial kind. I cannot do better than quote here the remarks on the common 24 REPORT. text-books of geography to be found in the Introduction to Green's * Short Geography of the British Islands ' :— " No drearier task can be set for the worst of Criminals than that of studying a set of geographical text-books such as the children in our schools are doomed to use. Pages of '"tables,'—' tables ' of heights and * tables ' of areas, * tables * of mountains and 'tables* of table-lands, 'tables' of numerals which look like arithmetical problems, but are really statements of population ; these, arranged in an alphabetical order or disorder, form the only breaks in a chaotic mass of what are amusingly styled * geographical ' facts, which turn out simply to be names, names of rivers and names of hills, names of counties and names of towns, a mass rarely brought into grammatical shape by the needful verbs and substantives, and dotted over with isolated phrases about mining here and cotton-spinning there, which pass for Industrial Geography. Books such as these, if books they must be called, are simply appeals to memory ; they are handbooks of mnemonics, but they are in no sense handbooks of geography." In Germany, except for University purposes, I do not find the bulky manuals to be found in this country. There the books are really text-books, furnishing pupil and teacher with a brief text for each day's lesson. For the teacher himself, as I have indicated, there are a number of special manuals furnishing him with abundance of rich and interesting information with which to supplement the brief statement in the text- book, his own knowledge, and what he is able to draw out of his pupils. Of course, for University purposes, we have such masterly and exhaustive treatises as that of Wagner's edition of Guthe, Peschel's * Physical Geography,' Sonklar's ' Lehrbuch,' Suess's ' Das Antlitz der Erde,' &c., which will be found either in the Society's library or in the Exhibition) German text-books, and Continental text-books generally, are written by men who have had a special training in their subjects, just as chemical text-books and botanical text-books are written by trained chemists and botanists, and not by " anybody." I found some teachers quite alive to the unsatisfactory character of text-books as well as maps, and who used them as little more than guides. They sought fur their material in some of the large store- books available, such as Eeclus's * Geographic Universelle,' Stanford's * Compendium,' books of travel and elsewhere ; thus, in fact, making their own text-books, in the form of Catechetical lectures, after the method which prevails in schools on the Continent. Such teachers, having a fair knowledge of their subject and of its value, and a genuine liking for it, take some trouble to devise the best methods of teaching it, introducing all sorts of simple illustrations likely to instruct the pupils and impress the particular subject on their understandings and memories. The Universities' Local Examinations. — From the Report of the Oxford Delegates for the Local Schools Examinations in 1884, it will be seen that of the 639 senior candidates, 534 took the paper on Physical REPORT. 25 Geography, and 509 of them passed. This paper is included among the English subjects. It is also so included in the case of the Junior candidates, and is not specially referred to in the table of statistics, though it is to be presumed that most of the 1300 candidates (out of a total of 1333) who presented themselves in English took the paper, and of these 1015 passed. In the English group of subjects, candidates must select two, and may take three out of the following : (1) History, (2) Shakespeare, &c., (3) Physical, Political and Commercial Geography, (4) Political Economy. In almost all cases (1) and (3) are taken up. The Eeport of the Oxford Examiner in Geography for the 1884 examination will be found in the Appendix (F*). According to the Report of the Cambridge Syndicate for the same year, the total number of senior candidates (including those from the Colonies) at the Local Examinations conducted by that University, was 1688. Of these 1603 took " geography " as part of the English section, and 185 "physical geography" as one of the science subjects. In the Junior Division there were 6454 candidates, and of these 6124 took " history and geography " as part of the English section. In the Appendix (F*) will be found the report of the examiners in geography, as also specimens of the examination papers, which will afford some idea of the standard of geography aimed at by our University examiners. Besides the above, there is also a joint Oxford and Cambridge Schools Examination Board, which annually examines about 60 of the best public schools in the country and grants certificates which exempt from the first University examinations in residence at Oxford and Cambridge ; but the joint Board does not recognise geography as the subject of a distinct paper, which would go some way to explain the fact of the somewhat contemptible position allotted to geography in our great public schools. Physical Geography and Geology is indeed one of the four subjects which can give the candidate a pass in the Natural Science section. The subject was taken up by 49 boys in 1884, by 40 in 1883, and is offered by about one-third of the science candidates. But a glance at the paper of questions in the Appendix (G*) will show that it is geology, rather than geography, which is the subject of examination. In earlier years the questions used to include about five out of twelve in Physical Geography. Geography as a School Subject. — What geography might and ought to be as a subject of elementary education is so forcibly put in the Intro- duction to Green's * Short Geography of the British Islands,' that I quote the passage here in full : — " The study of geography, small as is the part allotted to it in actual teaching, is one which must occupy a foremost place in any rational system of primary education. When the prejudices and traditions of our schools and schoolmasters have passed away — as they must pass away before a truer conception of the growth of a child's mind, and of tlie laws which govern that growth — the test of right 26 REPORT. teaching will be found in the correspondence of our instruction with the development of intellectual activity in those whom we instruct. The starting-point of education will be the child's first question. And the child's first question is about the material world in which it finds itself. So long as every sight and every sound is an object of wonder, and of the curiosity that comes of wonder, life will be a mere string of ' whats ' and * whys.' With an amusing belief in the omniscience of his elders, the child asks why the moon changes and what are the stars, why the river runs and where the road goes to, why the hills are so high and what is beyond them. To answer these questions as they should be answered is to teach the little questioner geography. Each of the divisions into which geography breaks does its part in his training, as the picture of the earth in which he lives grows into distinctness before him. He may never hear of physiography, but he learns in simple outline what are the forces that tell through heat and cold, or wind or rain, on the form of the earth, and make it the earth we see. The name of Physical Geography may never reach him, but he gets a notion of what the earth's form actually is, of the distribution of land and sea, of mountain and plain over its surface, of the relative position of continents and of countries, of the * why ' rivers run and the * where ' roads run to. As the structure of the world thus becomes distinct to the child, he sees why races have settled, why nations lie within their boundaries, why armies have marched and battles have been fought, why commerce has taken one road or another over sea and land, and thus gathers his historical geography without knowing it. So as he watches how mountains divide men or rivers draw them together, how hill-line and water-parting become bounds of province and shire, how the town grows up by the stream and the port by the harbour-mouth, the boy lays the foundation of his political geography, though he never sees a * table of counties,' or learns by rote a * list of populations.' " Studied in such a fashion as this, geography would furnish a ground-work for all after instruction. It is in fact the natural starting-point for all the subjects of later training. History strikes its roots in geography ; for without a clear and vivid realisation of the physical structure of a country the incidents of the life which men have lived in it can have no interest or meaning. Through history again politica strike their roots in geography, and many a rash generalisation would have been avoided had political thinkers been trained in a knowledge of the earth they live in. and of the influence which its varying structure must needs exert on the varying political tendencies and institutions of the peoples who part its empire between them. Nor are history or politics the only studies which start naturally from such a ground- work. Physical science will claim every day a larger share in oui teaching ; and science finds its natural starting-point in that acquaintance witi primary physics which enables a child to know how earth and the forms of eartl came to be what they are. Even language, hindrance as its premature and un- intelligent study has been till now to the progress of education, will form the natural consummation of instruction when it falls into its proper place as the pursuit of riper years, and is studied in its historical and geographical relations. " Such a dream of education will doubtless long remain a dream ; but even as i dream it may help us to realise the worth of geography and to look on the study ol it in a grander as well as a more rational light than has commonly been done. It ii at any rate such a dream as this that has encouraged its writers to attempt th( l)resent book." The Umversittes.—lt is generally admitted that the attitude of th( Universities to geography has much to do with its present position ii our great public schools. There is no professor of geography in an^ REPORT. 27 University or University College in this country. The London Uni- versity Examiners profess to examine in geography for matriculation, but the questions are bracketed with the History paper, and, as an authority informs me, " in 90 per cent, or more cases, are shirked or imperfectly answered." In Appendix (F**, No. 9) will be found the five questions (only two were allowed to be answered) set in 1881, which will give an idea of the London University Standard of Geography for young men entering on a University career. There were fifteen questions set in history. There can be little doubt, indeed it is generally conceded, that if the Universities of Oxford and Cambridge recognised geography by giving it a real place in their examinations, it would have a powerful influence in exalting the position of the subject in schools. If, for example, the subject were introduced into the first stage of the degree examination (and it might be as well as arithmetic), the schools would be compelled to give serious attention to it. I find in Oxford and in Cambridge, what I find in our public schools, that those who best know what the subject is as described in the Society's Memorial to H.M. University Commissioners (Appendix B), are those most anxious to see it take its place among the subjects encouraged by our Universities. The memorial shows how many-sided the field is, and how, in the hands of a thoroughly competent man, geography might be made to lend useful aid to several of the existing studies of the Universities, including even classics as well as history. At Oxford the prospect is not so hopeful as at Cambridge, although, as a matter of fact, there is a lecturer in geography in connection with the Modern History School. Still those who would desire to see the subject introduced are compelled to admit that anything which has the semblance of science is looked upon with small favour at that University ; that under existing arrangements students can afford to take only those subjects which tell in the examinations, and that the programme is already overcrowded. What is the actual geographical position at Oxford may be seen from the following statement, for which I am to some extent indebted to Mr. J. Frederick Heyes. Geography is not at present looked upon as a distinct subject of study, but in the Final Honour school of Modern History the last paper out of about a dozen given is always on Historical Geography. In the Appendix (G*) will be found one set in June 1884i The only lecture on Geography given in the University is in connection with this paper in the History School, and a similar one in the Pass School, Group B. This lecture, one hour a week, has been given for many years by the Eev. H. B. George, M.A., F.K.G.S. of New College, writer of the well- known " Genealogical Tables in Modern History." In the Final Pass School a candidate must pass in three sub- jects. One of these optional subjects is a portion of Modern History 28 REPORT. in Group B. Two papers are given, one on part of Milman^s ' Latin Christianity,' or Dyer's ' Modem Europe,' and the other on * Geography.* In the Appendix (G*) is the paper set in December 1883. Moreover, as is pointed out in the memorial sent to H.M. University Commis- sioners (Appendix B), subjects have been, set as Historical Prize Essays which are more or less of a geographical character. Some years ago several new professorships and readerships were organised as the result of a Koyal Commission, and the appointments have since been gradually made. Among them the University Chest had, I believe, to endow six readerships. Geography, it is stated, received a certain amount of consideration in connection with the memorial of the Council of the E.G.S. (Appendix B) ; but I am not able to say what were the cumulative reasons which resulted in this subject being shelved at the time. One good result was, however, obtained in the establishment of a readership in Anthropology — a new subject, which, in the hands of Dr. Tylor, immediately became successful. Classical geography is expected in the Literee Humaniores School, but classical geography in this country is an extremely meagre affair. The prevailing attitude towards the subject will be found very clearly stated in the letter from the Rev. H. F. Tozer, which is given in the Ap- pendix (F**). Professor Freeman, as might be expected, admits the great value of geography to the historian, but cannot quite see how it is to be recognised as an independent subject of University teaching since on the one side a large section belongs to the historian, and on the other side the geologist claims a considerable section as his field. The same objection would hold against Art and Archaeology, for which the Universitiee have recently made substantial provision. Another eminent Oxford historian, the late Mr. J. E. Green, did more than any other, probably, to show the vast, the indispensable services which geography may rendei to history, and his general opinion of the educational value of the sub- ject I have already quoted above. I am glad to learn that in Oxford ar effort is being made to introduce Strabo as one of the books for examina tion. Last October term. Professor Freeman gave a special lecture ii ** Geography and Travel " : and when he was an examiner years ago, h( always tried to do what he could for geography as a branch of history As a matter of fact, simply because it is no one's business in particula: to see that the geographical field is redeemed from the wilderness, i remains almost entirely waste. What may be regarded as the attitude of many University men a Cambridge, who have no prejudice against the subject, is weU stated i: the letters of the Eev. Coutts Trotter and Professor G. H. Darwin, to b found in the Appendix (F**). At the same time I find that in a Eepoi of the Special Board for Biology and Geology, dated February 6, 188( there occurs the following passage among othei- suggestions there made [ REPORT. 29 "That University teachers should be eventually appointed in the following snhjects : Agriculture, Anthropology, Geography, Metallurgy and Mining '' (University Beporter, June 13, 1883, p. 885). " This shows," to quote the words of Professor Newton in a letter to me, " that some of us have heen anxious to remedy the deficiency which we knew to exist.' Professor Newton's views will be further seen in his letters given in Appendix (F**). None of the above proposed teachers have yet been appointed, mainly, I believe, from want of funds. Mr. Trotter informs me that in the examinations in certain subjects the geographical aspects are very often dwelt upon ; and he seems to think that if this were done more regularly and more thoroughly it would be one effective way of encourag- ing geography at Cambridge. Professor McKenny Hughes also informs me that certain sections of physical geography and physiography form a regular part of his geological programme ; and as a good example of the amount of geography generally attaching to geology in the Universities, I give an extract from his programme in the Appendix (F**). Professor Hughes has also kindly offered to bring the matter of the Society's in- vestigation before the Special Board of Studies who are now considering the addition of new subjects to those already recognised in the Natural Science Tripos. The Council will be pleased to learn, moreover, that it is intended to supply the University Library with a complete set of the best maps obtainable, not only in England but on the Continent, so that no member of the University may be at a loss should he want to pursue the cartographical aspects of his subject to its limits. These seem to me hopeful signs, and I believe were any precise and definite proposals brought before the University authorities by the Council, they would be seriously considered. I say " definite and precise," because no mera general representation of the value of geography as a University subject coydd be of avail to a body whose functions are of the most practical kind. They would require to have before them an approximately precise definition of the field which the Council would propose to allot to any professor or reader in geography. With such a definite basis to start from, the University authorities could consider the bearings of the subject on other already established subjects ; be able to make up their minds whether any further recognition of geography than already exists were advisable ; and if so what modifications of the Council's proposals were necessary in order to co-ordinate the subject with those depart- ments to which it is related. At the best, however, I am assured there are no funds at present for the establishment of chair or lectureship ; though if effective representations were made by the Council, the geographical aspects of such subjects as are capable of it, might be more prominently brought out than they are at present. May I suggest the possibility of the Rede Lectureship being made the medium of enlighten- ing the University as to the field of geograpiiy and its value as a University subject? Should any such proposal be entertained by those 30 REPORT. whose duty it is to appoint the lecturer, it would not be difficult for the Council to indicate a geographer capable of effectively discharging the function. Trom the communications in the Appendix (F**) from Owens College, Manchester (Yictoria University), it will be seen that there also geo- graphy is not entirely neglected either on the geological or historical sides. Indeed, a joint series of geographical lectures has actually been organised, and if steps were taken somewhat similar to these which have been suggested as to Cambridge, more definite recognition of the subject might be obtained. Surely it is the function of a University to encourage every branch of research that will really advance knowledge, and there is certainly no branch so universal, so wide in its bearings, as geography. What may be done with it as an adjunct to history may be seen in such recent German works as Partsch and Neumann's ' Geographic von Griechen- land, mit besonderer Eiicksicht auf das Alterthum,' and Ratzel's * Anthi'Opo-Geographie.' Here such works are impossible ; there is no encouragement for research of this character ; it is no one's function to pursue it. The Universities have, indeed, recognised the value of the subject to some extent by introducing it into their Local School Exami- nations ; but, strangely, it is the only one of those subjects which is not recognised distinctively in the University professoriate. To quote the language of the letter sent to the Yice-Chancellors of Oxford and Cambridge, dated July 3rd, 1871, " We look to the Uni- versities, not only to rescue geography from being badly taught in the schools of England, but to raise it to an even higher standard than it has yet attained." In his report of the last examination for the Society's Medals (1884), Professor Mosely concludes, — " The more I gain experience as an examiner in physical geography, the more I am convinced of its value as a subject of general education, and the more I regret that it is not represented in British as it is in German Universities. It is almost hopeless to expect that schools will do it justice until it is recognised at the Universities, and scholarships, and other inducements are open to those proficient in it." In a previous report he referred to this country, as one which has " no representative professors of any branch of geo- graphy in any one of its Universities, and in most of the schools of which the subject is practically neglected. . . . The neglect of geo- graphy at the Universities naturally leads to its neglect in most of the principal schools ; there are no scholarships or fellowships to be won by it, and thus, instead of ousting from the time-worn curricula subjects far less fitting, both as means of mental training and as useful acquisi- tions, geography has allotted to it in the weekly routine in these schools probably only a meagre couple of hours." These statements are amply confirmed by my own experience as the Society's Inspector. It is surely a serious matter for the University authorities to consider REPORT. 31 that they are to blame for the almost total neglect, in the great public schools of that country, to whose sons it is of such vast moment, of a branch of knowledge, recognised as of so much importance in nearly every other country. It has been objected to the recognition of geography by the Universities that it is not a "manly" subject, but one fit only for elementary classes. In reply to this, we need only point to what the subject has become under the hands of German professors and specialists in geography ; and to the " Instruction " as to the curriculum in geography, for the Kriegs-Akademie (Staff College) of Berlin, which I give in the Appendix (G). I quite recognise that in the matter of geography the idea of asking the English Universities to do the normal school work done by the geographical professors of most German Universities would never be entertained, and would be foreign to the whole genius of these institutions. But apart from such work, there is enough in the programmes of the German chairs, such chairs as those of Kichthofen, Wagner, and Kein, to show what could be done with the subject even on the lines along which our own Universities work. The Field of Geography as a University Subject. — There can bene doubt that for educational purposes, at least, the field of geography requires to be strictly defined ; for purposes of research its limits may be left as vague as the limits of other departments of science. I have said that those University men who know best what the subject is in all its bearings, are those who most strongly advocate its recognition in the professoriate. Both historical and geological specialists admit the great importance of the subject from their own points of view ; each, however, claiming geography as a branch of their own department. The pure geologist, especially, is unwilling to admit that geography has any existence apart from geology, which simply shows his ignorance of the great fields that have been worked by Continental geographers, and which would b© quite beyond the function of the geologist or any other specialist, as such, to touch. Geography really begins where geology leaves off, while for the historian, whether of the political, social, or industrial development of a people, it ought to be kept constantly in view as the field and background of all his researches. One well-known geologist has objected to geography as a University subject because it is a graphy and not a logy. As I find the strongest opposition to geography as a distinct field of research comes from the side of geology, I have sought the opinion of a geologist whom all must admit as one of the greatest authorities in his subject, Dr. A. Geikie, F.R.S., Director-General of the Geological Survey., Mr. Geikie has himself carried his geology into the geographical field with most interesting results, I do not refer merely to his well-known 'Physical Geography,' but to such works as that published many years ago on * The Scenery of Scotland/ 32 REPORT. and to his recent lectures at the Eoyal iDstitution on the general subject of scenery in its geological aspects. The following is the commnnica- tion which Mr. Geikie has been good enough to send me :— " In reply to your question I gladly state my opinion regarding the position of geography as a University subject. " Geography, looked at from the scientific side, is not itself a science, but rather a department in which various sciences are co-ordinated in such a way as to present a vivid picture of the different regions of the world, and a clear statement of the causes that determine the resemblances and contrasts of these regions. The forms of the land and their origin, the climates of the globe, the distribution of plants and animals, and the causes that have regulated it, the influence of the variations of climate, soil, and topography upon the history of man, the reaction of man upon nature — these, and a thousand other connected problems, form the subject of the highest kind of geography. Such a theme, invested with so much deep human interest, possesses a peculiar value in education. Indeed, I know of no other that lends itself so effectively to the teacher who wishes to inspire his pupils with some appreciation of the nature and value of scientific observation and reasoning. The illustrations are familiar, and the problems suggested by them are often of the most fascinating kind. " 1 have long been of opinion that geography in this sense of the term ought to form an essential part of education. It ought as a matter of course to occupy a distinct and important place in the curriculum of every High School. Carried into its higher departments, it should certainly be recognised as also a University subject. In its true sense geography is a branch of geology ; and where there is already a Professor of Geology, I would not, for the present at least, advocate the establishment of a separate Chair of Geography. From my own experience in teaching, I can testify that in a geological course, a Professor of Geology can with much advantage find a place for the exposition of this higher geography. But geology is every day increasing its scope, which already is too vast for the physical powers of even the. most indefatigable teacher. Geography at a University might fittingly form the subject of a special Lectureship ; the lectures and general teaching being arranged in concert with the Professor of Geology. If the salary and position were such as to secure the services of competent men, the post might be filled by a succession of enthusiastic young lecturers. It would be no disadvantage either to the subject itself, or to the University, even if the post were only held temporarily for a given number of years. Every side of this many-sided subject might thus in turn be presented — the more strictly geological, the climatological, the biological, the ethnological, the historical. " I sincerely hope that before long a scientific geography will be recognised as one of the most useful parts of the science curriculum of our Universities." Geographers would no doubt be content at present to obtain even the recognition at the Universities which Mr. Geikie would advocate, hoping that in time a school of geographers would grow up capable of cultivating the many-sided subject as eJBfectively as is now being done in certain of the German Universities. It is a fact, as I point out in speaking of German Universities, that all the best geographers have approached the subject from the side of science; not necessarily from that of geology, from which such men as Richthofen and Rein have approached it. Wagner's starting-point was mathematics and physics, REPORT. 33 while that of Bates and Wallace was biology. While it is history in its widest sense that profits most by geographical research, the historian pure and simple has seldom done much effective work in geography, has seldom been able, indeed, to use it effectively for his own purpose. If such a geologist could be found as is indicated in Mr. Geikie's letter, one who, making geology his starting-point, was prepared to make incursions into all the other fields of research, and co-ordinate the results from the geographical standpoint, probably no better beginning could be made. If, however, he confined himself solely to what is usually known as physical geography, the result would be as unsatisfactory as in the English public schools. One of the most comprehensive definitions of geography I have seen is that contained in the official ' Instructionen fur den Unterricht an der Gymnasium in Osterreich,' a large volume, in which forty pages are devoted to directions for geographical instruc- tion. " Geography," we are told, " studies the earth as a whole and the things on its surface as such, in their arrangement on that surface, and in their relations to it and to each other.'' This, it seems to me, shows that to anchor one's self to any one department of science would make anything like thorough progress in geography impossible. It is rightly enough contended, as is done by Mr. Coutts Trotter and Mr. G. H. Darwin (Appendix F**), that many of the data of geography are found attached to various sciences ; but as a matter of fact unless co-ordinated around the geographical standpoint, their geographical bearings are entirely lost sight of. It might as well be contended that as nearly all the data of meteorology are furnished by chemistry and physics, there is no need for any special department of research to deal with the atmosphere and atmospheric phenomena. What would geology itself be without the aid it derives from physics, chemistry, astronomy, zoology, and botany? How the definition I have given above may be worked out is well illustrated in the extracts (Appendix M) from Professor Richthofen's 'Address on the Field and Methods of Geo- graphy,' and in the programmes of several German professors of the subject to be found in the Appendix, as also in the paper by Mr. F. Galton in the Cambridge Essays (1855). At the same time it must be admitted, that some German geographers seem to claim far too much for their subject, and some clear-headed Englishman is wanted to do for geography what Lyell did for geology. This subject is referred to further in connection with the German conception of Geography, p. 32. Just before going to press I have received an interesting communication from Dr. James Bryce, M.P., on the subject of this section, which will be found in Appendix Z. Geography in the Public Services, — With regard to the comparative position of geography in the examinations for our public services, I find that it has a place in most of them. For the lower departments of D 34 REPORT. these services, and for the prelimiDary examinations of some of the higher departments, it is compulsory, the papers set heing of the most elementary character, even for cadetships in the Eoyal Navy. For the " Further Examinations " for the Military Service, papers on geography of a more advanced kind are set as optional subjects. For admission to Sandhurst, for example, physical geography and geology, as one subject, is on a par with Greek, higher mathematics, English history, and experi- mental science, the marks attainable for each being 2,000, as compared with 3,000 for Latin, mathematics, French, and German. A com- paratively small percentage of candidates seem to take this subject, as small as that for the experimental sciences, and smaller than that for German. I give a specimen of the Further Examination paper, set for entrance into Sandhurst, in the Appendix (H). In any European country of importance, except England, the papers set would be con- sidered extremely elementary, and yet, except In the case of the very few schools which have a special army class, it is almost certain that the ordinary course of instruction in any of our great public schools would not qualify a candidate to pass the examinations ; the result is that the subject is left to crammers. I find that in none of the schools for the education of our military and naval officers does geography find a place of any importance, exhibiting a marked contrast in this respect to most of the corresponding institutes on the Continent. With reference to H.M. ship Britannia^ for instance, I have the following statement : — " It is felt that, if anything can be left to be acquired in the future, geography can be so left to naval ofiScers ; their training and career naturally leading them to acquire geographical knowledge in the best possible way by visiting foreign parts. In the early part of the course here, the cadets read and are instructed in a small Manual of Physical Geography written by one of the naval instructors. They have lectures on this twice a week, and are examined in it at the end of their first term. I enclose a copy of an Examination Paper that you may see the simple character of the teaching. (See Appendix I.) There is an English class of an hour once a week, and as historical subjects are read, the teacher naturally refers to geographical knowledge, but beyond these two forms the teaching of geography may be said to be relegated to the experience of after-life." In the Koyal Naval College, Greenwich, the only geography taught is such physical geography as may be incidental to the subject of "Winds and Currents. From the Military History Notes sent me by Major Pratt of the Eoyal Military Academy, it would seem that in connection with such history, a good deal of special physical geography is introduced. Major Pratt writes as follows ; — " At the commencement of my lectures on any campaign, I usually describe the l^encral aspect of the country, chiefly with reference to the high and low lands, the REPORT. 35 watersheds, rivers, ix)ads, main towns, &c. The geography of a theatre of war has to be studied to a certain extent in order to understand military operations, but it is only possible to touch slightly on it in the course of military history at the Academy on account of the difficulty in supplying cadets with suitable maps. Maps which show accurately the physical features which are of importance in military operations are far too expensive to be issued individually to cadets, and there are no means available of a large class having access to a few copies. I strive to give a general knowledge of the features of the country or particular battle-field by referring to the few large skeleton diagrams I possess. The time allotted to the study of military history at the Academy is besides but little, and I am therefore only able to touch slightly on the geographical aspect of the study." The place given to the subject in the Kriegs-Akademie of Berlin, and the sense of the importance to officers of a thorough knowledge of geography in its widest sense, will be seen from the *' Instruction " in the Appendix (G) already referred to. In the French Superior School of War, corresponding to our Staff College, as well as at St. Cyr, geography is the most important subject of education, as will be seen later on. In our Staff College, frontier geography and military surveying are most effectively taught. But there is no guarantee that our military and naval officers enter on their career with more than the most elementary knowledge of general geography. Sir Charles (then Major) Wilson, E.E., drew attention in his Address, as President of Section E at the Dublin Meeting of the British Asso- ciation, to the vast importance of a knowledge of geography to military men. " Sufficient importance," he stated, " is not attached to a know- ledge of geography in military sciences." He then goes on to point out how greatly a knowledge of the physical geography of any theatre of war may influence a campaign. " Queen Elizabeth's minister was right when he said that 'knowledge is power;' and a knowledge of the physical features of a country, combined with a just appreciation of their influence on military operations, is a very great power in war. A commander entering upon a campaign without such knowledge may be likened to a man groping in the dark ; with it he may act with a boldness and decision that will often ensure success. It was this class of knowledge, possessed in the highest degree by all great commanders, that enabled Jomini to foretell the collision of the French and Prussian armies at Jena in 1807, and in later years enabled a Prussian officer, when told that MacMahon had marched northwards from Chalons, to point unerringly to Sedan as the place where the decisive battle would be fought. Chief Justice Daly, in his address to the American Geo- graphical Society, draws attention to the Franco-German W ar as * a war fought as much by maps as by weapons,' and attributes the result to 'skilful military movements, performed by an army thoroughly acquainted with all the geographical features of the country over which D 2 36 REPORT. it was moved ;' and, he adds, ' It teaches ns that if the fate of a nation may depend upon a battle, a battle may depend on a knowledge of geography.' As, then, all military operations must be based on a knowledge of the country in which they are to be carried on, it should never be forgotten that every country contiguous to our own (and the ocean brings us into contact with almost every country in the world) may be a possible theatre of war." The Science and Art Department. — It should be stated that the South Kensington Science and Art Department examine in Physiography in three stages, — elementary, advanced, and honours, — and this has, no doubt, done much to advance among the classes reached by these examinations really scientific, physical, and astronomical geography. In 1883, the total number of candidates for the Science and Art Examination was 64,093, and of these 5575 took physiography as one subject. The general results of the examination for that year will he seen from the extract from the Eeport of the examiners, Professor Judd and Mr. Norman Lockyer, in the Appendix (I*). Conclusion as to Great Britain. — Except, then, in our elementary schools, in the high schools for girls and in isolated middle-class schools, Professor Moseley's statement still holds good, geography in this country is almost entirely neglected as a subject of education. An educational authority, in writing to me, puts the situation very tersely, thus: — "(1) In Universities it is nil. (2) In Public Schools very nearly nil, as the Society's examinations for their medals have proved. And when it is attempted, it is given to the most incompetent master, and he has a wretched set of maps. (3) It is required for the Public Services, and taught, I do not know how, by crammers. (4) The only places where geography is systematically taught in England, are the Training Colleges, male and female, and the National Board Schools ; with now, and of the last few years, some few good High and Middle- Class Schools." Even with the time now allotted to it in our higher grade schools, much more could be made of the subject if the teachers themselves had any real knowledge of it, had some training in the best methods of teaching it, and worked on a common programme intelligently con- structed so as to cover the whole field systematically, and had at their disposal such text-books, maps, and other apparatus as are almost universal on the Continent. THE CONTINENT. General Position.— Tmning to the Continent, a different condition of things presents itself,— at least in those countries, concerning wMcli I have obtained inforinatioa — Belgium, Holland, Germany, Austria, Italy, Switzerland, France, Sweden, and Norway, and even Spain. In all these countries education of all grades is more or less under the direction of the State. For the different classes of schools, the State prescribes the character of the education to be given, the subjects to be taught, and the general programme for each subject. In all these official regulations geography has a distinct place. The field to be covered is prescribed, the aim being that the pupil shall have a complete course of geography, the field varying in extent with the grade of the school. In the higher grade schools. Gymnasia and Realschulen in Germany, Lycees in France, Athenees in Belgium, schools which may be held to correspond with our great public schools, geography must be taught for, on an average, two hours a week in the lower, and from one to two in the higher school, up to at least the second highest class. As the curricnlnm in these schoolB lasts fi'om six to nine years, and as the programme is carefully devised so as to include all sections of Geography, general and special, mathematical, physical and political, and to embrace all the parts of the earth, there is some security that a pupil who works fairly, will come out of the school with a knowledge of geography at least equal to that set in the Further Examination for Candidates for Sandhurst, if he is not indeed up to the standard demanded for the Society's medals. What that standard is in many countries may be seen in the programmes given in the Appendix, and referred to after. Of course in some of these schools, especially of the Gymnasium class, languages still hold the most prominent place, and next to them mathematics ; but not even the most zealous advocate of geography would seek to place the subject in a position of equality as to time with such subjects in the higher schools for general education. It has the same treatment as history, as natural science, as physics and chemistry ; indeed, these latter are taught only in the highest classes in Germany. There is, then, the first striking fact with regard to the subject on the Continent that it is officially recognised by the States as of equal value with the subjects referred to, and is prescribed as compulsory in every class of school, and throughout nearly the whole curriculum of the highest schools. Not physical geography alone is thus dealt with ; there is no separation of the subject into its parts as in England ; the subject is treated as one inseparable whole, all the parts of which dovetail into each other. Germany. General Position. — Germany may be taken as the model which all the other Continental countries are following, as far as their special circumstances will permit. German geographers tell us that geographical education is by no means what it should be in 38 REPORT. Germany, and the worst that can be said of it will be found in the series of instructive papers by Professor H. Wagner in the ' Geographisches Jahrbuch.' Of the twenty-one German Universities, he tells us, there are still nine without classes of geography, while in the higher schools the teachers of geography are still far from being instructed and tested up to the standard of other teachers; even in Prussia geography is still sometimes yoked with history. One lesson a week in geography in Tertia is altogether too little. This simply shows the high standard of German geographers — a standard which, so far as education is concerned, we are not within sight of. Nearly all of the existing twelve professorships of geography in Germany have been founded during the last twelve years. Already they have had the most marked influence, not only on the improvement of geographical education in schools, but in opening up a field of research previously untouched by any department of science. As might be expected, there are differences in the different provinces of Germany. In some cases geography and history are prescribed for on one basis of time, while in others they are quite separate, and each allotted its separate time. The tendency everywhere is to separate the two subjects, and in a circular from the Minister of Public Instruction, dated March 31, 1882, directors of the higher schools are enjoined to avoid, as far as possible, leaving geography and history to the hands of the same teacher. Naturally German geographers would insist on having geography taught by masters exclusively devoted to the subject ; but this is not necessary. So long as the master has had a special training for the purpose there is no reason why he should not combine geography either with a science or a language. In some schools in Germany, and more so, I believe in France, Holland, and Belgium, teachers or "professors" are found who devote themselves entirely to geography. They may teach the whole of the geography in one school, or be attached to more than one institution. Dr. Lehmann, of Halle (now Professor of Geography at Miinster), is regarded in Germany as one of the first authorities on geo- graphical education, and his standard is naturally very high. He told me he was not satisfied with the position of the subject in Germany. While well taught in some schools, on the whole it is unsystematic and unintelligent. He is of opinion that in Gennany its importance as a subject of education is not yet sufficiently recognised. Many of the teachers are comparatively untrained, and have no special knowledge of the subject. The establishment of Chairs in the Universities, he admits, has helped greatly to improve matters, but at present there is much to be desired both in the teachers, in the methods employed, and in the Lehrmittel. In elementary schools and Biirger- schulen, the subject is more methodically and intelligently taught than in higher schools, because the teachers have been properly trained at normal schools. There is still much needed to be done to improve maps REPORT. 39 R. Kiepert's maps of European countries are the best we have, but even these could be improved upon. They are on too small a scale ; they have too many names and too many rivers for school maps. The best plan, Dr. Lehmann thinks, would be to get the maps of each country published in the country itself; and I may say that in more than one superior school in Germany (and in all the Universities I visited), 1 found this plan carried out to a greater or less extent. This is Dr. Lehmann's opinion ; but then he has nothing to compare Germany with but his own ideal. To an Englishman, familiar with the practice, the methods and the apparatus of the subject in English schools, Germany must seem very far ahead. There can be no doubt that after the Universities have been a few more years at work, the practice in Germany will be still further improved. The ideal aimed at, and, indeed, being rapidly carried out, is to have one continuous course of geographical instruction from the youngest school-year up to the University. The elementary stage is met with in practically all primary schools in Germany, and in the preparatory classes of the higher schools ; and this stage is rapidly finding its way into the corresponding schools of most other Continental countries. Heimatskunde. — This elementary stage is what is known in Germany as Seimatshunde, combined with or preceded loj Anschauungslehre, i.e., teaching by actual observation. And it is an interesting fact that Rousseau in his * Emile ' enjoins geographical instruction to start with the pupil's home. What text books exist for this stage are meant only for the teacher, the pupils obtaining their notions by actual observation or practice. One of the most noteworthy lessons of this kind I witnessed in the model school of Brussels, in the three youngest classes of the school. In the first stage, which occupies a year, the aim is to give the children a mastery of the cardinal points, the course of the sun in the heavens, and similar elemen- tary notions. The boys are made to trace with chalk the leading points of the compass on the floor, march in various directions, give the relative positions of objects in the room, point with their finger the course of the sun in the sky in summer and winter, and so on. In the next stage, a map of the city and the surrounding district is used, and the knowledge obtained in the previous class applied to this. Then follows a globe, the pupils in the meantime acquiring a fair knowledge of the elementary geography of their province and even of their country. In a Biirger- schule in Leipzig, I was present at another lesson in Heimatskunde. The map was a large coloured plan of the town and neighbourhood, every pupil having a corresponding map before him. First their knowledge of the points of the compass was tested practically ; the directions of the principal streets ; the principal buildings and their positions with reference to squares, streets and other buildings ; names of the leading streets, buildings, squares, promenades, and their relative positions. Each suburb 40 REPORT, was treated in the same way. The boys were then sent to the map to point in reply to the teacher's questions ; and they were made to put questions to each other. A boy was asked where he lived; he would give the suburb and street. He had then to tell the streets he traversed in going home ; the monuments, churches, parks, &c., he passed. Next he had to point out on the map his route to and from school, naming the directions he took. Then the boys were examined on their atlases in the same way as on the large map. In all cases the boys were intensely interested. The method of Heimatskunde proceeds from the town or immediate neighbourhood to the district, then to the province, and so outwards to Germany, Europe, and the other parts of the world, in five classes. In the fifth class of the same Biirgerschule, for example, I was present at a lesson on the Heimatskunde of Saxony. The boys have a very small text-book — * Hugo's Heimatskunde von Sachsen,' along with a good large map of the province. There was a good physical map, without names, on the wall along with a large map of Germany. A boy would read a sentence from the book, relating it might be to the nature of the surface, the rivers, the mineral products. Hereon the teacher, partly by questioning the boys as to their own knowledge, and partly by giving them information, expanded the subject considerably. Thus in relation to metals and minerals — iron, coal, lead, tin, &c. — much useful informa- tion was brought out as to their nature, uses, places where found, methods of mining, working, and so on. Specimens of various substances which had been collected by the boys themselves, were shown to the class. Boys were sent to the scuttle to bring a piece of coal, point out any iron, brass, &c., to the room. The boys were also made to elicit from the small maps before them whatever information they could be made to yield. The information thus conveyed is of the most varied kind; not merely as to topography, but the products, industries, manufactures, historical associations, &c., of the region, while the pupils are trained to observe and think for themselves. In Germany, Switzerland, and, to some extent, in the other countries I visited, there are many special maps published for Heimatskunde, and many text-books for the use of the teachers. It is a most effective method of impressing upon the pupil a real and lasting idea of the elements of geography and carto- graphy ; and when, as in many districts, reliefs and pictures are utilised, it is evident that under good teachers the pupil will proceed to a higher stage with a very real notion of what a map is meant to represent, and prepared to begin the serious study of more advanced geography. This system is finding its way into English Board Schools, many of which are provided with large-scale Ordnance Survey maps of the school district. In many German Kealschulen there is an elementary or preparatory school in which Heimatskunde finds a place. Both in the REPORT. 41 Brussels school and the Leipzig school, there was a large stock, not only of maps (probably 100 in Leipzig), but of excellent geographical pictures, such as those found in the Exhibition, globes, telluria, mineralogical, and botanical specimens, and other aids to make the lessons as real and attractive and instructive as possible. An essential part of Heimatskunde, as planned by Dr. Finger, who may be regarded as its inventor, and with whom I had an interesting interview at Frankfort, is the taking of the pupils on excursions to the districts around the school, and, if practicable during holidays, on some- what distant tours. With their maps in their hands they identify the leading features, become personally acquainted with cities, rivers, mining districts, and minerals manufactories. This plan of making excursions, sometimes to a considerable distance, and lasting for days, is carried out in Germany and France, and even in Spain. (See Appendix Y.) At the same time, both in the school neighbourhood and elsewhere, oppor- tunity is taken of practically illustrating the elementary facts and principles of geographical knowledge, and of making such observations and experiments in connection therewith as will be understood without difficulty. A very satisfactory account of the matter will be found in the * Proceedings ' of the Eoyal Geographical Society for November, 1884, p. 674, in the paper by Mr. Kavenstein read at the Montreal meeting of the British Association. One of the best expositions of the method is given in the " Instructions " for education in Austrian Gymnasia, and this will be found in the Appendix (K). Map-reading,— One of the most difficult tasks to accomplish in teaching geography is to get the pupils to realise what a map means, and to read it. It is no easy matter even for adults to realise to themselves the conditions which certain markings on a flat surface indicate. I therefore find that much time is as a rule spent in German schools, in the elementary stages, in endeavouring to accomplish this desirable end,— an end kept constantly in view throughout the method of Seimatslunde. One of the most successful geographical teachers in Germany, Dr. Lehmann, late of theRealgymnasiumin theFranksche Stiftungen of Halle,nowof Miinster, devotes a large part of the first three years of his course to this purpose. He constantly exercises his pupils during that time in precise map- drawing after himself on the black-board or from the Zeichen-Atlas ; makes them thoroughly understand the significance of all the symbols used to represent graphical features ; trains them carefully in the use of contour lines and graduated mountain shading, scales, and so on. Of course all this is possible only in a country in which school maps and atlases are executed with scientific precision, which is rarely the case in England. After his three years' training, Dr. Lehmann does not trouble his pupils more with map-drawing, unless for special purposes; the end to bo attained by the practice has in his estimation been served. At his request 42 REPORT. I selected four boys from one of his younger classes, whicn was having a lesson in the geography of Australasia. Two of them sat beside me and drew from memory on blank sheets a map of Australia ; putting in the lines of latitude and longitude with precision, and all the features of the continent with intelligence and correctness. The other two went to the black-board, and copied to a scale at least four times the size, the map of Australia in their atlas, filling in the physical features with coloured chalk, carefully graduating the mountain shading, and otherwise showing that they had an intelligent conception of what a map is. Dr. Lehmann also makes use of small relief maps by putting them in a glass case fixed in the wall near the door in such a position that any one may examine them after the lesson. This case he uses also for other objects bearing on his lessons. He insists that the carto- graphical symbols be as perfectly and completely learned as the letters of the alphabet by a child learning to read. The pupils are encouraged to elicit all the information which the map is intended to convey, supplemented by the text-book and the information conveyed by the teacher. The text-book, Kirchhoff's, is used mainly as a guide, and this I found to be the case in most German schools. While on the subject of map-reading, I may say that throughout Germany the use of sand to build up the features of a district is greatly in vogue ; but after a much more precise method than I have seen in the schools in which I found the method in use in this country. In the first Realschule of Leipzig for example, the staff map of the district is used, and the pupils made to build up a same relief with careful regard to the contour lines. Another method of teaching the signifi- cance of cartographic symbols I found, in a secondary school in Ziirich, in a class the pupils of which were about twelve years of age. Taking the carefully- drawn maps for the purpose in the beginning of Wettstein's fine school atlas, the pupils are made to cut out pieces of cardboard for the different levels, and so build up a relief, which enables them to realise what the symbols signify. As the contour lines are combined with carefully graduated mountain-shading, the pupils thus come to learn the significance of the customary map-symbols. Specimens of these reliefs will be found in the Exhibition. There is no doubt that the judicious use of good reliefs along with corresponding maps, is a very effective method of teaching the pupil to interpret maps. The method used at the Austrian Cadet-school, above referred to, is an admirable one. On a table is a relief of a particular region, limited enough to avoid exaggeration of altitudes ; and above this are corre- sponding maps on various scales, and with various methods of repre- senting altitudes. In my opinion it is mischievous, unless for exceptional purposes, to make use of maps in schools, either wall-maps or atlases, which differ greatly in their cartographic methods from those in ordinary use. REPORT. 43 For example, the use of black lines for mountain systems is not desirable ; pupils accustomed to tlie exclusive use of such maps will, when they leave school, have to forget nearly all the cartography they have learned, in ord'er to teach themselves to read the maps in common use. Such methods are rarely met with on the Continent. The aim in Germany, at least, among good school cartographers, with the approval of the best geographers, is to produce accurately and clearly-drawn maps on the basis of the most effective cartographic methods. Geography in the Higher German Schools. — What is actually taught in the higher schools of Germany, the Gymnasia and Realschulen, under the name of geography, may be seen from the programme of the Bealschule of the First Order, at Leipzig. This may be taken as a fairly representative German superior school ; for although Saxony may be better off in the matter of geography than Prussia, that seems mainly due to the fact that in the former there are more specially trained geo- graphical teachers than in the latter ; and the separation between geography and history is more distinct. The following programme is that which was actually carried out in the school year 1882-3. In Germany the lowest class is sexta, the highest prima ; — Sexta. — Two hours per week. Fundamental positions of mathematical geography and the leading principles of physical geography. General view of the division of land and water on the surface of the earth. Geography of Saxony. Exercises in reading and drawing maps. Quinfa, — Two hours per week. Further instruction in the funda- mental conceptions of geography. General description of Europe, especially of Germany. Exercises in map drawing. Quarta. — Two hours per week. Eevision of the leading principles of physical and mathematical geography. Extra European Continents. Map drawing. Tertia. — Two hours per week. Germany, physical and political. Map drawing. Unter-SeJcunda. — Two hours per week. Geography of foreign Euro- pean countries and their colonies. Oher-Sehunda, — Two hours per week. Extra-European continents, with special reference to their physical conditions. Unter-Prima.— Two hours per week. Eevision of the whole field of geography. Astronomical geography; continuous observation of the apparent course of the sun by means of a gnomon. Observations of stars. True and mean solar time and stellar time ; the ecliptic. Oher-Prima.— Two hours per week. Revision of the whole field of geography. Astronomical geography. Proofs of the globular form of the earth, of its rotation, of its revolution round the sun, the orbits of the planets. 44 REPOTTTT " As this course extends over nine years ; as geography has a real place in the leaving-certificate of all German schools, and is therefore obligatory; and as the field gone over and the methods in use in most German schools are the same, there is a guarantee that a pupil, even if he change his school, shall leave it with a full and sound knowledge of elementary geography in all its sections and divisions. At certain schools in England if a boy goes through the entire curriculum, he may come out with such a knowledge ; in very few of the great public schools is it likely. Such a course would lead up to no examination, and would therefore be regarded as a waste of time. The apparatus in use at this school, and which is under the care of Dr. Gotze, one of the ablest and most intelligent teachers of geography in Germany, I have given a list of in the appendix. And to show that it is nothing unusual I have also given the list of geographical apparatus in use at the Wohler Realschule of Frankfurt-on-the-Main, under Dr. Kortigarn (Appendix L). Either at the preparatory school or elsewhere the pupils will have been rounded in Anschauungslehre and Heimatskunde before beginning the above course. I found in one or two schools that Heimatskunde was not begun till the third form at the Vorschule, formally at least ; for in Germany I found much complaint among teachers as to overpressure and overcrowding of the programme in the higher schools. The above programme is simply the official programme prescribed for geography by the Education Department, given in a little more detail ; and it is essentially that of all Realschulen and Gymnasia in Germany. In the latter, which are classical schools, it is admitted that geography is apt to be snubbed in the last two years of the course ; and it seemed to me that the apparatus in the Gymnasia I visited was neither so plentiful nor so good as in the Realschulen. As to method, it strikes me that teaching generally is a much more lively and active operation on the Continent than in England. So far as geography is concerned, the teacher counts for a great deal, and the text-book is proportionately of less importance than in England. I saw very little of mere lesson- hearing on the Continent. The text-book, as I have said already, is really what its name implies. A very moderate portion is taken as the text of a lesson, or a sentence or two is read out in the class ; this is expanded by the teacher from information obtained by him from works published expressly for the use of teachers. He is constantly encouraging the pupils to think for themselves, constantly endeavouring to draw out from them what they themselves know, or what they may be able to read in the maps, pictures, diagrams, ethnological pictures, reliefs, and specimens before them. Every teacher whom I saw at work had a supply of coloured chalk beside him, and made constant and effective use of the black-board, the slate maps, or slate globe. In this way it will be seen very excellent use can be made of the two hours REPORT. 45 a week allotted to tlie subject for eight years or so. Of course, with the best German teachers, there is no attempt to crowd the lessons with minute details, no long lists of names or tables of statistics, populations of cities, length of rivers, heights of mountains down to the final unit. While there is certainly a fair amount of memory work, only leading features, facts, and principles are insisted on. Examples of Lessons in Geography. — Perhaps a few of the notes which I took of the lessons at which I was present, may be of service in showing the general method of teaching in German schools. At Halle I was present at a lesson on Australia in the Quarta class of the Kealgymnasium, given by a candidate for the degree of FamJtas Docendi in geography. It may be regarded as typical of the method generally followed in such schools. Bamberg's wall-map of Anstralasia was used. The teacher himself rapidly drew a large scale map of Aus- tralia on a sheet of paper on the wall ; he made one or two mistakes in the outline of the coast, which he asked his boys to point out ; several did so correctly. The pupils were questioned as to the number of conti- nents and oceans; their comparative sizes, which were illustrated by a sheet of parallelograms. Australia was compared as to its prominent features with other continents ; with Eussia, Germany, England ; peculiarities of coast, gulfs, bays, islands, reefs; regions around Australia ; general con- figuration of the land ; mountain systems, table-land of interior. A boy was set to draw on black-board a section across the continent from east to west, giving general heights of table land and of coast ranges. Eivers — their sources, courses, fall, general characteristics, navigability treated. Then came the prevailing winds, and the characteristics of the regions from which they come ; their effects on the climate, first, on the east coast, second, on the interior ; mountains ; general features of climate and results on vegetation. Leaves of Eucalyptus were shown as illustrative of the peculiar vegetation of Australia. A life-sized picture of the head of an Australian native was shown. The boys were examined as to what they learned jfrom the picture, and much intelligence was shown by them in reading it. Australians compared with other races, their hair, nose (illustrated by diagram on black-board), habits, dwellings, food, weapons, Sic. Boomerangs and spears were exhibited. The division of Australia among the various Colonies was next gone into ; the situation and size of the chief towns as compared with Halle and Dresden, illustrated diagrammatically. Diagrams, with vari-coloured chalks, were, indeed, much used throughout. In referring to the tele- graphic connections of Australia, specimens of deep-sea cable were shown, in referring to products, specimens of wool shown. The history of discovery in Australia briefly touched upon. Boys encouraged to give reasons for the leading facts of Australian geography. Lastly, they were 46 REPORT. ordered to take out their papers and draw a map of Australia, using the large wall-map as copy ; this they did rapidly and well. Much of this information was given for the first time. The boys were evidently accustomed to the method ; on being afterwards questioned, the answers given were astonishingly full and intelligent. There was seldom any reference to books or notes ; the teacher in constant activity, and pupils on the alert, and generally interested. Altogether the method is one which not only keeps alive the interest of the boys, but succeeds in conveying much solid information not otherwise obtainable, and in teaching the pupils to think and draw inferences for themselv^es. In a lower class in the same school I was present while Dr. Lehmann gave a lesson also on Australia; the method followed being much the same. The boys were questioned as to the significance of the various cartographic features, the information conveyed by the various contours and shades of colour, to indicate plains, table-lands, hills, mountains, &c. The peculiar character of the fauna insisted on ; absence of the large carnivora ; a large picture of kangaroo and young shown. I was also present at a lesson in the Ober-Secunda Class on Central America and the West Indies, in which the subject was gone into with a depth proportionate to the advanced stage of the class. Not merely the geographical data in the most comprehensive sense were dwelt upon, but the causes elicited for the phenomena dealt with. The text-hook was Kirchhoff's, in use throughout the school, and, as usual, was used merely as a text-book. As usual also the pupils were made to interpret the map, the master giving comments and conveying further information. The influence of the meteorology of Central America on its climate and products brought out. The peculiar vegetation dwelt on ; the special character of the leaves of certain plants shown to be the result of the peculiar rainfall conditions. The inhabitants at the time of the Spanish Conquest, their characteristics, civilisation, and relations to the popula- tions ; North and South American Indians in general referred to ; the prevailing Indian populations over the continent at the present time, and their influence on the political and social conditions. Central America and Mexico, with their proportionately large Indian population contrasted with the United States, in which the Indian element is comparatively small. Difierence between the civilisation and political condition of an agricultural and a hunting people dwelt upon. The West Indies were then treated of; the different groups and their physical characters; coral and volcanic islands contrasted with continental islands. Forma- tion of coral reefs explained and illustrated. Besides a physical map and small relief map, Mohn's Isobars for July were shown. I might give similar notes for many other schools. In Leipzig I was present at a lesson on the geography of Italy in the First Eealschule, hy Dr. Gotze, in which the method and the fulness of the teaching were the REPORT. ^'^ Bame The phyBical geography had been completed, and the political re^g^hy was about fo be entered on. The physical and the pohUcal Lps werlboth hung up, and the leading points m the physical geography gone over on the poUtical map, so as to make the two section, dovetai^l The mountain systems, their connection with neighbouring systems, their ramiacations and offshoots, their special characteristics and directions, with the consequent results in the country on eacb side of their course The leading heights were well in the memory of the pupils, and constant reference was made to well-known heights in Saxony and other parts of Germany. The rivers were taken up, and their connection with the mountains. Why are the rivers from the Alps much larger than those from the Apennines? Why has the Po more tributaries on the north than on the south? The tributaries on both sides had to be named from the source. The rivers of Central Italy were treated in the same way ; their commercial value, and occasionally historical associations dwelt upon. Italy, I was told, is treated of in rather more detail than some other European countries, on account of its analogies with Germany- analogies which were brought out in some detail. Eor the purpose of map reading, I may say that the pupils of this school are made to build up reliefs on the basis of the staff-map of the district around Leipzig. Some of them which I saw were extremely creditable. In the First Gymnasium of Leipzig I was present at a lesson in XJnter-Secunda, in physical geography, by Dr. Traumiiller, in which the text-book used was Jachmann's 'Experimental Physik,' because the particular part of the subject is more fully and scientifically treated there than in the ordinary text-book. The special subject was meteorology, isobars, the action of the sun, maxima, minima, &c. Dr. Traumiiller teaches his boys mostly from maps, and by his own lectures. Here, as in other Gymnasia and Eealschulen which I visited, I found that continual reference was made to geography, not only in history, but in other subjects. For example, in the case of the Wohlerschule of Frank- furt, Dr. Kortigarn informed me, that in teaching chemistry, physics, botany, and geology, the geographical bearings of the subjects are constantly pointed out. Thus, of the distribution of plants and animals, climatology, astronomical geography, historical geography, much know- ledge is acquired. While in Berlin essentially the same method is followed as in the schools of Saxony, I must say that in more than one of the schools which I visited, the teachers did not seem particularly well up to their busi- ness, and the maps were, in not a few cases, old and poor. This I was told was due to the fact of the very small allowance made by the municipality for apparatus. In an elementary school visited by me, while the Congo Conference was sitting, a very poor small map of Africa was used for the lesson, which must have been thirty years old. Still, here, as in other parts of Germany, geography has its due place in the 48 REPORT. programme of the schools, and in two of the higher schools which I visited, at least, the teaching was nearly as good, and the method much the same as in Leipzig, Frankfurt, Halle, and Gottingen. Conclusions as to Higher Schools. — ^In deciding the status of the pupil, the value of his geography is estimated just as that of other suhjects, in this as in other German schools. The pupil's permanent place is decided hy his position, — by the certificate which he receives in passing from Upper Secunda to Prima, and this certificate is included in his Leaving Certificate. In this particular, geography is exactly in the same position as Latin and Greek prose. The general conclusion I came to was, that in the average German Eealschule and Gymnasium, the pupils leave school with a sound working knowledge of geography. The teaching in English, for example, is generally so good that the average hoy can both write and speak it intelligibly after his school course ; and from what I observed geography is quite as really and thoroughly taught. I should say, for example, that the average boy from the Kealschulen and Gymnasia which I visited in Frankfurt, Leipzig, Halle, Gottingen, Berlin, and other places, would be able, without special preparation, to answer a considerable percentage of the questions in the Royal Geographical Society's medal examinations. In short, while the situation is not what German geographers would wish it, it is evident that there is a striking contrast between German and English schools in the treatment of geography. It is a serious subject of education, legislated for by the Government, and taught to a large extent by trained teachers for two hours a week in schools of all grades, with a wealth of apparatus not to be met with in this country. There is a journal, the * Zeitschrift fiir Schul geographic,' entirely devoted to the subject ; frequent papers on improved methods and apparatus appear in other geographical journals ; at national and international geographical congresses a section is devoted to it ; it pays publishers and manufacturers of apparatus to devise constant additions to their stock, constant improvements in maps, reliefs, pictures, atlases, text-books. For such enterprise in this country, there is little or no encouragement except in the Board Schools. The German Universities. — Turning to the position of the subject in German Universities, the fact is, that until about twelve years ago, almost the only Chair of Geography was that of Berlin, originally held by Eitter. Now there are twelve professorships of geography, and a new one has been established at Miinster, in Westphalia, this year, while it is intended to establish a professorship of physiography at Berlin. Professors of geography are in all respects on a footing of perfect equality with other professors, and may aspire to the same honorary REPORT. 49 offices, such as deau and rector. Their official salaries are essentially the same, generally about £400 per annum, with additions in proportion to the number of students. It is not compulsory on any class of students to take up geography, but for certain purposes students require to pass an examination in geography, and as a matter of fact, we find the regular lectures on this subject attended by numbers varying from twenty to eighty. These regular lectures may be three or four a week, with others that are open to the general public. For students making a special study of the subject, and who wish to qualify themselves for teachers, there are additional classes, or Ubungen, generally in the evening, twice a week. Creography in the Degree of Ph.D, — ** As regards the examination for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy," Professor H. Wagner writes as to Gottingen, " geography has the same position and value as all the other subjecte in the philosophical branch, — languages, history, archaeology, mathematics, physics, chemistry, geology, zoology, botany, &c. If geography is the principal subject in which the candidate wishes to obtain his doctorate, he is obliged to write a scientific dissertation, which is printed, and which must exhibit the progress of the science. A compilation alone or a reproduction is not accepted for a dissertation. There is also a viva voce examination. If geography is only the second subject which the candidate chooses, there is only an oral examination. This examination is quite different from that for the FacuUas Docendi ; it is much more intensive than extensive. My method is to select two or three branches of geography and to find whether the candidate has studied the subjects thoroughly and scientifically. He is obliged to show that throughout he knows not only well-ascertained facts, but also the present position of the sciences which underlie the different topics. My object is to ascertain whether the candidate has a scientific insight into the different currents of our science." In some Universities, the professor of history is the examiner in geography, with the result that the latter is ignored. Professor Kein found this to be the case when he came to Bonn, but insisted that he should be the sole examiner in geography, with the result that the examination is now a real one. At Gottingen, under Professor H. Wagner, as will be seen above, the geographical part of the Ph.D. exami- nation involves quite as thorough a study as that in physics or history. In the examinations where this is the case, the attendance at the class of geography is numerous. The Facvltm Boce'nM in Geography.— There is a special degree i'oct^fls Docendi, in geography, which is passed by those intending: to quahfy themselves to teach the subject. The following statement sent to m^ by Professor H. Wagner will give some idea of the attainments 50 REPORT. required to obtain such a degree:—" The exammation for the right or faculty of teaching geography in our Gymnasia and Kealschulen, consists of two degrees or stages, (a) That qualifying for teaching it in the lower classes. Candidates must show a good knowledge of the facts and laws of physical geography, including the elements of astronomical geography, of the orography and hydrography of the earth's surface, a certain number of geographical numerical data, — heights, depths, latitudes, and longitudes, mean temperatures, rainfall, areas, population, density, &c. They must know the various projections used in school maps ; must be familiar with the political geography of foreign countries ; and the leading facts in the history of discovery, (h) The faculty qualifying for teaching the subject in the higher classes. This examination is more extensive in respect of the various phenomeoa and their laws, and the candidate must show a more thorough knowledge of the history of geography and of geographical literature.*' The course for the full Facultas Docendi generally extends over two years, and in most of the Universities, consists of a systematic series of lectures on the facts and principles of geography in its most compre- hensive sense, and as a rule of considerable profundity in each depart- ment. These are illustrated by the best attainable maps, published in Germany and abroad, geographical pictures, ethnological pictures and casts, and objects of ethnological interest, geological specimens, reliefs of various kinds, diagrams, &c. At the ttbungun, or exercises for special students, they are trained often in the best methods of teaching the subject. Some professors aim at training at least a few of their students to undertake geographical research. This is especially the case, I find, with Professors Kein and Richthofen. Professor Beings Course. — Professor Rein, for example, gives his students geographical subjects and problems to work out, with a view to their Facultas Docendi. One student I found was working out the present and past distribution of Viticulture in Germany, constructing maps to illustrate his research. This involved a minute research into the present and past physical geography as well as history of Germany, such points being brought out as that in former times, when common- wealths were isolated, communications difficult, wars frequent, and trade- routes few, the monasteries grew their own vines for communion wine, and consequently the culture of the vine extended much further north than at present. Such a research is surely an admirable discipline. Another student was working out the routes that in past and present times led to India ; another the origin and history of the salt-deposits of Prussia. Other subjects fur such researches referred to by Professor Eein were the effects of the Gulf Stream ; the inferences to be drawn from Nordenskjold's observations at the mouth of the Obi, as to the difference between salt and comparatively fresh water. A student who had been REPORT. ^^ working at the geography of Finland, in an exhaustive manner, had gone to that country to continue his researches on the spot. Here are a few of the questions put to students for the FacuUas Docendi :— What is the difference between the culture of Chinese Asia and Mongolian Asia ? j v r« f What were the physical difficulties met with by Alexander the Orieat in his march S.E. after the Conquest of Persia ? What do you understand by the term Thuringian ? Give division of the Rhenish Mountains ? At the evening exercises of Professor Rein (and I found much the same method to prevail at other Universities) each student chooses a theme and works it out. Each has his atlas before him, and to each half an hour is given to speak on his theme, which is then discussed and criticised. Thus Sir Rawson Rawson's paper on the Partition of Africa had been taken up shortly before my vi^it, and all allusions, bistorical, ethnological, physical, geographical, thoroughly gone into and cleared up. In this manner the leading topics of the day, on which geography can show light, are taken up. I give here a note from Professor Rein on the subject of his lectures on geography given partly at Marburg and partly at Bonn. " Subjects of Professor Rein's lectures on geography :— General orography ; clima- tology ; oceanography ; geography of Germany, of the Mediterranean coimtries, of the rest of Europe, of Asia, of America, of Australia, of Africa ; history of English explorations and of the English colonial empire ; Arctic explorations ; on the deve- lopment and downfall of Portuguese colonies ; the Dutch and the English in the Indian waters ; on the history and geographical distribution of the known commercial plants ; the natural history of Japan ; the chief industries of Japan ; the great dis- coveries in geography ; the formation of islands and character of island life ; results of deep-sea researches ; cartography. " On the latter subject," Professor Eein adds, " I have lectured every third or fourth semester. The lecture was always followed by practical work, when the students had to apply the theory to some special case ; for instance, after having shown Mercator's projection theoretically, my pupils would have to draw a map on a ^ven scale, say of the German Ocean, or they would draw a map of Africa for instance, to exemplify and apply Flamsteed's projection. I was generally satisfied when they had drawn the lines for longitude and latitude, and some general outlines, in order to gain time. Such kind of work always attracted great interest and gave much satis- faction, for it established a greater insight into the ways and means by which maps are made, and fixed many an important point for ever in their minds." I need scarcely say that the principles and practice of cartography form an important part of the exercises in connection with all the best geographical classes in Germany. Both at Bonn and Gottingen, I was shown beautiful specimens of map-construction ; and at the latter Uni- versity especially, cartographic work bulks very largely. One method of Professor Rein is to make his students draw a map of a region, say of lands bordering on the North Sea, on as large a scale as the sheet will permit, and then to calculate the scale. E 2 52 REPORT. A great impetus lias been given to the subject at Bonn by tlie attitude of Clausius, the eminent physicist. In the case of a student who was a candidate for the Science Certificate in teaching, and who passed in the first class in all subjects except mathematics, and particularly well in geography, Clausius stated that his position in geography would make up for his deficiency in mathematics, and so moved that the student should be granted a first-class certificate. Both at Bonn and Gottingen, the professors of geography have large and well-appointed class-rooms, with large separate rooms for their stores of maps and apparatus, which is of the most varied and abundant character. At Leipzig and Berlin, the accommodation, owing to local circumstances, was not quite so good, but other professors were in similar case. The maps of these university classes are, as a rule, of a much more advanced character than those for schools. All the best foreign maps will be found, including the staff maps of the various countries. The professors themselves with the help of their students construct many special maps ; and Professor Wagner has issued a series of outline maps of the world and its divisions, which are of the greatest utility in constructing maps to illustrate any special point in geography. Professor Rein had a very fine collection of photographs and other illustrations from all parts of the world, not to mention diagrams in connection with such subjects as the distribution of forests, the relative size of continents and oceans. Professor Wagner's Course. — Professor Wagner's class, as I have indicated, is, to a considerable extent, a school of cartography; but partly by this method and partly by the ordinary system of lectures he goes over the whole field of geography in about two years. He has thirty-eight special students of cartography ; four years ago there were only thirteen. He has generally one or two men who study geography for the express purpose of qualifying themselves, to become practical geographers and explorers ; one such he mentioned to me who had recently gone out to Venezuela and other regions in South America for scientific exploration. Professor Wagner has himself examined more than two hundred students for the Facultas Docendi, and if qualified men go out in similar proportions from the other Universities, it is evident that their influence in raising the standard of geographical teaching in schools must be very great. The following is Professor Wagner's programme as forwarded to me by himself : — « My full curriculum extends only about five semesters, and is, of course, not frequented by all the students during all the semesters, who study geography. But my purpose is to give every one a selection of different sections. REPORT. -'^'-^ I. Semester. 1 GeneT;! Physical Geography, Part L-Fonn and ^i--^-«^.«J^*^; of the earth. The movements of the earth. The surfeoe-moipholog> of di. dry surface. Oceanography. , *v , ;-.>r;v^< 2. Cartographical exercises for begimiers. ITieory and practice of the proj.xt.o^. of maps. Elements of cartography. ,. ., ^, *„ / -«^ 3. A public lecture once a week, on any interesting subject. fi»r stodents of eT«y kind, e.g. on England and her Colonies ; the modem historr of Afiican discovery ; the development of the commerce of the world for fifty years, vVc, II. Semester. ^. ., ^. e ^ .. 1. General Physical Geography. Part II. Climatology. DistnbutMHi of p.an.s and animals. 2. Special geography of the Alps. 3. Geographical exercises. Every pupU studies one or more geographical questton for himself under my direction, to learn the use of insfaumeote or to beoc-me familiar with geographical literature. III. Semester. 1. Chorography of Europe, a physical description of Enrop< with respect to climate and vegetation, and a selection of historical and starisdcal iacts, bit no systematical political geography. 2. Geographical discussions. Headings and discu^ons of some andsit or nadcm geographical authors— Ptolemy, Marco Polo, Humboldt (Caitaral Asa), &c Sometimes lectures are given by the students. 3. A public lecture once a week, but not every winter, IV. Semester. 1. Chorography of Germany (Central Europe) (see UL). 2. The methods (theory and practice) of teaching geography in middle sdaocfc and the apparatus for it. Specially for future teacheis of gec^raphy, who are the majority of my pupils. 3. Geographical exercises for the more advanced stud^its. V. Semester. (a.) Geography of America ; (&.) or of Asia. Both with special respect to the history of discovCTy. (c.) General ethnography. I select the subject which may have the most interest for those jM'esent, and give, e.g. a lecture in ethnc^raphy in a semester in which lectores on anthropo- logy are not given by our professors of that subject. The majority of my people are, as you know, not geographers alone ; they will have to teach afterwards, together with geography, either (a.) Classics. or (&.) Modem languages ; or (c.) History ; or [d.) Natural history or mathematics.*' Professor Wagner aims at elevating geography in its scientific position and making it a real university discipline. He doubts whether, as a school subject, it can here be made a real discipline, without doing injustice to other subjects. At school he thinks the ground-work of general education should be laid ; at the University geography can be made a special subject, a real discipline. His notion of the field r,4 KEPOKT. which geography should cover is somewhat similar to that of Professor von Richthofen and Professor Rein ; and is indeed that which prevails generally in Germany among geographers, some of whom would, how- ever, embrace too much of special subjects. TJie German Conceptim of the Field of Geography.— It should not be lost sight of that the surface of the earth including all that is thereon, is the one subject of geographical study. This involves a study not only of the configuration of that surface, but of all those influenced which shape and modify it, especially when regarded as man's habita- tion, and the theatre of his development. Some geographers would make man himself the centre of geographical research, and geography a study of the earth's surface, as acting on, and acted upon, by the most important factor to be found on that surface. In any view of it, it is evident that there is no one science, and no collection of sciences, when they keep strictly to their own spheres, that are called upon to work out the problems with which geography has to deal, and with which, for many years, it has been made to deal, under the hands of German geographical students. Only from the geographical standpoint could such problems be worked out as those to be found in the works of Ritter and Peschel, and to a considerable extent in those of Humboldt. But these masters have had many followers, and a long list of recent works might be given, that are possible only in a country in which special geographical research is encouraged as it is in Germany Some of these I have already referred to; and the number of high-class geographical journals in Germany is well known. In the Appendix (M), I have given the conclusions of Professor von Richthofen's introductory address when entering on his Leipzig chair in October, 1883, and in which he surveyed the Pield and Methods of Geography, and also a few extracts from Professor Wagner's paper on the Present Standpoint of Geography. Perhaps Professor Richthofen claims too much for the science, and it may be admitted that its bounds have need of more precise definition ; though the same could be said of almost any department of research at the present day. The most ambitious German geographer now living, however, claims no more for geography than Kant did more than a century ago; he, and not Ritter, might well be regarded as the father of modern geographical research. Both the advocates and the opponents of geo- graphy as a distinct field of manly study would do well to read his writings on physical geography — * Immanuel Kant's Schriften zur Physischen Geographie,' edited by F. W. Schubert, Leipzig, 1839. While everyone must acknowledge the vast service which Ritter did to geography, it is held by some, without much justification, that he also to some extent retarded its progress by insisting too emphatically on its intimate connection with history. Both in Germany and France, it REPORT. 55 way, until recently, almost invariably associated with history in s^obools and universities, with the result that history became eveiything, and geography disappeared. I was present in Leipzig at a Tery interesting discussion between Professor von Bichthofeii iiijd two «f the most eminent living Grennan geologifitB. The latter inaie indrie^i as some English geologists are, to maintain that g© l>gy leAx^e^ no iviwan f(s any special physical geography. But Eiehtho^n^ himi«i^1f a rf<^»jgist, strongly contested this, and in the end eimviiicjed The g^ .©^-^ts rihat their own science leaves whole fields of physical georraiiy "zlt <»be»3L The function of geology is to study the rocks im nfa, ijeir ^yr^zsj.'^ chemistry, palaeontology, Ac Thus, in tiie cast c: v.:.]ei»cies, lir geologist investigates the forces at work, dynaiBieai aiid fjhf»ftal ai i their active results ; while the effects of vrlcanic aeiiiM cm. ihe the terrestrial and meteorological fonces at ^wvrk to rj:»2irr m x± rJ^^lr. •^^. products, belong to geography. Eitter Mnisrl^ was too much of a theoretical, ideal, metapiiysiea. .-^ nrr-v.r Jkpsr ?,-,- too Kttle knowledge of physical s-jience to nrvsk'^ a:: fmkAmrir,^ a»i useful field for geography, conttasdng mazkedlv in t^^s i^sreci Trni Peschel. Had Humboldt been in Bitterns pia.:^, whi aD. Mi in : wt>£ge of physical and natural science, he w juld no doolT hare sao^seiad in creating a school of scientific geography, siu^ as i* now beiu: fussed by the efforts of Grerman professors. All modem geo^npbess of reputation, Eichthofen points out, have approadied iLe solqect foo^n the side of science,— Eichthofen himadf and Bon, Mmt^^ddoei ani Geikie from geology, Wagner tram mathsna^es and ptj^^ WaZU^oe and Bates from biology. At the same time th^ vast SfrriDes of Bitter cannot be overlooked ; it would be disas^ous to tie ntOitr :f seE^fapIrr to ignore its intimate connection with history, a ooiirieetilii -x^kash K^ni himself insisted on as strongly as Bitter. Professor Bichthofen'g Cmurse.— At the time when I attakd^d Bicb- thofen's lectures in Leipzig, he had aV.ut fifty gtodente. He was ihai deaHng with the comparative geography of the oonthieDiB, a sulnect which would probably last a semester. Hichlhtifea aims at fe^ning his students to be not merely teachers in geography ; he L- d^rotw of creating a school of geographical specialistB. At yieeeni he Us no regular course. Eichthofen is the successor of Peschel, and when he entered on his work in 18.3, he began by giving one or two semesters to Allgemeine Erdkunde, and then entering on a minute study of some special region of the earth, as for example. Eastern ftudv tf TT:" ^ ^rf^ ^' '^^^^ ^^ ^ - comparative mr?of V . ^^^:V '""l ^^^^^- The general de^ptive pa t of this, he will afterwards include in his Allgemeine Erdkunde. V\ ith this general knowledge he wiU expect his students in future to be acquainted, and will devote only a small portion of time to it, pro^bty 56 REPORT. only a part of a semester. While Richthofen examines for the FacuUas JDocendi, there is a Privat Docent in Geography, Dr. Hahn, the able author of ' Inselstndien,' whose knowledge of Geographical data is probably unsurpassed. With him the students can take the ordinary subjects. Richthofen's idea is that a student of geography should not only master the general subject. He believes that in geography, as in every other department of science, the student can only qualify himself for original research, and for teaching the subject fundamentally, by making a profound study of some one department, or some one region. It is so in Physics, Chemistry, Biology, Geology : and so it is in Geography. Thus he will have no regular course of lectures. He will go on taking up special aspects of geography, and treating them minutely in a series of lectures, each extending probably over a series of semesters. Like other German professors, Kichthofen has his special class, his tJbungen, held in his apparatus-room once a week for three hours ; and here he carries out his special aims also. Each student selects his subject, which he works out minutely, and gives the results at the meeting, which are then criticised by students and professor. At the meeting at which I " assisted " there were about a dozen students present. The two subjects for the evening were the geography of the south-west border of the Iranian Plateau, and the ethnology of the Ural Region. The former subject occupied two hours, so that there was no time for the second paper. The student who had made a special study of the Iranian plateau was, I believe, a historical student, who desired to qualify himself through geography, to undertake original historical research. He had evidently made a very complete study of the subject — geographical, historical, commercial, biological, ethnological, archaeological. Besides Kiepert's physical map of Asia, he illustrated his monograph with a number of special maps, plans, diagrams, books, &c. The geography included physical, political, statistical, ancient, and modern. Ancient and modern trade-routes were followed ; the special physical character of each dis- trict, and its special ethnology ; the rivers were minutely traced, and their commercial importance considered ; the associations connected with Persepolis and other towns ; the various industries of the region, and BO on. Richthofen is only beginning his collection of apparatus, but it is already comprehensive though select, and determined by his own special aims. He has several hundreds of maps already, of all sizes and from all countries ; maps illustrating special phenomena constructed on Wagner's " Umrisskarte ; " a library of the best general and special authorities in the various departments of geography, &c. Baron von Richthofen's chair appears to me to approach more nearly than other chairs in its methods and subjects to the ideal of an English University chair. K£POBT. -^7 Professor Kirckhofs a>ii««.— AtHaUe I fonnd Professor Kirchhoff with a very large class of stadents, most of whom were iirepariDg for the raeii/ia* BocendL His aim is tiierefore. lite that ofmost other German rmTeisrties, mamly to give the studenfe a compaoheiisifB and thorough gioiiiidii^ m the great facts and principles of geography, and at his specal cIa^ or tJbmigen, in training them pnctKally in the he^: m^ediods of teaehir^ the subject The coarse ext^i^ over foor aemfisteis. The fir?- secie?i»r is devoted to General Geography, and ^m c^ier three to ipeckl geography, (1) Australia, Ammca, A&ica, 2 , Asia, (3) Earrre. H-w^ wide a field is covered by Profesaer Kirchhors lecssres isay b« L^ani^? from the fact that the printed ahstraics :r beads d il^ General Geography occupies 55 pages, soomB type, ^bile Aoee ^f Hir: ^e :«^y 96 pages. For the Goieral Geography a Ikt of ahoat i-^y :?recBil works is given, under the varioiis hfiaiiBg& fa ecn^nr^skii-iL W ia» studenfe. In the Appotdix (S) I gro the lg%:^T sectani* ^ t&e General Get^raphy, with the Icoks to te cansul^c*! zn. each seccitaL- which win give some idea of the erfcaa^t itud z^-di «: i^ foijeci t? treated at a German TJniveisity. I was present when Professes' Eirdihoir w3s]belHaBigi:udsit gave a lessen on Moravia and Bohemia to his lelbw-stadeats » if to a class ; dcvdb^ei the region on the blackboard from its bossdaries iffwazda, ^ring details as he went along in all sections of geography. The atudcn t was criticised very freely both by his feUow-studemts and by the Pn^esBor. There were thirty-one students at this special class. Professor Kirchhoff has a large stock of apparatus for afl parposea^ including a set of apparatus for projectiflos, various modfifa, as of a ^ader, a volcanic island, Ac; abundance of ethnological pictures, UiiA^p^g^ mineralogical specimens, about three hundred maps, several made under the Professor's direction for special purposes ; a large stereoscope, Ac. I found in HaUe, that besides the general subject taught by the professor of geography, special malhematical and astronomical gec^raphy 18 taught by the professor of mathematics and astronomy. Professor H. Kiepert's Omrse.^ln. Berlin, under the eminent carto- grapher, Professor Kiepert, geography is treated more from the historical 58 REPORT. and etlinological side perhaps than in other Universities under younger professors. Besides Dr. Kiepert, there is in Berlin University an extra- ordinary professor of geography, Dr. F. Mliller. Dr. Kiepert informs me that he does not have special exercises in connection with his class ; he considers himself too old to begin an innovation which is com- paratively recent. In the Appendix (0) I have given the notes with which Professor Kiepert furnished me as to the course of geography at Berlin University. Breslau University. — I give also in the Appendix (P) an interesting and useful communication which has been sent me by Professor Partsch of Breslau. From this, and from what precedes, I hope a satisfactory idea will be conveyed of the position of geography at German Uni- versities. The progress made in twelve years has been great, and in the next twelve years it is bound to be yet greater. Commercial Geography in Germany. — In Germany geography has its place not only in schools and universities, but in such special institu- tions as commercial schools and war academies. At the Commercial School of Leipzig, which I visited, it has an important place under Dr. 0. Hahn. The students here are expected to be grounded in physical and political geography before they enter, though the professor begins with a preliminary course in physical geography. In each of the three years of the school curriculum, geography, with special reference to industry and commerce, has its place two hours each week. Geography in the Military Academy. — By the courteous permission of the Minister of War, I was able to attend the lectures of Dr. Marthe, Professor of Geography at the Kriegs-Akademie in Berlin. This, I believe, is equivalent to our Staff College, and is attended by picked officers, mostly lieutenants. In the " Instruction " for the conduct of the Kriegs-Akademie, the importance of a sound know- ledge of political and physical geography, far beyond that with which a youth leaves school to enter the army, is insisted on. (See Appendix G.) Political geography has four hours per week at the Academy, and physical geography two. There is, besides, of course, a class in military geography, which is compulsory. I found over thirty officers attending Professor Marthe's class, and taking notes on the general geography of China, as diligently as if their career depended on the result. The results of my visits to the various geographical establishments or publishers in Germany, in Leipzig, in Gotha, in Berlin, will be seen in the Exhibition which will be opened in the autumn, and in the catalogue in connection therewith. REPORT. 59 I have dwelt tlms long on the position of geography in German education because that country has taken the lead in the subject, because it is still considerably ahead of other continental countries, and because these other countries are to a greater or less extent shaping their pro- gramme after that of Germany. It will only be necessary, therefore, to refer briefly to what I have learned in Austria, France, Italy, Switzerland, Holland, Belgium, and Scandinavia. Austria. Geography in Austrian Universities. — Austria is following fast on the heels of Germany in the extent to which geography is taking its place in all grades of education, and as to the methods adopted in teaching it. There are professorships of geography at Vienna, Czernowitz, Graz, Innsbruck, Prag ; as also at Budapest, Klausenburg, and Krakau. The methods are essentially the same as in German universities, and the ground gone over naturally varies with the predilections of the pro- fessors. Professor Simony, with whom I had a long interview, devotes much attention to physical geography. He himself has for years explored the Dachstein mountains, and generally makes them his text for general physical geography. He does not deal much with historical and political geography, which he says his students can obtain from his colleagues. He has a great stock of apparatus, including reliefs and pictures by himself of those parts of the Alps with which he is familiar. He makes distinction between pictures of a geographical and those from an artistic standpoint, and the distinction is well illustrated by his own productions. In Austria, as a whole, however, the field of geography in the universities does not appear to be so extensive as in Germany ; it seems, to a considerable extent, confined to Europe, and largely to Austria; physical geography, with special aspects of geographical research, is more dwelt upon than political and historical geography. The tendency undoubtedly is, however, to widen the field in all direc- tions, and treat the subject essentially as it is in German universities. Geography in Austrian Schools. — With regard to Austrian schools, geography has its place in the official programme, from the lowest to the highest, just as in those of Germany. It is still, however, asso- ciated to too large an extent with history, and in the Gymnasia seems to be taught as a separate subject only in the lower school. In the Realschulen it has a more prominent place, its actual position here as elsewhere depending partly on the masters. There does not seem to be in Austria anything like the number of trained teachers in geography that is found in Germany. In these as in other respects, however, great progress is being made. In the official * Instructionen fur den Unterricht an den Gymnasien in Osterreich,' forty pages 60 REPORT. are devoted to minute directions for teaching the subject in all its stages. The directions relative to the elementary stage I have already- referred to as given in the Appendix (K). Some of the best text-books, school wall-maps, atlases, and geo- graphical pictures, come from Austria. The finest series of Geo- graphische Charakterbilder is that published by Holzel of Vienna, whose wall-maps and atlases, edited by Yon Haardt and other carto- graphers, will bear comparison with the best in Germany. In Austria, as in Germany, geographical education begins with Heimatskunde, and goes outwards and upwards in the higher schools, so as to embrace the whole field. In the Mariahilf Keal-Gymnasium, which is in fact a Eealschule and a Gymnasium combined, geography is as well taught under the Director, Dr. Schwab, and Dr. Umlauft, editor of the GeogrwpMsche Mundschau, as in the best schools in Germany. In the classes at which I was present the methods were the same as in Germany, and the apparatus abundant. Indeed, this school has one of the best furnished geographical museums I have seen, while its collections in other departments, filling several rooms, are probably unsurpassed for real utility and abundance. For geographical apparatus above 16Z. yearly are allowed. Besides the Geographische Charakter- bilder there are some 500 photographs from all parts of the world, with life-size casts of heads for ethnological teaching; many specimens of the products of different countries ; weapons ; clothing ; minerals ; specimens of guano, with photographs of guano beds ; ideal section of tropical Atlantic, &c., not to mention a stock of about 100 maps. Dr. Umlauft has drawn up a list of the various objects which he thinks it desirable to add to his geographical collection. This I give in the Appendix (Q), as it may be useful to those who contemplate forming a similar collection. Here, as in the best German schools, the significance of cartographic signs is carefully taught, and for the purpose Dr. Umlauft has issued a special Atlas, which will be found in the Exhibition. The Vienna Commercial Academy. — Vienna possesses what is probably the leading Commercial Academy in the world, attended by about 900 students, many of them from foreign countries. Under Professor Zehden, geography forms one of the most important branches of instruction in the school, the course extending over three years. As in all the best schools in Germany and Austria, there is a special room for geographical apparatus.. Here I found about 150 maps, all of the best class, including special maps from various foreign couDtries. From ten to twenty new maps are purchased yearly. There are two sets of Holzel's ' Charakterbilder,' both geographical and historical ; Kirchhoff's * Rassenbilder,' besides hundreds of photos and engravings of cities, seaports, &c., Pick's * Tellurium,' and other specialities. REPORT. 61 There are in this school a one-year's course for students who have taken their leaving certificate at the Gymnasium and Kealschule ; and a three-years' course for those who wish to have a more thorough training in the suhject. In the Appendix (R) I give the programme of the three-years' course, to afford some idea of what is included in Commercial Geography. Dr. Zehden is the author of a large text- hook of Commercial Geography, which will be found in the collection for exhibition. The Austrian Cadet School. — One of the most interesting visits I made on the Continent was to the Cadet School at Wiener-Neustadt, which is under the able direction of General Crusic. I was much interested in the methods adopted to train the cadets to have a practical knowledge of surveying, and to be able to read maps accurately and swiftly. General Crusic has been good enough to send to the Exhibition a collection of the models and other apparatus used in the course, which occupies three hours a week for three years. It seems to me that the method (which will be described in the catalogue) used, is an admirable one for training the pupil to have a realistic idea of what a map is meant to teach, and might, in an elementary form at least, be introduced into such schools as aim at making geographical teaching more than the learning of a number of names. The school possesses many beautiful reliefs, and as the corresponding maps are often suspended above them, the students are constantly familiarised with the relation of the map to that which it is intended to represent. Further details concerning this method will probably be given in the Catalogue of the Exhibition collection. In Vienna, I was permitted to visit the department of the General Staff, the maps produced by which are celebrated all the world over. France. Becent Progress in France. — In no country has the progress in geo- graphical education been greater than in France during the last fourteen years. In 1871 Professor Levasseur of the College de France, and Pro- fessor Himly of the Sorbonne, made an official report to the Minister of Education, the result of personal inspection of the position of geography in French schools and universities. The conclusion was that geography was scarcely taught at all. At the time of the first Republic it had an important place in education, but after that it was subject to great vicissitudes, ending, as ihe report alluded to stated, in oblivion. As a result a commission was appointed to consider the whole situation of history and geography, in French education, for the two were bracketed. These two reports, with copies of which Professor Levasseur was good enough to present me, are of the greatest interest. But the whole situation 62 REPORT. with reference to geography in education in France since the beginning of the century, is well summarised in a brochure of Dr. J. B. Paquier, Professor of Geography at the Lycee St. Louis : * ifctude et Enseigne- ment de la Geographie en France ' (Paris, Delagrave, 1884). There also will be found a very useful discussion of the various methods to be followed in teaching the subject. Since the report of MM. Levasseur and Himly, the subject of geographical education has frequently en- gaged the serious attention of the French Education Department, so that now it finds a substantial place in the programmes of every school. There has always in France been a strong tendency to regard geo- graphy as a mere handmaid to history ; but the best teachers and best geographers insist now that physical geography should be made the basis of the whole subject. While the official programmes for the various classes of schools are comprehensive enough, the economic and the military aspects of the subject dominate, for reasons obvious enough to those acquainted with the history and social condition of France. Geography in French Higher Schools. — By official prescription An- schauungslehre and Heimatskunde must be taught in primary schools, and for the higher schools the programme is also much the same as that of German schools of a similar class. Both in the earlier and the more advanced stages, however, there seems to me to be a lack of the variety and thoroughness which mark the teaching of geography in German schools. The Heimatskunde, for example, is too often mere topography. In the Appendix (S) will be found the official pro- gramme of geography for the French Lycees, which may be held to correspond to our great public schools. There are in France not a few private schools of a high class, but these are compelled to shape their programmes essentially after that prescribed for the Lyc6es. Such are in Paris the Ecole Alsacienne and the !l6cole St. Barbe, the latter one of the most select schools in France. At the !^cole St. Barbe and the Lycee St. Louis I was present at lessons given to the army classes, the pupils who are being prepared for entry to St. Cyr. Here the black-board is everything, the principal features of a country being developed thereon by the professor, similar exercises being imposed upon the pupils. Certain Lycees are more given over to classics than others, and in them the masters are apt to give geography a less important place than it ought to have. Such is, I was informed, the Lycee Louis-le-Grand, where, however, I found a very excellent stock of maps. But the French schools, as a rule, are not so plentifully supplied with maps as German schools; while recently French school cartography has greatly improved, as will be seen from the maps to be shown at the exhibition, there is still a tendency to sacrifice accuracy to artistic effect. Those, however, recently issued by Hachette and Delagrave leave little to be desired. Mile. Kleinhaiis' REPORT. 03 relief-maps (Delagrave) are found in some schools, and occasionally a series of geographical pictures of French origin, but such luxuries I found to be rare. In text-books also there has been considerable improvement, though there remains much to be done before France comes up to Germany and Austria. The Ecole Turgot, a well-known municipal school, I found to be somewhat like the German Biirgerschule, well equipped both for geographical and science teaching. Paris has also its commercial college, not far behind that of Vienna, in which geography holds an all-important place. Even in the Conservatoire des Arts et Metiers, under Professor Levasseur, it finds its place in the programme. French Universities. — In short, in France, geography is everywhere regarded as a serious study, and is gradually obtaining the place it ought to have in the Facultes de I'^fetat. Professor Himly, who is professor of geography at as well as Dean of the Sorbonne, has a course which, while closely associated with historical development, gives due place to the physical aspects of geography. At the time of my visit he was lecturing twice a week on the physical, historical, and political geography of Southern Europe. At the College de France, although M. Levasseur is professor of economical geography and history, he knows how to avail himself of the whole field of his subject. His brochure on ' L'fitude et L'Enseignement de la Geographic ' (Paris, Delagrave, 1872) deserves the study of all interested in the subject. In the Appendix (T) will be found the heads of his coarse for 1884-5, which he was good enough to write out for me. M. Ludovio Drapeyron has also done much in the Mevue de Geograjphie to obtain for geography a worthy place in France, though his efforts to establish a Geographical University must bo regarded as Quixotic. In the provinces we find chairs of geography at Bordeaux (founded 1876), Caen (1873), Lyon (1876) ; of history and geography at Clermont, Dijon, Nancy and Toulouse. The tendency is rightly, in Universities at least, to separate history and geography ; and doubtless when the Chairs in these latter Universities have again to be fiUed up, geography will have in each a professor to itself. For the Baccalaureat-es-Lettres, geography of a fairly advanced character forms an obligatory part of the examination, and in addition to Cosmography enters into that for the Baccalaureat-es Science. Geography in French Military Schools. —^oth for admission to the special military school at St. Cyr and to the naval school, the exami- nation is severe, far more severe than we have at any stage in this country. Both at St. Cyr, and at the :^cole Superieure de Guerre at Paris, geography forms one of the most important subjects of education. In the Appendix (U) will be found the subjects prescribed for the 6-i REPORT. entrance examination to St. Cyr, wMcli is severe enongH ; and for the scliool of war the examination is still more severe. The latter corre- sponds to our Staff College, and under Colonel Niox, who has charge of the geography, the subject has assumed the first importance, and it is greatly owing to his influence that it is gradually being placed on a sound basis in the higher schools. Colonel Niox was good enough to conduct me all over his class-rooms, which are many. The walls are covered with maps of huge dimensions of all European countries, executed by himself and his students on cheap black paper with chalks, and exhibiting all the features of the countries in minute detail. The map of Belgium, for example, must be about fifteen feet square. Here it is not merely military geography that forms the subject of education. Colonel Niox is the author of a geographical treatise in five volumes, which will be found in the Exhibition Collection ; this is the text-book which is used in the school of war. No doubt its ultimate object is military geography, but an examination of the work will show that such special geography is based on a wide and profound study of physical and general geography. At St. Cyr, I am informed, the course is similar, though not quite so far advanced ; general geography occupying a place of equal importance with other subjects. In Appendix U* will be found various papers relating to geography in the Ecole Superieure de Guerre, which have been kindly placed at my service by Colonel Niox. French Normal Schools. — In France there aie Normal Schools, not only for elementary teachers, but also for those aspiring to be teachers in the higher schools. These, to some extent, fulfil the functions of the geographical chairs in German Universities, though I could not find that all teachers of geography have necessarily had a special training in the subject and its methods. At the Superior Normal School in Paris, I found that geography occupied one hour per week, under Professor Vidal de Lablache. It is still, however, combined with history, though Professor de Lablache is strongly impressed with the value of physical geography as the substratum of all other sections of the subject. There is a good stock of maps, physical and political; the black-board has important functions, and there are exercises in method as in the German Universities. M. de Lablache has edited for Colin a series of special wall-maps, which will be found in the Exhibition Collection. He admits, however, that both French text-books and French atlases, especially the latter, leave much to be desired. There are really no first-rate school atlases of French origin. The Musee Pedagogique.~The beginnings of a Musee Pedagogique have been made in Paris, in the Rue Louis Thuillier; and I found, when I visited it, that the most prominent exhibits are in geography. A collection of maps, models, pictures, ethnological figures, reliefs, and REPORT. 65 otter geographical apparatus, has been made from all parts of the world. Such a permanent museum must be of the greatest service to teachers desirous of keeping their apparatus up to the highest standard. I found, among other things, several very good large reliefs, made by the pupils of various normal schools, of the district, arrondissement, or department in which their school was situated. There can be no doubt that geography has, during the last fourteen years, rapidly taken its place as a serious study in all French educational establishments. There is still room for improvement as to methods, and the subject is still too often regarded as only an adjunct to history. But these defects are certain to be remedied, and in time France, in this respect, will be on a par with the most progressive country in Europe. Italy. General Position. — What has been said of France applies equally to Italy. The progress of education in that country in recent years has been of the most radical and hopeful character. All the best features and best methods of Germany have been imported, and maps of German origin, with Italian nomenclature, have been largely introduced. An idea of the present position of the subject may be obtained from the Normal School programme, which will be found in the Appendix (V). Under the guidance of Professor Dalla Vedova, Professor Cavaliere Guido . Cora of Turin, Professor Malfatti of Florence, and other geographers, the Italians are themselves producing series of school wall-maps and atlases, some of which will bear comparison vvdth the best products of Germany. Not only so, but in the matter of relief-maps Italian publishers are perhaps the most enterprising in Europe. Two Turin firms produce their maps in immense quantities, both for Italy and for other countries ; specimens will be found in the Exhibition. Some of them are carefully and accurately and beautifully executed; others, I fear, cannot be com- mended ; they are too small, and are made in the roughest manner by unskilled mechanics. But 'the fact of this wholesale manufacture of reliefs is one among other signs of the great importance given to geography in Italian education. The Ministry of Education is exceed- ingly liberal in the matter of apparatus ; 200 copies of the large relief map of Italy have been presented to the Lycees. The progress has, how- ever, been greater in elementary than in the higher schools, though in the latter the subject is gradually finding a place similar to that which it has in France. At the Technical School of Alessandria, and the Naval and Technical School of Genoa, the subject is particularly well cared for. The Military School of Turin is well provided with reliefs and other apparatus, though general geography has not the important place there which it has in the French military schools. F SQ REPORT. Italian Universities. — There are professors of geography at Rome, Naples, Florence, Genoa, Bologna, Milan, Padua, Palermo, Pavia, Pisa, Venice, and Turin. I found that at Turin Professor Guide Cora has a course somewhat similar to that which I found in most German Universities. The Chair is recently founded, and he is therefore only beginning to accumulate a stock of apparatus. For the general lectures he has sixty students, and for his special lectures fourteen. In Italy geography forms a necessary part of the examination for the degree of Doctor in Philosophy. The professors of geography are on exactly the same footing as other professors. Switzerland. General Position.— In Switzerland each canton has to a large extent the regulation of its own educational institutions ; hence it happens that we find considerable differences in the progress of education in different cantons. In the more advanced cantons, notably in Ziirich, Bern, and Basel, we find geography occupying an important place in the school programmes. Except at Zurich, I believe there are no professors of geography in Swiss Universities. Dr. Kappeler, the President of the famous Poly- technic of Zurich, informed me that there they wished to have a professor of geography, but found it difficult to get a good man. It is by Prof. Heim, of the Polytechnic, and also by his former pupil, Dr. Imfeld, that those beautiful reliefs are made, some of which will be found in the Exhibition. In the canton of Zurich, which may be taken as representative of the most advanced cantons in Switzerland, education of all grades is minutely provided for by the central authorities, and in all schools — primary, secondary, Realschulen and Gymnasia, as well as normal schools — geography has its place, though in the higher schools, Gymnasia especially, it has not the important place it has in the lower schools. The method is that of Germany with improvements in several points. Heimatshunde at Zurich. — The Heimatskunde of Zurich is of the most comprehensive and instructive character, and, in the hands of good teachers, cannot fail to be an excellent training both for the observing and thinking powers, and as a solid basis for further progress in natural knowledge. The text-book in use, — ' Ziirich und Umgebung : Heimatskunde herausgegeben von Lehrerverein Ziirich,' is the work of several specialists. The topography is by J. J. Miiller; geology, Professor Heim ; climatic conditions. Rector St. Wanner ; flora. Con- servator J. Jaggi ; fauna. Dr. C. Keller ; historic development. Dr. 0. Hunziker; historical and artistic monuments of Ziirich town. Prof. Vogelin; Ziirich's intellectual position since the Reformation, Dr. U. REPORT. 67 Ernst ; customs and public fetes, Dr. Eud. Schoch ; stories and legends, H. Wegmann ; specimens of the Ziiricli dialect ; manufactures, trade, and commerce, Fr. Zollinger ; charities, H. Wegmann ; education, Fr. Zollinger ; walks, K. Kreis and J. J. Sclineebeli ; statistics, H. Spuliler. Tliis will give some idea of the subjects which, in the conception of Zurich teachers, is included in Heimatskunde — in elementary geography. The contents of the book are amply and beautifully illustrated in the Permanent School Museum in Zurich town, much of which is occupied with geographical objects. Here we find many reliefs of Switzerland, and parts of Switzerland. For Ziirich there is first a relief of the town and district around ; many fine photographs of Zurich, its public monu- ments, and notable scenes around ; a series of historical views of Zurich ; several old reliefs ; historical series of maps ; specimen of rocks, plants, animals, industrial materials in all stages ; besides general geographical pictures and apparatus of all kinds. In a combined primary and secondary school which I visited, and where I was present at a lesson in Heimatskunde (subject, the Canton, each pupil having his linen map), there is probably one of the finest combined museums and laboratories to be found in any school. I found a collection of all the plants and animals of Switzerland ; a large stock of excellent maps, reliefs, geographical pictures of various German publishers, geological specimens, &c. Zurich Higher Schools. — ^In the Industrie-Schulen (corresponding to the Kealschulen of Germany) the subject is still more detailed and complete than in the primary school. The reading of maps is enjoined in the official directions to be carefully taught, and the method which I saw at work in a secondary school seemed to me particularly effec- tive. In the beginning of Wettstein*s beautifal atlas (about 30 of Eandegger's fine maps for 28. 6d.^ are a few special maps, about 6 in. by 3 in., representing different kinds of country, and different methods of exhibiting the hill-features. They are very carefully drawn, with contour lines combined with different modes of shading. The pupils construct from these, by means of thin cardboard cut out for each contour line, models or reliefs. By this method they come to have a very real idea of what a map is meant to represent. Specimens of these, by a class of pupils about twelve years of age, will be found in the Exhibition. When I was present this class was having a lesson on Australia. One exercise was to measure with their graduated centimetre scale the distance along the coast, taking in the indentations from Brisbane and Melbourne, and calculate it out in kilometres on the map scale. This they all did rapidly, and with wonderful correctness. They evidently understand clearly what a map scale is. Wettstein'g atlas and text-book is in general use in Zurich and in other cantons as well. Here, as in Germany, the text-book occupies a subordinate place, F 2 68 REPORT. and the teaolier is everything. At the Normal School, of which Dr. Wettstein is rector, teachers receive the very best training in the subject and methods of teaching geography, as well as natural science generally. It is worthy of note that in Zurich, at least, geography is bracketed with the natural sciences rather than with history, and physical geography has a correspondingly important place. At the Normal School, Dr. Wettstein himself teaches physical geography, political geography being left to the professor of history. Randegger's (of Winterthur) maps are probably unsurpassed, and such as he publishes are in general use. But I found also many of the best German maps, notably those of Reimer of Berlin. The method of building up reliefs with sand is also in general use, and in a secondary girls' school I saw the pupils build up a relief of the mountain systems of Great Britain. I found in the Zurich schools that the magic-lantern is used very effectively for geographical, as for other purposes. Swiss Cartography. — At Winterthur I visited the cartographic estab- lishment of Randegger, and inspected some of his beautiful specimens of cartography. I found him engaged on a fine map of Canton Basel, ordered by the Education Council for Basel Schools. It measures 1 • 10 metre by 1 • 30 metre, and is intended to imitate relief. It gives the contour curves with mountain shading, the light coming from the north. He was also engaged on a very beautiful relief of Switzerland, with the two scales identical, and built up with paper. It is about two feet square. He has also several other fine reliefs, all of true scales. Several of Randegger's best productions will be found in the Exhibition. Industrial Schools. — I also visited the Teohnicum (Cantonal Technical School) at Winterthur. For students intending to devote themselves to commercial pursuits, both general and commercial geography is obligatory, and is taught by means of the professor's lectures. There is a large collection of maps, geographical pictures, photographs, mineralogical, botanical, and other collections. Geneva. — Through the kindness of Colonel Gautier, of Geneva, I have received a statement of the practice of the subject in that city from M. P. Chaix, late professor at the Gymnasium ; this will be found in the Appendix (W). Belgium. Belgian Universities. — In Belgium, geography as such has no place in the Universities. In Liege there is a professor of Industrial Geography; but Professor Du Fief of Brussels believes that professorships of the general subject will shortly be established in all the Universities. REPORT. 6^ General Megulatiom.—l have already given an example of how Heimatskunde is taught in Belgium. In that country— as in other countries on the Continent— education of aU grades is considered of sufficient national importance to he cared for hy the State, and in the official programme of aU schools the teaching of geography is especiaUy provided for. In the regulations for primary schools, minute directions are given for instruction in Anschauungslehre and Heimatskunde, pro- ceeding outwards to elementary notions of general geography. In the final examination of students at primary normal schools, out of 600 marks given for thirteen subjects, thirty-five are allotted to geography. For superior schools the teachers have to undergo a written and oral examination in geography and history in order to obtain their teaching diploma in these subjects. Eigler Schools.-— ¥01 the Athenees Royaux the course prescribed is exceedingly complete. The curriculum at the Athenees lasts three years, and geography is taught throughout, although only for one hour per week. What that course is will be seen from the programme given in the Appendix (X). In the middle-class schools, in which the course is three years, geography is taught each year, the programme being a modification of that of the Athenees. It is enjoined in the official regulations that history and geography be taught in a special room, provided with illustrative objects of aU kinds, photographs, engravings, reliefs, atlases, maps, globes, &c. In Brussels, as in Paris and Zurich, there is a State Mus6e Scolaire, imder M. Andre Devos, with a very large collection of maps, globes, reliefs, and other apparatus, including some very large scale maps of Belgium, and a series of fourteen maps for Heimatskunde, and for teaching the pupils to interpret maps. The method in the higher schools is much the same as in Germany, the text-books in use being mainly those of Prof. Du Fief. Holland. Dutch Universities. — With regard to the position of geography in the universities of Holland, I have received the following statement from Prof. Kan, of Amsterdam : — " In tlie State Universities there are no special professors of geography. Physical geography is taught in the faculty of mathematics and physics by the professor of physics ; political geography in the faculty of literature and philosophy by the professor of history. The comparative value of geography on examinations is very Httle. Students in classical literature to acquire the degree of doctor, are suhmitted to an examination in the Universal History of Antiquity, and in con- nection with this, geogi'aphy. Students in Dutch literature to acquire the degree of candidate, preceding that of doctor, have to submit themselves to an examination in the Universal History of the Middle Ages and Modern Times, and in connection 70 REPORT. with this political geography. Students in mathematics and physics, geology, mineralogy, botany, and zoology, have not to submit to an examination in geography. " Yet the doctors in mathematics and physics, and the doctors in Dutch litera- ture, by their degree have the right of teaching geography in Gymnasia and Higher Schools — the same right as they who acquire the Diploma named in the Law of Secondary Education. *' The demands of the examination to acquire this Diploma are described in a special programme of examination, and are these: — * Knowledge of mathematical, physical, and political geography, including the knowledge of the parts of the solar systems, their motions and phenomena ; of positions on earth and on the heaven ; of the motion of the earth and the consequences of this motion ; a clear idea of the geological history of earth and of the principal geological phenomena on the surface ; of the phenomena in the atmosphere and on the ocean ; of the distribu- tion of temperature and rainfall on the surface of the earth ; of the geographical distribution of the principal species of plants and animals ; knowledge of the geography, the ethnography, and the political division of States.' " Speaking of the position allotted to geography in the Universities of Holland, we must remark that geography in the Gymnasia, the preparatory schools for the Universities, is taught in the first (lowest) class three hours, in the second two, in the third two. In the fourth class one hour is given to the geography of antiquity ; in the sixth one hour to the main points of mathematical and physical geography. " In the examination at the end of the gymnasial course geography is not exammed in. "In the Municipal University of Amsterdam there is a special professor for physical and political geography, and the geography and ethnography of the Indian Archipelago (Prof. Kan). He is a member of the Literary Faculty, and has the same status and emoluments as the other professors of that Faculty. His lectures are attended by a small number of students in medicine and jurisprudence who think to depart for the colonies, and of students in Dutch hterature who may be expected to teach geography in higher schools or Gymnasia. The greater number (ca. 20) consists of those who wish to prepare themselves for the examination prescribed by the Law of Secondary Education (vide supra). " Ordinarily eight lectures are given weekly : — Two for subjects of general, physical, and pohtical geography. One for the geography of a distinct state of Europe, or of a part of the extra European continents. Two for the geography and ethnography of the Dutch colonies. One for the history of geographical discovery in Africa, Asia, Arctic Eegions, &c. One on the most recent pubUcations and most Important scientific discoveries in the dominion of geography. " One hour is given to lectures and practical exercises of the students. Subjects for lectures are given, proper to scientific research and clear exposition of the different opinions on the questions ; subjects for practical exercises are given with regard to geographical education in higher schools and Gymnasia. " Students of geography in the University of Amsterdam have created themselves a society ('Oscar Peschel') to exercise the members in the composition and declamation of papers, the discussion of these, &c., in geographical subjects. The professor in geography assists from time to time at these conferences." Dutch Schools.— For the various classes of schools the programme is prescribed by the Government, and in all geography finds a place, more prominent certainly in the lovrer than the higher. In the middle schools, with a three years' course, it is taught three hours per week ; REPORT. 71 in those with five years' course there are two hours per week in the first three years, and one hour per week in the last two years. The following is the programme of the Higher Burgersohool of Leyden : — " For entrance there is required a thorough knowledge of the boundaries and rivers of the Netherlands. A knowledge of the principal soils and productions in the dififerent provinces of the Netherlands. The candidate must be able to point out on a map without names the different countries of Europe, and have a general know- ledge of their boundaries. The seas of Europe and the relative position of the continents. " The programme of instruction is as follows : — " 1st class. — Europe, and in particular the Netherlands. A smnmary of the first elements of physical geography. Longitude and latitude. Land and water. Elevations and depressions of the earth's surface. Development of the coast ; the sea and its ports. " 2nd class. — Asia, especially the Dutch Colonies in the East Indies. " 3rd class. — Africa, America, and Australia. Eecapitulation. " 4th class. — ^Elements of physical geography ; phenomena in the atmosphere ; distribution of heat, wind; the circulation of water in the air, &c. ; influence of water upon the earth ; springs, the sea, formation of valleys, &c. Distribution of plants and animals over the earth. Recapitulation. " 5th class. — Ethnography. Eecapitulation. " Three hours per week are given in the first year, two in the second and third, and one in the fourth and fifth. " In order to obtain a certificate at the end of the curriculum, there is required : — " Elements of Cosmography. — ^The examination in Cosmography embraces the shape and dimensions of the globe, the way in which they are determined, the fi xing of the position of places on its surface, the phenomena arising from the rotation of the earth round its axis, from the revolution round the sun of both the earth and the planets, and from the motion of the satellites ; the laws of motion and universal gravitation ; some knowledge of the comets, as also of the fixed stars, as far as the determination of their distances and their own motion are concerned ; the nebulae and the milky way. " Geography. — The mathematical part of geography has been mentioned above under Cosmography. To natural geography ought to be added the knowledge of climates, marine currents, prevalent winds, the distribution of plants, animals, and races of men over the surface of the earth. The examination further comprises a synopsis of the political division of the continents ; the boundaries and the natural condition, the administration, the industry, the commercial relatione of the principal countries, and especially in regard to the Netherlands and their colonies." This school is well suppUed with maps, pictures, and other materiel. In the corresponding institution, which I visited in Amsterdam, I found the conditions similar, and the method of teaching like that of Germany. In the commercial school at Amsterdam, geography general and special occupies a prominent place, and the supply of maps and other apparatus plentiful and good. At the Normal School also it has a most important place, and the students are trained to teach Heimatskunde in the primary schools. In a Burgersohool, with three years' course, the head-master of which is Dr. Posthumus (since dead), who has made a special study 72 EEPORT. !: of geographical education, the supply of maps was as abundant, and their quality as high, as in any German school. In Holland, special attention seems to be given to economical geography, and the atlas of the Netherlands of Posthumus and Yan Bemmelen shows, in a very striking way, the connection between the physical condition of the surface and its industrial uses. In Amsterdam also is an educational museum, the most prominent exhibits in which are those relating to geography — maps from aU countries, reliefs, globes, atlases, &c. It should be mentioned that at the University of Leyden there is a professor of the geography and ethnology of the Dutch East Indies — Professor Veth, who has retired since my visit. Sweden. Dr. Dahlgren of the Swedish Society of Anthropology and Geography, has been good enough to send me the following statement as to the position of geographical education in Sweden : — The National Schools. — In the year 1883 there were 9,781 National Schools with 11,749 teachers, and 601,961 pupils (children from seven to fourteen years ; attendance compulsory). In the first stage of the National School, the so-called infant school, there is no other geogra- phical teaching than that which enters into Anschauungmnterrichtj pre- scribed in the "Normal Plan." The schoolmistress (in these schools all the teachers are female) ought to give oral descriptions of the scenery of the neighbourhood in which the children live, thus presenting the most common geographical features, as hill, plain, lake, river, "sound, &c., to the observation of the children. In the National School proper, the course in which comprises four years, unless local circum- Sitances make it necessary to shorten the period, geography is taught in all the classes. In the three lower forms, two hours out of twenty- six per week are devoted to this subject, and in the highest form one hour weekly. The annual schooltime is from thirty to thirty-six weeks. The system of geographical teaching is as follows : — first the children are made well acquainted with their own parish or town and their own province ; then they learn the essential features of the geography of Sweden ; and finally they pass to the study of foreign countries and parts of the world. At the highest stage of the school, the geography of Sweden is gone over again with more detail. In the " continuation-school " (attendance not compulsory) where such pupils receive instruction as have passed through the compulsory course of the National School with good testimonials, geography has no place in the Ust of subjects, REPORT. 73 Bigher Puhlic Schools. — These are 95 in nttmber (in the year 1885), of which 35 are complete (course nine years), 22 have five classes, 20 three classes, 18 one or two classes (so called "pedagogies"); the number of teachers is 803 (besides other teachers) and of pnpils 14,976. Geography is taught in the classes one to five in " latin linien " (the classical department), and in the classes one to seven in " real-linien " (the modem or science department). Geography is not optional in these classes. In the five lower classes about two hours per week are allotted to geography out of 27, 30, 30, 30 (32), 30, (32) respectively, during the 36 nominal school weeks of the year ; in the higher classes of the science department, three hours a week are usually devoted to geography during two or three months, in the lower sixth as weU as the lower seventh (at least this is the case in Stockholm). There are no separate teachers for geography. As a rule, geography is taught by the historical teacher, history and geography being reckoned as one subject in the course of instruction. After a general survey of the parts of the world, the boys take the geography of each country or part of the world, first the physical, then the poHticaL Several parts of mathematical and physical geography are of course treated also by the teachers of mathematics and natural history. The course of physical geography includes the choro- graphy and hydrography of each country or continent, its climate, vegetation, and fauna, its natural products and cultivation. Political geography embraces the nationality and language of the population, its religion and culture, its number, industries and commxmications, the historical origin of the state, its present form of cultivation, its division for the purposes of administration, &c. In the study of classics and history suitable references are made to geography, and maps are employed. Appliances used in teaching geography are globes, wall-maps of the diflferent parts of the world, and of countries, provinces, and towns (maps in relief are seldom employed), geological diagrams, ethnographic figures, and views of landscapes. In the teaching of history historical waU-maps are used. The Universities (JJpsala and Lund). — There is no professorial chair for geography in either university. In general the elements of political geography are treated in connexion with political science, which is represented by a professor in each university. However, in Lund, the professor of political science has of late years lectured specially on geography, and there is also a " docent " there in this branch of science. Spain. By the kindness of William Macpherson, Esq., H.M. Consul at Madrid, I have received an interesting statement as to the position of geography in Spain, which will be found in the Appendix (Y). The method of geographical excursions is a feature specially worthy of attention. 74 REPORT. General Conclusions as to the Continent — Tlius it is eyident that geography has a serious place in education of all grades on the Con- tinent, and that in Germany, Austria, Italy, ^France, and Holland, there are professors of the subject at certain of the Universities. The Government of every country I have visited insists that it should he so. Geographical specialists complain that it has not in the higher schools the time allotted to it which it ought to have, and that there is a lack of properly trained teachers. The time, in my opinion, could not be much more than it is at present, and if the carefully-arranged programmes are thoroughly carried out by competent men, boys ought to leave the higher Continental schools with a very solid knowledge of geography indeed. As to teachers, well-trained men — men who have taken the course and passed the examination for the Facultas Docendi in geography — are becoming commoner every year under the influence of the Universities. In short, we find generally present in the Conti- nental systems of geographical instruction all the elements of develop- ment and success. NORTH AMERICA. United States. — I have a communication from the Hon. John Eaton, United States' Commissioner of Education, informing me that he is obtaining the data desired for the United States. He sends me a circular which has been distributed among the teachers of the States, and which reproduces the President's Letter and the Memorandum of Instructions, together with a series of questions bearing on the object of the inquiry. Mr. Eaton, however, states that the information may not be obtained in time for my Report. Canada. — Mr. Ravenstein has kindly sent me a few notes of a visit he paid, while in Montreal last year, to Montreal Protestant High School, when he was present at a lesson in geography. That school consists of a preparatory department of two classes, with a course extending over four years, and of the high school proper, in six forms, with a total course of four years. Only about one-twentieth of the whole school- time is given to geography — one hour per week. The text-books used are Calkin's ' Introduction to Geography/ and the same author's ' School Geography of the World.' Dr. Kelley told Mr. Ravenstein, however, that most of the lessons are oral, and that the text-books are but little used. " As to maps, the less said about them the better." Mr. Ravenstein questioned a class on some points of local geography, and gives on the whole a favourable report of the result. Dr. Channing, Lecturer on History at Harvard College, whom Mr. Ravenstein met at Montreal, told him that geography was dealt with in a very unsatisfactory manner in the American schools, and that his students were frequently quite unacquainted with it, thus compelling him to deal with the subject occasionally himself. REPORT. 75 Conclusions and Suggestions as to the Position of Geographical Teaching in England. As to our own country I hop© I have made the position plain enough. The elements of success in geographical instruction are wanting; there is no State Department, and no central body to legislate for schools above the primary grade. I cannot summarise the situation of geographical education more clearly than by quoting the words already given from an educational authority : — ' " (1) In Universities it is niL (2) In Public Schools very nearly ml, as the Society's examinations for their medals have proved. AT>d vrhen it is attempted, it is given to the most incompetent master, and he has a wretched set of maps. (3) It is required for the PubUc Services, and taught, I do not know how, by crammers. (4) The only places where geography is systematically taught in England are the Training Collies, male and female, ^kI the National Boazd Schools ; with now, and for the last few years, some few good High and Middle- Class Schools." In the matter of geography the Universitiee at present exercise no influence except through their local examinationB. TeacherB and examiners both stand in need of enlightenment, and unless the Spyal Geographical Society takes some step, nothing is likely to be done. It is not proposed that the Geographical Society should attempt to occupy the place assumed abroad by the State. Such a step might not be in accordance with our educational traditionB, and would hardly prove successfiil. But it appears to be in the power and within the scope of our Society to supply the necessary impulse to induce the bodies that rule or direct the course of British education to take up geography in an intelligent spirit. This may best be done by securing the voluntary co-opezation of the great Universities, together with the Univemties Schools Examination Board, the Examiners for the Army, Xavy, and all public servioee, and other similar bodies. As to the Universities, the value of gec^raphy in connection with several of the most prominent existing studies there, is gene- rally admitted by University men themselves, as will have been seen from what has been said above in reference to En^h rnivereities. To effective research in history, we are granted, it is indispensable; in the illustration of ancient literature, and classical literature especially, it is most valuable. Geology, botany, zoology, physics in its widest sense, have all important geographical aspects. But at present the bearings of geography on aU these various subjects are almost entirely unworked, simply because historical, literary, and scientific specialists have no time to carry their researches beyond the very beginning of the geographical field. What can be done on behalf of all the departments mentioned, by men who make geographical research their occupation, has been 76 REPORT. demonstrated in Germany ; and in the preceding pages as well as in the Appendix, I hope I have given some idea of what is actually being done. If, then, the Universities encouraged in their examinations some real recognition of the geographical bearings of those subjects which admit of it, this would be reason enough for the admission of the study to the professoriate. On the higher schools such a step could not fail to have a powerful influence. How the Universities are to be approached is for the CouncU to consider. The Council might consider the advisability of appointiag a small Committee to draw up a definite proposal for the establishment of lectureships in the Universities. The Committee would require to define the field of geography as a subject for such recognition ; would have to go before the University authorities with a definite programme in their hands of what they wished to be done. With such a programme to present, a strong personal appeal might be made to the Vice-Chan- cellors to have the matter taken into serious consideration by the proper authorities ; such an appeal might be supported by a memorandum signed by men of influence and position in various departments of science and learning who are of opinion that geography deserves a place in the list of subjects actively encouraged by the Universities. If the Council could suggest one or two men capable of working out the subject in a manner worthy of a University chair or readership, the appeal would be all the more likely to be effective. Meantime, perhaps it would be possible to obtain permission for the delivery at Oxford and Cambridge, and at other Universities, of a short series of lectures, by one or more qualified men, who could be depended upon to give practical illustration of what might be made of geography at the Universities. I have already made a suggestion as to whether it might not be possible to have a Geographical Rede Lecture ; and if a competent man could be found, a man of adequate knowledge and sound well-balanced judgment, opportunity might be taken of giving some clear ideas of what geographers would propose to include in the field of their science. No doubt, also, if the standard for geography in the examinations for all our public services were raised, it would have some effect both on schools and Universities. The examining bodies for the public services and the army and navy will, it may be hoped, be influenced to give their best consideration to the comparative position held by geography in England, by a perusal of the Appendices, showing what is being done by similar bodies on the Continent, as well as by the Exhibition of maps and appliances in use abroad to be held in the autumn. They will surely consider it desirable that those they send out should, when they come to meet foreigners in commerce or politics, or in war, be not less well instructed in a depart- ment of science which in recent years has had so large a beaiing on all these national concerns. REPORT. 77 So far as our sclioolfi are concerned, the two great weaknesses seem to me to be want of knowledge in the teachers, and want of organisation in the programmes and methods. To qnote from a letter addressed in Febmaiy, 1SS4, by the BeT. E. Hale, of Eton College, to the Council : — " The point to be aimed at by the Boyal Geographical Society is to teach those who will have to teach geography in oor hi^er SvL^-xls. Tbe head-masters w: M.i like some gec^raphy to be taught because parents desire it, tut few if aDj ci ihcir assistants care at all about it, or take any trouble in the matter. There haTt boen various attempts to introduce a better syjtciii cf geographical teachii^ T: v scborf- masters, and the two desiderata have al\rays been thas tke sdio:-; want proper plant and good teachers. Every Swiss sdio«:u. is bener provided than Eioa ari Harrow. German schools suffered as much is we c:', xmnl K^r. Einer was iTAie professor of geography at Berlin, when teachers had lo 3:Te:Ld lis Ifijr:ir>ce. 1:1 i vza now know what good ge(^raphers the Xonh Germans are. Use STody E OF CAMBRIDGE, A>rD TO THE GOTERXIXG BC'DIES OF EI.HEK UNIVERSITY. [1674.] Tlie Council of tlie Eoval G«ogn¥bkal Sor:e:f cr^irr to take iiTi:::^r ^:' rle opportunity afforded while the s-jle^r ci lea-Vug Ir. C^xficl ir.i Ciz^brjisp i> -in-v.: consideration, to urge on tie pr;i.er aatlwrlT:^ the e?Ti':_ii^zirz: o: G«* r^:. rtikal Professorships at both riiversiiirf. TLe eliins :: r-rizr^TlLy lo be iii5 rt^.- sented appear to the Council to be both wa^itj a^i -izien- li. Tiier *re ccitzy set forth in the following memofaiidam. In speaking of gec^ra^y die O.^i-Ll -ft ZJ3£ irri in -:f mcrn ±C&^ >:-i*7. aad not as an equivalent to ispo^^^ihy. TLr wiad ■ -e: rri.TC7. il^ stood, implies a compendions descriicia : : all ihe rr: i---5i:Ten -•: ■re'd'lf ?_-^_ L^ : r a ccc -.•» such as its climate, configaiatiGn, z::l:i£aJb. zIh^It, 3Ci1 ^r"~^ > E , 5 - £5 "s^clI if i^f _iz2 inhabitants ; the latter in respect uoi osIt :o tcffr r^ja, tui als? z-? ifacB- ^d^^u. lzj- past history, so far as it is inriniiiely oanseesed viiL i_r pecaCsi^ifef of i^-= -izii they inhabit. Each locality L^ i:i olirszicnsd? fiiirrrf. w^aci rr E5 t_c rt-»- • _jre of the gec^rapher to descnbe with the 'ittl'.sz r«:sfi:-f Kfar r tt^R. E^ ^'z.ii i-.zji^-ij to others the salient ideas that conii n:": iiirrsiic l^ ici^^i etzevti cy a ''- r* 7- skilled observer in all branciies i-: fciowled^e, a±cr 3 k^ resSsj^t^. Scientific geography does mi ccaifiiie it«:-i to in.- a ie>*zri^^* :r SECJiTLr.e localities as may be found in gazetteers. Harii^ cc J3:iei rifidilar caae^ li ^^t^ieeis to group them t(^ether. It studies antecedoii condliinnss «7vi ofjasDfn- riifcli vii^ the actions of concurrent phenomena npcm iz^e ai>:-iitT ji il* sazne li'Sifity. iz^:-^sLZ why they tend to stability, and to give to each : :antiT iis c"- i^^i^girz:: s^e-n. Thus the geographical distribution of plants and anim&ls. and die ''f' - :: zij-i~^ri ^^ the early configuration of the surface of the eanL. is ooe of the T«»y naziy i rc-cLsr« with which scientific geographers are aocas&omed 10 -ieal Ai*:Tba" :f ijie problems is concerned with the reciprocal inf le^K o€ man ar.d hs ^^^nmisdis^ : showing on the one hand the influence 01 extonal natnre :- r^yt- ciizizjertiai development and sociology, and on the other, lie inf ifn-cie rf hah ob r^rr^j in forest destruction, cultivation of the s-.i!, iLrroducticL c'f new ilir-.^ a&d -i.riL^^i':- animals, extirpation of useless v^etatioD, and the lixe. This m^irial t^" ?.-'.- r ^f i2je objects of the different sciences is the sobiect of a scienoe in iis^'J^ v^ '"- '^' ^ciaitiSc geography may be defined as the study of local correlaii^Lf . Geography, thus defined, does not tend in any drzri<: to szTiersn^ the ?:e.:ii- cultivation of independent sci^ices, but rather to e-iabliali c-vijiiect: ,115 which w:r:ld otherwise be imobserved, and to intensify the interest already fdt iii each 0: tb^n, by showing their general value in a Uberal education. It is thioo^ ze^zr^ifhy alone that the links can be seen that connect phy^eal, historical, aLd political ctjo- ditions; and it is thus that geography claims the position of a science ll.iln.i from the rest, and of singular practical importance. It may perhaps be objected that geography in this sense h too wide a subject, that its limits are too uncertain, and its science as yet not sufficiently r. ;- mms U3 justify its recognition at the Tniversities by a special Professorship Pre::s*ly the same objections might however be urged against a Frofesson^hip of History, yet no one seriously entertains them. A practical answer to any objection a-a.L^t founding a University Chair of Geography is that Professorsbij* have already been established with excellent residts in many places on the Continerit. A Professor of Geography has existed in the Univerifity of Berlin since the davh of Carl Piittcr ; G 82 APPENDICES. similar Professorsliips are established at the Universities of Halle, Marburg, Strasburg, Bonn, Gottingen, and Breslau. In Switzerland they are established at Geneva, Neuchatel, and Ziirich. In France, Geographical Chairs, under the control of the University of France, are attached to the Faculty des Lettres at the following towns — Paris (Sorbonne), Bordeaux, Caen, and Lyons; at Clermont-Ferrand and Nancy the Chairs of History and Geography are united ; at Marseilles a Professor- ship of History and Commercial Geography is attached to the Faculte des Sciences. There are, therefore, in all seven Chairs of Geography in France endowed by the State. This provision is of course supplementary to the instruction given in the Lycees, which is of a high class and corresponds to that which the Royal Geo- graphical Society has during the last ten years endeavoured to encourage in our leading public schools by their annual examinations and prize medals. The duties of such a Professor as the Council desire to see appointed would be, first, to promote the study of scientific geography as defined above ; and, secondly, to apply geographical knowledge in illustrating and completing such of the recog- nised University studies as require its aid. The claims of geography to occupy a central place among the physical sciences, which already form an important part in University studies, can hardly be questioned, but, according to the modem and more liberal method of teaching in the classical and historical schools, its position in respect to these is httle less essential. It may be broadly affirmed that questions are set in every examination in these schools which cannot be adequately answered without considerable knowledge of the higher geography. It has been pointed out to us that no better proof can be given of the intimate connection between the present University studies and geography, than the list of subjects for prize essays proposed at Oxford, which is appended below. It should be further remarked that while the facilities for travelling have widely extended, and in consequence the number of young men who travel after leaving the Universities, for the sake of supplementing their education, is increasing every year, very few of them are qualified to make an intelligent use of the information which they may or might obtain, and still fewer are qualified to make observations of the least scientific value. The same may be said, with little qualification, of the much smaller number who go out as missionaries, and who often enjoy precious opportunities of collecting new evidence, not merely on geographical questions but on questions of ethnological and philological interest. Such persons, if previously trained under an able professor at a University, would form a most valuable corps of scientific observers. An impartial comparison of the literary results of English and German travel at the present day seems to show that the educational advantages which we ask for in England, and which are attainable in Germany, have there borne their actual fruit in developing and directing the powers of observation in German travellers. A University professor would probably so arrange his lectures as to fall in with the general course of studies at the Universities, adapting one part of them to students of history, and another to students of physical science. He would also perhaps deliver at least one annual discourse ou some subject of original geo- graphical research. The establishment of a Pi'ofessorial Chair, and the example and scholarly writings of a University professor, would give a much needed impetus to the progress of the art of teaching geography in schools, which is at present imperfectly developed, and for which the existing text-books are avowedly inadequate. It appears that of all the subjects handled by those graduates of Cambridge who hold the office of lecturers in the great provincial towns, in connection with the Cam- APPENDICES, 83 "bridge University Extension scheme, none has been so popular as physical geogi-aphy. A supply of such lecturers, who had been well instructed by a University Professor of Geography, would therefore confer a real benefit on the education of the country, and one that would be widely appreciated. The copious collection of maps, models, pictures, and ethnological illustrations of the various lands which are the theatres of historical study, which would gradually accumulate under the charge of a Professor of Geography, would enable him to illustrate their configuration and scenery as well as the social character of their inhabitants, with a fulness that no ordinary teacher could hope to rival. Such illustrations, it may be remarked, are consistent with the general tendency of modern instruction. It might be thought advisable to entrust the proposed professors with some special duties in respect to the collection of geographical publications in the University libraries, so as to ensure that these stores of knowledge should be easily available in any emergency, when facts relating to some half-forgotten country are earnestly desired by the public. We may be sure that under such circumstances their comments would be awaited with interest and listened to with respect. In conclusion, the Council would strongly urge that there is no country that can less afford to dispense with geographical knowledge than England, and that, while there is no people who have a greater natural interest in it (as shown by the large support received by the Eoyal Geographical Society), there are few countries in which a high order of geographical teaching is so little encouraged. The interests of England are as wide as the world. Her colonies, her commerce, her emigrations, her wars, her missionaries, and her scientific explorers bring her into°contact with aU parts of the globe, and it is therefore a matter of unperial importance that no reasonable means should be neglected of training her youth in sound geographical knowledge. Subjects foe Histobical Peize Essays proposed feom time to time at the University of Oxford, more or less Geogeaphical. Suljedsfor the Marquis of Lothian's Eistorical Prize Essay (founded in 1870). In 1872. The importance throughout modern history of the frontiers of France, Germany, and Italy. [No prize awarded.] In 1877. The place of Iceland in the history of European institutions. Subjects for the Arnold Historical Essay (founded in 1851, in memory of Dr. Arnold). In 1851. Whence arose the greatness and the decay of the power of Cartha? the arrangement of the degrees. 3. Explain the construction of a Hercmial BarcnettT, il:w!i-g -^ihaei it i^jese^res. and state what special use it canbep::t i: en ttk-.t^- t frin t-^-'^ ** f^^--^- 4. What are the components of sea-water; hom -zjsj :he Hq^nd pan !»= ser^i: -teJ from the sohd ? 5. State what facts you know respectii^ the d^h :a«ire of great good, if the idea is once set on foot that geagr^y is a wvffSAy sul^t for the ablest masters to teach and the ablest boys to work at. and esjecally — cot^i-^er- ing the competition existing among schools— if sraae de±iite 5zzre?i:::35 are m^e to the chief examining bodies to give greater pronanence to xki outlines of -Jiii subject in all their preliminary or qualifying examinafcians.'' " The drawback which geography in schools sofTers from to a great exier^i is the unsatisfactory method of examination. The examinations of the Boyal Gecrr^f Lical Society are so high in their standard that a boy would have to devote ahnoet his entire time in geography if he wished to have mudi diance of succesB. The examination of ordinary examiners from the Universities is misatis&cfcc-rv, because it is generally founded on the old idea of geography — that it is only a few strings of names and facts learut by heart For instance, I have sc»netimes requested that the boys should be asked to draw a map of a coontrv cm b'aLk paper. The result of this has generally been estimated by the examiner acoHding to its pictorial success, and the real points of merit, such as accuracy of coast-!iLe, proportion of distances, and description of surface and drainage, disremirded. My own view is that the * picture ' of the Globe should first be l^mt thomaMj by means of maps, pencils, and paper. Then that the methods of messorii^ and projecting the Globe should be taught, and after that the histarical, 0iysical, and political geography of the continents and oceans, and of the individual countries thoroughly mastered. The worst way of aU is to learn a page or so of a geography book with only a few dry facts." " The action of the Royal Geographical Society in offering medals to be competed for annually by the boys of our public schools has given a decided impetus to the teaching of geography in some, perhaps in most of those institutions. It was and is impossible to give much time to the subject— say an hour and a half a week— hence, many teachers w;ere satisfied with a general knowledge of the leading facts, such as the capitals of countries, the chief rivers, mountains, &c. It was entirely a matter of memory, and gradually became monotonous to both teacher and pupil. But the efforts of the Royal Geographical Society resulted in showing that it was possible to make it a good mental discipline, to set very interesting problems, to awaken thought, excite interest, and cultivate the faculty of observation. So much attention 96 APPENDICES. was given to the subject that the competition for the medals became very keen, and it soon became useless to send up candidates who had not strong geographical pro- clivities, and a sound knowledge of geography. The Eoyal Geographical Society is, therefore, to be congratuJated on the success of its efforts. However, the Society has lately resolved to discontinue — only for a time it is to be hoped — the offer of medals, and consequently the annual examination. Meanwhile there is plenty of good work to be done. Under its auspices a sound, and the same time readable and enjoyable, text-book might be produced — also a complete set of apparatus and appliances to illustrate and explain the astronomical relations of the earth, its form, size, motions, relative position, &c., with all the resulting phenomena, the natural forces which act on it, with, the effects produced. In addition, wall-maps on as large a scale as possible, with a view to convenience, might be supplied under the direction of the Society. The microscopic view of a country obtained from small maps gives but a poor idea of the distance to be travelled, or physical difficulties to be encountered in crossing the country. If this were done the schools would soon be on a more equal footing, and certainly a real or thorough knowledge of the science would be much more general than it is at present. The programme of the Society was well arranged and very suggestive, but there ought not to be any distinction between physical and political geography. Purely political geography belongs to the domain of history. Geography should be regarded as a complete description of the earth as it was handed to us by nature, and as it has been and still is influenced by the natural forces which never cease to act on it — in fact, a description of the earth just as it is. The subject is by no means a dull one, it is eminently an experimental science. "Geography, like charity, ought to begin at home. Before venturing abroad it is necessary to have some notion of the cardinal points, and the simplest methods of obtaining latitude and longitude. Mere definitions are of little use." F. 1. HARROW SCHOOL.— GENERAL PAPER SET FOR LADY STRANGFORD'S GEOGRAPHY PRIZE. (No Date.) (1) Explain Mercator's projection and equal surface projections, and discuss the advantages and disadvantages of each. (2) On Midsummer Day at midnight how high is the sun in the sky (in degrees) at the North Pole? How far below the horizon at Harrow, and in what point of the compass ? Show how you obtain your answers. (3) George Stephenson said, " I think my engine goes somehow by bottled sun-rays." Explain this fully. Do you go by bottled sun-rays ? — if so, how ? What other sources of energy are there ? (4) What are the general facts about the distribution of hot and cold water through the ocean depths ? Why is the bottom temperature of the Mediterranean no lower than the average winter temperature of its surface ? What sort of motions do you connect with these facts, and how? Will they account for the great ocean currents ? — if not, what will, and how ? (5) What should be the length of a water barometer (density of mercury being roughly 12) ? Why cannot you have as long a barometer as you like by increasing the surface at the open end ? (6) Contributions of Darwin to our knowledge of Physical Geography. APPENDICES. 97 (7) Compare names of i*ivers and mountains in different European countries, and account for their similarity. (8) Write a short history of Spain from the names of places in it, and mention all the names of places in the world you can think of derived from Julius or Augustus Csesar or any other Roman Emperor. (9) Derive the following names, discuss the principles of the derivations, and add any stories you can think of — Santiago, Mount Erebus, Atlautic, Detroit, Em-ope, Amazon, Franz Joseph Land, Wales, Servia, Sutherland, Lorraine, Bungay, Dauphin^, Negropont, Siberia, Tuilleries, Kaffir, Mon- treal, Nabliis. (10) General Kaufmann is just dead. Draw a map of the Oxus and Jaxartos basins, showing the positions of the principal khanates subjugated by Russia during the last thirty years. Discuss the position of Merv. What river is it on ? (11) Draw Worcestershire and all the counties which touch it, marking the rivers and principal towns. (12) Draw the course of the St. Gothard Railway from Lucerne to Milan, marking the principal rivers, making the map wide enough to include Turin and Brescia. (13) Where are the following rivers ? Into what sea or river do they flow ? Any one town on any of them ; any historical fact in connection with any of them — ^Tarim, Lot, Wharfe, Lualaba, Pisuerga, Mekong, Arman9on, Bagradas, Canadian River, Sakaria, Guadalete, Arta, Par^, Jalon, Glommen, Mulde, Rion. (14) All you know of the following: exact position, history, &c.: — Merida, Popocatepetl, Machachi, Dapsang, Pilmo, Ghuzni, Lassa, Banjaluka, Goa, Krasnovodsk, Kairwan, Kazan, the Chots, Deraavend, Kara, Kioto Pisheen, Ilimanni, Schebulos, Cuzco, Crivoscia, Zara, Lagos, Aquileia, Naas, Cairngorm, Bucsecs, Todi. (15) Principal places (1) on the Equator, (2) on the Meridian of Greenwich round the world, (16) Highest peaks in the Bernese Alps, Altai, Caucasus, Karakoram, Islands in the S. Atlantic and Gulf of Guinea. Volcanoes far from the sea. Under- ground rivers. Centres of highest negro civilisation. Loftiest freshwater lakes. Towns most shrunk from early greatness. Towns once harbours from which sea has retreated. Rivers which have changed their course. (17) Draw a line to represent the Equator, and place roughly in their proper position with respect to it and to each other, the Society Islands, the Sand- wich Islands, the Marquesas, the Ladrones, the Fiji Islands, the Friendly Islands, the Philippines, the Carolines, the Galapagos, and New Caledonia. (18) Draw a Chinaman, the Great Bear, and a yak. Where and why do you find Arctic plants in Southern Europe ? What kind of fauna and flora would you expect to find (1) in an island a long way from a continent • (2) in an island near a continent ? If your expectations were not fulfilled' how would you explain it ? 2. ETON.— NATURAL SCIENCE PRIZE, 1883. Physical Geography. (1) What is the intimate structure of Ice f and by what means would you de- monstrate this structure ? II 98 APPENDICES. (2) Explain the origin of a River-delta. Name one in Europe, Asia, Africa, and America respectively. (3) Name the chief rainless regions of the Grlobe. Give a reason for their existence. By what name is the science of ** Eain-oZo^ry " known ? (4) What is hoar-frost ? How is it produced ? (5) Account for the relative saltness of certain inland seas. What is the mean specific gravity of sea-water ? What is known concerning the colour of the ocean ? (6) Enumerate the botanical areas into which it is usual to divide the earth's surface. (7) Why does a little spirit (i.e. spirits of wine) or ether, when sprinkled on the hand, produce a sensation of cold ? Which of the two produces the greater degree of cold ? (8) Describe the origin and progress of a glacier. (9) What are the composition and some of the properties of the atmosphere ? (10) What is known in geography by the term Stratum of Life ? How far have the hitherto accepted views, so far as the sea is concerned, been modified by the recent researches of the ' Challenger,' and other kindred expeditions ? (11) Define the terms Perihelion and Aphelion. In which of these positions (i.e. whether at perihelion or aphelion) does the earth receive the greatest amount of heat, and why ? (12) What are the causes of waves ? How are tides produced ? NATURAL SCIENCE PRIZES, 1884. Physiography. — I. (1) Explain, by the aid of a diagram, the cause of the seasons. (2) How has the size of the earth been determined ? (3) Explain the law which governs the density of the atmosphere at different heights above the earth's surface. (4) Why does ice usually form on the surface of water, and under what circum- stances may ice be formed at the bottom of a piece of water ? (5) How is " rainfall " measured ? Give a drawing and description of the instru- ments used. (6) Explain the fact that dew is not formed during a cloudy or a windy night. (7) What are cyclones and anticyclones? State the law which expresses the relation between the direction of the wind and the distribution of atmo- spheric pressure. (8) What facts do you know concerning the distribution of temperature in the deeper parts of the ocean ? (9) Describe the action of plants and animals, respectively, upon the constituents of the atmosphere. (10) Describe the changes in the flora which you would expect to find in ascending a very high mountain in the Equatorial region of the globe. 3. SUBJECTS FOR GEOGRAPHY PRIZE AT RUGBY. 1875. Williams' * Middle Kingdom.' Hughes' * Treasury of Geography: China.' 1876. Burton's * Ultima Thule, i, 1877. Burnaby's * Ride to Khiva.' APPENmCES. 99 1878. Bryce*S * Transcaucasia and Ararat.* 1879. Rae's * The Country of the Moors.' Gibbon's * Roman Empire/ c. 51. 1880. Dennis's * Cities and Cemeteries of Etruria,' i. Smith's Dictionary, Italia.^ 1881. Wallace's * Australasia,' c. xiii.-xxvii. 1882. „ „ c. i.-xiii. 1883. Keane's^Asia.' 1884. Lansdell's 'Through Siberia.' 1885. Wallace's * Australasia,' c. xiii.-xxvii. UNIVERSITIES LOCAL EXAMINATIONS. 1. OXFORD. — ^Report of the Examiners in Geography, 1884. Seniors. — " The work done this year was of a very satisfactory character. Care and accuracy were the distinguishing features of the greater part of the answers. It is evident that the teaching of geography is of a very sound description. " The answers to the questions on physical geography were perhaps the most creditable, and the questions in that section of the paper were usually answered well. " The maps were far from good. The knowledge of the position of the places mentioned was usually of the vaguest description. "This very serious defect, together with failure to answer satisfactorily the questions on jwlitical and commercial geography, prevented several candidates from obtaining a high place. " But having made these exceptions, I am glad to say that the general average was a high one, and the accurate knowledge shown most praiseworthy." Jvm,iors. — "The general standard of geographical knowledge appears to be rising ; especially there is greater accuracy in map-drawing : many sketch-maps of Scotland were very creditably drawn. The outline maps were more frequently fairly filled in than when I examined last. "Precision has not been obtained in the use of geographical terms, such as • watershed ' and * canon.* " The assigning the habitat of various products far too generally depended more on the feeling of what countries ought to produce than on what they actually do." 2. OXFORD, Senior Candidates, 1884. — Paper set in Physical, Political, AND Commercial Geography. [N.B. Candidates are expected to answer one question at least from each section of this paper.] Section I. 1. In the accompanying map of India (1) trace the course of the Indus, marking its tributaries ; (2) trace the ranges of the Eastern and Western Ghauts ; mark with an asterisk the position of: — Gwalior, Benares, Poonah, H 2 100 APPENDICES. Ahmedabad, Assye, Tinnevelly, Lahore, and in every case insert the names. 2. Which are the mountainous parts of Great Britain ? How has their existence aifected the history of the country ? 3. Explain the terras — trade-winds, fringe-reefs, mistral, cirrus, geyser. 4. Draw a sketch map, either of the Ehone, marking its tributaries and the chief towns on its banks, or of Wales, marking the counties and chief towns. Section II. 1. Enumerate the states and races comprised in the Austro-Hungarian monarchy. Give their geographical position and general characteristics. 2. Give a concise account of the conquest of Canada by the English, and explain why they have retained their hold on that country. 3. Describe the position and importance of the Soudan, Tonquin, Holstein, Manitoba, Basutoland. 4. What do you know of the constitution of Japan, India, Peru, Sweden, Swit- zerland ? Explain the importance of the neutrality of Switzerland. Section III. 1. From what countries are the following commodities exported — ^petroleum, jute, quicksilver, indigo, currants, barley ? 2. Follow the course of the principal trade routes between Northern and Southern Europe during the Middle Ages. 3. To what circumstances do the following towns owe their importance — Alex- andria, Dortmund, Spezia, Sunderland, Galle ? 4. What are the principal products of Ceylon, Zanzibar, Peru, European Kussia, Nrw Zealand ? 3. OXl'-OitD. — Geography Paper set to Senior Candidates, 1884. 1. Explain the terms — the Khamsin, delta, Httoral, canon, prairie, selva, sierra, pampa, estuary, tornado. 2. Where are situated Mount Hooker, the desert of Atacama, Lake Tanganyika, Dingle Bay, Brescan^on, Carlsruhe, Cintra, Khatmandu, and the Yaldai Hills? 3. From what countries and from what kinds of plants do we obtain gutta- percha, ebony, tobacco, cork, cotton, teak, help, sago and arrowroot ? 4. What do you mean by the vertical distribution of plants? Give examples of plants so distributed. 5. Give the chief tributaries of the Amazon and of the Obi. Illustrate by sketch maps. 6. In the accompanying map of North America— (1) draw the ranges of the Sierra Nevada, Rocky Mountains and AUeghanies ; (2) trace the course of the Mississippi and its feeders, the Mackenzie, the St. Lawrence, the Peace Eiver, and the Saskatchewan ; (3) mark with an asterisk the position of New York, Toronto, Quebec, San Francisco, New Orleans, St. Louis, Charleston, and Chicago ; and in every case insert the names. 7. Describe the chief coal-fields of England, and show how they have affected the distribution of the population. 8. Draw a sketch map of Scotland, and insert the principal mountains, rivers and towns. 9. What are the chief religions of the world, and how are they distributed ? APPENDICES. 101 4. CAMBRIDGE. — Report of the Examiners in Geography (in English SEC?rioN), 1884. Juniors. — "The work was done fairly well, better on the whole than last year. A large proportion of the outline maps were correctly filled in. The answers in physical geography were however generally unsatisfactory : the candidates appeared in very many instances to have learned by heart the answers to specific questions ; while the character of the errors committed in reproducing these answers showed that their meaning had often been entirely misunderstood. The questions dealing with the British Empire were generally well done, the more general questions not so well. On the whole there was an improvement in general intelligence. /Seniors.—^" The work sent up in answer to the earlier questions was, as a rule, good and satisfactory, and a distinct improvement on that of last year. The definitions of latitude and longitude were, with a very few exceptions, not sufficiently precise or scientific, but the latitude and longitude of the places named were given with accuracy by a large number of the candidates. The map of India was well drawn by the majority, and showed that much time and attention had been bestowed on the study of that dependency. In addition to the mountains, rivers, and political divisions, a large number of cities were ako inserted in many cases. The subject of rainfall distribution had evidently been generally a favourite one, and very many candidates answered the question bearing on it fully and well ; but whilst the general priQciples were clearly understood and satisfactorily explained, tbere was frequently want of thought in applying those principles to the explanation of local variations." 5. CAMBRIDGE. — Report of Examiners on Physical Geography as a Science Subject. Seniors. — " The answers in physical geography were far from satisfactory. Thore who obtained distinction and about nine others appeared to understand their subject, and here and there a single answer showed in a few thoroughness and completeness, but the majority appeared to have learned some facts and sometimes reasons by rote, and showed no attempt to think out anything for themselves or even to assimi- late processes of reasoning from books. There was in most cases complete ignorance of the meaning of sections and contour-lines. Here and in other questions the more plentiful use of diagrams would have been very advantageous. " On the whole the candidates showed a tendency to accumulate quantities of facts rather than to obtain a few carefully selected examples and thence argue to general laws." CAMBRIDGE. — Geography Paper set to Junior Candidates, 1884. Every answer , which admits ofit^ should he given in tabular form.. The answers to questions marked A, B, are to he arranged arid sent up to the, Examiner in two separate hundJ.es. A 1. In the accompanying Map mark the courses of the Uouro, Ebro, Guadal- quiver, Tagus ; Sierra Estrella, Sierra Morena, Sien-a Nevada ; and the following places, and no others : Alicante, Bilbao, Cadiz, Corunna, Lisbon, Oporto, Oviedo, Saragossa, Toledo. 102 APPENDICES. A 2. Explain the terms, atoll, cyclone, ecliptic, meridian, monsoon, nrvoraine, table land. When does the sun shine vertically (1) on the tropic of Cancer ; (2) on the tropip. of Capricorn ? By what names are these times tnown ? A 3. Name four towns on the Ganges and four on the Khine. What is meant by the right bank of a river ? A 4. Name in order the chief capes on the east coast of England and Scotland, between Dover and Aberdeen, and the counties in which they are situated. A 5. A person sets free seven carrier pigeons at Limerick to go to Belfast, Cork, Kildare, Kilkenny, Killamey, Tipperary and Waterford respectively. Draw seven lines from one point to show clearly the directions which would be taken by birds flying straight from Limerick to these towns. Write the name of the town against the line in each case. Which bird would have the longest, which the shortest distance to fly ? B 1. What is the general character of the coast of the Baltic ? Name in order, following the coast line, its principal seaports, stating in each case the country to which it belongs and the chief articles of export. B 2. Name the provinces which form the Dominion of Canada. What is the nature of the connection between the Dominion and the British Crown ? B 3. In which of the Australian Colonies respectively are Adelaide, Ballarat, Bathurst, Brisbane, Geelong, Melbourne, Newcastle, Paramatta, Perth, Sydney ? B 4. With what industries are the following places specially connected, and where are they situated: Burslem, Creuzot, Crewe, Droitwich, Lyons, Mobile, Monte Video, Odessa, Paisley, Rangoon ? B 5. Name in order the countries and seas through which the line of the Equator passes. 7. CAMBRIDGE. — Papee set to Senior Candidates in English Section. Physical, Political and Commercial Geography. All answers to questions marked K to he fastened together in one hundle. All answers to questions marked B to he fastened together in another hundle, A. A 1. Define Latitude and Longitude. State approximately the latitude of St. Petersburg, Rome, Trinidad, Mauritius, and Melbourne (Australia), and the longitude of Mecca, Havre, Colombo, Figi Islands, and Hamburg. A 2. Draw a map of India showing the principal mountains and rivers, the most important towns, and the political divisions, distinguishing in the latter case those which are under British and native governments respectively. A 3. State what you know about the distribution of raiofall in Great Britain, and account for any remarkable instances of local excess or defect as com- pared with the average for the whole country. A 4. Describe briefly the Landes of France, the Geysers of Iceland, the Dunes of Holland, the Glaciers of Switzerland, and the Steppes of Russia. A 5. Mention in order from source to mouth the principal towns on the banks of the Elbe, and any circumstances of interest connected with each. Illustrate your answer by a map. APPENDICES. 103 B. B 1. What is included in tie term " British North America" ? Draw a sketch map indicating the chief rivers, lakes, and mountains of that country, and mention five sources of its natural wealth. B 2. " The sea and the land wage perpetual warfare'wherever they come into contact with each other." In what parts of England in historic times has each achieved remarkable results ? B 3. Specify the principal winds and currents which a ship would encounter in making a voyage from London to Ceylon round the Cape of Good Hope ; explain the cause of each. B 4. The routes to the greater dependencies of Great Britain are guarded by chains of lesser dependencies. Show this to be the case with respect to India, and state shortly when and under what circumstances each lesser dependency you mention was acquired. B 5. Enumerate the British Colonies and settlements in Oceania ; and state the chief articles exported and imported by each. Give some accoimt of the native races and indigenous animals of these countries. 8. CAMBRIDGE.— Paper on Physical Geogeaphy as a Science Subject fob Senioe Students. Physical Geogeaphy. 1. Explain the mode of formation of Bain, Mist, and Dew. 2. Draw roughly a map with contour-lines of an island with two mountain peaks, one near the northern, the other near the southern extremity ; and having one river running into the sea on the east, and two on the west side ; also draw a section across the island from north to south. 3. Discuss the explanations which have been given to account for the circulation of oceanic waters. 4. Describe the characters of the principal deposits now being formed by diatoms, foraminifers, and corals. 5. What important physiographical events have occurred at the following places since Roman times : Rossberg, Krakatoa, Reculvers, Adria, the west coast of the Baltic? 6. Write a short description of the mode of origin of mountain chains. 7. Give some account of the phenomena attendant upon a severe earthquake, and describe the method used for fixing its point of origin. 8. Distinguish clearly between the habitat of an organism, and its range. Mention the habitats of some common Enghsh plants and animals. 9. OXFORD AND CAMBRIDGE SCHOOL EXAMINATIONS, 1884. Physical Geography and Geology. 1. One bank or valley slope of a winding river is usually steeper than the other. Draw a diagram illustrating this point, and explain how the difference in the slopes is caused. What arrangement of strata is necessary for the pro- duction of a waterfall in a river's course ? 2. Write a short account of the action of the sea as a destructive agent, and state what physical features result from a continuance of marine denudation. 104 APPENDICES. 3. In what respects does sandstone differ from quartzite, shale from schist, and granite from gneiss? Give some explanation of the difference in each case. 4. What reasons are there for believing that a source of heat exists in the interior of the earth ? 5. Mention the characters which would satisfy you that a deposit had been formed (1) in shallow water, (2) in fresh water, (3) in a lake. 6. Describe briefly the succession of deposits in the Jurassic Series of the West of England. Are any peculiarities in the character of these beds exhibited in Yorkshire ? Mention any substances of economic value derived from these deposits, 7. What was the condition of England during the glacial period, and what indica- tions and relics of that condition are still to be found in this country. 8. Name the specimens A, B, C^ D, giving the characters by which you identify each. F ** 1. OXFORD. — Communication fkom the Eev. H. F. Tozee. " I am a warm advocate of the more definite recognition of geography in our University examinations and courses of study ; but, though I am loth to say anything that may tend to discourage, I am afraid I do not see much prospect of it. I think the establishment of a Professorship or Readership in the subject would be a good thing, as a definite recognition of the subject, and as providing the University with a man who should represent that branch of knowledge ; and any representation made by the Royal Geographical Society would, I doubt not, be respectfully listened to. But Professorships and Readerships do not make classes of students ; and the studies of the undergraduates are almost entirely regulated by the examinations. Into these geography enters only as subsidiary to history, and even in connection with ancient and modern history the attention that is paid to it is slight. This ought not to be so, but the change cannot be brought about by legislation. One course of lectures in one College, I think, on the subject of modern historical geography, has been given during one Term in the past year ; but that is all. Again, the establishment of Scholarships or prizes to encourage the study might do some- thing, but the influence would be limited to the few who would compete for them. In fact, I do not see how geography is to be introduced into our system so as to influence the Public Schools, because, like many other valuable subjects, it is crowded out of our examination schools by other subjects which the University at large is not disposed to give up. But for my own part, I should be sincerely glad to see a change made in this direction." 2. GEOGRAPHY AT CAMBRIDGE UNIVERSITY.— Communication from the Rev. Coutts Trotter. " With respect to the recognition of geography by the Universities it is difficult to give a definite answer. No doubt every educated man ought to have a fair elementary knowledge of geography, but he ought to acquire this before he leaves APPENDICES. 105 school. There are many other things which every educated man ought to know ; but it is not, I think, the business of the University to find out whether he knows them all or not. Pass examinations are evils in themselves, and ought not to be multiplied without urgent necessity. " With respect to the more advanced or detailed study of geography, such as might conceivedly be carried on at the University, I do not clearly understand what the Council of the Society understand by it. Of course physical geography comes in to a considerable extent as a part of geology, and in connection with the distribution of animal and vegetable life, and the like. History cannot be properly studied without historical geography, and in one way or another a good deal of geography is bound up with more than one subject of degree examination. " I have not, however, any very clear ideas of what the study of geography, as a separate subject, wonld mean, or what would be the nature of the lectures of a pro- fessor or reader in geography, and without such ideas I am unable to express any opinion as to whether it would or would not be desirable to establish such a post. It would no doubt be convenient to have some one to whom it would be possible to refer any geographical problem which might turn up, and the solution of which could not be found in the ordinarily accessible sources of information ; but I must confess that the minute study of the geography of regions In which one has not for the time being any other special interest, seems to me to be both uninteresting and unprofitable to most men. When my attention is called in any way to a particular region, I get up as much about its geography as I may require for my purpose, and find reasonably accessible ; but I cannot fancy myself sitting down to devote some months or years to the minute study of geography in general. " I should like to learn more definitely what the Council of the Society understand by the recognition of geography by the University, and what is their idea of the functions of a reader or professor of the subject. It is right, however, to say that the funds of the University will not in all probability admit of much being done in the way of establishing new posts in the immediate future. " There is one way in which the University might no doubt promote the study of Geography, viz. by addmg to the collection of maps in the University Library, and improving their arrangement. I believe that this will be done before long." 3. CAMBRIDGtE. — Communication from Professor G. H. Darwin, F.R.S. " Geography is not, as far as I am aware, taught as such in the University, nor are there any rewards for proficiency. The only way in which it enters into the curriculum is as a subordinate branch in a great many subjects. Whilst I am of opinion that too little weight is probably attached here to geography, I am disposed to think that this subdivision is the best way in which the University can reco^rnise geography. ° " In the present condition of agricultural depression and of sweeping modifications of our system entailing heavy new charges, 1 think it will be difficult to extract an adequate salary from the University for a competent professor of geography. " Geography should certainly be represented either conjointly with other subjects or by itself; but if the teacher takes geography as his principal subject it appears to me that it is one which demands, more than most others, a man of first-class ability. In the hands of a mediocre man it would almost certainly degenerate into a descrip- tive catalogue, and would be of no educational value. On the other hand, a really accomplished man might make it an important branch of one of the several categories enumerated in B. (Memorandum of Instructions, II. B., p. 5 of Report.) 106 APPENDICES. If such a man were to present himself in any of these branches, I think it possible or even probable that the University would find a post for him. " I cannot see how geography pure and simple can be made a subject of intellec- tual training, and I think the University will hesitate to give it a prominent part in their degree examinations. " As I have already said, in other words, geography appears to me at once wide and narrow. A department of geography occupies part of the same field as meteoro- logy, but it is likely that a knowledge of the actual distribution of water on the earth's surface would follow the study of physics rather than precede it. However, meteorology is still so much in its beginnings that it is no use discussing it with regard to University teaching. " Again, terrestrial magnetism is attached to the theory of magnetism and follows the study of that theory. Geodesy follows this theory of the earth's figure and' astronomy, and surveying is a branch of the art of the Civil Engineer, — and so on through other branches of physics. "Similarly there are other categories attached to Natural History, Geology, Politics, History, and Political Economy. " It is impossible for me to say how far the several teachers in these branches touch on geography. " In expressing these opinions it must be borne in mind that I have not paid attention to the subject myself, excepting incidentally to other studies." 3a. I reproduce the following letter from Professor Alfred Newton, F.R.S., to the late Mr. Rye, taken from Mr. D. Freshfield's 'Memorandum on the Proposals in Substitution for the "Public Schools Prizes.'" The motion referred to was the following : — " It is desirable to appoint lecturers in geography from time to time to deliver courses, wherever the Council may direct, and on the appointment of the first such lecturers, to communicate with the "Vice-Chancellors of Oxford and Cambridge, with the object of entering into arrangements for the delivery of lectures by the Society's lecturers, or other qualified persons, at and under the authority of the Universities, and in connection with their studies." Felruary 21s#, 1884. "My dear Rye, — I have shown the copy of Mr. Freshfield's motion to several influential men here, including some members of the Council of the Senate, and they agree with me in thinking that any proposal based on such terms, made to the University by the Royal Geographical Society, would be sure to receive the most respectful attention, and would probably be, after due consideration, favourably accepted — i.e. the University would most likely afford a geographical professor appointed by the Society every facility for delivering a course or courses of lectures in one of the University buildings. " I may here mention that on the 6th of February last year the Special Board for Biology and Geology suggested that ' Geography ' was one of the subjects in which 'University teachers should be eventually appointed' ('Cambridge University Reporter,' 13th June, 1883, p. 885), and I have good reason to think that the same Board would support any well-considered scheme for giving effect to this suggestion, " Whether the proposed lectures, if given, would be successful or not is more than I can predict. So much would depend on the lecturer himself; but for my own part I should be very glad to see the experiment tried. APPENDICES. "107 ifri 1 may here remark that the * Geography ' contemplated in the suggestion (above -quoted) of the Special Board for Biology and Geology was, of course, physical geography. If the subject of the proposed lectures were political geography, it would rather seem to come under the cognisance of the Special Board for History, and I am quite unable to say what view might be taken of it. " It would therefore be well that in case any communication be made by the Society to the Yice-Chancellor, the subjects to be dealt with by the lecturer should be precisely stated, in order to preclude the possibility of the proposal, being referred to the wrong Special Board; for I presume that the Vice-Chancellor and Council of the Senate would not come to any conclusion without such a special reference. " You will, of course, understand that in this letter I do not pretend to pledge the University or anybody in it to what I have said or to any course of action. I only propose to give the impression left on me after speaking to men pf more or less weight in University matters as to probabilities. " Believe me to be, yours very truly, " Alfeed Newton*" [CAMBRIDGE.— Lettee from Prof. A. Newton, F.R.S., to Mb. Keltie. " Magdalene College, June 3rd, 1885. " We are neither better nor worse than others in regard to the prevailing ignor- ance of geography that characterises most Englishmen who are supposed to be highly educated ; but perhaps there is manifested in Cambridge a greater indifference to the value of the study than elsewhere, which may partly be accounted for by the zeal with which other branches of learning are prosecuted, and the fact that so many students of Natural Science are careless of the encouragement of any but the particular subject in which they are personally interested. Moreover, I have met with not a few people who are unable to understand that geography is a study to be followed for its own sake. " You are of course aware that there is no instruction in geography worthy of the name given in the University, and I may add that I find some diflBculty in rendering my lectures on the Geographical Distribution of Animals intelligible owing to the great ignorance of general geography displayed by many of my hearers." 4. CAMBRIDGE. — Communication from Professob McKenny Hughes, F.R.S. " I have received your letter and enclosure respectmg the teaching of geography in this University, and shall be glad to bring the matter before the special Board of Studies which are now considering the addition of new subjects to those already recognised in the Natural Science Tripos. It seems to me that geography must be taught in several departments, but especially in that of geology, where we now give much time to the parts included under the terms Physical Geography Physiography, Dynamical Geology, &c., &c. t, r ji « When we have got our Economical Geology museums and classes into worl^ng order, another large branch, viz.. Commercial Geography, wiU be included. « PoUtical and Historical geography should be taught under the tuition of the Board of Historical Studies, before whiph I will take an opportunity of layino- your proposals." 108 APPENDICES. 5. CAMBRIDGE.— EXTRACT FROM SYLLABUS OF THE GEOLOGICAL CHAIR.— Pkof. McKenny Hughes, F.R.S. Geological Physics. K.^-Physiography. (i) The Atmosphere. Composition : presence of aqueous vapour : conditions which determine the condensation of this aqueous vapour into dew, mist, cloud, rain, or snow. Distribution of rainfall. Physical properties of air j weight, the barometer. Origin of winds. Cyclonic character of storms. Laws of direction and force of the wind in cyclones and anticyclones. Weather charts. Systems of winds over the earth's surface. (ii) The Ocean. Recent soundings. Configuration of sea-bed. Mean depth of ocean and mean height of land. Conclusion indicated by this, of greater permanence and antiquity of oceanic features. Deposits of sea-bed. Globigerina ooze, diatom ooze, red clay and radiolarian ooze. Origin of each. Coral reefs and islands. Theories of their formation. Sea water ; its composition. The ocean as the great receptacle of the salts dissolved by terrestrial waters from the rocks. Movements of the oceanic waters. Surface currents and bottom "creep.'' Temperature observations and bearing on oceanic circulation. Discussion of causes of these phenomena. (iii) The Atmosphere and the Ocean in relation to Temperature^ i.e. Climate. Mode of propagation of heat. Pure dry air diathermanous. Aqueous vapour athermanous, hence importance of aqueous vapour in the atmosphere from climatic point of view. Latent heat and specific heat, and their bearing on climate. Heating effect of sun's rays dependent on latitude and altitude. Mechanical equivalent of heat and estimation in its mechanical equivalent of the heat conveyed by aerial and oceanic currents from tropical to temperate and polar regions, and the modification of climate thus produced by geographical causes. C. — Structural Geology. I. Stratification, joints, inclination of rocks, cui"vature, cleavage, dislocation, unconformabihty. Petrological features of igneous rocks, i.e. mode of occurrence in crust of earth. Contact alteration. Metamorphism of rocks. II. Origin of Scenic features. (i) Valleys. Caves. Proofs that they are in the main due to denudation. Variation in shape of valleys dependent upon relative importance of weathering, erosion, and transportation. Longitudinal and transverse valleys. Breaching of hUl ranges by valleys. (ii) Fjords. (iii) Lakes. Two groups (a) those formed by barriers, (&) those in true rock basins. Discussion of theories of origin of rock basins. Faunas of certain lakes and their bearing upon theories of origin. (iv) Plains. (v) Escarpments. (vi) Mountains. Those due to (a) accumulation, volcanoes. Old denuded volcanoes, Arthur's Seat, Mull, &c. (h) Circumdenudation. (c) Disturbance. Distinction between the forces that gave position to the ranges, and those which have imparted external form. Thickness of strata in great mountain ranges. Crushing and folding of the rocks. TyP^s of flexure. Ovcrfolds and overfaults. APPENDICES. 109 D. — PalcBontohgical Geology. Distribution of plants and animals over earth's surface. Conditions of entomb- ment of organic remains. Their preservation. Laws of distribution applicable to past " succession of types." Doctrine of colonies. 6. OWENS COLLEGE.— Communication from Pbof. Boyd Dawkins, F.R.S. " The deplorable ignorance of geography among all classes in this country, in my opinion, is largely due to the bad teaching in the elementary and secondary schools. At present geography is taught either from the physical side, i.e. mountains, rivers, glaciers, seas, &c., without any relation to the ancient history of the earth, or from the historical side as a part of history. These two points of view are kept as far as possible apart. Geography should be taught, it seems to me, as a part of earth history, and on that foundation the various sections, historical, political, commercial and descriptive, a la Humboldt, might be developed as may be wished. "We are stirring in Manchester in our new geographical society^ and had organised a committee very much on your lines. We shall now await the result of your inquiry. " In Owens College we have just organised a joint set of geographical lectures, beginning with the physical history of Britain, and ending with the development of British commerce, and of the colonies. " Geography is taught in our regular course, in Owens College and in the Yictoria University by me, under the head of physiography (see enclosed syllabus), and by Professor Ward from the historical end of the stick. Our courses, however, are not connected or continuous, as they should be. We are feeling our way towards a more systematic teaching. " With regard to Professorships in Geography the practical difficulty will be to find men who can grasp all the sides of the subject— physical, historical, commercial, descriptive. I, for instance, could take the first, but my knowledge of the spread of British commerce in Eastern Asia or of the development of the colonies of Greece would be bookish and perfunctory. The only way of meeting this difficdty seems to me to organise joint courses of lectures by different Professors, each master of his subject. " I enclose a letter (see below), from Professor Ward (History). If I can do anything to help the movement, I will do it." 7. EXTRACT FROM SYLLABUS OF LECTURES IN PHYSIOGRAPHY GEOLOGY AND PALEONTOLOGY, AT OWENS COLLEGE, MAN- CHESTER— Prof. BoTD Dawkins, F.R.S. Physiography.— 1. The Agents at work on and beneath the Surface of the Earth, (a) The action of water.— Rain and its work.— Torrents and rivers and their work.— The sea and its work ; its temperature and its currents. (&) Frost, snow, and ice.— Glaciers and icebergs and their work, (c) The atmosphere ; its temperature and its currents. {d) Chemical action in building up and destroying.— The work of carbonic acid.— The formation of caves and ravines in calcareous strata. (e) Organic action.— The work done by plants and animals.~The secretion of carbonate of lime, silica, and carbon in their tissues. 110 APPENDICES. (/) The phenomena resulting from earth-heat. — ^Volcanoes and their work. — Earthquakes and their work. — Elevation and depression of land without the intervention of earthquakes. — ^Folds and contortions. (g) Mountain-making and valley carving. (h) Hot-springs and their work. 2. The distribution of land. 3. The distribution of the Mammalia and their evidences as to changes in Geography. 4. The distribution of Man, and his advance in culture. 6. The Earth in relation to the heavenly bodies, 6. The Ancient History of the Earth. Text-books.^Huxley, * Physiography ' ; Geikiie, * Physical Geography ' ; Lyell, * Principles of Geology.' Books of reference. — Angus Smith, * Air and Eain ' ; Tyndall, * Lectures on Heat '; Somerville, * Physical Geography ' ; Wallace, * Geographical Distribution ' ; Wallace, * Island Life ' ; Murray, ' Geographical Distribution of the Mammalia ' ; Wyville Thompson, ' Depths of the Sea ' : Tyler, * Anthropology ' ; Lockyer, * Astronomy * ; l)awkins, * Early Man in Britain.' 8. Letteb J-ROii PEdFEssoR Ward (History) to Professor Boyd Dawkins. " Dear Dawkins. — In reply to your query I may say that all our history examina- tions (in both University and College) take into account the political geography of the periods to which they relate ; and in our junior examinations, as again in our highest or Honours examinations, we make a special point of it. Professor Bryce, who has hitherto acted as our external examiner for the University, is entirely agreed as to the expediency of this. " As to the teaching, we try to give a fair amount of historical geography in a large junior English History class, and in our Ancient History classes. How much of it enters into our more special courses depends on their subjects, which vary. For some years we had at the College a special geography prize for the study of a special geographical subject ; but it was only a temporary foundation. " As you know, we are now contemplating the establishment of geography courses in our evening classes, which will of course include courses in political geo- graphy. This must, from the nature of the case, be an experiment, but it may guide us towards systematising our geography instruction in the day classes at some future time. " Yours ever, "A.W.Ward. " Prof. W. Boyd Dawkins, F.R.S." 9. LONDON UNIVERSITY. — Geography Paper for Matriculation. 1. What is your notion of the extent and the boundaries of the region called South Africa ? 2. Define Latitude and Longitude. What is meant by the Antarctic Circle? 3. Whicb are the most widely wooded districts in England ? State anything you know concerning tjie extent of the great English forests in earlier times* APPENDICES. Ill 4. Wliat counties in Great Britain and Ireland are at this day mainly inhabited by a Celtic population ? 5. Of what States are the following towns the capitals : — Stuttgart, Quito, Ban- kok, Bucharest, Teheran, Lima, the Hague ? G. "INSTRUCTION" AS TO THE SCOPE AND METHOD OF STUDIES TO BE OBSERVED AT THE KRIEGS-AKADEMIE, BERLIN. (a) General Geography. — While, by the appointment of a series of lectures on military geography, provision has been made for the particular requirements of geographical study with a view to special culture in the science of war, it must appear indispensable to secure in the syllabus of the Kriegs-Akademie the means likewise for completing a knowledge of general geography, and for appreciating the reciprocity obtaining between the physical constitution of countries on one hand, and the development of their peoples and States on the other. The circle of sciences, comprehended generally under the name of geography, forms the transition and concatenating link between the natural and historical sciences, at all these points, namely, which refer immediately to the character of •the earth's surface as the arena of the development of mankind. The course of lectures on general geography will, therefore, have to describe the different divisions of the earth according to their characteristic forms by nature and their several configurations of climatic zones and regions; as also the human race according to their natural and intellectual relations and ramifications, their mode of life, their states of culture, their social and political conditions; the geographical distribution of the human species, and their ramifications ; the divisions of the earth according to their groups and systems of peoples ; and, finally, the organisations founded by the various peoples and conditioned by the soils and characters respectively of their arenas of development— namely, the States, and, by consequence, the formation of the present system of States and their fundamental powers. The geographical course of study at this stage, namely, that of the appreciation of political States, conducts the student into historical science. A systematic scientific conception of geography wiU take the whole earth's surface as the subject of its comparative studies, and all the more when at the present time European culture is pressing forward on every hand with rapid progress. In consideration, however, of the historical task devolving on Europe to become the representative and leader of this world-wide culture, the student in his historico-geographical studies will specially apply his mind to the appreciation of the physical configuration of Europe, and how it exercised such influence on its inhabitants as to qualify them for such a mission. For this course four lectures per week in the first Cotus are appointed the attendance at which is " faculative." Fl^umDeu, me 112 APPENDICES. G*. 1. OXFORD. — Honour School of Modern History. — Geographt. 1. How long did the following territories exist, and of what constituent parts were they composed — the kingdom of Provence, the Duchy of Guienne, the Duchy of Burgundy (as held by Charles the Bold) ? 2. In what sense can the Rhine be called the natural frontier of France, and when was it also the political frontier ? 3. What races make up the population of modem France, and how far do these races still occupy distinct districts ? 4. State the territories contained in the Prussian kingdom under Frederick I., and show how they had been brought together. 5. Illustrate, from any one district of England, the help of a physical map in determining the time and place of the Anglian or the Saxon settlements. 6. How far are the physical divisions of Italy brought out in either of these two : (1) the division of states at the entry of Charles VIII., or (2) the recon- struction by Napoleon ? 7. Illustrate briefly these statements : (1) " Africa begins at the Pyrenees ; " (2) " Spain is made for defensive warfare ; " (3) " The greatness of Spain, being factitious, was her ruin." 8. Where are any of the following places, and what is their geographical and historical importance: Bremen, Goslar, Guesen, Nocera, Este, Citeaux, Manzikert, Edessa, Ascalon, Montenegro, Belgrade, Pultowa, Taxhen, Kainardji, Areola? 9. " In the Eastern Empire hardly a province was lost till it had been once or twice won back." Exemplify this from any cases within your period. 10. Explain the geographical obstacles to an invasion of India from the north- west. How has the advance of the British power during the present century altered the conditions of the problem ? 11. The region from the Scheldt to the Sambre is the arena which nature seems to have prepared for France and its foes to settle their quarrels there Justify this from the history of some one campaign. 12. How far do purely geographical considerations account for (1) the migration of the ship-building trade from London about 1860 ; (2) the importance of the Manchester Ship Canal ? 13. In what respects have the geographical characteristics and environment of Persia caused it to play in Asia a part analogous to that of Poland in Europe ? Trinity Term, 1884. (Three hours allowed.) 2. OXFORD. — Second Public Examination. Pass School. Group B. — Geography. 1. What do you know of the Panama Canal, San Francisco, Novgorod, Rangoon, Strasburg, Turin, Lisbon, Smyrna, Delhi ? 2. Describe the situation and capabilities of either Manitoba, or Natal, or Queensland. 3. Over what parts of the earth is English now the dominant langua Italia antiqua ; Grascia an tiqua. Bretschneider Europe, 350 b.c. »» Europe, 600 B*G. " Europe, in the time of Charles the Great. » » in the second half of the 10th century. " „ in the time of the Crusades. »» » in the time of the Reformation. » » from the Thirty Years' War to 1700. » , from 1700 to 1789. »» , from 1789 to 1815. AU the above works of Bretschneider according to Spruner-Menke. Mathematical Geogra^phy, Adami-Kiepert .. .. Terrestrial Globe. !^®*^®^ Wall-map of Mathematical Geographv. ^'^'"^^^ The Northern Constellations. Physical Geography, ^^^^l^^ diagram for Anschauungslehre. t'^^y Map of the World. ^'^P^^*^ Eastern Planisphere. T. ," , AVestern Planisphere. ^'^'^'J^ Projection of Europe. "^^^ Europe ; also by Sydow-Vogel. " -A.8ia ; also by Chavanne. " -Africa ; also by Chavanne. v/'i J 'A ,.'■ , '* •• -^^^^^ ^^^ South America. VogelandDelitsch.. .. Middle Europe. 122 APPENDICES. SteinKauser Hypsographical Map of Middle Europe. Delitsch Projection of Germany. Muller and Eulf .. .. Germany. ,, .... Triangle of Mountains in Upper Germany. Steinhauser The Alps. (According to Seydlitz) .. East Alps, Sweden, Norway, Denmark. Kiepert France. „ The British Islands. Italy Political Qeography. Kiepert Asia. Keller Europe. Johnston .. .. .. ., The British Islands. Wagner German Empire. Stiilpnagel German Empire and neighbouring lands. Stohl South- West Germany. Delitsch Saxony. Ziegler Switzerland. Arendts Spain and Portugal. Schiaparelli .. .. .. Italy. Baur Austria. Kiepert France. Schade South Germany. Leeder Prussia. Puis The Netherlands. Arendts Turkey in Europe and Greece. Kiepert The Balkan Peninsula. Graef Thuringian Lands. Kiepert The British Islands. „ Italy. A. Kirchhoff Types of Paces (Fischer, Cassel). Lehmann Ethnological Types (Heitmann, Leipzig). Holzel „ „ (Holzel, Vienna). Lehmann's Geographical Types are uncommonly good, and therefore largely in use in the Volksschule as well. (Signed) Db. Gotze, Oberlehrer. 2. APPAKATUS USED IN TEACHING GEOGRAPHY IN THE WOHLER- SCHULE, FRANKFURT.— De. Koetigaen. I. — For Sexta (Boys of 9 years of age; Latin commenced, 2 hours weekly Geography, 1 History). 1. Ravenstein, special plan of Frankfurt, Bockenheim, Bornheim. 2. Ravenstein, relief of the environs of Frankfurt. 3. Diefenbach, map of the district of the main, mounted, 10 m. 4. Geisel and Diefenbach, waU-map of Wiesbaden district. 6. Ravenstein, wall-map of Wiesbaden district. 6. Adami-Kiepert, Terrestrial Globe with horizon, meridian, compass, &c. 7. Adami-Kiepert, Celestial Globe with complete armature. APPENDICES. ^^^ « F Wpf/el Tellurium Lunarium. 9: LS luC for training geoarapHoal observation; guide to the use 10. HirVthe prinoipal forms of the earth's surfac^e, wall-map. u! Hirt; Tabular Geographical Views, Part I.. General Geography; Part II. Typical Landscapes. 12. V. Sydow, map of the Earth in 2 planispheres, 5 m. 13. Kiepert, eastern and western planispheres. 14. Berghaus, Europe, physical wall-map. 15. Kiepert, physical wall-map of Europe. 16. V. Sydow, Europe, physical wall-map. 17. Petermann, Germany, physical wall-map. 18. Kiepert, wall-map of Palestine. 19. Kozenn, wall-map of Palestine. 20. Dehes, school atlas (for the hand of the pupils). II._For Quinta (Boys of 10 to 11 years of age; French commenced, 2 hours weekly Geography, 1 History). 1. Kiepert, Europe, political wall-map. 2. V. Stiilpnagel, Europe, political wall-map. 3 and 4. v. Haardt, wall-map of Europe physical and political. 5. V. Sydow, Asia, physical wall-map. 6. V. Sydow, Africa, physical waU-map. 7 and 8. v. Sydow, North and South America, physical wall-maps. 9. V. Sydow, Australia on Mercator's projection, 10. Kiepert, wall-map of the Old World. 11. Lehmann, ethnographic pictxures. In addition, from Sexta 6 to 20. III. — For Quarta (Boys 11 to 12 years of age ; mathematics commenced, 2 hours weekly Geography, 2 History). 1. Kiepert, physical wall-map of Asia. 2. Kiepert, physical wall-map of Africa. 3. Chavanne, physical wall-map of Africa. 4. Berghaus, physical wall-map of Africa. 5. Kiepert, physical wall-map of North America. 6. Kiepert, physical wall-map of South America. 7. Kiepert, physical wall-map of Australia. 8. Kiepert, Orbis terrarum antiquus. 9. Kiepert, Graecia antiqua. 10. Kiepert, Italia antiqua. 11. Kiepert, Imperium Komanum, 12. Gallia in the time of Csesar. 13. van Kampen, Descriptiones nobilissimorum apud classicos locorum. Series L- XV. ad Cgesaris de hello Galileo commentarios tabula. 14. Kiepert, wall-map illustrating Biblical Geography. 15. Ohmann, wall-map of Biblical History. 16. Schneider, Type-atlas (drawings, illustrative of botanical and zoological geography and of ethnography). 17. Holzel, geographical character-pictures. 18. Wallace, geographical distribution of animals. 19. Kirohhof, pictures of races, designed to be used in teaching geography. 124 APPENDICES. 20. Berghaus, Ethnological atlas, comprising all the races of men, 25 tables. 21. Kiepert, Atlas antiquus, 12 maps. In addition, from Sexta 6 to 8, 18 to 20 ; from Quinta 5 to 11. IV. — For Under Tertia (Boys of 12 to 13 ; English in the Kealgymnasium, Greek in the Gymnasium commenced, 2 hours weekly Geography, 2 History). 1. A. Mang, decomposable universal apparatus (Celestial Globe). 2. A. Mang, decomposable Tellurium Lunarium. 3. V. Stiilpnagel, the German Empire and adjoining lands, political wall-map. 4. Wagner, the German Empire and adjoining lands, political wall-map. 5. Kiepert, general map of Germany and neighbouring lands. 6. Eavenstein, relief map of the Grand Duchy and Electorate of Hesse, the Duchy of Nassau, &c. 7. Dickert, relief map of Central Europe. 8. Mohl, orohydrographic and railway wall-map of Germany and Middle Europe, edited by Keil. 9. Dolezal, Austria-Hungary, physical wall-map. 10. Baur, political wall-map of the Austro-Hungarian Monarchy. 11. V. Spruner-Bretschneider, Europe in 350 a.d. 12. „ „ „ in the beginning of the 6th century. 13. „ „ „ in the time of Charlemagne. 14. „ „ ,, in latter half of the 10th century. 15. „ „ „ in the time of the Crusades. 16. WolflF, historical atlas, 19 maps. 17. Kuprecht, geological wall-map. 18. Winter, school atlas, completely revised by Berghaus, 33 maps. In addition from Sexta 17 to 19 ; from Quarta 12 to 15, 17. V. — For Upper Tertia (Boys of 13 to 14 ; 2 hours weekly Geography ; 2 History). 1. Leuder, special wall-map of the Alps. 2. Ah rend ts, wall-map of the Netherlands and Belgium. The above two also used in Under Tertia. 3. Schilling, France, photolithographic wall-map. 4. Kiepert, physical wall-map of France, without names. 5. Kiepert, political wall-map of France. 6. Murby, Great Britain and Ireland, political wall-map. 7. Kiepert, physical waU-map of the British Islands, without names. 8. Kiepert, political wall-map of the British Islands. 9. Kiepert, physical wall-map of Italy. 10. Kiepert, political wall-map of Italy. 11. Mayr, wall-map of the Balkan Peninsula. 12. Kiepert, general map of the Russian Empire in Europe. 13. Ahrendts, wall-map of Sweden, Norway, and Denmark. 14. Ahrendts, wall-map of Spain and Portugal (Halbig, Miltenberg). 15. V. Spruner-Bretschneider, Europe in the 14th century. 16. „ „ „ in the time of the Reformation. 17. „ „ „ in the time of the Thirty Years* War. 18. „ „ „ in 1700-1789. 19. „ „ „ in 1789-1815. 20. Brecher, historical wall-map of Prussia from 1415 to the present time. In addition, from Sexta, 18, 19 ; from Quinta, 12 to 15 j from Under Tertia 1 to 5, 7, 8 ; 16 to 18. APPENDICES. ^^^ VI.-For Under Secunda (Boys 15 years of age; 1 hour weekly Geography; 2 History). 1. Kiepert, political wall-map of Asia. 2. Kiepert, political wall-map of Africa. 3 and 4. Kiepert, political wall-map of North and South America. 5. Chavanne, map of Central America and the West Indies. 6. V. Sydow, wall-map of Australia and Polynesia. 7. Berghaus, chart of the World (general view of lines of steamers, of land and submarine telegraphs, sea-currents, &c.). 8. Berghaus, general map of the World, on Mercator's projection (German con- sulates, sea-routes, and postal union of the world). 9. Curtius and Kaupert, atlas of Athens and environs. 10. Kiepert, map of the environs of Rome, mounted. In addition from Sexta 11, 18 to 19 ; from Quinta, 5 to 11 ; from Quarta, 1 to 11, 14, 15, 16 to 21 ; from Under Tertia, 18. VJI.— For Upper Secunda (Boys of 16 years of age ; 1 hour weekly Geography ; 2 hours History. With the end of this form geographical instruction also ends, when the certificate in geography obtained by the pupil is inscribed with the " Abiturienten Zei^niss," the document, namely, entitling the pupil to enter the Polytechnic Institute, have two years deducted from his period of military service, &c. For Repetitions : From the numbers of the foregoing classes as may be required, especially from Under Secunda, 7 and 8 ; in addition — 1. Andree-Peschel, physico-statistical atlas of the German Empire. 2. Ruab-MiJQler, railway map of middle Europe. VIII. — For Prima (Under Prima 1 year ; Upper Prima 1 year. Boys of 17 to 19 years of age ; 3 hours weekly History, in which Geography is referred to only as illustrative of History). 1. E. Wetzel, wall-map for instruction in Mathematical Geography, 4th edition, 1884, mounted. 2. Renter, the Northern Heavens, wall-map. In addition from Under Tertia 1 and 2. For different classes and for more special questions. 1. Stieler, hand atlas, 95 maps and 170 exercise maps, bound. 2. Berghaus, physical hand atlas, 93 maps. 3. V. Spruner-Menke, historical hand atlas, 3 parts, 139 maps. 4. Menke, Bible atlas, 8 maps, bound. M. TASKS AND METHODS OF THE GEOGRAPHY OF OUR DAY. By Professor von Eichthopen. According to Professor Richthofen, the points in which geography comes into contact with the sciences akeady organised are so many, and in a large number of pomts the connection is so intimate, as to make it appear often impossible to draw a Ime of demarcation between them. It has therefore become a question whether geography can maintain itself as an independent science. 126 APPENDICES. The province of geography is first and specially the Surface of the Earth. But there are three surfaces : the surfaces of the lithosphere (or geological domain), of the dry land and water (the basis of the atmosphere), and of the top of the atmosphere. If all these three surfaces belong to geography, then all the intermediate material, the atmosphere and water, is also part of geography.- Geography has then to do no longer with a mathematical, but a material surface — in the case of the land as well. 1st. Measurement of the areas of land and water. Study of the forms of the land ; analogies in the dispositions of continents, islands, and — 2nd. - Position of the earth's surface in relation to the heavenly bodies, especially sun and moon — a branch of Astronomical Geography. 3rd. Atmosphere — constituents of atmosphere. Geography, here adopting the results and methods of chemistry and physics; temperature; density; zones of temperature ; isothermal lines. Without a knowledge of the nature (and properties) of the superficial layer of the earth, the surface of the earth in geography cannot be understood. For the organisms (including man) on tbe surface of the earth do not lie or move on the mathematical surface, but on and in it as organic parts of it (almost identical with it). To understand the nature of the superficial layer the geographer must take his stand on the results of geology. 4th. When the element of time is taken into consideration, the earth's surface appears as a datum in process of development and transformation, and the geo- grapher has the task of investigating the processes of this transformation in the par- ticular phenomena of particular places, and to determine the laws according to which these processes go on in the land, the water, and the atmosphere of the earth's surface, the reciprocal causal relations of the three kingdoms — land, water, and atmosphere. 5th. Plants and Animals. It is not the business of the geographer to study the different species in their distinctions (the task of the botanist and zoologist) ; but only the distribution of the different species, genera, families, orders. 6th. The summit of the geographer's task is the investigation of the relations of man to all the foregoing factors, whoUy and severally. Geography presents itself, therefore, as the science of the surface of the earth, and of the things and phenomena in causal coimection therewith ; not Erdkunde^ but Erdoherflachen Kunde. " To sum up : Scientific Geography has, as its first task, the investigation of the surface of the dry land of our globe, together with its hydrosphere and atmosphere, in respect of the four heads of Figure, Material Composition, Continuous Transfor- mation, and Creation ; all under the leading consideration of the reciprocal relations of the three kingdoms of Nature to one another and to the surface of the earth. " Its second task is the investigation of the Botany and Zoology of the earth in their reciprocal relations, in the four different respects above specified, to the earth's surface. " Its third task has reference to man and particular epochs of his material and mental culture under the same leading consideration, and in respect of the same four heads. " There are two methods that may be followed in the execution of these tasks. " The concretely descriptive method is employed by that geography which in its purest form, chorography, registers the treasury of facts according to a funda- mental topographical principle of classification. " The second method, which proceeds analytically, is the one that characterises general or analytical geography. It binds together in categories the objects and phenomena of all the six kingdoms of Nature presented in descriptive geography, 107 APPENDICES. and contemplates them, independently of the terrestrial localities, in respect of the tohS-especifii with continual reference to the leading consident.on of the causal reciprocal relations to the earth's surface. v^^^i^^^l r„Pthod "From the combination of both these methods proceeds the chorological method of treatment, which consists essentially in observing all factors going to the constitution ;f a division of the planet, or a part of these factors, m the^cau^l co-operation. By the analytical method of investigation it is conn«jted mth general geography, by the synthetic method of presentation with descn^ve geography. In its special application it appears either as chorology of a terrestnal locaUty or as representative of several or all the separate terrestrial localities under the consideration of a group of causal connections, such as of cUmatic alone, or ol climate and botany, or of the influence of mountains on man. Through the intro- duction of a general chorological method of treatment chorography becomes mtel- lectualised by philosophic permeation. " It may appear presumptuous to impose on a science so vast an abundance of material and so comprehensive and many-sided tasks as would accrue to geography from the foregoing discussions. It might also readily be pointed out that excess of substance is a symptom of impending disintegration on the part of a science. For just as from mineralogy in its former state crystallography, petrography, palaeon- tology, stratigraphy, and general geology have developed, so are akeady meteorology, oceanography, the geography of animals and plants, ethnography and political geography, more or less independent departments of study within the compass of geography. This multiplicity, however, becomes compacted into a unity by the oneness of the leading consideration, the consideration, namely, of the causal reciprocal relations with respect te the earth's surface. This consideration binds the intermediate links just as closely together as the terminal links,* and, seeing that the earth's surface and man have from the remotest times down to the present day ever been regarded as the most integrant parts of geography, so is it not possible to drop one of the numerous intermediate links without breaking the connection of the whole. " We need not shrink before the fulness and scope of the task. The field is vast. The work, however, is divided among many. No man is able at this day to pursue his inquiries into all departments of geography. He, however, who devotes himself earnestly to it can appropriate enough to follow its progress in all branches, and he who, by modestly Limiting his labours, has the happiness of working on one part of it, to the deepening and furthering of that section specially under his care, should ever at the same time endeavour to comprehend the relation of that part to the whole, and never lose sight of the connection of the whole." In opposition to the general impression that geography was an easy study, and that hasty sketches of lands met with in travels or uncritical geographical compilations entitled one to the name of an expert in this field, Prof. Richthofen emphasizes the necessity of thorough preparatory culture before any valuable results could be achieved either through immediate observation of Nature or by home studies. The surest foundations for the study of geography is geology in its whole compass, as being the only means to an understanding of the earth's surface To do any work that would add to the sum of human conquests in meteorolocry a knowledge of physics and mathematics is indispensable, just as a knowledge of botany, zoology, and paleontology was needed, in order to engage to any purpose in biological geography, and a study of history and statistics is of import^ to origmal investigation in the dynamic and genetic parts of anthropological geography . ♦ The earth's surface and man are the terminal links ; all else is intermediate. 128 APPENDICES. The particular kind of preliminary study required is, therefore, dependent on the particular object in view. A knowledge of the general results must, however, be possessed by all students of geography of whatever department. The methods of measurement and observation would have to be practically acquired by whoever would gather valuaHe material in lands that were still but little known. To work up the observations of Nature into scientific results, and so add to the fund of scientific geography, the, student must concentrate his studies on one part of geography, and on the auxiliary sciences, which offer a basis to it, at the same time that he does not neglect the other parts. Extract from Prof. H. Wagner's Paper on the Present Standpoint op Geography jn the * Geographisches Jahrbuch * : — "The ultimate and highest goal of geography is the contemplation of the terrestrial spaces with their configurations, materials and forces as the dwelling-place of man and the arena of his history." " Geography is not merely a physical but Uke- wise a historical science, and this latter aspect, namely its historical half, was brilHantly represented in Humboldt's time by K. Ritter. The aim of geography is nothing else than to demonstrate the dependence of human society on the physical constitutions of their dwelling-place and the operations of natural laws in the great historical events of our race." — Peschel, * Geography and History.* "The former science (Geography) has to ascertain on what terrestrial spaces nature allows the greatest concentration of political (" biirgerlichen "=burgh or town or polis-like) society and where she has collected the greatest abundance of incentives to the education of man. The latter (History), on the other hand, has to elucidate from the morals, habits and conceptions of right, as primary data, the different capacities of the different nations for higher social forms." — ^Peschel. In scholastic circles Professer Wagner states Geography is still accounted down to the present day as an auxiliary discipline of history ; a fact for which the host of geography manuals and text-books in use in schools are to blame. Guthe (author of an elaborate text-book edited by Wagner) says : " Geography teaches a knowledge of the earth as the dwelling-place of man. It is by no means a bare description of the earth, with its seas, &c., but in describing the earth's surface it places man in the midst of the creation, shows how, on one hand, he is dependent on the nature surrounding him, and on the other side has endeavoured to emancipate himself from this dependence. Geography, accordingly, forms the connecting link between the science of nature and history." Guthe regards historical as the proper, mathematical and physical as only auxiliary, geography. This view is supported by Kirchhoff, Marthe and Euge. Supan, on the other hand considers geography as a purely natural science. " Geography, as its name shows, is a science of the earth ; a natural, therefore, and not a historical science." Professor Wagner sums up the results of his review thus : — 1. The majority of geographical text-books and manuals lay the preponderating emphasis on the historical element of geography. 2. In the wide scholastic circles the prevailing opinion is, that geography is essentially a historical science. 3. Almost all the more recent " Methodiker " lay stress on the necessity of bringing the natural-scientific basis of geography into greater prominence. 4. Not one of them pleads for geography as a pure natural science. 6. Many of the modern theorists do not recognise the dualistic character of APPENDICES. 129 geography, in so far as they present historical geography as but one of the kindred hranches of geography, 6. The demand of the natural scientists among the geographers reaches its apex in the closer conjunction of geography with geology. GUIDE TO LECTURES IN GENERAL GEOGRAPHY. By Professor A. Kirohhoff, Halle. (Hdllej 1884.) I. — General. Position of the earth in the universe ; motion of the earth and the moon ; form and magnitude of the earth. Literature : — Guthe-Wagner, Lehrhuch der Geographie. 5. Aufl. 2 Bde., 1882 u. 83. A. V. Humboldt, Kosmos, Eatwurf einer physischen Weltbescbreibung. Fr. Hoffmann, Hinterlassene Werke. 1 Bd., Physikalische Geographie, 1837. 2 Bd., Geschichte der Geognosie und Schilderung der vulka- nischen Erscheinungen, 1838. Studer, Lehrbuch der physikalischen Geographie. 2 Bde., 1844 u. 47. Reclus, La Terre. 2 Bde., 5 Edition, 1883. Miiller, Kosmiscbe Physik. 4 Aufl., 1875. Peschel-Leipoldt, Physische Erdkunde. 2 Bde., 2 Aufl., 1883, f. Hann, v. Hochstetter, Pokoroy, AUgemeine Erdkunde. (In 4 Aufl. erscbeinend als 1 Bd. von " Unser Wissen von der Erde," 1884.) Hann, Die Erde als Weltkorper, ihre Atmosphare und Hydrospbare, 1884. (Separate impressions of the first part of the foregoing work.) Supan, Grundzuge der phj-sischen Erdkunde, 1884. Giinther, Lehrbuch der Geophysik und pbysikahschen Geographie. 1884 Heinr. Berghaus, Physikaliscber Atlas. 2 Bde.. 2 Aufl.'' 1852 risTpw edition being prepared.) Cartography and Projection. Literature : — Gretschel, Lehrbuch der Landkartenprojektion, 1873. Steinhauser, Grundziige der matbematischen Geographie und der Land- kartenprojektion. 2 Aufl., 1880. Zoppritz, Leitfaden der Kartenentwurfslehre, 1884. Gravity, temperature, and aggregate state of the earth. Terrestrial magnetism. -, , II. — Atmosphere. Cxeneral constitution. Literature : — Hann, Handbuch der Klimatologie, 1883. Mohn, Grundziige der Meteorologie. 3 Aufl. 1883 Temperature. * * Atmospheric pressure and winds. Literature : — Supan, Statistik des unteren Luftstromungen 1881. Precipitation. ' K 130 APPENDICES. III. — Oceans. General constitution. Literature : — Kriimmel, Versuch einer Morphologie der Meeresraume, 1879. V. Boguslawski, Handbuch der Ozeanographie. 1 Bd., 1884. Atlas des Atlantischen Ozeans. (Published by the German Marine Observatory, 1882.) Movement of the Sea. Literature : — Hoffmann, Zur Mechanik der Meerestromungen, 1884. IV. — Land-Mass. Literature : — Herm. Credner, Elemente der Geologie. 5 Aufl., 1883. Suess, Das Antlitz der Erde. 1 Abtheilung, 1883. Form of contour, concatenation. Literature : — Hahn, Inselstudien, 1883. Geoplastic. Literature : — SonMar, Allgemeine Orographie, 1873. Leipoldt, Mittlere Hohe Europas, 1874. Fuchs, Die vulkanischen Erscheinungen der Erde, 1865. Superficial changes in the Lithosphere. Rivers. Literature : — Grebener, Theorie der Bewegimg des Wassers in Fliissen und Kanalen. German edition of Humphrey & Abbot, 1867. Credner, Die Deltas, 56. Erg. Heft der Petermannschen Mittheilungen, 1878. Lowe, iiber Thalbildung, 1884. Lakes. Literature : — E. Credner, Die Keliktenseen in Erg. Heft der Peterm. Mittheilimgen. Y.— "Organisms. Literature : — Grisebach, Die Vegetation der Erde. 2 Bde., 1872. Engler, Versuch einer Entwickelungsgeschichte des Pflanzenwelt. 2 Bde., 1879 u, 82. Drude, Die Florenreiche der Erde. Erg. Heft 74 der. Petermann. Mittheil., 1884. Wallace, Geographical Distribution of Animals. 2 vols., 1876. Wallace, Island Life, 1880. Purely geographical conditions of distribution. Other conditions of distribution. VI. — Mankind. Literature : — Peschel, Volkerkunde. 6 Auflage, 1884. General. Physical dependence on natural environs. APPENDICES. 13^ Literature : — tt ^■L • lona Miihry, Die geographiscben Verhaltnisse der Krankheiten, 1856. Hirscli,' Histor. geogr. Pathologic. 2 Bde., 2 Aufl., 1881 u. 83. Aggregation and settlement. Literature: — , . . Kohl, Der Verkehr und die Ansiedelungen der Menschen in ihrer Abhang ig- keit von der Gestaltung der Erdoberflache, 1841. Dependence of the development of cultm'e on geographical conditions. Literature : — Katzel, Anthropo-Greographie, 1882. 0. BERLIN UNIVERSITY. Ordinary series of lectures are delivered by Professor H. Kiepert at Berlin University during the course of two years (four University terms). A private series, four hours every week {i.e. paid by the students) :— 1. History of Geography and of Discoveries. 2. Universal Physical Geography. / « & P y o A • f combining the physical and historical point of view. 4. Geography of Asia ) & r j r As Public LectureSy two hours per week : — 1. Italy. 2. Greece. 3. Asia Minor. 4. Palestine, formerly, now ceded to a younger decent of the theological faculty. The geography of Africa and America, also sometimes the special chorography of Germany, has been taught during a long succession of years by Professor M tiller. Lectures on the Historical Geography of Germany (luring the Middle Ages are delivered once every two years by Dr. H. Bresslau, Professor of History. Some geographical specialties, particularly on Oriental countries (Egypt, Assyria, India, &c.), are also connected, with the subjects treated in various lectures of Professors of Oriental Literatures. P. COMMUNICATION ON GEOGRAPHY IN BRESLAU UNIVERSITY. By Professor Partsch. Breslau is one of the Universities in which geography has now for more than twenty years been practically recognised as an independent subject of study. From the autumn of 1863 to Easter 1880 my teacher, Carl Neumann, Professor of Geography and of Ancient History, gave one lecture per week on geography each session. In the autumn of 1875 I was appointed Docent ; the following year I was constituted Extraordinary Professor of Geography, and in July 1881 the newly established ordinary Chair of Geography was assigned me. Till the Easter of 1880 K 2 132 APPENDICES. I had also to give lectures on Ancient History, but since that date I have taught Geography exclusively. In discharging the functions of my office I follow in the main the lines of my teacher Neumann, whose labours 1 have delineated more particularly in an Article in he Proceedings of the Berlin Geographical Society, XVII., 1882, pp. 81-lli. The first and foremost place is occupied by physical geography^ and ethnography is studied only in so far as it is indispensably included imder that heading. A special, methodic, thorough course of ethnographical science, the basis of which is not a knowledge of the earth, but of the human body and of language, is not com- prised in our plan of teaching geography. My lectures do not aim at crushing into narrow compass wide and general views, but at satisfying the definite wants of the students, and bringing home to them an exact conception of the results which have been achieved in the science up to present date, and of the problems in the science now seeking solution. My reper- toire of lectures is composed, as you will have found to be also the case elsewhere, ■of collegia privata and collegia puhlica. The former, generally four per week, for which the students pay fees, form the principal course. The latter, two to three per week, are given gratis, and are occasionally alternated by exercises occurring but once a week, and lasting two hours each time. The attendance at the collegia privata varies, according to the particular subject of the lecturer — from 45 to 75. The attendance at the collegia puhlica is nominally greater — from 80 to 100 ; but in reality the attendance here has not the same importance, seeing that among the hearers are to be found theological, law, and philosophical students who have no special scientific interest in geography, whose object is only to include a general knowledge of this department within their general culture, and who do not, therefore, attend the whole course of lectures regularly throughout the session. At the exercises, at which the knowledge of the students is definitely tested, there are to be found only from ten to fifteen students, and that is about the proper number, for if there were more present it would be a difficult task to engage them all in appropriate common exercises. I here insert a list of my lectures, marking with a * such as are collegia puhlica : — 1, General Physical Geography. Part I. — ^The earth as a body in the universe (form and magnitude, thickness, motion, heat of the surface and the inner magnetism). 2. General Physical Geography. Part II. — Constituents, structure, and forms of the solid crust of the earth (including the chemistry, geology and morphology of the dry land). 3.* General Hydrography (Oceanography). 4. General Climatology. 5.* Glaciers and Ice Period. 6. Geography of Europe (horizontal and vertical formation, climatology and botanical geography of the whole Continent ; and in addition special geography of Scandinavia and the British Islands). 7. Geography of the Mediterranean lands of Europe. 8. Geogi-aphy of the Alps. 9.* Geography of France. 10. Geography of Germauy. 11. Geography of Silesia. 12. Geography of Asia. 13.* Geography of Interior Asia (special). APPENDICES. 133 14.* Geography of Africa. 16.* Geography of Egypt. 16. Geography of America (no Lectures yet given on this part of the world, but only in preparation). 17.* History of the North Polar Expeditions and Physical Geography of the North Polar lands. 18.* History of the Geography of Antiquity. In all the Lectures above enumerated the physical features are the chief element, statistics and ethnography being only subordinate. Of our general plan, and the degree in which it is sought to carry it out in detail, an example is given in the work which is just being published: * Physical Geography of Greece,' by C. Neumann and F. Partsch. In this work there comes into more than usual prominence, Rittei-*s bent in the direction of Chorosophy, the appreciation of the influence exercised on the state and conditions of culture in a country by its physical character. With the emphasis which we lay on physical geography we do not accord with the tone of depreciation dominant in Germany relative to the application of geography towards the explanation of the history of culture. At the same time we perfectly recognise that this application of geography must not be confined to vague surmises about the concatenation of coasts, but must take account of all aspects of the nature of the country under review, and present special proof of its significance relative to the population. A particularly difficult branch of Academic teaching is the organisation of exercises to train the students to scientific self-activity. I have made inquiry on this point of many Colleges at other Universities, but have never been able to resolve on following the example of Gottingen and Konigsberg, and turning my little academic geographical expositions into a drawing school. If the teacher, passing from one student to another, revises each separate drawing, and directs each how to improve his work, the main element in the seminary activity of an Academy, and in which consists a large part of its special value, the emulous co-operation, namely, of the students on a common field, is all lost. All fellow-students of the same grade in one department ought, on the contrary, to have a common object for their rival energies set before them. That is, indeed, a difficult, but by no means impossible task. When I gave out exercises for the first time, I also followed the princifjle, which was elsewhere in the ascendant, that self-activity is best aroused in academic youth when no restrictions are imposed on them, and when the choice of the subject on which they are to exercise themselves is left open as much as possible. I allowed the students to choose their own themes, and to deliver addresses on them respectively, each address being also made a subject for discussion. In that way some very successful performances were elicited. The discussion, however, confined itself often to a mere dialogue between myself and the speaker, the other students not being sufficiently instructed in the subject to take part in its discussion. I have now completely abandoned this practice. The concentration of all forces on one subject is now become my main law. This succeeds most simply when a common subject of reading is chosen and a many-sidedly interesting text is adopted as the basis of the students' treatise. This session, for example, I am reading with my students Humboldt's travels into the ecfuinoctial lands of the New World, and am very well satisfied with this choice. A large number of highly-interesting physico- geographical questions is there suggested, and a tract of inquiry opened up, but not yet disposed of in the manner that is now possible to our age. In the very first chapters thero arise a host of subjects offering abundance of material for inquiry and discussion : the method of barometrical measurement of heights and the limits of its appUcability. the structure of the- Iberian Peninsula, the formation of the Mcdittr- 134 APPENDICES. ranean basin, the winds and currents of the Atlantic Ocean, atmospheric refraction, climatic position of the Canary Islands, definition and altitude of the snow limit, structure of volcanoes, and a whole crowd of details calling for consideration. Each point is presented by the students, who come prepared for its discussion, in accord- ance with Humboldt's view, which is next modified as far as may be required, and in the discussion which then arises the students mutually correct each other, and bring divergent theories to a decision. Here, too, the post of greatest diflSculty devolves on the leader of the discussion,* who has to check all wandering and irrelevant debate, supply omissions out of his own fuller knowledge, and correct as far as necessary what is advanced by the students. All along, moreover, strict observation is kef-t regarding accuracy and precision of expression, a point on which many require long and sharp training, and a point, as seems to me, of urgent importance in the culture of future teachers of geography. Some other time I shall perhaps select Darwin's * Voyage.' For those of adequate philological culture the second book of Herodotus would also prove very suitable. If the Professor dispenses with a common reading material it becomes more difficult to give a basis for discussion. In such a case I have endeavoured to supply this defect in different ways. I once selected the Western Alps as the subject of treatise. I distributed among the different students the full cartographic and literary material for the different sections of these mountains, and set each the task of describing his respective part in such a, manner that in the end a collective picture of this mountain system was attained. In a, concluding lecture, takint^ account also of the geological structure, I grasped together all that had been separately advanced. Care of course was taken on the occasion of each address bearing on such abundant cartographic material, that all the students were in a position to follow exactly the description of each particular speaker, as also to understand my concluding, concatenating, supplementary, and critical observations. The very erroneous map of the Pit dmontese staff likewise offered occasion for a critical review of maps and for an appreciation of the work, more particularly of English travellers, in settling the topography of the Graian Alps. After the heights of the Western Alps had been studied, the more minute investigation into the history of their passes was entered into. The arduous controversies regarding the history of the passes of the Western Alps in the time of the Romans were gone through with reference to the sources of the history, and especially the question of Hannibal's " crossing the Alps." A comparative valuation of the different passes for the present time naturally followed that question. For the present I have selected a district nearer home as a field for our academic exercises, the AValdenburg Highlands, a territory particularly important for its roads of communications and for its wealth in coal, for which it has now been noted for a century. We here find a remarkable example of the dependence of the habitation of a, district, and of the density and social con- ditions of its population, on its geological character. Old slate mountains, coal formations, red-lying land, porphyry outcroppings are here ranged so as to constitute a territory, which in each part receives a different character according to its peculiar geological foundation. The scientific valuation of this district is, accordingly, divid(-d systematically among the students taking part in the exercises. One has assigned him the drawing of an isohypsometric chart in the proportion of 1:100,000, based on the hypsometric material already to hand, which, however, on critical scrutiny, is found to be defective ; a second undertakes the literation of the coal formation of the Waldenburg basin ; a third has committed to him the presentation * The Professor himself. APPENDICES. 1^^ nf the remainiiKr geological formations ; a fourth sets forth the history of the Idation ort";i^^^^^^ a fifth traces the history of how its roads were laid out; fB^Xortrays the well-known states of culture obtaining in the district m the mSdleonast century ; a seventh, the present state of the district relative to pro- Auction of trade; an eighth, the statistics of population. After al are o- (continued). 23rd „ Sheep rearing in Australia. 24th „ Do« (continued). 25th. Production and commerce of wool in Australia and the world. 26th „ Ways of communication in Australia : roads, rail- ways, telegraphic lines. 27th „ Influence of ways of communication on colonial progress. 28th „ Commerce of the Australasian colonies. 29th „ Do. (continued). The special advantages ac- cruing to England from her commerce with the Australasian colonies. In the second session the Professor will deal with Tasmania, New Zealand, the projected confederation of the Australian colonies, New Guinea, Dutch East Indies, and the PhUlipines. TJ. SYLLABUS OP GEOGRAPHICAL KNOWLEDGE REQUIRED BY CANDI- DATES IN ORDER TO OBTAIN ADMISSION TO THE ifiCOLE sp:^ciale militaire of France (st. cyr), isss. The Earth. — Its different movements ; poles ; great circles ; longitude ; latitude ; itinerary measures. Division of the earth into two masses; ocean and land. Ocean. — ^Its division into five parts ; ocean currents. Land. — ^Its division into five parts ; populations ; races ; religions. Europe. — The six great European States ; the secondary states. The seas of Europe ; coasts ; islands ; straits, &c. 142 APPENDICES. Division of Europe into mountain groups — height and character of these groups (in particular the Alps and the Hercynian system) ; principal railway lines. France. — Geographical situation ; extreme longitude and latitude ; limits. Physical geography. — Seas ; their description ; coasts and islands. Orography. — Pyrenees; Alps; Jura; Vosges; Central Plateau; Cevennes and secondary groups — principal crests. Hydrography. — Detailed descriptions of the regions traversed hy the Ehine, the Meuse, the Escaut, the Somme, the Seine, the Orne, the Vilaine, the Loire, the Charente, the Garonne, the Adour, the Rhdne, and their principal affluents. Description of the littoral basins of the North Sea, the English Channel, the Gulf of Gascony, and the Mediterranean. Political geography. — Frontiers, their outline ; ancient provinces ; departments formed out of them. Administrative Divisions. Eailways. — Great lines ; their mutual relations and relations with the principal foreign networks. Internal navigation ; navigable rivers and canals. Canals. — Their relation to the main foreign routes of navigation. Colonies of A sia, Africa, America, and Oceania. Algeria. — Physical and political description ; extent and limits. Coasts. — Orography and hydrography ; hip;h plateaux. Sahara. — Political divisions; principal railways. A more profound study of the regions watered by the Scheldt, the Meuse, the Rhine, the Weser, the Elbe, the "Vistula, and the Niemen. Succinct study of the other rivers of the northern watershed of Europe. A more profoimd study of the regions traversed by the Ebro, the Po, and the Danube. Succinct study of the other watercourses in the region sloping to the Mediterranean. Boundaries. — Population ; races ; religions ; government ; political divisions ; commercial and industrial sources of wealth in the different European states. Asia. — Descriptions of its seas, coasts, islands, capes, &c. Orography ; hydrography ; political divisions. European Colonies ; the Indian Empire ; Cochin China ; Tonkin ; Annam (summary notions). Africa. — Descriptions of its seas, coasts, islands, capes, &c. Orography and hydrography ; political divisions ; European Colonies ; detailed study of Algeria, Tunisia, Tripoli, Madagascar (summary notions). America. — Description of its seas, coasts, islands, capes, &c. Orography and hydrography ; political divisions ; European Colonies ; detailed study of the United States. Oceania. — Archipelagoes and islands ; European Colonies. 2:}ote. The Examiners will lay special stress on France and Central Europe. Out of three questions, for example, put to a candidate one should have reference to France, a second to central Europe, the third to the rest of the programme. Candidates must also be able to draw on the blackboard sketches of all the geocTaphy in the programme relating to France and conterminous countries. APPENDICES. 1^3 u*. FRANCE.— ECOLB SUPERIEURE DE GUERRE. 1" Division. 1884. — Travail d'J&tdde de G6ographie. MMrs. les OfiBciers de la T" Division traiteront une des questions siiivantes, a leur choix, comme application du cours de G^ographie : Discussion des propri6t^s offensives et defensives : 10 de la frontifere allemande de Pouest, 2» „ de la fronti^re allemande de Test, 30 des frontiferes occidentales de la Russie, 40 ^^ de la frontiSre autrichienne vers Tltalie, 50 ^^ de la frontidre autrichienne vers la Russie, 6°. Discussion du systeme de defense de Tltalie du Nord. 7«» ,^ de I'ltalie centrale. 8". Discussion des conditions sirat^giques du theatre de guerre de la Bulgarie et de la Roum^lie. 9". Strategie maritime du tassin de la M^diterran^e. Positions strat^giques, leur importance et leur rSle. lO**. Discussion de la situation strat^gique respective des Russes et des Anglais dans I'Asie centrale. 11". Etude comparative de la politique coloniale de la France et de I'Angleterre dans I'lndo-Chine. Importance du Tonkin. Toutes les parties de ces diff^rents programmes peuvent ne pas ^tre trait^es avec le mSme developpement. Les questions sont poshes en termes g^n^raux dans le but de laisser aux officiers la plus grande initiative. lis devront*s'abstenir de toute nomenclature inutile et s'efforcer d'exposer avec inddpendance les id^es personnelles que leur aura sugg^r^es une 6tude refl^chie du sujet choisi. 2» Division. — Tbavail d'£tudb de G^ogbaphib. Comme application de la premiere partie du cours de Geographic (Geographic de la France) les officiers de la 2' Division traiteront une des questions suivantes k leur choix : 1"*. Frontiere du Nord entre Valenciennes et M^zi&res, lignes d'invasion ; lignes de defense ; lignes de retraite. Recherche d'une position de concentration et d'un front de d^ploiement dans I'hypoth^se d'une invasion par la troupe de la Samhre. 2^ !&tude du massif de Saint-Gobain et des flancs de cette position, de P^ronne ^ Reims par Laf^re et Laon. 3°. fitude de la region comprise entre Paris et les coUines de la Brie Champenoise au point de vue des obstacles qu'elle offre pour prot^ger Paris dans le secteur compris entre I'Aisne et la Seine. 4°. Discussion des propri^t^s defensives de la region comprise entre M^zi^res Verdun, Villers-en-Argonne et Reims. ' 5°. Etude de la Z6ne frontiere entre Poni^i-Mousson, Lun^ville et Neufchateau Discussion des propri^t^s defensives du terrain. Recherche d'une position de concentration. Q\ Discussion des propriet^s defensives de la region comprise entre la Sane Cde Treves i Deux-ponts), la Moselle, les Vosges et le Canal de la Marne au Rhin dans I'hypothbse d'une offensive frangaise dirig^e du Sud au Nord. ' 144 appendices; 7*. ]£tude de la region comprise entre le Donau, le Ballon d' Alsace et Spinal. Les propri^t^s defensives. 8" ifitude du Morvan. Son rSle dans le syst^me g^n^ral de la defense de la France. 9". !fitude de la fronti^re du Jura entre Belfort et Pontarlier au point de vue de la defense et de I'attaque. 10**. Discussion du syst^me de defense de la frontifere des Alpes, depuis le Mont Blanc, jusqu'^ I'Encliastraye. 11° Discussion du syst^me de defense des Alpes depuis le Mont Yiso jusqu'i la Eoya. 12° Alg^rie. Considerations sur le systeme d'occupation militaire du Sahara. II est recommandeaux officiers d'indiquer les cartes dont ils se sont servis et, lors-qu' il y a lieu, d'en joindre des fragments k leur travail, pour I'intelligence du sujet. Les questions qui sont propos^es doivent ^tre consid^rees comme un cadre d'ensencible dans lequel il n'est pas n^cessaire de se restreindre, et qu'il n'est pas n^cessaire non pins de remplir completement lorsque cela entralnerait a de trop longs d^veloppements. II est laiss^ une grande latitude a I'initiative personnelle des officiers, autant dans le choix du sujet, que dans la mani^re de le traiter. II leur est recommande d'^viter les nomenclatures et les details oiseux, d'apporter un grand soin ^ la discussion, et de rendre leur style aussi concis que possible. 1"* Division. — Cours de G-ioGRAPHiE, 1884-5. 1"' 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10» 111 12 13 14 15 16) 17 1 lefon » »> >> j» tt »> »> » n Cochinchine et Tonkin. Europe centrale. Expose d'ensemble. Allemagne, Fronti^re franyaise. Hollande, Cotes de la mer du nord. Allemagne, Frontiere russe. Autriche, Hongrie, Kaces en frontiere russe. Autriche, Hongrie, Frontiere italienne. Italic du nord. Italic centrale. P^ninsule du Balkans. Caucase ou Asie mineure. Asie russe. Bassin de la Mediterranee. Angleterre, Routes de navigation du globe. Algerie, Senegal, ou Congo. 2* DIVISION, 1884-1885. — Pbogramme d'Exambn de passage de 1«'« bn 2e Division. Division de la France en massifs et en bassin sgeologiques. — Li mites et description sommaire du bassin de Paris ; — du bassin du Sud-Ouest et des Pyrenees ;^u bassin du Sud-Est et du massif central. Description de la Belgique. Son systeme de defense. AnVers, la ligne Demer- Bupel.— La Meuse, Namur et Liege. Discussion des conditions de la neutralite Belge.-^Organisation defensive de la frontiere du Nord-— Details du front Valenciennes, Maubeuge, Mezieres. — Le massif de St. Gobain — La ligne de la Somme — Le pays de Bray et la position de Creil. AI^PENDICES. 145 La frontier^ entre M^zieres et Verdun, 4" et 5" cretes. La fronti^re entre Verdun et Toul— L'Argonne et les positions de la 2** cr^te. Les Vosges— Le triangle : Toul, Donon, Ballon d'Alsace. La region : Toul, Neuf- chateau— ipinal et les lignes de concentration —La haute-Meuse et les lignes successives jusqu'^ Langres et a Dijon — Le Morvan. La Falaise de Champagne— La ligne de I'Ourcq et les massifs forestiers de la region entre Seine-et-Mame. La region entre Orleans, Le Mans et Alen9on. Le Rhin, ses ponte de cliemins de fer et les lignes ferries de concentration. — La region entre Moselle- Vosges et Sarre (r. g.) — Conditions defensives— Region entre Moselle-Rhin et Sarre (r. d.) Le Jura— Orographie sp^ciale— ]fitude du Plateau Sequanais— Hydrograpbie de cette region — Discussion des conditions de la defense de cette frontiere. (4<>) Belfort. (2") de St. Ursanne au col de Jongue. (3°) de Jongue k St. Genix sur Guiers. La Suisse— Expose d'ensemble du systeme des Alpes principales — Routes d Italic (Rh6ne, Reuss, Rhin)— Plaine Suisse et ses lignes de defense— La Vencge.— La Linthe. — Surs6e. Alpes fran^aises — Configuration g^nerale. — ^Division en trois fronts. — ^Alpes de Savoie. — Zone neutralisee. — Systeme de defense de la Carentaise et de la Maurienne. Alpes du Dauphine — Massif de I'Oisans — ^Importance offensive et defensive de Brian9on. — Le Queyras et I'Ubaye. — Alpes de Provence, leur physionomie. — Frontiere des Alpes-Maritimes. Le Var et ses affluents — Chemins intemationaux. — Nice et les defenses de la Roya. Pyrenees m^diterraneennes — Orographic — Passages principaux — ^Hydrograpbie — ifetude de la Catalogue. Discussion de la defense des Pyrenees orientales — Pyrenees Atlantiques. Importance de la Chaine — Cols ; routes principales — ^Lignes de defense de Pampelune h. Toulouse. Tunisie — Configuration d'ensemble. Alg^rie — Description sommaire des montagnes du Tell, de la Chaine Saharienne, Route d^Oran aux Oulad ; Sidi ; Cheikh. „ d'Alger h, Laghonat et au Mzab — ^Le djebel Amour, „ de Constantine k Tongourt et Onargla — ^L'Aures. Les grands Chotts du Sud — Les routes d'Insalah. EXAMENS DE SORTIE. QUESTIONNAIRE DE GEOGRAPHIE. 1. Expose du systeme orographique de I'Europe (croqms d'ensemble). C6tes lorraines — ^Frontiere franyaise entre Verdun et Toul. 2. Le Rhin de B^le k Coblenz. Ponts et places fortes. Division de la France en massifs et bassins g^ologiques — Limites et description sommaire du bassin de Paris. 3. C&tes allemandes de la Mer du Nord et de la Baltique — systfeme de defense. Frontiere franjaise entre Toul et le ballon d'Alsace— Lignes ferries de concentration. 4. Fronti^res orientales de TAllemagne— Places fortes et chemins de fer. Algerie— Description sommaire du Tell de la province d'Ora. 6. Systeme d^fensif de la Hollande. Frontiere francjaise entre M^ziSres et Verdun, 6. Repartition des races de I'Empire austro-hongrois (croquis d^ensemblo) Frontiere frangaise de Valenciennes ak Mezi^res. 146 APPENDICES. 7. Ensemble de la fronti^re austro-italienne — Positions strat^giques des Italiens sur la ligne de I'Adige. Importance defensive du massif de St. Gobain. 8. Systeme de defense de I'ltalie sur la frontiere franjaise — Forts d'arret de la ceinture des Alpes depuis le Petit St. Bernard jusqu*au col de Tende — E61e du Montferrat, d'Alexandrie et de Plaisance. Alg^rie — Description sommaire de la Kabylie, 9. E^partition des races de la P^ninsule des Balkans — Plateau de Moesie — Limites sommaires des nouveaux ^tats — Croquis d'ensemble, chemins de fer du Vardar et de la Maritza. Sj'st^me de defense des Alpes fran9aises du Mont-Cenis au col de I'Argenti^re- Brianfon, le Queyras et I'Ubaye. 10. La place d'armes du Caucase et I'Arm^nie — Importance de Batoum, de Bakon, d'Alexandrete. Frontiere du Nord de la France de Dunkerque a Maubeuge. 11. La Suisse — Plaine Suisse, ses lignes de defense naturelles. Position Brugg — Zurich — Position de Surs^e. Alg^rie — L'Aur^s, les Grands Cbotts, la route d'Onargla. 12. Positions des Busses dans I'Asie centrale — ^Turkestan et Gouvernement transcaspien — Koute des Indes par H^rat. Frontiere des Alpes de Provence depuis le col de TArgenti^re; le Yar et ses affluents. La ligne de la Koya — Koutes et fortifications, 13. Frontieres polonaises de I'Autriche — Ses lignes d'op^ration, Cracovie et Przemysl. Pyrdn^es — Description g^ologique d'ensemble — Frontiere des Pyrenees m^diter- randennes. 14. Belgique — Son systeme de defense ; les conditions de sa neutrality; — Anvers, la ligne Demer-Rupel ; — La Meuse, Namur et Li^ge. Tunisie — Description sommaire d'ensemble, 15. Ensemble des fronti^res msses du cot^ de I'Allemagne et de rAutriche — Hongrie — Ligne de la Narew. — Varsovie, Brest, Litowski, Micbailograd. Les Vosges — Description d'ensemble — Role strat^gique de la region comprise entre Toul, le Donon et le Tallon d'Alsace. 16. Defense de I'ltalie centrale centre une attaque franfaise — Routes militaires des Apennins toscans — R61e de Plaisance, de Bologne — Positions defensives pour couvrir Rome. Frontiere franjaise du ballon d'Alsace au Lomont. 17. La Cocbinchine et le Tonkin — Routes commerciales entre la Chine d'une part, rindo-Chine et la Birmanie de I'autre. Alpes fran9aises — Leurs divisions naturelles en trois fronts — Systeme de defense de la Tarentaise et de la Maurienne. Tripoli taine — Son importance — Action religieuse et politique de I'ordre des Senousia. Le Jura — Description g^ologique d'ensemble — Systeme de defense. 19. Routes et defenses du Tirol — Ancien quadrilatere de I'Adige — Mincio. Alg^rie — Le Djebel-Amour et les Ksour du Sudoranais — Les Oulad-Sidi-Cheikh, 20. Les Grandes Alpes, du Mont Blanc au col de Reschan — Description sommaire — Principales routes militaires entre I'ltalie et la Suisse. Frontiere franco-allemande — Region comprise entre le Rhin et la Moselle — Lignes naturelles de defense des AUemands. Lignes principales de concentration. 21. Positions strat^giques des Anglais sur les grandes lignes de navigation du globe. APPENDICES. i-i' V dans la Mediterranee ; 2" dans Tocean Atlantique ; 3* dans les mors des Indes et de la Chine ; 4" dans I'Ocdan Pacifique. Frontiere des Alpea de Savoie. Zone neutralisee— K^gion Sobalpine. 22. Eoumanie et Transylvanie— Le Danube depuis Orsora. Question de^ embouchures— Routes des Alpes de Transylvanie— Extension de la race, ronmaine. La Haute Meuse et la region comprise entre Neufchateau, llpinal et Langres, au point de vue de la concentration et k celui de la defense. 23. Allemagne du centre entre le Rhin et FElbe— Bassin dn Main— Esquisse de la campagne de 1866. Le Morvan— Description geograpliique et role strat^que. 24. Divisions naturelles de TAllemagne au point de vue des races et des langues — Allemagne du Sud — ^Bassin superieur du Danube — ^Ulm, Ingolstadt, Ratisbonne. La Falaise de Champagne, son r61e strat^que — ^Massils forestiers de la region entre la Seine et la Marne. Ligne de I'Ourcq. 25. Le Rhin de Coblenz ^ Wesel — Lignes fences de concentration des AUemands sur la frontiere beige. Th^tre d'operations compris entre la rive droite de la Loire, la rive gauche de la Seine et le Bocage nonnand — Orleans, le Mans, Alengon — ^Esquisse de la campagne du General Chanzy en 1870. 26. Organisation politique de PEmpire austr(Hhongrois — ^Rivalites des Allo- mands, des Magyars et des Slaves — ^Description g^(^raphique de la Boheme — Tendances politiques des Tch^ues — Lnportance d'Olmutz. Pyrenees Atlantiques — ^Routes principales — Sybteme de defense — ^Esquisse de la campagne du Marechal Soult, en 1814. 27. Defense de I'ltalie centi-de centre une attaque autrichienne — Routes militaires des Apennins remains et des Abruzzes. Role de Bologne, d'Anc6ne — ^Position du lac Trasim^ne. Role defensif de la region comprise entre Langres, Dijon et Bessai^on. 28. Esquisse g^graphique sommaire de I'Asie centrale — PMtean de Pamir, Kaschgarie, Afghanistan — ^Fronti^e ocddentale de PInde anglaise. L'Argonne et les conditions defensives de la r^on comprise entre Reims et la Meuse (2% 3' et 4* cretes). 29. Les Grandes Alpes, du col de Reschen k Vienne — ^Description sommaire^ Principales routes militaires et chemins de fer autrichiens de concentratioii. Conditions defensives de la region comprise entre la Somme, la basse Seine et la Rille — Pays de Bray — Position de CreiL 30. Systeme de defense d6 Pltalie sur sa frontiere maritime de Vintimille k Civita Vecchia — Ports des Alpes de Ligurie. Possibility d'un debarquement. Algerie — Routes des caravanes vers le Touat : 1" par le sud oranais ou Figuig; 2r par Onargla— ValMes de POued Tgharghar et de POued Miar— Itin^raire de la mission Flatters. V. ITALY.— NORMAL SCHOOL PROGRAMME IN GEOGRAPHY. 1st. General Directions. Objective and observational method. Geographical features of the place in which the school is situated. Pronounce no new name without giving a particular description of the place or object it refers to. L 2 184 APPENDICES. For the description of places, and of towns especially, show objects, photographs, or drawings referring to them. Draw the features occasionally on the blackboard, the pupil to reproduce the drawing in his copy-book, with explanatory names. Statistics to be represented by small comparative squares. The teaching of geography will be conducted in the elementary school, according to the same method as in the Normal School ; proceeding always from the particular to the general : school, commune, province, state, Europe, the ea/rth, the solar system, th universe. 2nd. Preparatory Course. 1st Class. — Orientation : the school, commune, province, ^ Orohydrographic configuration. Ways of communication between the commune and surrounding communes. Short description, with illustrations, of monuments, public edifices, historical localities, celebrated men. Administrations of the province. Grovernment presiding over it, 2nd Class. — Pass from the province to the State. Italy : physical geography ; agricultural and industrial products ; ways of com- munication. Commerce. Very summary notions on the political and administra- tive geography of the kingdom, 3rd. Normal Course. 1st Glass. — The earth, its form. Longitude and latitude. Particular descrip- tion of Italy, Brief elementary notions on the other states of Europe. Cartographical exercises. 2nd Class. — Particular description of each of the states of Europe. General summary notions regarding the other divisions of the globe. Cartographical exercises. Elementary notions of cosmography and of terrestrial physics. The earth con- sidered as a planet. The solar system. Diurnal and annual movement. Didactic method for teaching geography in the elementary schools. Srd Class. — Particular study of the principal states of Asia, Africa, the two Americas, and Oceania. Ethnographic notions ; races, languages, religions, habits, and morals. Much more detailed study of the earth. The solar system and cosmographic notions. The universe. Didactic method for teaching geography in the elementary classes. w. THE POSITION OF GEOGRAPHY IN THE CANTON OF GENEVA. By Professor P. Chaix. Geography is taught in all our schools, and is compulsory in all the forms where it is taught. Two hours every week in the four lower forms of the classical college ; stopped in the next (middle) one and in the two upper forms. The subject has been reduced of late to very meagre notions of ancient geography, connected with the historical and classical fields, involving neither examinations nor any trial at the end of the year. About twenty years ago I was entrusted with a course of lectures on Ancient APPENDICES. ^^^ Geomphy, covering the whole field, during the two years, two hours a week, and gave%ery satisfactory results. That course was first (after the revolution) transferred from myself to the head classical master, who gave to the branch any time he pleased, and it is now altogether put aside. In the non-classical coUege the study of geography is kept up two hours a week during the six forms, and is, since my retirement from the two upper forms, given by my successor in a very complete manner on commercial and physical geography, followed by cosmography, limited to the earth, its motions, and the solar system. In the secondary school for girls, geography is taught in all the forms. In the uppermost there was a very limited lesson, of but one hour a week, which I was compelled to alter every year, alternating one year with cosmography, and another with physical geography, which was attended to by the pupils in a way that allowed me to treat it in a superior manner. But since my retirement, cosmography is the only branch studied, and physical geography altogether set aside. In the Gymnasium I was entrusted for one hour a week, with a course of lectures on Physical Geography, which I was compelled to give on a much lower scale than with the young ladies, the pupils being far worse prepared by their masters in the two upper forms of the college than the young ladies are by their mistresses at the secondary school above named. That lecture is no longer given since my retirement from the Gymnasium. In the commercial branch of the Gymnasium I used to give two hours a week, a course of lectures on Commercial Geography, to which I was at liberty to give considerable detail, and which has been kept up in a very able manner by my young successor, M. W. Roster, physical geography remaining suppressed. The direction of the University have thought it proper to exclude both history and geography from the field of the examination which the pupils have to undergo in their passage from the Gymnasium to the University, in order to obtain their diploma for the Baccalaureat. But the disposition of the pupils was so exemplary at the Gymnasium that my teaching of the two above-named branches did not feel the blow as might have been expected. In the University elementary astronomy and meteorology were the field of the late able Professor llmile Plantamour ; but his lectures were limited to one semestral course. There is but one separate master left, and with a very limited field, namely, my successor in the upper two forms of the Commercial College, and the same at the Commercial Gymnasium— besides one hour given by Professor Bertrand for cosmo- graphy at the school for young ladies. Historical geography is taught nowhere, historical associations being especially set aside by the schoolmasters. Of physical geography there is no other teachmg than the above-mentioned, the title being applied without the thing at the College. The field covered.— Generally Europe in two years, and the other portions of the world in two more, but with scarcely any interesting particulars, as I have s'een copies of my Handbook completely maimed, under the direction of some of the masters, by cuttings which reduce it to a mere uninteresting skeleton. Notions at random have taken the place of regular extensive teaching of ancient geography. 150 APPENDICES. X. GEOGRAPHICAL PROGRAMME OF THE "ATH^N^ES ROYAUX" ;IN BELGIUM. Seventh Class. The teaching of geography in the Seventh Class is intended only as a preparation for the geographical course properly so called. It will consist of a short descriptive course, a great geographical promenade, a kind of tour of the world in forty lessons (one hour per week). The teacher will start with Belgium, giving a short summary description of this country, and then introduce the pupils to the great states of Europe, whence he will pass with them to Africa, Asia, Australia, the Pacific Ocean, America, and the Atlantic Ocean. In making this tour the teacher will take occasion to direct the minds of the pupils to the rotation of the earth, and the difference of climates, vegetations, animals, and peoples, without, of course, observing the scientific precision which would be required in a strict plan of study. Sixth Glass, Preliminaries of geography. General geography of Europe. The preliminaries^ which will be concerned in explaining terms and various conceptions in astronomical, physical, and political geography, will afford the teacher an opportunity of utilising and methodically classifying the greater part of the ideas, gathered by the pupils during the descriptive course given in the Seventh Class. Then follows the study of Europe. This will comprise a short physical descrip- tion, succeeded by the study of each of the political divisions of Europe, among which Belgium will be reviewed more fully than any of the other countries. For each country a summary will be given of the physical geography, then the situation, divisions, principal towns, with some ideas of the industry and commerce. This course will extend over forty lessons of one hour each weekly. Fifth Class, Rapid repetition of the programme of the foregoing class. General geography : Asia, Africa, America, and Oceania. In treating each division of the world, a short general physical description will first be given ; then a few conceptions regarding its political geography, more briefly, however, than in the case of the European countries. Forty lessons at least for this course, one hour weekly. Fourth Class. General geography : The earth considered as a whole. Detailed geography of Belgium. The object to be aimed at in this course is to gather up into a general unity, and complete the geographical facts observed by the pupils regarding each of the divisions of the world. It will comprise general notions : (1) of astronomical geography (diurnal and annual movement, day and night, the seasons, the earth in the Solar system) ; (2) of physical geography (distribution and general forms of the lands and oceans, oceanic basins, oceanic currents, trade winds, general distribution of the three kingdoms and the human races) ; (3) of political geography (great states). APPENDICES. 151 This summary of universal geography is but the risume and methodic develop- ment of the short descriptive course of the Seventh Class. This course wiU conclude with a study of Belgium more complete and detailed than in the plan of the Sixth Class, Third Class. Preliminaries and general facts. Detailed geography of Europe. This programme (1) resumes and completes the preliminary theoretical concep- tions communicated in the sixth course. It also recalls some of the general facts imparted in the fourth course (distribution of lands and oceans, currents, trade-winds, &c.). (2) It gives a detailed representation of Europe physically and politically. The relative importance of the two parts of this programme may be inferred from the comparative limits of time to be given them. Ten lessons for the preliminaries ; thirty lessons for Europe. Second Class. Rapid repetition of the principal parts of the programme in the preceding class. Detailed geography of Asia, Africa, America, and Oceania. Each of these parts of the world will comprise (1) a complete physical descrip- tion ; (2) a particular description of each country, but less fully than in the case of the European countries. Forty lessons (1 hour weekly). Rhetoric Class. The earth considered as a whole (astronomical, physical, political, and economical). Very detailed geography of Belgium. This programme is the scientific development of that of the fourth class* 1st. Under the general title " the Earth " are comprised the prescriptions in the present programme of rhetoric. (a) Astronomicalj including the elements of terrestrial astronomy, which are to be taught by the professor of geography, seeing that these elements often serve to explain the physical order of the earth, and that they logically form the scientific crown of a knowledge of the earth. (&) Physical, including a recapitulation of the general facts, (c) Political, setting forth the theoretical elements of the power of a state- recalling the great states of the world, in particular those of Europe and ' the European Colonies, &c. 2. The geography of Belgium closes the study of the earth. It shonld be as detailed a study of the country as possible, in its historical, physical, topographical, industrial, and commercial aspects, with a comprehension of its political and adminis- trative institutions. The lessons will be distributed pretty equally between these two parts of the programme, from forty to eighty, 1 hour per week. 152 APPENDICES. Y. THE METHODS' AND IMPORTANCE OF GEOGRAPHICAL INSTRUCTION IN THE UNIVERSITIES AND SCHOOLS OF SPAIN. Under the influence of the French legislation, which is imitated in Spain in many- points, the teaching of geography is widely diffused in Spain. Bj' virtue of the Law of Public Instruction of 1857 geography was taught from a historical point of view in the faculties of letters. In 1880 the programme of 1857 was abolished, and a course of universal history was enlarged so as to give prominence to both history and geography, which are really inseparable. In the school specially designed for the training of keepers of archives, public libraries and antiquities, the course of instniction in which lasts three years, one lesson daily is given in historical geography. In the faculties of sciences geography is studied in so far as it is related to cosmography and geology. In the commercial course, lasting three years, in connection with secondary instruction, a single coTirse of two lessons a week are given in geography and statistics. Commercial geography is one of the subjects of the examination which has to be passed by candidates in order to obtain admission to the body of Custom-house officers. Aspirants to the diplomatic career require to show a knowledge of geography (how much is not stated). The entrance examination to the General Military Academy, which imparts the instruction necessary before a candidate can become an officer, includes the elements of geography ; and the programme of the Academy, which extends over three years, comprises a course of studies in the military geography of Spain. In the special academy of the general's staflf, where the officers remain three years, 88 lectures are given in the military geography of Spain, and 60 in universal geography. In the special academy for military engineers, the course of instruction in which lasts five years, 15 lessons are given in the fourth course on the military geography of Spain and Europe. In the Academy of Military Administration (of the same character as the academy above mentioned), and where the curriculum of study extends over two and a-half years, there is an alternative course called "Economico-Military Geo- graphy of Spain." In the academy of the cavalry service of the army, with a curriculum of three years, there is a daily lesson throughout one session on the military geography of Spain, Portugal, and the Franco-Spanish frontier. In the Institutes of Secondary Instruction, with a programme of six years, lessons are given daily in geography before the pupils enter on the study of history, and before they are supposed to know anything of the natural sciences. In the programme of primary instruction is a course in "Nociones de Geografia, especiahnente de Espana." The maps of Levasseur are beginning to find a larger public among us, and in some establishments the maps of E. Sydow, the hypsometric charts of the Institute of the Brothers of the Christian Scfiools, and those of Suzanne, are known and used. APPENDICES. 153 The best wall-maps of Spain are those of the War Office, on the scale of 1:500,000. For the pupils' own use, C. VogeVs * Spanien und Portugal in vier Blattern,' is much in requisition. Of an analogous character is the excellent work, just published, by General Hanez, Director of the Geographical and Statistical Institute, on the scale of 1 : 1,500,000, and in which the Peninsula is divided into military zones. The German atlases, and particularly the * Volksschul- Atlas ' of Dr. Richard Andr^e, are in great repute. For the teaching of historical geography, Kiepert's * Atlas Antiquus,' Carl Wolff's historical atlas, Kiepert's wall-maps and Spruner-Menke's large atlas are used. The examinations in geography, as in any of the other branches, are, according to the prevailing system in Spain, independent, and the results are determined quite apart from those obtained in the other subjects. In the military academies, failure in geography, as in any other department, involves a repetition of the course. The emoluments obtained by the special professor of geography are equal to those given to the professor of any other chair. The scientific works in geography executed in Spain refer very especially to the descriptive part (and so scarcely scientific at all) : atlas of D. Francisco Coello, the publications of the Geographical and Statistical Institute and of the " Direccion de Hidrografia." A tendency is now manifesting itself to bring geography into relation with geology, so as to refer the facts of geography to their causes and general laws, and in response to this sentiment various treatises by the naturalist Macpherson Professor G. de Linares, and Vilanova, and Botella, have been published in the * Revista de Espana,' and the * Boletin de la Sociedad Geogrdfica de Madrid.' In the legislative sphere, also, the same principle has asserted itself by some recent enactments (such as the Royal Decree of the 17th March, 1882) in which on the plan of studies, geography is incorporated with the natural sciences. In the majority of the establishments for secondary education and of the normal schools for primary instruction, the descriptive part of geography holds a far more important place than the general, historical, and economical aspects. Levasseur's books on economical geography, however, are exercising an influence among us, and teachers, without giving special instruction on economical geography qualify the teaching of other parts of geography by the knowledge they derive from Levasseur. The * Institucion Hbre de Ensenanza,' to which we owe the reform of primary edu- cation, has introduced new methods of teaching geography ; taking topomphies studying the town, making excursions to the neighbourhood, constructing rdiefs iJ scales and curves of level on maps, making geographical models, as a means of analysmg the orography, tracing and drawing of maps, &c. Such teaching bears among us the character of genuine education By such travels and excursions the pupils are brought to realise personally a large'number of geographical conceptions and details which are thus more precisely impressed on them by drawings, itineraries, &c. « By the development which the system of excursions has gained a good number Cbuen ndmero') of pupils of secondary instruction know a large part of Spain and have been able to appreciate personal the various characters of the different regions of the Peninsula " Personally With the object of promoting this system of personal practical geoeranhv ih. exammation papers and geographical works (such as those of Prof. S) put 154 APPENDICES. questions involving the calculation of distaiices, the drawing up of itineraries, and the study of maps. To teach the reading of maps and to give the pupils a proper appreciation of the signs of the planimetre and of reliefs, maps of the environs and immediate district are supplied. These maps are taken in all the walks and excursions of the pupils, and the places the pupils have immediately in view are compared with the delineations of them in the maps. In some institutions there is a course of geographical instruction on the modern basis, teaching the marking of topographies, the construction of reliefs, the tracing of maps, geographical modelling. z. LETTEE FEOM Mr. JAMES BRYCE, M.P., ON THE FIELD OF GEOGEAPHY AS A UNIVEESITY SUBJECT. Every one who is interested in the development of University teaching, and in the success of the endeavours made to keep it ahreast of the needs of our time, will be glad to hear that the Geographical Society proposes to urge on the governing bodies of Oxford and Cambridge the importance of providing for systematic instruction in Geography. Nor will any persons feel this more strongly than those who are concerned with the study of History. Geography is one of the two chief subjects in which the sciences of nature and the sciences of man touch one another. It has accord ingly two sides or aspects, the physical and the human, — the investigation of our globe as the result of physical forces, and the description of it as modified by the presence and action of men. The latter of these is the necessary pre-requisite of history, and cannot be comprehended apart from the former. Whether we regard the general stream of history from the days earlier even than tradition, and the causes which, have distributed and differentiated the races of mankind ; or whether we pursue the narrative of events in each particular country, observing the influences which have moulded the character of its inhabitants, which have isolated some peoples and enabled others to influence their neighbours, which have raised some to empire and condemned others to subjection, which have determined the lines of commerce and the course of migrations, we find a comprehension of the natural forces at work to be indispensable to a mastery of the results. All this is now so fully admitted that one need not enlarge upon it. Every competent lecturer on history recognises the importance of calling the attention of his hearers to the physical conditions under which the events he describes were enacted, and will frequently recur to these conditions in the progress of the narrative. APPENDICES. ^^^ But it may be doubted whether teachers of history have at present adequate means of themselves obtaining that systematic scientific instnietion which they need in order to master the subject They have to pick up their knowledge from books seldom written with a view to history, and often presupposing an amount of general scientific training which they do not possess. One may therefore beheve that both teachers and the more advanced students of history would largely profit by the establishment of a Chair of Geography, one of whose mam functions would be to treat of the physical features of the world, and especiaUy of the dwelHng-places of the great civilized races as prae- cognoscenda for history. With respect to other classes of students it must be admitted that Descriptive and Political Geography are neither subjects of the first importance, nor speciaUy fitted for treatment by oral lecturing. There is, however, as regards Physical Geography, a particular line of useful- ness for others than historians which I should like to urge. Nearly everybody now travels, and an increasingly large number of persons travel far from home, in countries whose physical conditions differ considerably from those of England. Such persons lose a great deal both of the pleasure and the profit of travelling if they remain ignorant of the elements of physical geography, particularly in so far as it deals with the configuration of a country by mountain chains and river valleys, with the phenomena of winds and rain, with the distribution of animals and plants. It is hard to find time at the Universities for a thorough study of geology, botany, and meteorology ; but even to have had one's attention called to some of the leading principles of these sciences, and to have formed the habit of observing the facts they deal with, is a great gain to a traveller. Elementary knowledge is one thing, superficiality is another. A good teacher of physical geography might, I think, greatly interest and stimulate young men by pointing out to them how and what to observe, and indicating the relations of the various sciences of observation to one another. Whether the present system of University Examinations leaves any room for such teaching is another question. Perhaps it does not. But this system will not last for ever. To the practical enquiry how geographical study can be advanced at the two great English Universities, I should answer : Not by founding scholarships or prizes, for of these Oxford and Cambridge have enough already ; not by establishing a new examination, nor by giving geography a larger place in the existing examinations, for these examinations are already too numerous and too heavy. There remains the creation of a professorship or of occasional lecture courses. I have referred above to some of the reasons which dispose one to believe that either of these might be valuable, but it would be essential to provide as lecturer a person of the highest gifts, who would treat physical 156 APPENDICES. geography in a- large and fresh way, bringing out its relations to the other sciences. And the historical aspects of the subject could not he worthily treated except by an accomplished historian, who had studied the history of the great nations in their several homes, and could therefore give something not to be found in the ordinary books. J. BEYCE. July 3rd, 1885. r-fijW"' LECTURES km DISCUSSIONS AT THE EXHIBITION OF EDUCATIONAL APPLIANCES IN GEOGRAPHY. ; / ( 159 ) OPENING OF THE EXHIBITION. The Society's Exhibition of Educational Appliances was held in the Galleries, 53, Great Marlborough Street, and was formally opened to the. public by the Marquis of Lome, the President of the Society, on Tuesday, December the 8th, in presence of many Members of the Council, FeUows, teachers, and others interested in education. The Galleries consisted of three large rooms, the hanging space having been increased by the erection of screens. On the walls about 200 school maps were hung, collected from our own country and the principal countries of the Continent. These maps were arranged geographically, beginning with the world, and going on to Europe and the other continents and their divisions. The object aimed at in arranging the maps was to bring side by side, for the purpose of comparison, the maps of similar regions used in different countries, and issued by various publishers. A department was devoted to elementary geography, in which the apparatus used in London Board Schools were arranged along with similar appliances used in other countries. The atlases were arranged in a case and on tables, and the text-books in shelves also on tables. On other tables were arranged various exhibits, — telluria, planetaria, globes, ethnological busts, specimens of pupils' work, small and large reliefs. In the centre of the large room stood a fine large relief of the Monte Eosa group, on the scale of 1:150,000; and on another table a contoured relief of the bed of the ocean around tbe British Islands, by Mr. J. B. Jordan. On the screens were hung small relief maps, geographical pictures, and other objects ; while other large reliefs were placed on easels throughout the galleries. The Mabquis of Loenb, in opening the Exhibition, said he thought that they would all agree with him that they had got together plenty of appliances, and the question remained whether plenty of application could be also obtained. At all events, the Eoyal Geographical Society had for many years done -its best to maktf geography part of the regular school curriculum. In former days Sir Henry Eawlinson and others had been hard at work on the subject, and yet it remained further off in England than m any other country. It was rather curious that it was so, because after all we in England possessed in the Royal Geographical Society a society to which all explorers and adventurous travellers looked for recognition after their toils and perils and troubles, and yet it so happened that we were not so far advanced m the teaching of geography as some Continental nations. He did not 160 THE EXHIBITION OF GEOGRAPHICAL APPLIANCES. know whether it had struck any one as remarkable that the great discoverers, the English and the Dutch, were backward in land geography ; the English had done more than any other to make charts of the sea, and the English and Dutch charts were better than those of any other nation. When a conference was held in America the other day to consider the desirability of having a universal meridian, and it was found that England did not want the Greenwich meridian to be changed, the conference rejected any scheme of the kind. He would be glad to hear from Mr. Keltic the nature of the exhibits from this and other countries. It was said that geography did not pay in English public school education. He was amused the other day by a German lady being asked by an English lady if she could read a map, as she herself could not read it at aU. The German lady was quite astonished to hear this, as it had been part of her education to read maps. He could not see how any one could understand the plan of a building unless he could read a map, and the Germans in the Franco-German war showed to what effect the reading of a map might be put in the case of a campaign. He could not help thinking that we should not have made so many political mistakes if we had known geography better. The Exhibition might possibly induce teachers to favour the teaching of geography in schools and universities more than had been done. The Society had done much to encourage the teaching of geography in schools by inviting some forty of the chief public schools to compete for the medals which it had offered. This had partially succeeded, but only partially ; but he hoped we should follow the example of Germany and other Continental nations, and have geography recognised as part of the curriculum of the educational institutions of Great Britain and Ireland. Mr. Keltie, the Society's Inspector, then explained the origin, object, and arrangement of the Exhibition. It formed part of his instructions as the Society's Inspector, to collect specimens of the appliances used in geographical education in England and on the Continent. The specimens thus collected were those now ar- ranged in the galleries. The object of the Exhibition was to enable teachers and others interested in the improvement of geographical education, to obtain information as to the various appliances obtainable, and to compare the maps and other objects produced in England with those in use in the leading countries on the Continent. The Exhibition he stated, was purely educational ; only such objects, with one or two exceptions, were shown, as are in actual use in schools. Visitors must not expect to find specimens of the survey maps of various European countries, or of the cartographical masterpieces issued by the best publishers at home and abroad ; — though, as the inquiry included Universities, specimens of such work might fairly have been included. Again, the Exhibition is not exhaustive, but representative. It had been impossible to find space for all the maps sent in ; but every publisher and every country included in the inquiry are represented by specimens of their work. Lord Napier of Magdala then addressed the meeting briefly on the general utility of geography. He pointed out the importance attached to the subject in the German Army, where at the manoeuvres, every third soldier has a map of the ground. He referred to the great advantage in this respect which the Germans had over the French in the Franco-German War, where also maps formed part of the regular equipment of every company. He regretted to find the meagre place given to a subject of such great importance in our public schools, and hoped the Society's action would lead to reform. Mr. Francis Galton referred to the previous efforts of the Society to improve geographical education. Many years ago he himself, also with some others, made an effort in this direction, but unfortunately did not succeed in moving sufficient interest in the subject to lead to the desired results. He pointed out what should be the great object in geographical education— to lead the pupil to form a true and THE EXHIBITION OF GEOGRAPHICAL APPLIANCES. 161 adequate and broad conception of the varied aspects of nature all over the face of the earth. Mr. SowERBDTTS, Secretary of the Manchester Geographical Society, described the action which is being taken by that Society to improve the teaching of the subject in the north of England. A series of questions has been issued to a large number of teachers, and many answers have been already received. It is intended to sift and classify them, and ultimately to call a conference of teachers to discuss the whole question, with . a view to the fuller recognition of the subject in schools, the improvement of methods and apparatus, and if possible, the establishment of pro- fessorships or lecturerships in the colleges connected with Victoria University. After a few words from Mr. Bartholomew, of the Scottish Geographical Society, the company proceeded to inspect the collection. The lectures delivered at the Exhibition, of which a Report here follows, were : — I. — December 15th, 1885. " The Aims and Methods of Geogra- phical Education." By E. G. Ravenstein. II. — December 22nd, 1885. " On Appliances used in Teaching Geography." By J. Scott Keltie. in. — January 19th, 1886. "Geography in its Relation to History/' By James Bryce, m.p. lY.— January 26th, 1886. "Scientific Aspects of Geographical Education." By Prof. H. N. Moseley, f.r.s. M ( 163 ) LECTUKE I. December ISth, 1885.— The Right Hon. Lord Aberdare in the Chair. The Aims and Methods of Geogra^phical Education, By E. G. Eavenstein. I DEEM myself fortunate in being neither called upon to demonstrate that geography is a science, nor to define those limits within which scientific geographers may roam without being looked upon as intruders by the representatives of other sciences. My task is far more humble. It is confined to pointing out those subjects which, I think, should be dealt with during the hours usually set apart in our schools for geogra- phical instruction, and to say something about the methods best calculated to make this expenditure of time truly remunerative. I admit that some of the subjects which I propose to include in this teaching are not strictly geographical, and might fairly be claimed by the representatives of other departments of knowledge. Yet they are so closely connected with geography, their consideration arises so naturally in connection with it, that on grounds of expediency alone, if not on higher grounds, I consider that they ought to be included. And first of all, as to the aims of geographical teaching. Strange and curious misconceptions must exist in respect to these when we find prominent men of science and head masters of public schools declaring that "geography is not sufficiently important as an educa- tional instrument " to deserve attention ; that " it cannot be made a subject of intellectual training," and that its pursuit merely calls for " an effort of memory." I am quite willing to admit that the hours spent upon geographical instruction might be employed to better purpose if our aim be merely to crowd the memory with barren names of places, and to impart a knowledge of their positions by means of a map. The Council of the Eoyal Geographical Society maintains, however, that the teaching of geography possesses a high educational value, quite apart from its more directly practical bearings, and I hope to show that in the hands of competent teachers it may become a most efficient instrument for training the intellectual powers. This view, fortunately, is shared by many educationalists of authority ; and it is quite clear to me that in- difference to the teaching of geography, culminating in a few instances in contemptuous hostility, is due to a want of knowledge of the subject, and of its capabilities as a vehicle for training the mind. These misconceptions are the natural result of the very inadequate M 2 164 THE AIMS AND METHODS OF GEOGRAPHICAL EDUCATION. manner in which geography is at present being taught in too many instances. Mr. Keltie's admirable report shows this very clearly, and if his account of the Continent is so very favourable it is so solely by contrast, and because, on the Continent, Mr. Keltie mixed only in the " best society," geographically speaking, and escaped contact with the bulk of teachers " told off " to give the geographical lessons as part of their general task. As a matter of fact, geography, in most schools, is being taught mechanically, either from text-books or from "Eeaders." Many of these text-books, including some of the more popular, are written by persons having no competent knowledge of the subject ; for, as Mr. Keltie very pertinently remarks, " In this country it is believed that, as anybody can teach the subject, so anybody can write a text-book of it." Some of the authors of these books are moreover even incompetent to express themselves in lucid and intelligible English. How else are we to explain the curious infelicity of some of the definitions of geo- graphical terms ? A plain, we are told, " is a level portion of land raised very little higher than the level of the sea, as Salisbury Plain," whilst a " table-land is really a very high plain." In many instances the teacher contents himself with reading the text-book to his pupils, and pointing out the various places on a map. Explanations, if given at all, are trivial, and little calculated to arouse the interest of the listeners or to develope their thinking powers. Here, indeed, we have the " drudgery," the " mere effort of memory," so justly complained of. A lady, who takes as much interest in educational questions as she takes in the "rights of women," actually told me that, as a child's memory was retentive, advantage should be taken of this fact to fill its head with the largest possible number of geographical names ; and the compiler of a text-book boasts of " his " method, which enables his pupils to learn by heart 17,000 geographical names in the course of a few years. Walking gazetteers may have their uses, but their production ought not to be one of the objects of our schools. We are told that a knowledge of five hundred words enables us to express ourselves intelli- gibly on the common concerns of life, and I cannot help thinking that a knowledge of 17,000 words in thirty-four different languages might possibly prove more useful than the knowledge of an equal number of geographical names. Of course, knowledge of this kind, mechanically acquired, is a very evanescent possession. As a substitute for the purely mechanical method, and in the absence of teachers capable of giving oral instruction, the geographical " Readers " recently introduced should be hailed as a vast improvement. Indeed, several of these " Readers " are excellent treatises, which may be read with profit by pupils and teachers alike, even though it may fairly be said of the bulk of them that superficiality is the " badge of all their tribe." X am of opinion, however, that instruction in geography, as in THE AIMS AND METHODS OF GEOGRAPHICAL EDCCATiON. 165 most other subjects, should be conveyed orally : and tiiat explanations, questions, cross-questions, and replies, should foUow each other in rapii succession. The blackboard is an indispensable adjunct, and chalk should ever be in the teacher's hand, in order that he may riv^ s:i ji-e to the ideas which his verbal explanations are intended to e;L.vev. This is the best way of keeping alive the attention of tlie Ir jLmers, and of testing their apprehension. Geographical instruction ought never to d^eneraie into mere rexa im^ lessons ; and if the pupHs are to he called upon to read ai alL ii w::ili surely be better to select for this purpose suitable passages fpOBk ihr works of famous geographers and explorers, or descrij dcr^ of life and scenery, such as are to be found in the pages of our clis^ iTil ivdieis. That our system of public examinations has something xo i> ^li. the mechanical method according to whidi geography is freqiKiitJy -•^ing taught hardly admits of a doubt. I here present a lew "qntsTii^rLs" which I confess even professional geographers oould mi l»i^ exxectod to answer : — "•: » i?*«j Mention all the names of places i:i the wxrld denTed rrizi Jcli _ Augustus Caesar. Where are the following rivers : — ^Pisooga, Sakari^, Gofez^e^. Jal:^ 'M.zlia^ All you know of the following :— AliiL^cls, FOmo, Sdtebiilfls, CriToeda, 5i«-=, Mancikert, Taxhen, Citeaux, Meloria, Zut]di£ii. The highest peaks in the Kaiakoram cange ? The number of universities in Prussia ? Why are the tops of mountains coLtii.^^y o.rer^i ui^ aMjv (tie): Name the length and breadth of the stx^zos of kxa id:l.L li^-^^i ir i^ i^- Skaptar Jokul in the eruption of 176-3. ~ If geography is taught in the spirit indicated by tl^se qpeedrji^ (some of them clearly dictated by a teacher of "iisMsy*"^ tLe p-i^Z^ win no doubt become acquainted with a wide n«nascktnT-. aad tL- wiU pick up a heterogeneous collectian of ^cts zMfPc or kae cr-:i-,">,i with geography, but they wiU not improve tl-ix ni^ial W^^ ^ le>s will they become geographers. I agree, however with thoBe who inAt npon geography. tr,^> taught, possegsmg a high edmatioiial Talne; who maiitfaun ib^ ^.rjt merely oonveyg a mass of tiBefbl mfcrmatitai calculated to anwiT A. attention and to counteiact the depreaang iiJtawf^ ri .^ J-^^_ nnayoidable in Bome other Bnbjeete, but that i: t»fa« -.{^ i^vi^'^ faculties, derelopes the power, of obBervatico aij nfl««k«, aoi »»^^ many opportnniti^ for ac^mring facility and d«»«, 'A^v^ If we admit that a fawwl^ of fc«ig„ ??te«fa,^ J1'S« Oi^ mmd, we cannot deny tUt a knowledge of fot«g„ r,,,,,,^ .zaZ^ presents analogons aAvaiOaeiea. The -r^h-^ «f3L_„- - P^-l-** of Hs^ has never hTll^ St^^^.l^t^-^; he said to teach us how to apprai^ n^ r^^JlZi^^^ii^. ^\ 166 THE AIMS AND METHODS OF GEOGRAPHICAL EDUCATION. surveyor appraises the value of an estate. The knowledge which it yields is as profitable to the man of business, who seeks new outlets for his merchandise, as it is to the statesman, who directs the destinies of a nation. Opportunities have been lost, false steps have been taken, humiliating concessions have had to be made, simply because statesmen, in their conceit, were not alive to the great help which competent geographers might have rendered them. The time when botany and other natural sciences were taught from text-books, just as geography is too frequently being taught now, lies far behind us. Nature and her students have finally been brought together. Let geographers pursue the same course I Geography in many of its aspects is a natural science, yet teachers of geography have too often lost all contact with nature. They fly to books and maps for instruction or illustrations when Nature herself is within their reach, and offers much of what they need. Oeographical Object-Lessons . — It is for this reason that I would insist upon the introduction of geographical object-lessons on the widest possible basis. This is real Heimatslcunde, too frequently mistaken in this country for a mere knowledge of the topography of the district sur- rounding the school. Geographical facts are to be brought home to the minds of the pupils by inviting them to a study of the geographical features and phenomena which fall under their personal observation or experience. These facts are to become realities to them, not to remain mere abstractions. Their examination will afford an excellent training for the powers of observation, and a scale of comparison when the time shall come for leaving the native district in order to enter upon wider and more distant fields. This Heimatskunde, of course, must not be confined within parochial or county boundaries. The pupil is to be made " monarch of all he surveys " — as far as his legs will carry him and his eye reaches. Much of what I propose to be taught in this initiatory stage is set down in the text-books modelled upon the official programme for Standard I. The time allowed for this stage, however, might advantageously be extended, and several subjects at present relegated to Standards II., III., and even IV., might be dealt with here. That neighbourhood must indeed be a poor one which does not supply manifold materials for useful geographical object-lessons. If we cannot have mountains, we must be content with hills ; if there is no large river, a small stream will furnish abundant illustrations. The sun shines upon all ; the firmament is visible wherever we are ; wind and rain, cold and heat, and their effects, are experienced everywhere ; and there is no district where the dependence of man upon the earth which bears him cannot be made the subject of useful discourse. An intelligent teacher will find subjects suitable for his purpose, THE AIMS AND METHODS OF GEOGRAPHICAL EDUCATION. 167 where another, less observant, wiU pass without thought. I well remember how on a rainy day, some thirty years ago, I crossed the parade ground at the hack of the Horse Guards. Numerous streamlets had dug themselves channels in the gravelly soil, all converging upon the " sinks " which had become choked, until the heavy rain had converted them into as many miniature lakes. There were bifurcations there, and streamlets flowing from the same pool in opposite directions ; and more especially a most complicated system of anastomoses, such as Dr. Livingstone had just then reported to exist on a large scale in the centre of South Africa. This interested me, and, sheltered by my umbrella, I stepped from streamlet to streamlet, and sought for the analogues of some of the features described by the great African explorer. A passer-by, seeing me thus occupied, asked whether I had lost something. " No," I said, " on the contrary, I have found some- thing which interests me." He looked askant at me, and went his way. Thought-reading had not then been discovered. Now, opportunities for observation similar to this present themselves frequently and every- where. Each season conveys its useful geographical lesson. The swollen condition of the village stream, a change of temperature, a fall of snow, a violent storm or a cloudless sky, form so many oppor- tunities which an intelligent teacher may grasp and upon which he may base useful lessons. Meteorological phenomena direct attention to meteorological instruments, and even children can be made to understand how they work, how they are read, and how they are recorded. Attention should be drawn to the nature of the soil, and the pupils should be taught to observe how soil, aspect, and elevation influence vegetation. The fauna of the country likewise deserves some attention, and the arrivals and departures of birds of passage should be noted. There are historical associations even in the smallest village which can be utilised, and when dealing with some remarkable building the teacher of geography may even go out of his way in order to say some- thing about various styles of architecture. The occupations carried on in the town or village, market-days, fairs, and harvest homes, should be availed of to convey some useful lessons in elementary political geography, such as the organisation of society, and the dependence of man upon the resources furnished by Mother Earth. And from the earth the eyes may be directed to the heavens. The children will follow the sun in his path, watch the phases of the moon, and note the daily revolution of the starry firmament around the celestial axis. These movements of the heavenly bodies will thus become realities to the children, instead of mere abstractions, learnt by rote from books and diagrams, never really understood, and no sooner learnt than they are forgotten. Of course, in all these matters, the teacher must employ language intelligible to his pupils. Let him on no account be tempted into 168 THE AIMS AND METHODS OF GEOGRAPHICAL EDUCATIOK. disqiiisitions on the problems of political ecanomy or of politics. Sub- jects wbicli the children themselves cannot verify by observation or experiment, and which are beyond their understanding, must be avoided. This stage affords likewise the amplest opportunities for teaching children how to read maps and how to make them. I am supposing, as a matter of course, that the school-room is provided with a large-scale map of the surrounding country, as also perhaps with a model on the same scale ; but to begin with, let the map of the village, the town, and the environs grow under the pupil's eye on the blackboard. The pupils themselves will measure the distances, by counting their steps or by noting the time ; they will also be encouraged to estimate dis- tances and heights (a most useful practice) and angles, and in course of time they will thus learn how to make a rough survey of a country, how to map it, and how to model its more striking surface features in clay or sand. Some capital work of this kind, from the High School in Aberdeen, will be found in the present exhibition. Having thus learnt how to read and prepare topographical maps, on a scale sufficiently large to render possible the identification of details, the next step, that of reading maps on a smaller scale, will be found exceedingly easy. I have touched merely upon some of the subjects which are capable of being dealt with in this elementary stage, yet it will be admitted that they embrace a variety not to be mastered in a single school year. And as it is essential that they should be mastered thoroughly, it is necessary to devote more time to them than is done at present. As to method, it is clear that a systematic course of instruction would be out of place in this stage. Subjects should be taken up as they arise, and only towards the end of the stage would it be advisable to sum up the whole body of knowledge acquired. As the powers of imagination grow children may occasionally be taken beyond what they can actually see. The nearest. river may then be traced up to its source or down to the busy port at its mouth ; imaginary journeys by rail may be accomplished, and vessels sailing past the coast may be followed to their destination. As to school-tasks, they should mainly consist in drawing plans from actual survey, and in writing descriptions of what has actually been observed. The result of this instruction will be to place the pupils in possession of a vast number of facts, which, being the result of actual observation and experience, will become their absolute property and dwell in their memory. Such terms as physical geography, astronomy, geology, or climatology may never have been pronounced, yet the pupils will know much that bears upon these branches of our subject. I shall no doubt be told that this method of teaching is utterly inap- plicable to the ordinary regime of our schools, inasmuch as it requires THE AIMS AND METHODS OF GEOGRAPHICAL EDUCATION. 169 that many, if not all lessons should be given in the open air instead of within the four walls of the school-room. I at once admit that it would be desirable to carry on this branch of instruction within sight of the objects dealt with. Still, even without personally conducted tours, much — ^very much — can be taught in the spirit here indicated. Quite apart from the fact that many phenomena may be observed in the school-room, or at all events in the school-yard, more especially if part of that yard is laid out for purposes of instruction, there is nothing to prevent a teacher from inviting his pupils to visit the various localities which he proposes to deal with, or to draw their attention to phenomena likely to occur in an early future. These subjects would be discussed during school hours, the teacher taking pains to draw attention to features which may have escaped his pupils, and to correct false impressions which they may have carried away. Moreover, even in our big towns, opportunities present themselves when the pupils, headed by their teachers, may pay visits to interesting localities. Many of our parks possess educational facilities of which our schools do not appear to have availed themselves hitherto to any great extent. Then there are school " treats " and even visits to the sea-side. You may depend upon it that children will never look upon that teacher as a " bore " who succeeds in interesting them in the scenery through which they have passed. And what is this but teach- ing geography ? By subsequently reviewing the experiences of such a day in the school-room, the teacher will renew its pleasures, and convert them into cheerful memories for the mind to dwell upon in after years. I hope I have succeeded in showing that even under adverse condi- tions, much may be done in the direction indicated, and that even the young denizens of our towns need not be condemned to acquire the whole of their geographical knowledge from books and maps. And having thus laid a solid foundation we are prepared to proceed to a more systematic treatment of geographical subjects. Second Stage. — Once you take your pupils away from their home you have to trust largely to their powers of imagination and comparison. Hence I do not agree with those who hold that you are logically bound to proceed from the town to the country, from the country to the kingdom, and from the kingdom to the continent. The circumstances of a country depend so largely upon its geographical position, that they cannot be appreciated without some general knowledge of the surface features of our globe, and of its place in the solar system. Therefore, at the very commencement of this second stage I would place the globe before my pupils. I would dilate upon its shape and its size, and give a general account of the distribution of land and water. I would likewise render clear the meaning of latitude and longitude, and explain the differences of day and night, and of the seasons, and bring home to the pupils the action of the sun, as the great source of heat, of light, and of life. These matters will be grasped all the more readily if the elementary object- 170 THE AIMS AND METHODS OF GEOGRAPHICAL EDUCATION. lessons liave been properly attended to. I would, in addition to this, explain the principal projections employed in the construction of maps, illustrating these, as a matter of course, with the help of wire diagrams. Third Stage.— Thus grounded the pupils are fit to enter upon the third stage, which deals with Chorography, or a description of individual countries. Here the danger of losing oneself in trivial detail is more especially great. Too often the teacher is content to present his pupils with an inventory of capes, rivers, mountains, harhours, provinces, and towns, instead of placing before them a vivid picture of the country he deals with, and showing them how geographical position and great natural agencies have contributed to its present condition, how they account for its flora and fauna, its capabilities and development, how they explain its past and what they promise for its future. The physical features should receive a considerable share of attention, for they largely determine the destinies of a country, and rather than enter into minutiae concerning political divisions, we ought to dwell upon great natural regions. The teacher will point out the advantages with which certain countries are endowed by nature, as also the disadvantages under which they labour, and he will show to what extent these latter have been counterbalanced or overcome by the intelligence and industry of the inhabitants. In other words, let us have " comparative " geography in the spirit of Eitter, without the extravagant vagaries of some of his pretended followers. Thus, the " making of England " cannot be solely accounted for by the possession of a fertile soil, a bracing climate, large resources in fuel and iron, and a geographical position favourable to commercial enterprise ; it called likewise for an industrious, intelligent, and enterprising population, capable of developing these various re- sources and of making the most of them. I have already alluded to the danger there is of a teacher losing himself in detail. This danger is equally present whether he deal with physical or political geography. A thorough description of a few well- chosen localities is of greater use to pupils than superficial allusions to a variety of places, and these full descriptions will be all the more acceptable if they are illustrated by pictures and diagrams, and if they are based upon the teacher's personal experience. Nature, in spite of all variety, repeats herself, but time is not afforded us to follow her into every detail, and we must therefore content ourselves with bringing to the knowledge of our pupils merely samples or specimens of leading geographical features. And similarly with the names of towns. I once told a German friend that there were hardly twenty towns in all Germany about which the world at large, and more especially the " school world " need concern itself. He looked aghast, and somewhat hurt ; yet, when we counted up towns of real importance he was constrained to admit that I was not altogether in the wrong. By all means let our pupils THE AIMS AND METHODS OF GEOGRAPHICAL EDUCATION. 171 hear something about places associated with those historical events which shook the world or shaped the destinies of nations, but the teacher of geography cannot be expected to search his map for insignificant places, simply because at one time or another they have been the scene of a royal wedding, a drunken brawl, or an inglorious skirmish. This is clearly the duty of the teacher of history, and not of the teacher of geography, as appears to be the opinion of some examiners, to judge from the examination papers set by them. It is desirable that during this stage of instruction there should be introduced what are usually called statistical statements. This does not necessarily involve tabular arrays of figures, for in most instances a few proportional numbers, supplemented by diagrams, will be found to answer the object, and they are preferable as being more impressive, and more easily retained by the memory. Thus, if I tell my pupils that out of every hundred pounds' worth of United States produce exported seventy-three pounds' worth consists of agricultural produce, whilst manufactures embrace eighty-nine per cent, of the exports of the home produce from the United Kingdom, I have conveyed a fact, in few words, and in a manner likely to fix itself upon the memory. Fourth Stage. — During the fourth and final stage of geographical instruction, the facts made known during the preceding stages are to be fitted into a whole ; the subject is to be summarised, and a systematical general geography, physical, as well as political, is to be placed before the pupil. As to physical geography I believe I am right in assuming that upon the whole, it is dealt with in our schools in a satisfactory manner. The case, however, is far different as regards the problems and principles of political geography. Here much remains to be done. On the present occasion I would more especially insist upon the necessity of directing attention to the importance and true value of those numerical statements which play so important a part in commercial and economical geography. I am quite aware that " statistics," to be of use, must be trustworthy, and that their reckless or unscrupulous use must lead to fallacious conclusions. But to reject statistics altogether on these grounds would be as foolish as if we rejected the modelling tools and the chisel as inefficient implements because in unskilful hands they do not produce masterpieces like those of a Michael Angelo. I would conclude my course of geography with a history of the science and of geographical exploration. And now a few words as to School Tasks. — In setting " tasks " the exercise of considerable judg- ment is indispensable. Our examinations, as at present conducted, more frequently test the memory of the pupils than their intelligent com- prehension of the subject taught. The *' papers " handed over to examiners are too frequently mere paraphrases or reproductions of what has been read in books or gathered from the teacher's lips. I venture to say that the teacher himself is in most cases a better judge of the 172 THE AIMS AND METHODS OF GEOGRAPHICAL EDUCATION. progress made by the pupil, as exhibited by the light of such " papers," than an inspector despatched by a Government board, who is unac- quainted, or out of sympathy with the methods of instruction in vogue at the school he is to report upon. Of course an intelligent and open- minded inspector will be able to form an opinion as to whether the subject is being taught with profit and advantage to the pupils, even though the methods pursued should not wholly coincide with the views which he holds himself. I feel called upon to say something upon map-drawing as practised in some schools. Map-drawing by the pupils is not infrequently referred to with some confidence as a proof of the efficiency with which geography is being taught. To this I demur. I deny that copying the maps from our atlases is more than a test of mechanical skill, and I altogether object to . our schools being converted into cartographical training institutions. The practice of this kind of map-copying is most trying to the eyes, and leads inevitably to the increase of short-sighted children, whom you thus disqualify for many of the active pursuits of life, and shut out from a contemplation of much that is beautiful in nature, without ofiering any adequate compensation for so serious a deprivation. I do not, however, object to map-drawing altogether. By all means let bold yet characteristic outlines of countries be prepared, either from the map hanging upon the wall or from memory, and in doing this the pupils may be taught to utilise the auxiliary lines first introduced by Lohse and further developed in Agren's constructive method, a method, by-the-bye, extensively employed in all kinds of free-hand drawing. I am in favour, likewise, of the pupils drawing topographical sketches on a large scale, and based upon their own surveys and peregrinations. Some excellent work of this description, from the High School at Aberdeen, is to be found in this Exhibition. Equally useful is the production of special maps and diagrams by the pupils. Diagrams are employed largely in illustration of geographical and statistical facts ; and it is very desirable that the priDciples upon which they are based should be thoroughly understood. This knowledge is most readily acquired by setting your pupils to draw diagrams them- selves from data supplied for the purpose. Thus, having provided your pupils with an outline-map of the British Islands, you may require them to colour it according to river- basins, or to lay down upon it some feature connected with political geography ; or, with the help of a good wall-map and a few altitudes, you may require a section through a country to be drawn, showing low- lands, mountain-ranges, and tablelands. I venture to say from my own experience that some of the work turned out in this manner will be most mortifying to a teacher, for in many instances the result will show that his explanations, notwithstanding the conscientious pains he has taken, have been altogether misunderstood. THE AIMS AND METHODS OF GEOGRAPHICAL EDUCATION. 173 Appliances. — Having thus dealt at some length with methods, I may be permitted to say a few words ahout appliances. Among these, maps are perhaps the most important. We have heard much recently ahout the inferiority of English maps, and a glance around this room sufficiently proves that these complaints are not unfounded. As a matter of fact, good maps are not generally appreciated in this country, neither hy the general public nor by school boards. There is no lack of technical skill for the production of maps, but that skill is not directed by scientific knowledge, as is largely the case on the Continent. It is to a combination of the two that Germany owes its best maps. It will be conceded that a good map should portray the features of a country as faithfully as a portrait portrays the features of an individual. A good map of an unknown planet ought to enable us to recognise its broad physical features; not merely the distribution and horizontal configuration of the great land-masses, but also the mountain -ranges, the tablelands, and the systems of drainage. It is a mistake to disfigure maps of this description by inserting names upon them. These names, especially if they are written large, utterly destroy the pictorial effect ; they are of no u^e whatever to the pupils, who only see the map from a distance, and unnecessary, to the teacher, who ought surely to be acquainted with the position of the places he is about to refer to in the course of his lesson. It will answer every purpose if the names are inserted in small type, so as to become visible only on a closer inspection of the map. Another mistake against which I would warn is the indiscriminate combination of political and physical maps. In most instances it will be better to place a physical and a political map, both drawn to the same scale, side by side, in order that they may be compared. I assume, as a matter of course, that each school is provided with a globe. Nevertheless, it will be found desirable on many occasions to place before the pupils a map of the whole earth, and for this purpose, in English schools at all events, the preference is usually accorded to what is called Mercator*s chart. I think this is a mistake. I am not unaware of the advantages which are presented by the projection first introduced by the great reformer of cartography, nor would I wholly banish his chart from the school-room, but we cannot shut our eyes to the fact that area is a very important factor when dealing with the geographical distribution of phenomena. Here, Mercator's projection fails us altogether. The regions under the Equator and in the temperate zones are contracted, and shrink into insignificance when we compare them with the snowy wastes and inhospitable seas gathered around the poles. Yet familiarity has so much accustomed us to this misrepre- sentation of the face of our planet, that we are scarcely any longer sensible of it. May I venture to bring it home to you by substituting for the face of our earth the face of the genial monk, designed by 174 THE AIMS AND METHODS OF GEOGRAPHICAL EDUCATION, Mr. H. Stacy Marks, R.A., for tlie poster of a well-known firm of soap- manufacturers? I have first covered this portrait with an ordinary globular projection, and have then copied it, trapezoid V trapezoid, first into a Mercator's projection, and then into Mr. Gall's orthographic projection. The result is before you : — Mercatob. Gall. The distortion of the features is most extraordinary, and looked at through such a medium, even the most intimate friends of our monk would fail to recognise the likeness. Mr. Gall may point out to us that his projection presents all areas in due proportion, but it is hardly necessary to remind a namesake of the famous phrenologist that it is not the size of the brain which determines the character of the man ; and similarly, in the case of countries and continents, size and area are only one factor, whilst horizontal configuration is another, which cannot be overlooked. Passing from maps to reliefs, I confess that they can only be recom- mended if they are as faithful reproductions of nature as possible with due regard to the scale on which they are prepared. It is mainly on this ground that I object to strata-reliefs, that is, to reliefs built up of strata cut out of a contoured hypsographical map. A relief which makes it appear as if we could step up to the summit of Mont Blanc or down into the abysms of the Atlantic by a succession of steps is to my mind exceedingly unnatural. If it be desired to introduce contours at all, it can be effected in some other mode. Another objectionable feature of many reliefs is the preposterous exaggeration of the heights. Exaggeration to a fair extent is, of course, permissible where the scale is small and the differences of altitude are inconsiderable, but it should never be carried to extremes. A twenty-fold exaggeration is altogether inexcusable, and betrays an aggravating absence of geographical " instinct " on the part of the modeller. On a relief of this kind, a volcano, rising to a height of only THE AIMS AND METHODS OF GEOGRAPHICAL EDUCATION. 175 a mile, must either stick out like a pin, or the modeller is obliged to enlarge its base until all the features of the surrounding country are obliterated. Instead of a shapely mountain, with its foot-hills and varying gradients, the relief presents to the beholder an unsightly botch. Better no reliefs at all than such monstrosities ! That reliefs can be made effective without doing violence to nature is proved by the fine model of the Monte Rosa group which stands on a table near me. In addition to globes, maps, and reliefs, each school should also be furnished with geographical and ethnographical pictures. Nor should the school museum be forgotten. In a large measure, it will consist of specimens collected by the teacher and his pupils. The educational " school-garden " I have already referred to. Teachers. — In what I have told you this evening there is probably but little that is new to you. The methods I recommend, and which are gradually finding their way into our schools, are the methods recom- mended since the days of Pestalozzi, and even of Rousseau. It is now nearly sixty years since Ritter laid down the principles of his compara- tive geography. Progress there must be and will be. But whatever is done to improve the methods now in vogue, I trust no official system will be forced upon the country, and that no royal or inspectorial road to the favours which the Educational Department has to dispense wiU be laid down. The utmost liberty compatible with efficiency should be granted to individual teachers. Methods may differ ; each school may have its local tinge ; one department or aspect of the subject may be treated more fully than another, according to the individual capacities and leanings of teachers, and yet none of the educational advantages derivable from a thorough teaching of geography need be nullified. That which is really essential is that pupils should be taught to observe, that they should be led to exercise their judgment in the consideration of geographical problems, and that, instead of a barren nomenclature, they should be made acquainted with this our earth in its varied aspects, and should learn to appreciate intelligently the correlations between man and surrounding nature. But how is this to be accomplished unless, at the very outset, we endeavour to txain a new race of teachers ? Geography is not to be learnt from books alone. A teacher should at the very outset acquaint himself thoroughly with the nature of the district in which his school is situated. But something more is required if his lessons are to become instinct with life. He must go abroad in search of some of the more striking geographical phenomena ; he must acquaint himself with man living under climes, laws, and conditions different from those at home. I need not tell you how accounts from personal knowledge exercise quite a different fascination upon children than descriptions merely derived from books. Fortunately, the facilities for travel which exist in our 176 THE AIMS AND METHODS OF GEOGRAPHICAL EDUCATION.— DISCUSSION. days enable us to carry out educational tours such as I venture to suggest. A ten-pound note, carefully husbanded, will carry a teacher to Switzerland and back. It will take him withm sight of some of the most characteristic mountain scenery in the world, and he will return to his school stored with knowledge which will enable him to imbue with life many a future lesson on physical and political geography. If a body of these travelling teachers be accompanied by conductors, capable of lecturing by the roadside, the profit will be all the greater. I cannot help thinking that geographical societies anxious to promote efficient instruction in geography would do well to consider the advisa- bility of granting travelling stipends to deserving teachers. These stipends, I conceive, would yield a better return than the medals and prizes at present granted to the pupils. But the world is large, and even a life spent in travel would enable us merely to become acquainted with a part of it. All that a teacher is likely to see are " samples," which afterwards he may refer to in illus- tration of his lessons. Geography, at the same time, is a progressive science. Whatever the knowledge acquired at the training college, no master desirous of efficiently performing his duty can afford to rest upon his laurels. "Live and learn" should ever be his motto. Books and periodicals no doubt enable him to keep, in a measure, abreast of the times, but these should be supplemented by lectures, delivered by specialists on particular departments of geography, or on the various aspects under which it may be considered. Here, likewise, geographical societies are able to prepare the way for official action. In concluding, I express a hope that some of the remarks which I have made this evening may prove of service in furthering the cause of geographical education. Previous to the lecture, The Chairman said the meeting was held for the practical purpose of seeing by what methods education in geography could he introduced into the schools of England, It was not enough for those present to be persuaded in themselves that a knowledge of geography was necessary to a liberal education : what they wanted, as practical men, was to discover how it could be grafted into the teaching at elementary, intermediate, and higher schools. The Eoyal Geographical Society had for a long time felt it its duty to encourage the teaching of geography, but hitherto with very slight and partial success. It had already incurred considerable expense, and, with a fair hope of succeeding, it would be inclined to go still further in that direction. He hoped that many of those present would make practical suggestions as to the manner in which the teaching of geography could be extended in England. After the lecture, The Kev. Canon Butler said that no doubt all present had suffered from the insufficiency of the methods that were adopted in their youth for teaching geography. One of the first books he ever read which opened his eyes to how geography might be taught was a volume of lectures delivered by Arnold Guyot in America who tHE AIMS AND METHODS OF GEOGRAPHICAL EDUCATION.— DISCUSSION. 177 had the art of bringing truth before his readers in a very vivid way, dealing not only with facts, but also with principles. He was quite ready to endorse the statement that physical geography had been better taught in this country than political geography, but some foreign manuals treated the subject in a much more thorough and comprehensive way than any English books. He hoped that, before long any deficiency in that respect would be remedied, and that a series of really valuable books for teaching geography in schools would be published in England. Every one who had been concerned in teaching geography must have been more or less indebted to Kiepert's maps, but perhaps there was ground for the assertion that the improvement of maps had come to a standstill. Some years ago he tried to bring before the University of Oxford the advisability of founding a lectureship or professorship of geography, and suggested that, if there was not work enough in that direction at one University, the professor might alternate between Oxford and Cambridge. With respect to maps, the chief deficiency that he had found was good large maps to illustrate campaigns and battles. The late Professor Vaughan introduced a great deal of physical geography into his historical lec- tures, and illustrated it by maps drawn by himself. There was nothing artistic about them, but they were very I'ractical. With respect to raised maps, he thought very young persons might be induced to try their hands on them. He had seen young boys make very decent models, and outline whole continents in a very creditable way, hanging the specimens on their walls like so many frescoes. Boys at school could be got to take up the study of geography in a very hearty way, provided it was taught in an interesting manner. The amount of physical science, geology, meteorology, &c., introduced must depend very much on the lecturer. If he were a capable man he would avoid bringing in too many of these matters, but at the same time would avoid making his geographical lectures too dry by keeping too strictly to the old-fashioned method. Keference had been made to the com- parative method introduced by Carl Eitter, and he (Canon Butler) had derived great advantage from that author's works, especially his essay on the comparative treatment of geography. The head masters of public schools must all have felt very grateful to the Society for the assistance given to them by the offer of medals for public competition, and he could assert that boys who competed for those medals were not led aside, and did not at all suffer in the general cultivation of their mind by it ; while, on the other hand, when they travelled in foreign countries, they were able to observe and record facts in a scientific way, and the knowledge of geography acquired when preparing for the examination was for them a life-long advantage. Be therefore regretted that the issue of the medals had been suspended because there was not sufficient competition among the great public schools. He believed the reason of this to be that there was not sufiGcient encouragement given at the Universities, Some of the best men that he had examined at Oxford seemed to think that battles were fought up in the sky. With a readership in geography and a resident competent to impart and test geographical knowledge at the University, he thought that any knowledge acquired at the public schools might be continued and carried on, while the masters at the schools would feel that the information their pupils possessed would meet with adequate recognition at the University. ' Unless that were done, pupils would be attracted by the higher prizes for classics and mathematics, and abandon geography as a thing that did not pay. One aspect of geographical teaching should always be borne in mind, namely, its imperial im- portance. When the empire was being consolidated, and the federation of the Colonies was being so widely discussed, there must be great opportunities for enter- prising geographers and for explorers to go to districts which had not been previously thoroughly examined. In that way he hoped that England would produce a school N 178 THE AIMS AND METHODS OF GEOGRAPHICAL EDUCATION.— DISCUSSION. of young geographers who would be able to deal with ail the facts presented to them, and so do honour to the country. The Rev. H. B. George (New College, Oxford) said his experience with respect to geography had been twofold, first of all as attempting to teach it at Oxford, mainly from its historical rather than its scientific side, and, secondly, as having done a great deal of examining work in schools of the higher grade. With respect to the latter, he looked upon things rather hopelessly at present. The tendency was to leave geography alone, and he believed one reason was that the teachers knew but little about it. Of course the majority of the teachers came from the Universities, where their attention had been directed to other matters. He was ashamed to say that he was almost the only man resident in Oxford University who had lectured on geo- graphy, but he had done so in connection with the Modem History School for years past, though he found that due weight was not given to it in the examinations. If geography was to be made a living reality in the upper-grade schools, the place to begin with was the Universities from which the schoolmasters came. He had tried in vain to induce students to realise that they must know what the general physical aspect of the countries was before they could understand, for instance, why Napoleon's campaigns were fought on the Danube or the Po. Students had to be strictly utilitarian in their work, and therefore attended the hardest to things which paid them best, and if they were short of time they did not take great pains to obtain a knowledge of geography. It was necessary to induce the University authorities to attach a little more importance to the subject, and he hoped that the Eoyal Geographical Society would consider whether it was possible through the schools or otherwise to put pressure on the Universities. If that were done, he believed that the Universities would be induced to move. Mr. H. W. Eve (University College School) said it had always struck him that an unusual combination was necessary in order to teach geography. The teacher ought to have a very fair amount of scientific knowledge, a strong imagination, and literary power. Mr. Eavenstein thought it best to teach without books, and every good schoolmaster practically did so ; but good books were needed to guide them, and for the boys to read. In nearly all existing books the great drawback was the enormous mass of facts; in fact, reading an ordinary geography was not unlike reading a dictionary. People were very apt to forget that it was almost impossible to keep a fact in mind without some association, and geography seemed to have suffered somewhat in the same way as the history of literature had. Titles of works were read, but there was nothing by which they could be hung in the mind except now and then an epigram. He would like to see a geographical book put together in epigrams ; it should pick out a few most important features of a country, and leave out everything that it was not very necessary to know. Some good cam- paigns might be selected for the purpose of teaching geography. He knew no better way of introducing a boy to study the geography of Russia than to t^ake him to Napoleon's campaigns, and to show the routes by which he could reach the " gates of the East " between the bend of the Dnieper and the bend of the Dwina. A similar observation might be made with regard to General Grant's campaigns in America, and the wonderful defence of Napoleon as he retreated before the Allies closing in upon Paris. The difficulty of teaching some boys mathematical geography was very often underrated, and Mr. Eavenstein must have had singularly hopeful pupils to deal with. He himself found that it took him a very long time before he could get boys of fifteen or sixteen to tell him for certain how high the sun would be at midday on the Tropic of Capricorn. There was a certain difiiculty in their conception of anything on a sphere, and in their realising the position of the world in space. THE AIMS AND METHODS OF GEOGRAPHICAL EDUCATION.— DISCUSSION. 179 Mr. SwiNSTEAD said that about eighteen months ago he was put in a position, at the Stationers' School, Fleet Street^ of having to teach geography without knowing anything about it. The boys were not sufficiently advanced to take mathematical geography into consideration, and he started from this, that if a child was to have any notion of geography he must have it in his mind somehow in the way of form. He therefore looked at maps in a very general way, and found that parts of the outlines of every map might be expressed by a few curves. He had constructed rather an elaborate system, and the result had been very successful among his scholars. Professor Hughes (Cambridge) said the subject which they were discussing divided itself into two branches, first, the appliances for teaching geography, and secondly, the periods in a boy's career at which he ought to be taught in a particular way. With regard to the appliances, he remarked that although some confusion might occasionally arise from mixing physical and political geography on maps, it miust be borne in mind that not only had the relative positions of places to be pointed out, and the methods of getting there, but also what it was desired to call attention to when the person had arrived there. There should not, therefore, be any universal condemnation of what was not strictly erroneous. He entirely agreed with Mr. Ravenstein that the distorted scales of some maps had been of great disadvantage to learners of geography. However much Mercator's pro- jection might in old times have facilitate! giving instructions to sailors, it had certainly been in the way of geographers and students, who, when it was nsed, ought invariably to have the orthographic projection before them at the same time. Of course, he remembered that if relief maps of any district were drawn on a true scale they would not give a correct impression to the observer, who usually saw the mountains from below. From the top of Snowdon, the Isle of Anglesea and North Wales looked perfectly flat, but any one who drove across the country would find it very hilly. The same might be said of the plain of Lombardy, when viewed from the Alps. Therefore a little vertical exaggeration was necessary. Still, the true scale should be as nearly as possible adhered to. Such appliances as maps of the British Empire broken up in pieces on the same sheet should be entirely dis- carded. They destroyed all the aid to memory given by what Mr. Galton called " visualising." The publications of the Ordnance Survey were very cheap, and but few of them were wanted in a school, for it was not necessary that each pupil should have one. And for sections on a true scale, nothing better could be used than the sections of the Geological Survey, on the scale of six inches to a mile. Then with regard to the time when different subjects should be taught, of course the elemen- tary schools could not be put in order until the schools above them were so, and these latter could not be until the Universities were. But he referred more hope- fully than the previous speakers to the present state of geographical teaching in this country. He thought that Cambridge had advanced out of proportion to the advance of the schools. There were every year one or two courses of lectures on physical geography. One of the favourite subjects in the Cambridge University Extension scheme was physical geography ; and there were 7000 students scattered over the kmgdom in connection with the University scheme, a very large number of whom had at some time or other gone through a course of physical geography. The ten- dency was for men to specialise earlier and earlier. All the geography which could be taught in common as bearing upon history or ethnology or physiography must be taught m the schools, aud the special parts of each would be taught at the Umversities in different departments. He entirely supported the movement in augurated by the Royal Geographical Society. Mr, Lanqlee (Westminster Training College) said that the discussion had been N 2 180 THE AIMS AND METHODS OF GEOGRAPHICAL EDUCATION.— DISCUSSION, on the teaching of the advanced subjects of geography and in connection with advanced schools, but Mr. Kavenstein had dwelt on the subject as affecting the general population of the country. If the great masses of the people were pro- perly instructed in the geography — ^not the mere topography — of other countries, especially of the British Colonies, the idea of emigration might be popularised. Only the more intelligent of the labouring population were generally those who went abroad ; the most ignorant did not, and it would be a great national advantage if the Society would help to diffuse a knowledge of geography amongst the lower classes. That subject was indeed extensively studied in the public elementary schools ; problems which affected great circle sailing, or projections, were not necessary for the majority of the pupils in those schools, and he thought that the Society would do well to make popular in magazines and periodicals the ideas embodied in Mr. Kaven stein's lecture and in Mr. Keltic's Report. Could not the medals, or some other reward of a substantial or attractive character be conferred upon the young teachers in elementary schools, so as to encourage among them the study of geography, and thus lead them to give better, or more suitable instruction to their scholars ? Such awards could be made, for instance, to candidates at the annual examination for admission to Training Colleges, if the Society could secure the co-operation of the Education Department. Or some other plan might be independently adopted to stimulate the profitable study of this subject which, with our overcrowded popula- tion, should be one of increasing interest and importance. Mr. Francis Galton thought that a contrivance might be introduced into schools similar to one he had seen in the upper galleries of the Geological Museum in Jermyn Street. A small globe was placed there to represent the sun, and in the opposite gallery, at a distance of 93 feet, under a glass shade, there were hung two small balls to represent the earth and the moon. The whole were made true to scale. The sun was consequently but a few inches in diameter, and the earth was no larger than a large pin's head ; the moon being of course still smaller. These two little balls were about three inches apart. A simple fixture of this kind would give to the scholars revelations as to the relative magnitudes and distances of the bodies of the solar system, and they might very easily be fitted up in any school. The Chairman said the date of the Exhibition was fixed with reference to the approaching vacation at Board Schools, so that teachers from all parts of the country might examine the appliances. The impression had become pretty general that the value set upon proficiency in any particular subject by the Universities gave it a certain stamp in the educational system of the country ; but when it was considered how very small a proportion of the population ever reached the Universities, it would be seen that no effort should be neglected to have a proper system of teaching geography in all schools. From the Eeport of the Royal Commission on the Great Public Schools, it appeared that only seven per cent, of the scholars at Harrow went on to the Universities. If that was true of a school like Harrow, what must be the proportion in the rest of the country ? Attempts were now being made to form an educational ladder by which children from elementary schools might be able to reach the Universities, and it was therefore certain that the teaching at the Universities must always exercise a considerable influence in other schools ; but he quite agreed that it was most important to encourage the teaching of geography at elementary schools. At the present moment he believed that geography was infinitely better taught at the best elementary schools than at the great public schools, with the exception of two or three. He was sure the meeting would heartily thank Mr. Ravenstein for his admirable address, which showed such a thorough mastery of the subject, and such an appreciation of its difficulties ; and he congratulated both the audience and the lecturer on the discussion which bad taken THE AIMS AND METHODS OF GEOGRAPHICAL EDUCATION.—DISCUSSION. 181 place. It was a very hopeful first meeting, and he trusted that it would be succeeded by others which would display a growing interest in the subject. The object of the Exhibition was to promote the study of geography, and as he had been President of the Society when Mr. Keltie was sent to the Continent to make the inquiries which had terminated in the Exhibition, he should be disappointed if all the trouble that had been taken was barren of results. Mr. Kavenstein, after cordially thanking the meeting, said he found that children after two years' instruction in Eeimatskunde were perfectly able to under- stand that the earth was a globe, and the meaning of latitude and longitude. Mr. Swinstead*s efforts to create a system of teaching geography were most creditable to him, but the method was first introduced fifty years ago by Lohse and Agren, and had been practised with much success. It was, however, a complicated system, and it would be easier to make children remember the degree lines on a map than to learn the ingenious dodges which Mr. Swinstead had introduced. ( 182 ) LECTURE 11. December 22nd, 1885. — Mr. Francis Galton, f.r.s., in the Chair. On Apiplianees used in Teaching Geography, By J. Scott Keltie. The subject which I have been asked to introduce for your consideration and discussion, is that of the appliances for use in geographical educa- tion. As appliances are the means to an end, it is proper to ask our- selves, what ought to be the end aimed at in geography as a subject of education? I conceive it is to give the pupil a clear, and true, and abiding idea of the features of our earth's surface, its varied contours and manifold complexion ; its outward form, the leading characteristics of land and ocean, the life which these sustain, and above all, their influences on humanity. We want the pupil to realise for himself as vividly as possible the actual appearance of the various regions and countries of our globe, their physical aspects, their outward character- istics, the vegetation which clothes them, the animals which roam over them, the people who dwell thereon, the climate which dominates all. More than that, the pupil ought to be trained to trace out the inter- action of the various factors upon each other, and most important and instructive of all, the action and interaction between man and his geographical surroundings, the struggle between him and the forces of nature. With such an ideal, and with an intelligent use of appropriate appliances, geography may become an admirable discipline for the mind and training for the observing faculties. I am tempted here to remark on the very imperfect conception which prevails among professors of geology as to the field of geography ; they seem to think that when they have made a few cross-country sections, mapped the outcrop of rocks, noted the action of water, and rain, and atmosphere, catalogued the animals and plants of the recent period, they have done with geography. That is only the beginning of the subject, the basis on which the varied superstructure has to be reared. Others, again, seem to be under the delusion that geography is a description of the earth with all its living outcrop scraped off, and will tell you that these in- structive pictures in the exhibition, showing as they do most impressively the aspects of many lands, have nothing to do with geography. This is not the conception of the wide and varied subject which prevails in countries where geography is treated as a serious study, worthy of professorships in Universities, and of carefully regulated programmes in all classes of schools. But I must not go further in this direction ; I ON APPLIANCES USED IN TEACHING GEOGRAPHY. 183 must proceed at once to speak of the various appliances appropriate to the teaching of the subject in the sense which I have endeavoured ta indicate. The ideal method of learning geography would he, of course, to take your pupil all over the world and let him see its manifold features for himself. But in no department of knowledge is any similar course possible, unless in most exceptional cases. Even the most accomplished geologist must be content with the bulk of his knowledge at second hand. Probably, no geologist ever actually handled or even saw every bird, beast, and fish with which his science deals. Even the botanist must be content with samples of the multitudinous families and orders and genera of earth's endless vegetation. Few astronomers, we may be sure, have traversed the whole heavens with their telescopes, and only rare lunar geographers are familiar with every crest and crater and lifeless plain of our dead satellite's surface. The chemist himself can only deal with a small percentage of the innumerable, actual and possible, combinations of the elements. But what would be thought of the students of these sciences, if they contented themselves with nothing but book-knowledge, with such knowledge as can be obtained from what in geography are known as " readers " ? What value would you put upon the knowledge of a geologist who had never handled a hammer or examined a cutting, never seen with his own eyes the shales, the granites, the tuffs, the marls, the limestone, the old reds and other typical rocks, not to mention their representative fossils ? A few visits to the Zoological Gardens under intelligent guidance are better far than volumes of descriptive zoology, with illustrations on every page. The illustrations, if faithful, are certainly useful; still more instructive would they be if you were familiar with real specimens of at least the typical forms of the animal kingdom. Why then should geography, which is both descriptive and analytical, which deals not only with the outward forms of phenomena, but with their causes and mutual relations — why should this department of know- ledge be in England dependent solely on text-books and readers and featureless maps ? Why not do as is done in other departments which deal with the concrete, take your pupils into the field and train them to observe for themselves ? How this is to be done was so ably and fully shown by Mr. Kavenstein, that I need only touch upon the point here. If you want the youngsters to learn how to read a good map, teach them to make maps for themselves. The Board Schools, at least those of London, have certainly got into the right groove, but it seems to me the teachers do not know how to work it efficiently and intel- ligently. I have here a specimen of the apparatus in use in the London schools. Here are two plans, one of a school-room and school-house, the other of the streets around the school. So far as they go these are praiseworthy. But they are presented to the pupils ready-made. They 184 ON APPLIANCES USED IN TEACHING GEOGRAPHr. are an attempt to carry out the German method of Heimatskunde — local topography. But that is only a very small part of the method. The pupils should be taught to do the work for themselves. The blacks board should be far more in requisition than ready-made plans. The children should be encouraged to draw plans of the school-room and schojl buildings and grounds for themselves on the black-board, and then on slates. This compass has to be exhibited to the pupils of London Board Schools, and I believe the chief points of the compass are painted on the ceilings of the school-rooms. But the children ought also to be trained practically to draw the leading directions on the floor of the school-room with chalk, to trace with their fingers the course of the sun in the heavens, and to reoognise at once the relative situations of the various objects around them. They might easily (it is done on the Continent) be taken out in small parties into the neighbourhood of the school, with suitable plans in their hands, and spot the actual streets and buildings laid down thereon. Not only so, there is no reason why they should not map the neighbourhood for themselves. This is the very elementary stage, to teach them by actual practice what a plan or a map means. This applies specially to London, where the conditions are exceptional. In smaller towns, in villages, and especially out in the country, the conditions are much more complicated, and therefore more favourable for the purposes of the budding geographer. But even in London few schools are far from some uneven ground, possessing in miniature most of those features which are found on a large scale on the face of the world at large, and to represent which is the great object of good maps. Why, for example, could not arrangements be made for taking small detachments of pupils to Hampstead Heath or Richmond Park, or even to the near Surrey Hills, and train them to compare the actual features with those represented on the map ? At a later stage they might be taught actually to map the features for themselves. Much more than mere topography and mere map-reading could of course be taught on such excursions. Without mentioning the word physical geography, you could lead your pupils to see for themselves many examples, on a small scale, of the action of those forces of nature, with the results of which the physical geographer has to deal. Then, again, the reverse process might be followed. After your excursions, and with your maps before you, why not, in sand or clay or some other suitable substance, build up, with the help of the pupils, relief models of the features you have visited, and which are indicated on the map ? Why should not the London Board School teachers lay their heads together, the more intelligent of them, and make a large relief of the ground on which London stands, from the Crystal Palace to Muswell Hill, and from Eichmond to Woolwich ? Surely their united efforts and time would be better spent than in the manufacture of such worse than useless trifles as those with which we have been flooded here. Take this won- ON APPLIANCES USED IN TEACHING GEOGRAPHr. 185 -derful " ideal landscape " for example, which comes to us with no end of recommendation from "teachers and educationists." What would you think of taking gross misrepresentations in wax of the leaves and fruits of about 100 widely different species of plants, sticking them together anyhow, and calling the result an ideal plant ? This is no better, and to go no further, is enough to ruin the taste of children entirely. I might show other similar monstrosities, but probably you will consider this sample sufficient. You may object to these methods of making pupils practically ac- quainted with the typical features, the delineation of which is the purpose of good maps, and so teach them to read for themselves all that such maps are intended to convey — that they are impracticable. I think it is sufficient answer, that the thing is actually done in this country, as a regular part of geographical instruction. On the Continent, in Germany, France, and even Spain, it is common ; the method is an essential part of Heimatkunde, as laid down by Dr. Finger and other authorities. Mr. Eavenstein suggested that specially diligent teachers ought to be re- warded by being given the means of making holiday excursions to some of the most striking features, at home and abroad, with which they have to deal in teaching geography. As a matter of fact, this plan is followed on the Continent, not only with teachers but with pupils. Every year a select number of pupils from French Lycees and other schools are sent abroad for a fortnight or longer, to observe the geography of other countries, get some idea on the spot of their industries, and familiarise their ears with the sound of the language. In the college for higher education, recently established at Madrid, this method forms a regular part of the system of the institution in all branches in which it is applicable. As to this country, I have here some sample maps sent from Gordon's College, Aberdeen, a middle-class school. These maps are done by the boys themselves in the field, from their own actual survey. Their teacher, Mr. Grant Ogilvie, takes them out into the open country, on Saturday and other holidays, and with few and simple appliances, trains them to map limited areas for themselves. Mr. Ogilvie does not even use a measuring line ; he teaches his boys to pace their distances with regulated steps of a definite length. " The only necessary apparatus," he writes, " for the maps I send are a six-inch scale divided to eighths (half of a penny 12-inch scale is the thing) and cards for drawing on (Goodall's packets), H.B. pencils, and coloured pencils (red, blue, green) for field work, with a box of colours for home work." The boys have not even compasses, though Mr. Ogilvie would be glad if some instrument maker would manufacture a good strong mariner's compass to sell for about 3 s. Some of the boys have a little board on which to pin their cards in the field, others place them against a wall or a fence. You can easily fancy the interest which the average boy will take in such work ; 186 ON APPLIANCES USED IN TEACHING GEOGRAPHY. tlie training it will afford for mind and eye, its admirable fitness for teaching him to take in the lie of a country and its leading features. To judge from some of these specimens Mr, Ogilvie trains his boys to indicate the nature of the surface, though I am not sure that he accustoms them to lay down contours, or to the use of hill-shading : these are details that could easily be added ; — they ought to be, and also colouring or some other method to show varieties of culture, forest-land, marsh-land, and even leading geographical features. Such practice will enable the pupil to read intelligently good maps of various kinds. In Gordon's College the instructions to teachers of geography are to teach almost entirely from maps : " We have a good collection of maps," Mr. Ogilvie writes. Another method, followed in Surrey County School, Cranleigh, of which Dr. Merriman is head master, is to draw huge maps on the walls of the school-room, the principle being to go from the familiar and known to the unknown. " Thus," he writes, " we have a large map painted on the school-room wall of the district near here, the school being the centre, the roads, villages, &c., being laid down. Then we have a map of England, with only a few features and towns marked. Then Europe, and so outward." This seems to me a happy solution of the question of large maps ; for few school wall maps are, in my opinion, half large enough. Map-drawing from memory forms a staple part of geographical instruction in Surrey County School, where the programme is arranged so as to be graduated and continuous throughout the school. At the foot of the stairs, as you come in, you may have noticed a large relief on a table. That is a relief of the country around Rochester, and embraces an area of about 400 square miles. It has been con- structed by Mr. Charles Bird, head master of the Mathematical School, Rochester, and is used in that school for local geography. Mr, Bird also states that he finds Jordan and Topley's well-known model of South- eastern England useful in Kentish schools, though he thinks it rather too small for class teaching. There is also in the Exhibition a map on the scale of two inches to the mile of the district around Bradford, made by a teacher in one of the schools in that town. The best methods of hill-shading have not been followed, but the map is in the right direction, and must be of much service, not only in teaching local geography, but in training the pupils to read other maps. In the Aire valley, also, similar maps have been made, and the teachers, I am informed, take their pupils out to neigh- bouring heights, and with maps in hand, train them to identify the actual features therein represented. The methods I have had to refer to so summarily are, in my estima- tion, some of the most effective appliances that could be adopted for the practical teaching of some of the leading points with which geographical education ought to deal. One very important end which they serve is ON APPLIANCES USED IN TEACHING GEOGRAPHY. 187 to lead tlie pupil to the thorough comprebension of a map, which, after aU, must always he the chief apparatus in the repertory of the geo- grapher. So I find in the best schools on the Continent, that great pains are taken to teach the pupils the use of maps. As I have stated in my Eeport, one of the best teachers of geography in Germany devotes the first three years of his course to this object, and then troubles his pupils no more with map-drawing except for special purposes. The maps he has to deal with, of course, contain volumes of information. Scale, of course, is a point of great importance, and every effort should be made to teach the pupil to comprehend it. In Dr. Lehmann's class, two boys I picked out went to the black-board and drew to five times the scale a small map of Australia in their atlas. The conventional representation of the various geographical features should be thoroughly understood ; and here I have examples of a method followed in Swiss schools. This is Wettstein's atlas of some 30 beautiful maps, sold for 28. 9c?. There are a few introductory maps for the local geography of Zurich and to teach the principles of contour lines and mountain-shading. These principles are easily learned, though in this country they are scarcely needed, as few of our school maps seem to lay down their mountains on any principles at all. In most German, Swiss, and Austrian school maps, on the other hand, contours and hill-shading are as carefully laid down, though not perhaps in such minute detail, as they are in the best Staff maps. Well in that atlas of Wettstein's you will find two sheets devoted to the elements of hill-shading, with small maps from which the pupils have to make corresponding reliefs in cardboard, or by carving out chalk. Here are some specimens of such reliefs which I picked out of hundreds done by a class of girls of about 12 years. It is a common exercise of Swiss schools. So is the building up of reliefs with moist sand, which I am glad to say is coming into vogue in some English schools. Here, again, are some specimens of the apparatus used in the Austrian Cadet school, to teach the young fellows to understand maps, and to map countries for themselves. They get these simple models placed be- fore them and have to map them, as in specimens. Or they may get a simple map and have to model it in clay or some other substance. They are first taught actual surveying by getting placed before them the beautiful large reliefs of the Austrian Staff maps, and with proper instru- ments map the relief ais if it were a piece of real country. All this will show you that there are plenty of methods and appliances to hand for those desirous of treating geography as a serious subject of education, a valuable body of knowledge, an excellent training for mind and eye. Map-drawing, in my opinion, is of use only as a means to an end ; it is useful in so far as it makes the pupil realise more vividly the actual features of the earth's surface, and leads him to understand clearly the information conveyed by the maps he will have to deal with as boy or man. Every boy and girl ought to be able to draw from memory the lead- 188 ON APPLIANCES USED IN TEACHING GEOGRAPHr. ing divisions of the earth's surface and the chief countries of the world. We have heard a good deal said against mere memory-work recently ; but it is only when memory-work is made the beginning and end of geography that it is pernicious. The pupil ought to have his mind stored with as many geographical facts as he can contain ; be able to spot at once in his mind's eye every place and feature of importance when it comes before him. To this end persistent memory-map- work is most useful, and if Mr. Swinstead's method, which he described last Tuesday, and of which there are specimens here, will lead to this desir- able end more effectually than any other, then adopt it by all means The mere making of pretty copies of maps is a useless waste of time. Now, as to school wall-maps themselves, for the intelligent readers of which the various methods referred to are to a large extent a pre- paration. The chief object of this Exhibition is to enable teachers and others interested in the subject, to judge for themselves as to the different styles of school map-work to be met with in England and on the Continent. It has been suggested to me that it would be instructive to arrange before you the stock of maps and other apparatus in use — (1) in the geographical class of a German University; (2) in a German higher school; (3) in a German elementary school. For a German University I should have to select some hundreds of the best Staff maps of the various countries of the world ; a hundred or two of the best wall- maps issued both in Germany and abroad ; a formidable stock of smaller maps ; maps constructed by the professor and his students for special purposes — meteorological, botanical, zoological, oceanographical, &c. ; a set of the best atlases obtainable; all the best geographical pictures issued; hundreds of photographs and engravings illustrating the features of all the regions of the globe ; some of the best reliefs and models exhibited here ; several sets of apparatus for cartographical work ; a folding black-board extending all the length of this room, with ample supply of coloured chalks ; a library of some hundred of selected geographical works ; ethnological busts, pictures, implements, weapons, &c. ; mineralogical specimens ; globes; projection apparatus; and a variety of other objects, only to be found in museums in this country if found at all. For a Eealschule or Gymnasium, you will find lists in the Appendix to my Eeport. Select from the walls sixty or eighty of the best maps; add twenty to forty maps, including separate wall maps, of every country of Europe ; half-a-dozen or so of the best English maps of the British Islands, American maps of the United States ; other special maps. Take in the fifty or so geographical pictures you see on that screen, and add the so-called historical pictures in the portfolio (sixty in all), used also in geographical teaching ; this relief of Central Europe, that glacier and volcanic island, not to mention small reliefs. Ethnographical pictures and busts ; large pictures of representative specimens of animals and plants; series of photos, with probably hundreds of mounted cuttings ON APPLUNCES USED IN TEACHING GEOGRAPHY. 189 from The Graphic and Illustrated London Netcs, and the Grerman and French illustrated papers. Implements and weapons, specimens of savage textile mannfactures and clothing, models of sarage dwelling ; globes, relief and plain ; telluriums ; and various odds and ends helping to lend interest to geographical lessons. My mission referred speci- ally to middle-class and higher schools, but 1 visited a few elementary schools. In a large Leipzig school of this class, I found a store of apparatus in a large room used for the purpose, scarcely inferior in quantity and variety to that just catalogued. Need I give you the scanty and unattractive picture vsrith which we are all too familiar on this side of the North Sea, in our higher schools — a seedy map or two, or it may be half-a-dozen gaily coloured sheets. Happily, in some middle-class and elementary schools things are improving, but we are far from the Uerman or Swiss, or even French or Italian standard, either in quantity or quality. Compare, for example, the specimens of political maps of Europe from different countries by different publishers, with the prices marked as far as they have been ascertained. But what are the criteria that ought to guide us in judging whether school maps are good or bad, suitable or unsuitable for their special purpose ? I think we could not have any more practical and useful tests than those applied by the Cassel Association of Teachers and the Cassel Geographical Society to the classification of such maps for their own guidance. They are (1) Accuracy ; (2) beauty or style of execution ; (3) suitability for their purpose; (4) price. The first head covers a wide field. Under it an Austrian writer on geographical appliances would exclude all maps exe- cuted by photographic process from exaggerated reliefs; and as a matter of fact, the Austrian Government does forbid the use of such maps in its schools. This, I think, is carrying the test too far. Some photographic maps are certainly a jumble of confasion ; but there are two or three such maps in the Exhibition which I consider extremely useful in giving a conception of the relief of a country, and as aids to the understanding of maps executed after the ordinary cartographic methods. On the same principle some of the French maps in the Exhibition would be excluded the exaggeration of the reUef of the land being out of aU proportion Even in the best school maps, however, some exaggeration is necessary in order that an adequate impression of reUef may be produced on the youthful eye and mind ; but if this exaggeration is carefally proportioned throughout, and the other features as far as possible made consonant I do not see any objection to it. On the other hand, the first requirement would exclude all maps that slurred the physical features of the land and shirked expense and trouble in avoiding detail by delineating mountains with the vaguest shading. One does not expect in school maps the detai s of Sfaff maps, but the utmost accuracy as to general form and situation and outliDe should be insisted on ; and in all cases it should 190 ON APPLIANCES USED IN TEACHING GEOGRAPHT. be insisted on that contoured survey maps, wliere they exist, should be taken as the basis of school wall-maps ; these should not be merely copied from other second or third-hand maps. A map, for example (and specimens of such will be found in the Exhibition), that shows a con- tinuous range of mountains with its lateral valleys by a series of detached tints with gaps between should be rejected; and so should any map that places so important a feature as Mont Blanc 50 miles out of its true position. Under the head of Beauty, I fear most of our English school maps would be rejected. The ugly combination of colours to which we are accustomed is repulsive. Our ordinary maps of England seem to be constructed mainly to show county divisions. The physical features are of small moment, apparently. On the best maps they are vague enough, but when these are covered by high colours and varnish they are almost invisible. Under head 3, suitability for their special purpose, much could be said. If a map is constructed after the best methods, such as Ziegler's Madeira, Randegger's Alpine Eegion, or Dr. Naumann's Japan, it might be filled with details, and yet be a good school map, whose leading features would be visible at the test distance, 20 feet. Still, practically, it seems advisable to have three grades for school maps : an elementary grade, with as few details as practicable and the physical features well brought out, such as the Hemispheres and the Europe by Bamberg and the Heimatskunde map of the Circle of Karlsruhe. Then we might have a middle stage, of which Ziegler's Switzerland, Eandegger's Canton of Zurich, Delitsch's Kingdom of Saxony, and most of R. Kiepert's maps are examples. For the highest classes much more detail might be in- troduced, and even Staff maps be used. It seems to me that in all cases the most effective and accurate method is a combination of contours with shading, that is, the spaces between the contours might be shaded with tints of brown, gradually increasing in depth to the summit. At a distance we have all the effects of relief, while closer inspection gives volumes of information. Still, as will be seen in not a few examples in the Exhibition, all desirable results can be obtained by the ordinary methods of hill-shading, if done with skill and conscientiousness. Price is of course, in many cases, an important consideration ; but it is surely greatly to be deplored that to save a shilling or two on each map our schools should be flooded with the most unsatisfactory pro- ductions. Let us compare English maps as a whole with foreign maps as a whole. First, as to size. Most of the maps, I think, are too small, while that numbered 72 is, I fear, too large for most schools. Bamberg's maps seem to me satisfactory in this respect. Look at the general aspect of the maps. Mark the high and often ill-assorted colouring of English and even French maps as contrasted with specimens from ON APPUANCES USED IN TEACHING GEOGRAPHY. 191 Germany, Austria, Switzerland, Italy, and even Sweden. For although some of these German and Swedish maps are ooloured, the colours are put on sparingly, and with some taste. Look at the Grerman, Austrian, and Italian maps of Central Europe on the walls of this room, how sparing they are of colour, and how different their aspect and appearance from that English map of the same region. Apart from the point of taste, I think it best to be chary in the use of colour on maps. For what is known as a political map, that is, a map showing the boundaries of states and their internal divisions, ooloured lines are quite sufficient, as seen in the best German, Austrian, Swiss, and Italian maps. Areas of colour ought to be used only for special purp(^e8, mainly for the exhibition of physical and historical facts. In this country we seem to have the pernicious idea that a political map should be denuded of aU its physical features, and especially of its mountain ranges, one of the most important factors in determining political events. We cannot blame English map-publishers for adapting their wares to their market. English geographical instruction has hitherto been mainly mere memory work, and the maps most commonly to be found in schools seem to have been made to serve this end- We find here, as on the Continent, maps without names (Stumm-Karte, Cartes Muettes). Compare a specimen of an English dumb map with a specimen of a similar German map : I do not need to point out the difference to you. In Germany, as a rule, physical maps only are without names, and for obvious reasons. English mute maps have scarcely any features to speak of, and are evidently meant to test the pupil's memory of names of towns and rivers. On Kiepert's and other good German maps, such as that of Wagner, and those of Eandegger, the only difference between a physical and a political map is that the latter has names, and the physical features are somewhat fainter, but markedly distinct We certainly have had some good physical maps in this country, but I fear they are all out of date, both as to information and methods, now; there seems to be no market, except for the most general maps of this' class. A common method of exhibiting the most prominent physical features, the hypsometry of a country, is, in England, by using a variety of colour. I think it much better, however, to use for land, as for sea, varieties of tint in a single colour, and especially brown. In many Continental maps in the Exhibition you will see this used with great effect. The deepening of the tint in proportion to the altitude has an impressive and graphic effect; it suggests altitude: whereas the use of different colours is merely conventional, and quite unsuggestive. Some exceUent cartographers, who use brown for altitudes above a certain level, use green for the lower lands; but I think that various shades of one colour may be used with perfect effectiveness. But you will see maps m this collection which exhibit physical features in an admirably teUing manner, without any colouring whatever, but simply by a 192 ON APPLIANCE^ USED IN TEACHING GEOGRAPHY. scientific use of haclmres, as in the map of Switzerland hj Eandegger (No. 56), that of Zurich by Ziegler, and others which you will see in our Alpine corner. I have here a gem of a map, that of Madeira by Ziegler, which at a distance has all the appearance of relief, and when you look into it tells you volumes as to the features of the island. One of the best examples of the use of shades of brown for increasing alti- tudes is the map of Japan by Dr. Naumann ; when you look into it you see the effect is produced by a careful use of contour lines. Such precise and minute map work, you may say, is not suited for school wall-maps. That is evidently not the opinion on the Continent, as dozens of examples in this collection will show. In common Swiss schools and in primary German schools the pupils are accustomed from the first to deal with maps of the finest workmanship, and so both their taste, their intelligence, and their geographical knowledge are trained and developed. They never see such things as some of the specimens shovm in the Exhibition. A modern map is a compromise. Old maps are more like bird's-eye views than anything else. You see lines of cones for mountain ranges ; groups of houses for towns ; men and animals and trees, and similar pictures of other features. It would be interesting to have an exhibi- tion of an historical series of maps, in order to trace the development of cartography which has resulted in the most finished work of say the Austrian Stafi" Department, and the best examples of Eeimer, Perthes, Artaria, and one or two English publishers whom I need not name. In recent years a modified recurrence to the old method has been attempted in photographic maps to which I have already referred. Personally, I prefer the best work produced by the ordinary hachuring process. There seems to me in this country a great dearth of good large wall- maps, showing special physical phenomena; I have only been able to obtain two or three specimens, and most of them are old. However, if teachers would only take a little trouble to train themselves in geo- graphy as they do to train themselves in classics and mathematics, they might be independent of the map-makers. On that screen are two large outline maps, of a series by Wagner of Gottingen, published by Perthes of Gotha. One is Mercator's projection, price 3s. ; the other Europe, price 6s. Wagner himself has accumulated a large stock of special maps by filling in these outlines with the help of his students. Why, in the higher classes of English schools, should teachers not do the same with the help of their pupils ? Here is a specimen of a special map constructed by a London School Board teacher for his own purposes. It is an outcome of the New Code and the encouragement of H.M.'s Inspector of Schools. It beats even the maps of antiquity in its realism. It is meant, I believe, to aid the memory of the poor little examinees, who have to get up what are known as the products of the various countries, in order that they may ON APPLIANCES USED IN TEACHING GEOGRAPHIT. 19^ produce them properly labelled when subjected to Government inquisi- tion, I do not condemn the map, and have no wish to discourage teachers in such eflforts, which are highly creditable to their zeal and industry. In the hands of a good and well-informed teacher I can conceive it might be used to excellent purpose. But I think if our teachers themselves were better taught they would not find it necessary to resort to such methods ; though it is a pity that anything in the Code should encourage such desperate methods to drill the children in their memory work. Many Board School teachers have visited the Exhibition, and shown real and intelligent interest in the various exhibits; they are eager for enlightenment and for knowledge of the best methods and appliances, and it is the duty of the Education Department to see that every facility is afforded for satisfying this laudable craving. Both for maps and for pictures in the teaching of geography I think the lantern and screen might be used with excellent results. In some Zurich schools they are very largely used for these and other educational purposes. As to the prices of wall-maps; we have cheap enough maps in this country, but in quality few are to be compared with those equally cheap, and even cheaper, published on the Continent. As a rule, I do not think you get such good work for the same money here as in Germany and Switzerland and even Italy. I do not wish to give the impression that I condemn all English maps as bad. I think some of the maps by one or two English publishers are done with as much care as similar ones of Eeimer. I object to the colouring ; the physical features on political maps are, in my opinion, too faint, and both in physical and political maps lack the precision and well-considered detail of the best foreign school work. Labour, you ought to remember is much dearer here than in Germany, and the market is so poor, and the bulk of teachers so indiscriminating, that it is no wonder our reputable map-pubHshers are discouraged. You do not find, for one thing, anything like the same selection of maps of parts of Europe in this country that you find in Germany; nothing to compare in cheap- ness and quality with the series of European countries by E. Kiepert of which we have one or two specimens. Finally, can you find any EngHsh school map of mountainous Scotland to compare with Swiss maps of Switzerland and German maps of Central Europe? It is a curious fact that in classical maps-and we 'all know the position of classics in our higher schools-we seem to be further behind Germany than even in ordinary maps. You have only to look at the specimens on that wall and compare them for yourselves to be convinced of this. _ The result is that in our great public schools you seldom find any classical maps except those of Kiepert. As to historical wall-maps I do not know of any English series to compare with the two specimens' 194 ON At>PLIANCES USED IN TEACHING GEOGRAPHY. from the series by Spruner and Bretsclineider, numbered 63 and 64 in the Catalogue. I have dwelt so long on the subject of maps, which, after all, must be the leading appliance in geographical instruction, to which all others must be auxiliary and subsidiary, that I have only a few minutes left to speak of other classes of exhibits. Models and relief maps I am inclined to value highly as one means of accomplishing the end of geo- graphical instruction. Take that masterpiece in the centre of the large room, the model of the Monte Rosa group. You want to give your pupil an idea of the appearance of that particular region ; well, there it is, you tell him, and you may depend upon it, the average boy will ask you all sorts of questions about the details, and when he is done with you, both he and you will know a good deal more than you did before. What a fine opportunity, for example, it affords for teaching a lesson as to scale. That relief is 50,000 times less than the area of the country on which it is modelled. The vertical and horizontal scales are the same. It abounds with texts for lessons in physical geography. Of course, such a relief is beyond the means of the great bulk of schools ; but it may be taken as a model which enterprising teachers ought to imitate, and that, or a similar model of the Highlands, or of Wales, or of the English Lake district, ought to be in every town museum, in the kingdom. But there is no reason why most schools should not have that model of a glacier, or that of a volcanic island, or that of the Wildspitz, or even of the Ortler group, of which it is a section. These models themselves are of direct service in education, especially in districts where the children have no chance of seeing a mountain. But as adjuncts to maps, I think models are of special service. Have a good relief of some stretch of country, marked by typical features ; don't attempt any such horror as an ideal landscape. Above it hang a photograph of the model ; and beside that a real map of the country modelled, a map having all the best charac- teristics of good cartography. Such an arrangement would do more to enable the pupil to understand a map than hours of explanation. I think the example of Mr. Bird, of Rochester, might with advantage be generally followed. If teachers, instead of manufacturing ideal land^ scapes, would put together models of the district immediately around their schools, they would do far more service to their pupils' comprehen- sion of geographical terms and of maps, than by the impossibilities many of them seem so fond of concocting. Or, if they want to get as many features together as possible, let them take some real region — say the Isle of Wight, which surely has enough of capes, and hills, and cliffs, and rivers, and towns and other features to satisfy the require- ments of any reasonable code. With regard to relief maps of large areas, in which the mountain features must to some extent be generalised and exaggerated, they require to be used with caution ; but I do think that in good hands they serve a most useful purpose, both in conveying a ON APPLIANCES USED IN TEACHING GEOGRAPHY. 195 more impressive conception of physical features than a map, and in enabling the pupil to understand the latter. The exaggeration should of course be as small as practicable, and the vertical and horizontal scales should always be given. This relief map of Central Europe seems to me a good one of its class, though unfortunately the vertical scale is not given. The series of three reliefs of the Western Alps and Xorthem Apennines, by Colonel Cherubini, in the back-room, may be taken as models of what such productions ought to be ; the vertical scale is only half that of the horizontal. The reliefs of Europe, by MUe. Kleinhans, are also very excellent productions, though there, as a matter of necessity, the vertical scale is one-fourth of the horizontaL Some of the smaller Italian and German relief have the merit of cheapness, though the vertical exaggeration is very great ; still as some care has been taken to preserve a semblance of tbe natural forms of the physical features, I am inclLQed to think that if used with proper precaution they will serve a useful purpose. With regard to other reKefe, I can only say, avoid all caricatures and unmeasured exaggerations of nature. We have one relief here which, if it could be cheaply multiplied, would be a most advantageous addition to all schools — ^that of Mr. J. B. Jordan, of the contours of the ocean-bed around the shores of the British Islands. It abounds vdth instruction in physical geography, and it is to be hoped that the Science and Art Department, for which it is being constructed, will be able to find some means of producing copies at a moderate rate. As to globes, the larger they are the better ; unfortunately the larger ones are all too expensive, especially those made in England- Anything under 18 inches diameter seems to me unsuited for class teaching. For many educational purposes a map is preferable to a globe ; but the latter can be put to excellent use by properly trained teachers. For ocean currents, for demonstrating the earth's rotundity, for correcting the caricatures of projections, for shovnng the actual relative positions of regions, and many other purposes, a globe is of the greatest service. The cheap umbrella globes you all have seen might be made to do quite as well as the more elaborate ones, especially as they can be made of large size at a cheap rate. So too these slate globes, of which there are several specimens in the Exhibition, are in some respects even more serviceable than the mapped ones. One naturally associates telluria and planetaria with gbbes, and you will find a selection of these on one of the tables. The simpler these arrangements are the better. The younger pupils especially are apt to associate all the parts of the apparatus with the reality of nature, and the more complicated they are, the more readily do they get out of order. Here is one of the most satisfactory of this class of appliances I have seen. It is reaUy simple, and I prefer it to this other with a screen over the earth, which is unnecessary if the apparatus is used in the dark, an o 2 196 ON APPLIANCES USED IN TEACHING GEOGRAPHY. it ought to be. For the same reason I object to the globes with screens around them. They seem to me much too complicated and perplexing to the young idea. One great drawback of these telluria is the utterly unnatural disproportion between sun and earth and moon. Some effective means should be taken to correct this; and Mr. Galton has been good enough to give me the dimensions for an arrangement for sun and moon and earth, showing their true proportions if the whole were reduced to a scale on which the distance of the earth and sun would be 56 feet. On the wall here is a disc representing the sun, 6J inches in diameter. On a table, at the other side of that room, 56 feet away, you may by close scrutiny be able to perceive under a glass shade a wax earth, • 056 inch in diameter, the size of a homoeopathic pillule, and 1*68 inch distant the moon, '015 inch, the size of a small pin-head. Such a simple arrangement is possible in any school, and is an admirable antidote to the exaggerations of telluria, and an excellent lesson in scale. Indeed, a similar method might be used to counteract exaggerations in other appliances, e. g. in the case of exaggerated relief maps. "What I have said of wall-maps applies to atlases and these small maps for the hands of the pupil. Compare, for example, the three atlases of Wagner andDebes, at 6d., Is., and 5s., and that ofWettstein at 2s. 6d, with corresponding atlases of English publishers, at least in the matter of quality ; or indeed any German, Austrian, or even Italian atlas, with English productions of the same class. On the whole, I am inclined to rank English school atlases higher than English wall-maps. Among the atlases before me you will see two or three, which will bear com- parison with those of other countries. You may prefer the style and finish and careful detail of the latter to the generalisation of some of the former ; but these latter, again, stand out a long way from the general run of English school atlases. What I have said of historical wall-maps applies to some extent to historical atlases. I believe the historical atlas mostly found in the best schools of this country is the school edition of Spruner. Examine these beautiful small maps used in Germany and Switzerland for the teaching of local geography; we have nothing like them in England, simply, I suppose, because there is no demand for them. I am inclined to place great value upon the atlas or the hand-map in class teaching. In the ordinary geographical lesson not only should the wall-map be in its place, but each pupil should have a corresponding small map before him, and be trained to read the map as he would a book. This method I saw in nearly all schools on the Continent I visited. Of course, for any real utility for this purpose, every line and shade and mark on the maps should be significant. A well-known Oxford professor complained to me the other day of the difficulty of getting any satisfactory outline and sketch maps in this country. I showed him the Italian collection, the maps of which are ON APPLIANCES USED IN TEACHING GEOGRAPHY. 197 sold separately at 3d and 2Jd. He said sncli things were unobtainable here, and determined to import a set. Perhaps the most novel feature in the present Exhibition to most visitors will be the large collection of pictures on the screens. With the exception of a few originals, all these are geographical pictures actually used in the teaching of geography in (Continental schools. The most finished of the series are those of Holzel of Vienna, which are also the dearest. For teaching purposes, the cheaper series at the top and bottom of the off-screen are perhaps as usefoL Some of these, I am glad to see, are being reproduced in England by Phillip. The first requisite of a geographical picture is perfect accuracy of detaiL Mere sketches, or pictures purely from the artistic standpoint, should be avoided. Therefore, probably photographs, or faithful reproductions of photographs on a large scale, are best of all for geographical teaching. It must bo evident to every one that such pictures will at once attract the interest of the pupil, and that is a great point gained. Their utilily in con- veying to the pupil a broad, idea of the appearance of different lands is also different ; and as the beet of them represent typical features, they must also be of great service in physical geography. But, like good maps, they should be studied in detail ; tiie pupils should be trained to draw out of them all they are meant to convey. For the hands of the pupils there are atlases of smaller pictures ; Hrrt's " BUdertafeln " being the best, and wonderfully cheap. At Clifton I saw a very good col- lection of photos of geographical features in various parts of the world. Would it not pay a photographer to make a large collection of such pictures and reproduce them at a cheap rate for educational purposes ? The typical heads of various peoples which you will find on the walls are, I think, a valuable adjunct to these pictures, and so also would be a few good large illustrations of representative animals— a kangaroo for Australia, a lion and an elephant for Africa, and so on. Finally, as to text-books, it seems to me that if schools were well supplied with all the appliances I have referred to, and if these were used with trained inteUigence by the teachers, the text-book would not be so important an instrument in geographical education as it is in the country. Much has been said of the merciless way in which English text-books are crammed with names; and we must all have witnessed the disheartening and even demoralising effect upon a child of a task of a page or two of the ordinary English text-book, say Mackay's, or Stewart's, or Comwell's, to commit to memory. It is usuaUy a sheer effort of memory exercised on bare names, without any connection, without any tag of interest, to attach them to the memory. It would be absurd to say that no memory-work is needed in geography ; but especiaUy in the younger classes only the most saUent facts should be selected, and these should be so interwoven with the lesson as a whole, and so surrounded with points of memorable interest, that they 198. ON APPLIANCES USED IN TEACHING GEOGRAPHY. would be more than mere names. I think if you compare the best German and Austrian text-books with covresponding English books, you will find first that the former are much smaller than the latter, and that there is far less memory- work, especially of bare names. Take Kirchhofifs, or Daniel's, or Piitz's, or Supan's, and compare them with Mackay, or Hughes, or Clyde, or any other of the familiar text-books. These certainly have many good points about them, but they seem to me all too large. The authors appear anxious to outdo each other in the number of facts they can cram into their pages, and therefore these bristle with tables that can scarcely be called of the useful information kind. Look at Kirchhoff's little book, used in German schools of all grades, and you will find but little of this kind of thing. The teacher on the Continent is of much more importance than the text-book. He himself is well stored with the information required for his purpose, and he can get all he wants in such manuals as that of Daniel. What we want as much as anything, is a manual for the guidance of teachers themselves. It does not seem to be considered that a man should have any special knowledge of geography, or of any of the sciences it touches in order to compile an English text-book. Any one with adequate know- ledge, who cared to examine some English text-books most in vogue, would find them bristling with the most absurd misstatements. Here, for example, is a passage from a text-book in use at Wellington College, and largely used indeed throughout England. In speaking of the pro- ducts of Australia, I find the following passage relating to the animals. ** Nearly all the quadrupeds are pouched. . . . The chief of the pouched animals are the kangaroo, wombat, ornithorhynchus, dingo or wild dog, and the duck-bill ; flying and long-tailed opossums are also common. The birds include eagles, cockatoos, parrots, the lyre-bird, emu, black swan, and a sort of thrush, found only on the continent, called the 'laughing jack-ass.' The wombat, which is the native pig, is a burrowing animal ; the ornithorhynchus is a mole, which has a mouth and bill like a duck." I could quote similar passages from other sections of the book, and it is a fair sample of the ordinary English text-book of geography. But as reform in our English text-books is under way, I shall not venture on detailed comparative criticism. A verdict on the text-books and other appliances is much more a matter for the Council of the Society or a jury appointed by it, than for one in my position. I think I have said enough to show that if teachers are really anxious to make, geographical education what it might be, what it is in most Continental countries, and in a very few schools in this country, and if those who have the regulation of the programmes of our various classes of schools would give the subject the place in their programmes which it ought to have, there is no lack of suitable appliances. And we may be sure, if there was a greater demand for high class school maps and other material in this country, an ample supply would be forthcoming. ON APPLIANCES USED IN TEACHING GEOGRAPHY.— DISCUSSION. 199 Before the lecture, The Chairman said, that a fortnight ago, when the Exhibition was first opened, the President of the Society, the Marquis of Lome, had stated the circumstances under which it had been called into existence, and the reasons why the Greographical Society had undertaken its superintendence. A week ago, at the second meeting, a most instructive, full, and luminous paper had been read by Mr. Ravenstein, and he (the Chairman) felt sure that all who had heard that excellent address must have gone away conscious of a valuable addition having been made to their geographical knowledge. The meeting held that day was the third of the proposed series, and the subject for the usual lecture was that of geographical appliances, such as those distributed about the rooms, and it was due to the zeal and energy of the lecturer — Mr. Keltie— that visitors were now able to inspect specimens of every kind of geographical appliance in the form of maps, reliefs, and globes, that existed either in England or abroad. Some were simple and gave only a general idea of the subjects with which they were connected, while others entered more into detail. With regard to the maps, some were cheaply got up in the first instance, and others were more expensive ; and in this coimection he would say that to him it appeared that the original cost of a good design for a map, as distinguished from the cost of reproduction, need be no bar to its being undertaken, because, considering the hundreds of thousands of children to be educated, there must always be a demand for a really good map. He might mention that the Geographical Society had actually offered to help to defray the cost of particular maps if those directly connected with education could agree precisely on what they required. There were two or three appliances necessary in geographical education which hardly came within the limits of the Exhibition but which stiU deserved mention. He was very strongly convinced of the necessity of devising some simple forms of labora- tory experiments which could be performed before a class, and show the principal processes going on in physical geography. Then there were magic-lantern sUdes which formed a very suitable apparatus for effectively bringing home to the coni ceptions the physical features of the earth. True it was that such appliances appealed only to the sense of sight, but there were other influences capable of jmpartmg geographical knowledge besides the faculty of seeing Onrstrone instance of this would be found in the case of a very eminent statesman, who blind though he was, dehghted above all things to be taken to some elevated point of view and to have the features of the surrounding country described to him Bv the duration of ascent he gained an idea of the altitude, and many other incident o the journey, such as the freshness of the air, the smells, the sounds, and the sdence too aU combined to impress his imagmation with the geography of the district Poetical and verbal descriptions of nature, in virtue of thfmany subUe associations connected with words, were also able to produce extremely vivid eZte and It was a misfortmie that some of our greatest poets had possessed but a ve^ meagre acquamtance with geography. That almost inspired man, Shakesp^re w^ evidently deficient in this respect, as witness his description of the spI^' ' "The Tempest," which wa. absolutely false in every'Sclf Snf7i:^ descriptions of confined areas, such as the Midland Counties, were exceedliTy aL^^ pnat^ but there were no references to the larger aspects of Mature. S ouTowt ^l^rLXrird^:^^^^ neCtheZ^n) geographical imagination, but would J^' ^^Zt^X^^^: ^^^^^^ 200 ON APPLIANCES USED IN TEACHING GEOGRAPHY.-^DISCUSSION. After the lecture, Dr. J. H. Gladstone said lie thought they ought to express their thanks to Mr. Keltie for the admirable way in which he had brought the subject of geographical appli- ances under their notice. He (Dr. Gladstone) was glad to find he approved of the endeavours of the London School Board to give the children a proper idea of the meaning of a map. The Board had also put into use in their schools some of the very best appliances from the Continent as well as those produced at home, and now very rapid progress in the teaching of geography was being made. He thought a little more credit was due to the recent changes in the Government Code than perhaps the lecturer had given to them. In most of the schools the list of names hitherto required to be learnt by the pupils was not now necessary, which was most satis- factory, inasmuch as they only served to clog their memory to the exclusion of many useful thoughts. Where there was no list of names required it was sometimes usual to insist upon the committing to memory of detailed outlines. Of course memory lessons were valuable, but intelligence ought to be brought into the study of geo- graphy, and the memory might come in afterwards. He rather approved of the Government policy in directing that the geography taught should be physical, and not merely political. There was an admirable sentence in the instructions issued to Her Majesty's Inspectors, to the effect that teachers were not expected to impart simply the names of different towns and places on a map, but to give, in addition, some description of historical events, or the productions and manufactures peculiar to them. He trusted that in future more attention would be paid to the teaching of physical geography, and that the processes of building up continents and deepening seas would be made familiar to the inmates of the schools all over the country. Only the previous day he had seen the thing done in one of the poorest schools in London. Nothing had been said in the lecture about the outline maps now published, or Suzanne's globe. This latter was of a dark hue, the aqueous portions being coloured blue. Chalk was used in drawing upon it, which could be readily cleansed off when required. The instrument was very much in use in French schools, and had been introduced experimentally into those of London. He trusted that the various methods of teaching geography recommended by the Royal Geographical Society and other bodies would lead to a more extensive acquaintance with it on the part of the people at large, and its acquirement might be connected more closely with the pursuit of physics and natural science. Among the recommendations lately issued by the Koyal Commission upon Technical Education was one that there should be only two class subjects, literature and science, " science " being physical science connected with geography, such as a knowledge of the various conditions of the ocean, air, &c., and of the various products of the earth. He hoped that in the process of time that recommendation would be put into actual practice. Eev. Edward Hale (Eton College) said he wished to join in thanking Mr. Keltie for his information regarding the methods of teaching geography on the Continent. He also thought that all teachers owed a debt of gratitude to the Royal Geographical Society, which was doing everything in its power to promote the study of geography, htiherto so much neglected. He was certain that the teaching of physical geography must be the foundation of any teaching of science, and it was upon those lines that it was taught at Eton, with which he was connected. One of the great diflficulties that teachers had to contend with was the uniform size of the maps of all countries. Much that it was expected boys should learn was gained by the use of their eyes, and though there was a scale at the bottom of each map, yet it did not mean much in the sight of the young. What was really wanted was that an outline of Great Britain on the same scale as the map should accompany each map. It was also difficult to convey a proper idea of form without being furnished ON APPLIANCES USED IN TEACHING GEOGRAPHY.-DISCUSSION. 201 with the necessary reliefs, and the supply of these in the higher schools was often miserably inadequate. Indeed, in some of the very best schools m England there would not be found so complete a collection of appliances for teaching geography as was possessed by many of the Board Schools. With regard to the use of models as aids to instructing boys as to the form of various bodies, he was incUned to look upon photographs as the more effective medium. As to physical geography, there was hardly a school in England in which it was taught to any extent or with any success ; the reason being that the time of the scholars was so cut up by the various other studies, and the time at the disposal of the masters was so limited, that the teaching of geography in anything like a scientific way was, under present circum- stances, almost impossible. In fact, it did not pay to tea^h it. He hoped it would not be long before the Universities would recognise that the teaching of history without geography was a complete farce, as then teachers might be led to give a proper course of geographical lessons. The blame for this apathy with regard to geography did not rest entirely with the schoolmasters, but with the Civil Service Examiners of the present day, whose examination papers only tested the competitors in their knowledge of the position on the map" of a number of places— a test of memory only. As all the candidates for the Army are examined by the Civil Service Examiners, it follows that our officers, generally speaking, know less of geography than the officers of other European Armies. In some way or other he trusted that this state of things would soon be remedied, but he did not think it would be done unless public opinion was brought strongly to bear upon the examiners. General Sir Beatjchamp Walker said he entirely agreed with Mr. Hale regarding the inadequate teaching of geography in the schools of the country. For six and a half years he had been Director-General of Military Education, and every effort he made to encourage geography as a vital military subject was thwarted by indifference. The real opposition, however, did not come from the military authorities, but was to be traced to the obstinate prejudice existing in England against the study of geography, especially among the wealthy and influential classes. The reason why maps were so dear here, as compared with the prices charged on the Continent, was that the demand for them was so small that publishers could not afford to circulate them at a less cost, though, given a quick sale, they could produce them as cheaply and as artistically as was done abroad. Frof. H. N. MosELEY said he thought the real reason why geography was so neglected in our schools was summed up in the words of Mr. Hale, who had observed that it did not pay to teach it. To give it an impetus, the study should be taken up in the Universities, and at this moment the question was arising at Oxford whether geography should not be ranked as one of the alternative subjects of a preliminary examination which would qualify for entrance on the study of science and certain other special branches of knowledge, and to some extent stand in lieu of moderations. He believed in the learning by heart of a certain amount of the leading features of the topography of the globe, as a framework to aid in the comprehension and retention of the very various and complicated phenomena with which the science of geography had to deal. If marks were given at schools for excellency in drawing maps from memory, instead of for mere proficiency in tracing them from atlases, the results obtained would be far more valuable. The correct insertion of the main features of latitude and longitude should be insisted on in such maps. The know- ledge of the main topographical features of the map of the world might with advan- tage be acquired by every child as a matter of memory, as was the multiplication- table. It would be as fundamentally useful to the child in building up a knowledge of geography, as is the multiplication-table in acquiring a proficiency in arithmetic and mathematics. 202 ON APPLIANCES USED IN TEACHING GEOGRAPHY.— DISCUSSION. Mr. Drew (Eton College) said he thought it would be a difficult thing to carry out Mr. Keltic's suggestion of setting the children to sketch out upon the floor of the school the physical aspects of their district, as to do that forms and desks would have to be removed. The gradual building up of a map on the blackboard, instead of exhibit- ing it only in its complete form, was an admirable practice. As to the excursions to the Surrey Hills and elsewhere, and some other means mentioned by Mr. Keltic for teaching physical geography, he thought that they could only be taken advantage of by select scholars, and were not capable of being extended to the large numbers in Board schools or even to ordinary Public schools. There was a good deal of force in the lecturer's opinion that the scholar should advance from the kuown to the unknown, but if that plan was adhered to strictly he did not know how many years a boy would have to remain at school before he became acquainted with, for example, Turkey or Russia. He was sorry to see in some of the maps in the room — especially that of Italy — that the depths of the tints were made exactly in accordance with the heights, thus showing a departure on the part of map-makers from the custom of making the depths to correspond with the steepness of the slope. In the Blue Book on India there was a most beautiful, delicate, and yet effective map of the mountains and rivers of India. He thought there might be two sets of maps and diagrams in use, one to set forth boldly the prominent features of a country, and capable of being easily seen from a distance, the other to give more detail and on a smaller scale, placed so as to be accessible to the pupils. The instruments on view, for affording an idea of the relative distances from each other of the earth, sun, and moon, were of the greatest value, especially that fitted with the screen, as it was a very good method of teaching what was very difficult to convey — the persistence of the axis of rotation and the changing direction of the plane which divided the light from the dark. He hoped that the Royal Geographical Society would not relax its efforts to make geography popular, and it deserved the thanks of all interested in the science for having sent Mr. Keltic upon the expedition the result of which had been just placed before the public. He suggested, in conclusion, that the Society should get constructed in the best style a model of the British Islands and exhibit it permanently in their rooms. Mr. Feeshfield said, since other speakers had congratulated Mr. Keltic on the success of this Exhibition, he felt inclined by way of variation to congratulate the Chairman, for he might fairly say that what had been done had been accomplished to a very great extent through Mr. Galton's persistent and skilful endeavou^rs in keeping the subject of geographical education before the attention of the Society. With regard to relief maps, his belief was that they would not be of much use except in cases where the best works of this kind could be bought and found room for. He did not attach much value to the smaller relief maps used in the Italian and some of the German schools. Their exaggeration was a very serious objection. He thought relief maps would be found most useful, not in giving the picture of any particular locality or countrj'-, but as affording typical representations of the plastic features of the earth's surface. At the same time, such a relief map of Italy as that lately published, would be of great assistance to students of history as well as of geography. Had there been such a map in existence when he was at Eton, he might have learnt as a boy many facts since slowly acquired during twenty years' peregrinations. He wished to encourage publishers to produce maps showing the physical features of a country to the same extent and in the same way as relief maps did, for use in primary schools. In his opinion political boundaries should be kept as much as possible off all but specially political maps, for the confusion they caused was one of the greatest hindrances to accurate knowledge. He would like to see every primary school with good maps of the British colonies and a map of the world showing the relative positions of the colonies, ON APPLIANCES USED IN TEACHING GEOGRAPHY.— DISCUSSION. 203 the routes to them, and the time occupied in the voyage. Fear of the unknown was one of the great difiSculties encountered in efforts for the better distribution of our population throughout the empire. lUustrations in geographical teaching were hardly done justice to in the Exhibition, and his contention was that photographs of mountains, cafions, sea-coasts, &c., should be used as the material for a thoroughly- scientific and artistic series of * Geographical Illustrations.' In many cases, a view of an actual locality might serve as a type — e. g. Mont Blanc, the Aletsch Glacier, Etna — and he recommended that, where possible, such real views should be selected as more interesting to the student. ( 204 ) LECTUEE III. January 19th, 1886. — Douglas W. Freshfield, sec. r.g.s., in the Chair. Geography in its Relation to History, By James Beyoe, m.p. The subject of which I have to treat — a subject so large that I shall not be expected to do more than touch on a few of its salient features — is the relation which ought to exist between the study and the teaching of history and the study of geography. What are the points in which chiefly these two subjects touch one another? What is the kind of geographical knowledge which the teacher of history ought to possess in order to make his historical leaching as exact and complete, as philo- sophical and suggestive, as possible ? I will attempt to indicate some of the points where geography and history touch one another, and to show from what sort of treatment of geography it is that light may be thrown on the progress and life of nations and of States. Geography is as a meeting-point between the sciences of nature and the sciences of man. I do not say it is the only meeting-point, for there are others: but it is one of the most conspicuous and important, for geography has to look upon man as being a natural growth — that is to say, a part of nature, a part of the physical world — who is conditioned in his development and progress by the forces which nature brings to bear upon him ; in other words, he is in history the creature of his environment — not altogether its creature, but working out also those inner forces which he possesses as a rational and moral being ; but on one side, at all events, he is largely determined and influenced by the envi- ronment of nature. Now, this environment is not everywhere in nature the same. There are certain elements of environment which belong to the whole world, and affect all its inhabitants, but there are others in which different countries and different parts of a country differ ; and it is in discovering the varying effects produced on the growth of man as a social and political, a wealth-acquiring and State-forming creature, by the geographical surroundings in which he is placed, that we find the meeting-point of geography and history. If we were studying zoology and investigating the history and peculiarities of any species of animal, we could not do so apart from a knowledge of the country which it inhabits and the kind of life which the character of that country compels it to lead. In the same way, if we look at man as a part of animate nature, we must have the same regard to the forces nature brings to bear upon him, and the opportunities nature holds out to him. Of course, in the case of man, the problem is far more complex and inter- GEOGKAPHy IN ITS RELATION TO HISTORY. 205 e6tmg than in the case of any otlier creature, because man is a more varied and intricate being, with his activities more multiform, and because these activities have been continually expanding themselves and establishing fresh relations between himself and the rest of the world. Therefore the study of man in nature is far more vast and difficult than the study of other types of life. Yet even man, although he may lift himself above his environment, cannot altogether escape from its power. He must obey it, suiting himself to the conditions and to the influences in and through which the environment plays upon him. We may divide these influences of the environment under three heads or groups. The first will include those due to the configuration of the earth's surface ; that is to say, to the distribution of land and sea, the arrangement of mountain chains, tablelands and valleys, the existence of rivers and the basins which they drain. These features of the configuration of the earth's surface act upon man in a great variety of ways. I will endeavour presently to illustrate some of them, but for the moment it may be enough to say that in early times it is they which determine the directions in which races move,* the spots in which civilisation first develops itself, the barriers which separate races and States from one another. Upon them depend, in more advanced periods, the frequency and ease with which communica- tion takes place between two races or political communities. The configurations of land and sea are, of course, the dominant factors in fixing the lines which commerce takes. Even if we come down to such a minor point as the character which the structure of the land gives to the coast, we remark that it depends on this structure whether there are many ports and harbours or not. In Norway, for instance, one perceives that a mountainous land, raised at a very remote geological epoch, has caused the coast to assume its present highly indented form and has fringed it with a line of sheltering islands. Hence an abundance of safe ports and inlets giving opportunities for the growth of a seafaring people, who at one time became famous for piracy, at another wealthy by their mercantile marine. Compare such conditions with those of countries w|re the want of harbours makes it difiBcult for the people to turn to account the advantages which the sea ofiers them. A second class of environment influences would be those belonging to meteorology and climate, meaning thereby the conditions of heat and cold under which a race of men develops itself, with the amount of ram and frequency of drought. Such influences tell upon the strength * Sir J. D. Hooker m^de a propos of this the interesting remark that some of tha lowest and apparently oldest of the races of man are found at the 6^1^^ p lu tribes. Thus the Bushmen are at the southern end of Africa, the Fuegians o7 SoS America, the Tasmanians of the Asiatic-Australian group of lands thlv^^/i?, Ceylon at the southern extremity of Asia. ^ ^ '' *^^ ^^^^^^« «' 206 GEOGRAPHY IN ITS RELATION TO HISTORY. « and stature, as well as upon the health, of a race. There are also the winds, whose importance is not confined to commerce, but powerfully affects climate also. Heat and cold make all the difference to the kind of life which primitive man leads. Kain and drought are prime factors as regards the fertility of a country, its products, and the habits of life of the people who dwell in it ; for instance, a race will become settled and agricultural in a well- watered country, while remaining nomads in one subject to extreme droughts; and all the influences that bear on the healthiness of the people of a particular country have an immense deal to do with the degree of civilisation which the population attains, and the capacity of the territory to become the home of immigrants from other regions. I may, perhaps, tell you of a remark I once heard on the subject from the most illustrious patriarch of modem science. The last time I saw Mr. Darwin, shortly before his death, but when he was apparently in good health, the conversation happened to turn on the parts of the earth which still remain available for occupation by civilised man, and it was remarked that as North America was now nearly filled up, it was not to be expected that there would be in any other region an equally great development of civilised nations, since such comparatively thinly peopled regions as exist in Central Africa and South America suffer from the prevalence of malarial fever and other maladies incident to hot and moist climates. Mr. Darwin observed that this might depend on the progress of medical science, that it was quite possible discoveries might be made in medical science which would render tropical countries less dangerous to the white races, referring to the researches of M. Pasteur, and the probability that that line of medical research might be worked out much further by discovering methods of inoculation which would preserve the human body against the attacks of intermittent fevers. Any one can see how important a factor in the future of the human race is the circumstance that nearly all the regions which can be inhabited by civilised European man, with our present knowledge of medicine, are fast being occupied, and that some further discovery in medical science or change in modes of life, will be necessary if the equatorial regions are to become available for European immigration. We may, I think, put into the third class of influences of environment the products which a country offers to human industry. There are its mineral products, which become valuable by mining, or digging for sulphur and gypsum, or quarrying building-stone. It is worth observing that you may classify countries and parts of countries according as they are stone-building or brick-building regions, and you will be surprised to find the difference in architecture between the two. If you travel across Italy from east to west, for instance, you constantly get out of brick and into stone regions as you enter the mountains, and you find the character of the cities alters immediately. In civilised States, the GEOGRAPHY IN ITS RELATION TO HISTORY. 207 products of a country obtain their chief importance as determining the extent and nature of its commerce. But in primitive times they affect the type of the race itself through the primary necessaries of life, such as food, clothing, fuel. A race, however natuially vigorous, which finds itself in a country where the severity of the climate or sterility of the soil limits production, will find its progress in the arts and refine- ments of life fatally restricted. This has happened in Iceland, where the race is of admirable quality, but the country produces nothing save a few sheep and horses, and some sulphur ; it has not even fuel, except such driftwood as is cast on the shores. And if you take such a part of the world as Central or Northern Asia, you will see that the highest European races would, if placed there, find it almost impossible tadevelop a high type of civilisation for want as well of fuel as of the sources of commercial wealth. The same considerations apply to the animals the country produces. The animals affect man in his early state in respect to the enemies he has to face, in respect to his power of living by the chase, in respect to the clothing which their furs and skins offer to him, and in respect to the use he is enabled to make of them as beasts of burden or for food. Therefore, zoology comes to form a very important part of the environment out of which historical man springs. The consideration of these various kinds of influence will suggest a number of heads or branches of geography which may be worked out, each of which may be found to have an important bearing on history. I will suggest a few. There is ethnological geography, which will be concerned with the races of men, their distribution and mutual relations to one another. There is sanitary geography, in which we shall examine the extent to which different parts of the earth's surface are fit for the maintenance of man with a prospect of long and vigorous life, what kinds of diseases dangerous to man each region gives rise to, what influence these health conditions will exert on the capability of the region to receive or permit the increase of a race accustomed to a different climate. Then there is commercial geography, which is concerned with the interchange of products. There is linguistic geography, showing the distribution of languages and examining the causes which diffuse some tongues and extinguish others. The constant diminution in the number of languages spoken in the world is among the most striking facts of history and proceeds faster now than in earlier times. There is political geography which shows what are the relations of the artificial boundaries of States to the natural boundaries which nature has tried to draw, and which have become of later years more important by the consolidation of small States mto large ones. It is a subject with several subdivisions, such as mihtary geography legal geography, the geography of religions. Military geography will show how mountain chains and passes, and th^ courses of rivers determine the lines followed by national immigrations 208 GEOGRAPHY IN ITS RELATION TO HISTORY* by invasions, and by the marcli of armies, and will indicate particular parts of the world, such as the plains of Lombardy, Belgium, the north- east of France, or, to take a familiar instance from our own island, that part of Scotland on the middle course of the river Forth, as the places where we must look for the theatre of military history. With regard to the military study of the geography of the Alps, I do not know any more interesting work for a member of the Geographical Society or of the Alpine Club to devote himself to than a history of the Alps, showing what during the Dark and Middle Ages were the means of transit across this great mountain barrier, and the routes followed by the armies which so frequently marched from Germany or France into Italy. There is also legal geography, which is concerned with the relations which law bears to geography in respect to the special provisions that have been made regarding those particular parts of the world where different States are concerned in securing free transit through arms of the sea. Legal geography has had a great deal to do with regulating the navigation of the Sound between Denmark and Sweden, and of the Great and Little Belts, as also with the Bosphorus and the Dardanelles, as being sea channels in which several States are interested, and which therefore cannot be surrendered to the absolute control of one State. And I need not say that in respect of that half-artificial, half-natural passage, the Suez Canal, one finds geography intimately connected with a subject apparently so remote from it as law. Then there is commercial geography. The science of commerce depends so directly upon the con- figuration of the earth and the productive aptitudes of its countries, Eind in its turn affects so potently the course of economic and political history, that I shall be content with one illustration — that drawn from the Suez Canal, which has just been referred to in its legal aspect. The line of the Red Sea, and the passage from the Eed Sea to the Medi- terranean, through Egyptian territory, was a very important trade route in ancient times, and it was with a view to the trade coming from the East that Alexander the Great did one of the most considerable acts of his life when he founded Alexandria. That continued to be an im- portant route during the later Roman Empire and through the Dark Ages, so far as those troublous times permitted, and the products of India and Equatorial Africa came up the Red Sea and across the Isthmus, and were shipped at Alexandria to the Western world. There was also an important trade route through Central Asia, which coming down through Persia and Mesopotamia to the Levant, reached the sea in Northern Syria, and another through Northern Persia and Armenia to the eastern- most ports of the Black Sea. These trade routes assumed enormous importance in the earlier Middle Ages, and upon them great political issues turned. Venice, Genoa, Pisa, and the other commercial cities of Italy, depended on this Eastern trade. The Genoese had for a time a monopoly of that in the Black Sea, and founded settlements and built • J» GEOGRAPHY IN ITS RELATION TO HISTORY. 209 forts, of which the ruins may still be seen on the north coast of Asia Minor. So things went on till the Portuguese discoveries of the fifteenth century. After the discovery of the Cape of Good Hope, these trade routes into the Mediterranean fell into disuse. Thus withered the com- mercial greatness of Venice.. She ceased to be a great trading power, and had to live on her Italian territories and such fragments of dominion as she was able to pick up out of the wreck of the Eastern Eoman Empire, Venice was in most intimate relations with the other States of Italy — with Germany, with the Pope, and with France — and all these political relations were affected by the discovery of the route round the Cape. In the course of the last century the sea traffic with the East, which had been divided between Portugal, England, and Holland, for the share of Spain has become small, passed chiefly into the hands of English, merchants.. England has become the great maritime power, for the purposes of commerce as well as of war, and it is her commercial in- terests that led her to acquire dominions on the Asiatic continent, and made her at last the imperial power of the East. Then comes M. Ferdinand de Lesseps. When the Suez Canal is opened the trade route round the Cape suddenly stops, as the passenger route had ceased some time previously, and trade again begins to flow through the Red Sea and by the new canal into the Mediterranean, and the products which came round the Cape now come to Southern Europe direct, and the Russians get their tea straight from Canton or Shanghai by steamers which run from those ports to Odessa ; and Southern France gets her cotton and silk through the Suez Canal to Marseilles ; whereas formerly the great bulk of Eastern imports were shipped to England and the other ports of North-western Europe, and were thence distributed over the Continent. Thus the result of the making of the Suez Canal is that we are no longer the great centre of European distribution. We are still a financial centre, where the financial part of the business is mainly transacted ; but we are no longer a country which receives and dis- tributes the products, as we were before the Suez Canal was opened. This change is obviously fraught with results which may be of great importance in the future. We know what a large part the Suez Canal has played in the politics of Europe during the last ten or fifteen years, and herein we see how much may be due to one single change in the relations of land and sea. So, also, it would be easy to show how the opening of the Panama " Canal (if it ever is opened, and its prospects are for the moment not encouraging) will affect trade, and through trade, political history; It would powerfully tell upon the commerce of Europe with Australasia, a great part of whicb would be diverted from the Suez to the Panama route. A great development would be given to Oregon, British Columbia, and the western coast of South America. The Californians would be able to defy that great trans-continental railroad company which now p 210 GEOGRAPHY IN ITS RELATION TO HISTORY. controls them in so many ways. Chili, Peru, and Ecuador would be brought within the closer touch of the great European Powers and of the United States. In fact, the history of all the countries bordering on the Pacific would be absolutely changed if this cut were made between the Caribbean Sea and the Pacific. Perhaps no two illustrations could be more to the point than these of the two inter-oceanic canals. But a simple method of endeavouring to apply such general considerations as have been put forward is to run through some of the leading countries of the world, and show how we can bring the light of geography to bear on their political, social, and economical history. Such illustrations will explain how the possession of geographical knowledge and a full grasp of the geographical con- ditions under which nations and States grow up will enable a person studying their history to comprehend it more adequately and realise it more vividly. Let us begin with the largest of the continents and one where the curtain first rises on civilised man. What light on the historical growth and progress of Asia will be thrown by a knowledge of her natural conditions ? We perceive that the whole centre of Asia is a mass of high land, of dry land, and of land not pierced by any inlet from the sea. This is the dominant fact of Asiatic geography. Consequently, we shall not expect to find in this central area wealth, or the commerce which grows out of wealth, or any large population, because the con- ditions for the growth of wealth and population do not exist in a lofty and arid tableland. We shall rather be led to look for such growth of population in the river valleys which fall in different directions from the great central plateau of Asia ; but we shall find it in the east and south, not in the north, because the rigorous climate of the north will not permit the production of wealth by agriculture, or of the existence of a large population. The north of Asia is cold, not only in respect to its latitude, which is, after all, a secondary condition in these matters, but because it is cut off by the great intervening mass of high land from the kindly influences of the south and exposed to blasts from the Frozen Ocean. We shall find, therefore, that the inhabitants of the centre of Asia will not be in very close commercial or political relation with the north, because the north is poor and thinly peopled ; nor in active rela- tion with the west, because the west is mainly desert down to the Sea of Aral and the Caspian. Neither will there be a great deal of inter- course with the south, because Tibet and Eastern Turkistan are cut off by the great snowy barrier of the Himalaya from the plains of India. This barrier is indeed pierced by passes, but owing to the very heavy rainfall on its southern face, forms a belt of country which the masses of snow and glacier above, the deep and densely wooded valley's below, make more difficult to traverse than are the dreary plateaux of Tibet. Those things being so, the historical relations of Central Asia must GEOGRAPHY IN ITS RELATION TO HISTORY. 211 obviously be rather with the east than with the ^weet, but more with both east and west than with the north and the sonth. Snch has beon the case. Central Asia has come comparatively little into the histoiy of the world. When she has done so by sending ont swarms of inTadeis, as in the days of AttUa, or again in those of Zin g hia Khan and Timonr, these invading tribes have seldom maintained their connection with the centre. Sometimes they have shmnk back, their empiree being broken up after one or two generations. Sometimes ihey have become absorbed in the population of the conquered country, and lost their hold on their old home. This has been the case with the Ottoman Turks, who are to a comparatively small extent of pure Tartar or Turcoman blood. A Central Asiatic race may form an empire — a vast one like that of Zinghis, or a smaller one like that of the Ephthalites : bnt such an empire either swiftly dissolves, owing to its wanting a nndeus of settied and civilised population, or else the race which creates it becomes prac- tically merged in the inhabitants of the conqnered districts. It is thns that the Tnrkish Empire lives on now after two centuries of steady decay. The Mogul Empire in India lasted to onr own day, for it was not absolutely pnt an end to till the Queen of Great Britain assumed the direct sovereignty of British territories in that conntay after the mutiny of 1857, although it had practically ceased to exist a good while before. Here you have the fact that wherever the Central Asiatic races come down to the west or south, they get severed £rom the original stool^ Whether they found empires or are absorbed ^id so disappear, in neither case is the connection a lasting one. But in the east they have more than once conquered China, and their connection with China is maintained because there is no such marked barrier between the great central plateau of Asia and the vaUeys of Ghina, as is constituted by the deserts of the west, or the mountains in tiie south. To this day China rules as far west as the Thian Shan, her own present dynasty being sprung from the sons of the desert The tie between Ceontr^ Asia and China has thus been maintained, whereas that between G^itral Asia and the rich southern and south-western countries of Asia was soon broken. One may apply what has been said about Asia to Asia IGnor. The inner part is a high, dry, bare plateau, not so inhospitable as the great central plateau of Asia, but presenting, in miniature, similar features; and you will find here also that civilisation has sprung up round the coast, but has attained less high development in the interior, that the influence and importance of the interior has therefore been oomparar tively slight, and that some of its mountainous regions have been but little affected by the great changes which passed upon Asia Minor as a whole. It was the nature of his territories that enabled Mithridates to give so much trouble to the Bomans. Later on, we observe that the Isaurians were but Uttle affected by the Bojnan Empire down to the p 2 212 GEOGRAPHY IN ITS RELATION TO HISTORY. seventh or eighth century ; as similarly the people of the hill country of Cilicia remained scarcely touched by the tides of invasion and con- quest which swept past them. Thus a body of Armenian Christians has in its mountain fastnesses north of the Gulf of Scanderoon main- tained a freedom almost amounting to legal independence from the fourteenth century down to our own days. This was due to the fact that there was little in these countries to attract invaders, and that they were difficult of access owing to the mountain structure. I pass to Greece. You all know how much the circumstance that the territory of Greece is cut up by the sea and mountains into small plains and valleys, into peninsulas and islands, has had to do with all the salient features of Greek history. Some minor points deserve notice. I mention one as an example of the new light to be got by actually seeing a thing, because I do not recollect it as referred to in any book, and yet it is the very first thing that impresses itself on you when you travel in Greece. From most parts of Greece you can see Mount Par- nassus. I suppose no one ever realises how small Greece and Palestine are unless he goes there. One is misled by the atlas, because in the same atlas we see Greece, Russia, France, and Palestine all as maps of the same size, each occupying a quarto or double-quarto page. It is hardly going too far to say you can see Parnassus from all the higher ground of eastern and central Greece. You can see it from all Boeotia, from the long valley of which it stands up as the church of St. Mary does when you look along the Strand. You can see it from many parts of Attica, from the Acropolis of Athens, for instance ; you see it from ^gina, in the Saronic Gulf ; you see it from most parts of Argolis ; you see it from the northern coast of Achaia. Of course you do not see it in the middle of Arcadia or in Laconia ; but when you go west to Ithaca to visit Ulysses in his home, you see Parnassus again stand up grand and grey on the eastern horizon. Think what an importance that fact has had. ' The central point of Greek history for many purposes is Delphi, and a great deal of Greek history centres round the god who has there his sanctuary. How much this visible presence of Apollo must have affected his worship, and all the associations which the Ionic race had with him I What a difference it must have made when, you were actually able from your own home, or when you went to the top of your own Acropolis, or sailed to the neighbouring port, to see this Parnassus, to know that hard by the cleft beneath the two peaks there was this oracle and this sacred home of the lord of light and song ! That gives you an idea of the- extent to which Apollo and his dwelling-place came to be a living factor in Greek history, which is not possible before you know the fact that Parnassus is in sight from almost any part of Greece. To the north-west of Greece we find the people of the Skipetar or Albanians. They are one of the earliest races in Europe. Their lan- guage and the language of the Basques are the only two still surviving GEOGRAPHY IN ITS RELATION TO HISTORY. 213 European languages whose relations with other languages it has been found very difficult to determine; although I believe that philologists are now disposed to hold that Albanian belongs to the Indo-European (or, as it is now commonly but somewhat incorrectly called, Aryan) family of tongues. Northern Albania is a country of wild and savage mountains, exceedingly bold and precipitous, and forming a sort of knot at the head of the upper valleys of the Drin and Vardar. When yon sail across the Lake of Skodra (Scutari), and see this splendid mass of rocky mountains towering above the smooth lake bosom on the €ASt, deep gorges below, and patches of snow on the summits even in midsommer, you begin to understand why the Albanians should have remained a distinct people, preserving their ancient tongne and their primitive usages, many of them singularly recorded in Homer. It is a remark- able fact that to the south and south-east of the city of Skodra, for 70 or 80 mil^, scarcely any remains of boildings, roads or bridges have been found that point to Eoman occupation ; and yet this country was for many centuries an integral part of the Boman Empire. The con- clusion is that the Eomans did not trouble themselves to civilise it; they left the tribes to their own independence. That independence they have in substance retained ever since. Even in the less difficult regions of Southern Albania Ali Pasha ruled as a sovereign at Janina, and the tribes of the northern mountains are the most troublesome of all the nominal subjects of the Sultan in Europe, a standing menace to the peace of those countries. Montenegro is an extremely curious instance of the way in which favourable geographical conditions may aid a small people to achieve a fame and a place in the world quite out of proportion to their ninnbers. The Black Mountain is the one place where a South Sclavonic commxmity maintained themselves in independence, sometimes seeing their territory overrun by the Turks, but never acknowledging Turkish anthority de jure from the time of the Turkish Conquest of the fifteenth centnry down to the Treaty of Berlin. Montenegro could not have done that but for her geographical structure. She is a high mass of limestone : you cannot call it a plateau, because it is seamed by many valleys, and rises into many sharp mountain peaks. Stfll, it is a mountain mass, the average height of which is rather more than 2000 feet above the sea, with summits reaching 5000. It is bare limestone, so that there is hardly anything grown on it, only grass— and very good grasB— in spote, with little patches of com and potatoes, and it has scarcely any water. Its upland is covered with snow in winter, while in summer the invaders have to carry their water with them, a serious difficulty when there were no roads, and active mountaineers fired from behind every rock, a difficulty which becomes more serious the larger the invading force. Consequently it is one of the most impracticable regions imaginable for an mvading army. It is owing to those wrcumstances that this handfol 214 GEOGRAPHY IN ITS RELATION TO HISTORY. of people — because the Montenegrins of the seventeenth century did not number more than 40,000 or 50,000 — have maintained their inde- pendence. That they did maintain it is a fact most important in the history of the Balkan Peninsula, and may have great consequences yet to come. The lUyric Archipelago suggests another illustration of the influence of geography on the life and character of a people. The coast of lUyria or Dalmatia is a mass of promontories and islands, all rooky, unfit for tillage, but usually well wooded, separated by narrow arms of the sea. It is just the sort of place where a fierce maritime people would spring up. It was 'par excellence the pirate country of the ancient world ; its rovers were the scourge of the Adriatic and Ionian Seas until Rome, not without great trouble, suppressed them. For some centuries it supplied light and nimble galleys, and skilful sailors for the Roman fleets ; and when in the disorders of the fifth and following centuries these fleets disappeared, the lUyrian pirates were again the terror of the Adriatic, and the seas opening into it during the earlier Middle Ages. Now the Dalmatians feed the navy of Austria, and send out bold sailors over the world. In fact, you have very much the same conditions which made Norway the home of the pirates of the Atlantic. Just as the Norse and Danish Vikings undertook the whole of the piracy for the western world between the eighth and thirteenth centuries, so in the same way the Illyrians did in the ancient world — a parallel which adds interest to the history of both those countries as well as to their geography as soon as it is made clear. It is easy for anyone studying the geography of Norway, as of Illyria, to understand why the Norwegians should have been, in ages of disorder a piratical people, in ages of peace the owners of a great mercantile marine. We pass to Italy. The dominant feature of the Italian Peninsula is the fact that the Apennines are nearer the east coast than the west ; consequently civilisation and empire begin and grow on the southern and western side of the Apennines rather than on the northern and eastern side, and you have the ruling powers of Italy, the Etruscans, the Samnites, and lastly the Romans, on the Arno and Tiber side of the Apennines. Hence also the history of Rome brings her into early relations with Carthage as the mistress of the western seas, whereas she had comparatively little intercourse with the States of continental Greece. She comes into relation with Greek civilisation, but it is through the Greek colonies in Southern Italy and Sicily. And when we come to the Middle Ages, we find that the first con- spicuous development of wealth and the arts in Italy took place in the great Lombardy plain, with its immense fertility, and in Tuscany. And here we come upon an ethnological influence, because the admixture of the northern races with the Italic population had been chiefly in Lombardy and in Northern and Central Italy, whereas Teutonic con- GEOGRAPHT IN ITS RELATION TO BISTORT. 215 quest and settlement had scarcely afiFected the countries of Sonthem Italy. Hence it is chiefly in the north and centre that we find the new republics springing up, filled with an active and industrious population, soon displaying a wonderful creative power in art and literature. Thus the brilliant and eventful annals of mediaeval Italy are conditioned partly by the circumstances of soil and dimate, which are more generally favourable in Lombardy and Tuscany than in Southern Italy, since in the plains of Apulia and Lucania the richness of the soil is balanced by its unhealthiness ; partly by an ethnological influence, that of ihe Teutonic invaders, who coming &om the north settled in the northern parts of the peninsula, and reinvigorated its decaying population ; partly by the hold which the East Boman Empire maintains on South-eastern Italy, because that region lies near the coast of Epims, which stUl obeyed the Emperors. France offers herself for a few remarks, whidi show the connection of her geographical structure with her history. The salient &ctai in French geography are the sharp lines of demarcation between France and Spain, created by the Pyrenees, and between France and Italy, created by the Alps. It has been found eztreandy difficult to maintain any political connection across these. Among the Komans there was a marked distinction between Gifr^lpine Gaul and Trans- alpine Gaul, though the population of both sides was Gallic ; and you find that when the French kings, at the end of the Middle Ages, endeavoured to keep a hold on Northern Italy, the existence of the Alps was a fatal obstacle. They could carry an army across the Alps, but they found the greatest, possible difficulty in keeping a country in subjection divided by that great mountain barrier. The same remark applies to the Pyrenees. No opposition in Europe is sharper thaji that between the French and the Spaniards, and yet you are struck by the fsict that along the Eastern Pyrenees the language is almost the same in Catalonia on the south, and in Foix and Soussillon on the north, while at the western end of the chain the Basque race and tongue occupy both slopes of the mountains. The antagonism of Frenchmen and Spaniards lies not so much in a diffisrence of race as in the fact that history has impressed so deep and diverse a stamp of nationality on each people. The political history of the two countries has been so much severed by the existence of this mountain chain, that the Pyrenees always became a political boundaiy, even when territories belonging to Spain were added to France. Charles the Qieat, for instance, held the north-east comer of Spain, but it was soon loeL Some one said after a funous Franco-Spanish mairiage, ** The Fyienees have ceased to exist." They soon reappeared, and Spain was again the enemy of France. The debatable ground in France is in the north- east. That is the region through which the immigrations come. It was the open gate whereby the Burgnndian and Frankidi tribe« entered 216 GEOGRAPHY IN ITS RELATION TO HISTORY. Gaul. So far as there is a natural boundary on this side, it is con- stituted, not as geographers used to allege, by the Ehine, but by the mountains, the principal part of which we know under the name of the Yosges, which are really the dividing line between the Latinised Celtic population on the one side, and the Germanic population on the other. It is also a remarkable fact that you have got no division of mountains or high land running across France from east to west; consequently, although ethnological or linguistic differences have at various times existed between Northern and Southern France, these have tended to disappear. There have been many times in the history of France when, if there had been a chain of mountains from the mouth of the Loire, or the neighbourhood of La Kochelle, across to Lyons and Geneva, there might have befallen a permanent separation of France into northern and southern ; but such a separation has never taken place. There was a time when the langue d'oc was more different from the langue d'oil than from the speech of Northern Italy ; and even now, in the lower valley of the Rhone, the passing traveller is struck by the difference between the dialects there and those of Northern France ; but the fact that there is nothing that constitutes a natural boundary has prevented a sharp separation of north and south in France, and has made France what it is, an eminently unified country, in spite of the original diversity of its races.* On the other hand, the Burgundian kingdom, which was an important political factor at one time, found itself cut in two by the Jura Mountains. Its northern part included both Western Switzerland and Franche Comt6 ; but these regions, because severed by the Jura, fell asunder, and while Eastern Burgundy became the western part of modem Switzerland, Western Burgundy dropped into the hands of the French kings, and is now as French as any other part of France. The British Isles do not offer us quite as much opportunity for ob- serving the influences of physical geography as those other countries that I have mentioned. The scale of physical phenomena in our isles is comparatively small, and the features of our history so peculiar as to require a long examination in order to trace their relation to our physical geography. But one may attempt to indicate a few points. It is remarkable that the balance of population and political influence should have, within the last hundred years, shifted from the south to the north of England. This is mainly due to the mineral wealth of the north of England ; perhaps also to the larger immixture in the north- eastern counties of Scandinavian blood. The discovery of the coal-fields and deposits of ironstone has given an immense impetus to wealth, to manufactures, and to population there, and has correspondingly shifted * It is worth remarking that there are considerable differences between the popula- tion, as also between the architecture, of the parts of France to the east and west respectively of the Cevennes and mountains of the Ardeche. GEOGRAPHY IN ITS RELATION TO HISTORY. 217 tlie balance of power. In the days of the early Plantagenet kings the north was of no account whatever. English history, except in con- nection with the wars with the Scots, lay south of the Trent, but it now lies quite as much to the north as to the south. The same remark may be made with regard to Scotland. There you have the Highlands dividing the northern part from the southern, and until a century ago the inhabitants of the Highlands were almost foreigners to the in- habitants of the south ; and it was not until after 1745, when roads were introduced into the Highlands, and the country was reduced to peace and order, that the population began to become assimilated to that of the Lowlands. The 'battle-fields of Scotland lie either between Edinburgh and the Englisli border, or about the frontier line of the Lowlands and the Highlands. Within a radius of ten miles from Stirling Castle there are four famous battle-fields (Bannockburn, Abbey Craig, Falkirk, Sheriffmuir) ; and- the history of Scotland in the romantic times of the Stuart kings, centres itself in the piece of country from Edinburgh to Perth and Stirling, including the so-called kingdom of Fife. In our most recent political history it is worth while to notice how the results of the late general election have been affected by the physical geography of the country. Some people have been astonished to find that Eastern and Western Lancashire have returned members of a different political complexion, as have also Western and Eastern York- shire ; but the reason is very obvious if you look at the geology and mineral-bearing character of the district. Eastern Yorkshire is mainly agricultural, and all the influences which the upper class and the farmer can bring to bear on the agricultural poj ulation have full scope there ; while South-western Yorkshire is manufacturing and mining, with a population inclined to Eadical opinions. In the same way Eastern Lancashire is manufacturing and mining ; while Western Lancashire is agricultural, and disposed to follow the lead of the old landowning families. Those who examine Lancashire schools are struck by the difference between the sharpness of the boys in the East Lancashire hill country and the sluggishness of those who dwell on the flats along the coast between Liverpool and Morecambe. Another illustration is found in the case of Ulster. The Scotch colony which entered Ulster in the seventeenth century, penetrated almost an equal distance in every direction, from the point where it crossed the North Channel from Southern Scotland to the Bay of Belfast • and if you put one end of a compass on that bay and describe a semi- circle, you find the Scotch Protestant population goes to almost an equal distance all round, from the Atlantic coast near Londonderry until you strike the Irish Sea in the neighbourhood of Newry. But there is one exception to this. It is found in the south-western division of Down. The north and east of that county are mainly occupied by the descendants of the Scotch settlers. But in the south-west there is a group of lofty mountains, the mountains of Mourne. Into those mountains the 218 GEOGRAPHT IN ITS RELATION TO HISTORY. aboriginal Irish retired, and therefore South-west Down returns a Catholic and Nationalist member to Parliament, while the other parts of Down and Antrim return Protestant and Conservative members. Time fails me to show with proper detail the relations between the geography and the history of North America, a continent where we see many of the features of Europe repeated on a larger scale, but with some striking differences. I may, however, observe how much the economical conditions of North America are affected by the fact that the great valley plain of the Mississippi river lies open towards the north, permitting the cold influences to be felt down to the Gulf of Mexico, while there does not exist to the south any great reservoir of hot air similar to the Sahara. From these and other causes we find much colder temperature in the same latitude in North America than in the Old World. New York is in about the same latitude as Madrid and Naples, but has a more severe climate. New Orleans is in about the same latitude as Cairo; but, as you know, Cairo is practically tiopical, whereas New Orleans is not. It is hot in summer, but has a totally different kind of climate from Cairo. That is a fact of the utmost importance with regard to the political and economical history of America. The white race maintains itself and is capable of labour in the Gulf States, although, to be sure, the black race works more easily and increases more rapidly. All America east of the Rocky Mountains seems likely to cohere in one political body, because the West is firmly linked to the East and the South through which its commerce reaches the sea ; and because there is nothing resembling a natural boundary to sever any one part of the country from any other. It is only in a few places that the AUeghanies are a barrier interrupting communication. On the other hand, huge mountains and wide deserts part California from the Mississippi States, and although economic and political forces will probably continue to bind the Pacific States to their older sisters, there is to some extent already a Califomian type of manners and character different from that which prevails through other parts of the West. Before I close, I will make two general observations as to the different relations that exist between man and nature as time runs on and history works herself into new forms. The first of these is that man in his early stages is at the mercy of nature. Nature does with him practically whatever she likes — ^he is obliged to adapt himself entirely to her ; but, in process of time, he learns to raise himself above her. It is true he does so by humouring her, so to speak, by submitting to her forces. In the famous phrase of Bacon, Natura non nisi parendo vincitur — Nature is not conquered except by obeying her ; but the skill which man acquires is such as to make him in his higher stages of development always more and more independent of nature, and able to bend her to his will in a way that aboriginal man could not do. He becomes independent of climate because he has houses and clothes ; he GEOGRAPHY IN ITS RELATION TO HISTORY. 219 becomes independent of winds because he propels his vessels by steam ; to a large extent he becomes independent of daylight because he can produce artificial light. Think what a difference it makes to the industries carried on in our manufactories that we can carry them on by night as well as by day, because we have gas and electricity, whereas six centuries ago the workman in the south of Europe was able to get many more working hours than a workman in northern Europe. You may say that the northern workman was recompensed for his winter darkness by longer summer days ; but there must be a certain regularity about labour, and in the case of great industrial establishments it is essential that work should proceed during a certain number of hours all the year round. Therefore, the discovery of artificial light has been a most important factor in changing the industrial and economical con- ditions of northern countries. In the same way, the early races of man were only able to migrate as nature made it easy for them, by giving smooth or narrow seas and favouring winds ; but in a more advanced state, man is able to migrate where and how he pleases, and finds con- veyance so cheap that he can carry labour from one continent to another. Think of the great migration of the Irish to America, of the great migration of the Chinese to Western America and the isles of the Pacific. In Hawaii the Chinese now begin to form the bulk of the labouring population ; and they are kept with difficulty from occupying Australia. The enormous negro population of North and South America is due to the slave trade. We have in our own times begun to import Indian coolies into the West India islands, whose staple products are now due to their labour. Such transfers of population would be impossible but for the extreme cheapness of transport due to recent scientific discovery. In considering how geography and natural conditions aflfect the develop- ment of man we must therefore bear in mind that the longer he lives on this planet and becomes master of the secrets of science, the more he is able to make the forces of nature his servants. Another observation is, that the relations of remote parts of the world to one another have become a great deal closer and more intimate than formerly ; so that the whole system of politics and commerce is now more complex than it was in the ancient or in the medieval world. In fact, one of the greatest achievements of science has been in making the world smaU, and the result of its smallness is that the fortunes of every race and state are now, or may at any moment become, involved with those of any other. This is due partly to the swiftness of steam communication, partly to the invention of the telegraph, partly to cheapness of transit, which makes such progress that an invention like the compound steam engine reduced the charge for marine transportation something like 20 or 30 per cent., and one hears that during the last two or three years, improvements in machinery and in the economising of fuel have reduced it 25 per cent, more, I 220 GEOGRAPHY IN ITS RELATION TO HISTORY. will give two instances of how this works. One is the enormous development of pilgrimages, particularly in the Mohammedan world. Hosts of pilgrims from Turkistan, from Morocco, from India and the furthest East, now find their way to Mecca by steamships, and thereby the intensity of Mussulman feeling, the sense of solidity in the Moham- medan world, has been powerfully quickened. Another is the cheapen- ing of the conveyance of food products. See how that works. Our English agriculturists have been ruined, not merely by the greater richness of virgin American soil, but also by cheap transportation from the North-western States; and now the farmers of these States are feeling the competition of Indian wheat coming through the Suez Canal ; and every railway that is made in India, cheapening the con- veyance of wheat from the inland towns to Bombay, and every improve- ment in marine engines, tells on the farmers in Minnesota, and by inflaming their animosity against the railroad and elevator companies, afffcts the internal politics of these new democratic communities. In the same way, the relations of the different states of Europe to one another are altered, because the wealth and trade of each depend on various articles of exchange ; and so the political measures to which each ruling statesman resorts, are largely suggested by the commercial problems he has to face. The protective system of Prince Bismarck has been mainly due to the cheaper importation from abroad into Germany of the staple articles of food; and the attempts to foster the sugar industries in the states of Central Europe by boiiiitiesf, all tell upon the commercial relations of those states with one andf)ther and with ourselves. It is not too much to say that this whole^anet of ours, as we now know it, is for practical purposes very much Simaller than the world was in the time of Herodotus. To him it extended from Gades and the Pillars of Hercules to the further end of 4Jke Black Sea at the river Phasis and the Caucasus Mountains. Bfe' just knew of the Danube on the north, and of Ethiopia on the south, and th^ was all. Yet that world of his, 2500 miles long by 1500 mril-gs wide, was a far larger world, with more human variety in it, more difficult to explore, with fewer and fainter relation between its different parts, than the whole planet is to us^nbw; when nearly all its habitable parts have been surveyed, when the great races, the great languages, the great religions, spreading swiftly over its surface, are swallowing up the lesser. Yet, thougH the earth has become so much smaller, it is not either less interesting or less difficult to interpret, and the problems with which a philosophical geographer has now to deal in making his science available for the purposes of practical economics and politics, are as complex and difficult as they ever were before, and indeed grow more complex and more difficult as the relations of peoples and countries grow closer and more delicate. GEOGRAPHY IN ITS RELATION TO HISTORY.— DISCUSSION. 221 Previous to the lecture, The Chaieman said the Council of the Society had long been dissatisfied with the position of geographical iustruction in schools and colleges in Great Britain, and they had lately felt that their own action in offering prize medals to a certain limited numher of schools, had not been adequate in its reach, or altogether satis- factory in its results. They therefore determined to give it up, and if possible, put -■something better in its place. But before making any proposals, they sent Mr. Keltic to report on the state of geographical instruction abroad, and this Exhibition, and the very instructive catalogue, were the fruits of his labours. With the same object, they had taken the opportunity of the Exhibition to collect together on various occasions, as many as possible of those interested and occupied in teaching, or who had the control of education, in Great Britain, in order to learn what they thought of the present system of teaching geography, and how the subject might be given a higher place in schools and examinations. Lectures had been given by Mr. Ravenstein and Mr. Keltic, and many gentlemen had afterwards stated their views. There had been a general agreement that one thing to be done was radically to alter the conception of geography which existed in the minds of many teachers, to show them that it was something very different from the mere dry catalogues of many current text-books, and that a proper study of geography involved the exploration of a varied region of knowledge and not the mechanical perambulation of an arid and mono- tonous tofeZeland. In order to instruct teachers, they must look to the Universities, for through them English education received its direction. As an Oxonian, he felt that the Council might be accused of wishing to add to the already too great multiplicity of the studiea at Oxford, but he did not think they need do that. They would be quite contented if they could raise geography higher in the Examination Schools which now existed there. One of those Schools, represented by Professor Bryce, was that of history, and he thought that in that School political geography might be given more importance than it yet had. By political geography, he did not wish to be understood to mean exclusively or primarily the artificial frontiers that man had posted along the face of nature, or the divisions into provinces, which afforded map-makers the oppor- tunity of turning their maps into Joseph's coats of many colours, and confusing, as far as possible, all physical features under a bewildering maze of polychromatic bedizenment. The political geography which he would like to see taught was not so much what man had done to the earth, as what the earth had done for man : how physical features had affected history, framed the pursuits of nations, directed their conquest or commerce, condemning some to comparative obscurity, while giving to others the keys of the world. He would now introduce Mr. Bryce, who as an historian, a geographer, and a traveller, was well known to all Englishmen. They had all learned much from him about the " Holy Roman Empire." Twenty years ago, he (Mr. Freshfield) had his first opportunity of knowing of Mr. Bryce's travels. Mr. Bryce had then returned from Hungary. Since then Mr. Bryce had crossed Iceland ; had climbed to the top of Ararat ; had bathed in the Pacific ; and had been in every direction as far as time would allow an active -folitician and a very busy man to wander. He had published an excellent book of travels, and in his other writings had lost no occasion of showing the important relations of Geography to History and Politics. Moreover, he had not only proved the accessibility of distant and Biblical summits, but by promoting a Bill for securing to the public the right of access to Scotch mountains, he was now doing his best to prevent the noblest parts of the Highlands of Great Britain being shut off from the Ration by the selfishness of a few. 222 GEOGRAPHY IN ITS RELATION TO HISTORY— DISCUSSION. After the lecture, The Chairman said he was sure he was only expressing the general feeling of the meeting, in offering their warmest thanks to Mr. Bryce for his exceedingly interesting, widely suggestive, and only too compendious discourse. He seemed to him to have illustrated very fully and admirably a text laid down by one of his brother historians, whose recent loss was so much regretted, Mr. Green, who in the preface to his * Shoit Geography of the British Islands,' wrote : " History strikes its roots in geography ; for without a clear vivid realisation of the physical structure of a country the incidents of the life which men have lived in it can have no interest or meaning. Through history, again, politics strike their roots in geography, and many a rash generalisation would have been avoided had political thinkers been trained in a knowledge of the earth they live in and of the influence which its varying structure must needs exert on the varying political tendencies and institutions of the people who part its empire between them." He should like to quote the whole of this preface for the admirable sketch given in it by one, not primarily a geographer, and certainly no one-idea'd enthusiast, "of the place geography must occupy in any rational system of primary education, when the prejudices and traditions of our schools and schoolmasters have passed away." When there had been lately among us such historians as Mr. Green, Mr. Bryce, and Mr. Freeman, there was very good hope that geography was rising to its proper place in connection with history, and of their mutual relations being fully worked out. Mr. Bryce had suggested all sorts of interesting subjects for detailed comment, did time permit. He had mentioned what Darwin said about tbe future possibilities of colonisation. Of course, there was another hopeful thing — that where man went he often made climates healthy which were naturally unhealthy. Take a place like Poti, at the east end of the Black Sea. In the times of the Koman Empire it was a perfectly healthy and prosperous place. Now there was a proverb that no one slept there a night without getting a fever. He had never been able to understand it until he read in Arrian that canals had formerly made the delta of the Phasis a smaller Holland. Mr. Bryce had referred to the connection of law with geography. It would not at first sight be thought that glaciers had much to do with law, but the value of ice for export had given rise to curious questions as to the ownership of the ice, and their recent retreat had raised the point as to who owned the land from which they had receded. The importance of water in old trade-routes might be further exemplified. In France, Lyons, Orleans, and Paris, no doubt, owed some of their importance to their being in the direct line of water communication between the mouths of the Rhone and Seine. Casaubon described how he boated up the Rhone, down the Loire, and then from Orleans to Paris by land. The Elizabethan trade- route to Persia was another instance — via the White Sea, the Russian rivers, the Caspian and Daghestan, which was brought into use when the direct channels of Eastern trade had been interrupted by the intrusion of the Turks. Mr. Bryce had referred to his (Mr. Freshfield's) acquaintance with the Alps, What he had read about Alpine history had convinced him that many historians were extremely bad topographers. A century ago a French writer stated that Hannibal ascended to the top of Monte Viso to show his troops Rome. Michelet describes Francis I. and his army in 1515 as adventuring themselves on paths which had never been trodden except by the foot of the hardy chamois hunter. In reality, the French army traversed one of the lowest and easiest passes in the Western Alps, the Col de I'Argenti^re. In the discussions of tbe Pass of Hannibal, from Dr. Arnold to Mr. Copes, Brockedon was, perhaps, the only writer who had an adequate knowledge of localities now within twenty-four hours of London, and, in consequence, the physical facts were, as a rule, accommodated to the theories of the writers, and not GEOGRAPHY IN ITS RELATION TO HISTORY.— DISCQSSION. 223 their theories to the facts. Carlyle had set an example to historians of the study of local topography. It would also be an excellent thing if historians would also imitate him by paying more attention to the maps in their books. Those which were put into many English books were about as bad as they possibly could be. Good maps and plans were of the greatest possible aid to a history, and he hoped that if there were any publishers present, they would bear that in mind, and be very liberal to their next historian in this matter. The Hon. G. C. Brodriok (Warden of Merton, Oxford) could echo what had fallen from the Chairman with regard to the admirable discourse delivered by Mr. Bryce. It was very strange that there should be any doubt as to the true in- terest of geography, but either the method of teaching it at school, or some other cause, had prevented people realising the intrinsic interest of the subject, and nothing could have been more successful than Mr. Bryce's address in bringing home to those who doubted it, how varied that interest was from the historical side. What has been said with regard to that corner of the county of Down which was mountain- ous, was illustrated by a little fact in connection with the upper valleys of the Dee and Don in Scotland, where he believed the old Roman Catholic population had never died out, while at Aberdeen, and in the lower valley of the Dee and Don, the population was as Protestant as that of Scotland usually was. When Mr. Bryce spoke of the division of England into north and south, he would, no doubt, agree in drawing the line rather from north-east to south-west, the east of Yorkshire and Durham having been extremely important from the earliest times. So in Scotland it was not a question of the Tay dividing the Highlands and Lowlands, but of cutting Scotland diagonally from north-east to south-west. If that were done from Inverness, south-westward, leaving Inverness on the right of the line, scarcely a single town of 6000 inhabitants would be found to the north-west, though Wick, when the fishermen were there, was, he believed, greater. When he reflected on the want of interest in geographical education, and the position which geography now occupied in education, he had sometimes been tempted to think that most people were so ignorant of it that they did not appreciate their want of further knowledge. Although they were all supposed to be taught geography in youth, he reaUy believed that in any company of English gentlemen, only quite a minority would realise that whereas a degree of latitude was of the same length all the world over, a degree of longitude dwindled towards the poles; and most people would be completely puzzled if they were asked the length of a degree of longitude in the latitude of London, and still more if they were asked what that represented in time, or what was the difference between a map on Mercator's projection, and one presented on a globe. He was by no means certain that the old-fashioned study of the use of the globes had not been more neglected of late years than it was seventy or eighty years ago. Speaking of the University, he felt that the subject of geography had been under some disadvantage by reason of its very utility. If it were perfectly useless if it were some obscure comer of science or archaeology, he was not sure that it would not have attained a position in the University system ; but it was so mani- festly useful, that what was everybody's business was nobody's business, and it had been overlooked. It was supposed that it must be taught, but as a matter of fact it was not taught methodically, and he was afraid that the modem tendency was rather unfavourable to it. Historians of the time of Dr. Arnold paid more attention to it,— not than Mr. Freeman,— but more than many historians of the present day, who went off upon constitutional and other branches of history, without suffi- ciently considering the very interesting relations between history and geography. He was an Eton man, and in one part of that school they were taught something of geography, and to some purpose, but, unfortunately, that part was rather low down, and by the time they left, if they_^ did not take great care, they had forgotten most 224 GEOGRAPHY IN ITS RELATION TO HISTORY.— DISCUSSION. of what they had learned. As to the University of Oxford, he wished the prospect of obtaining the position for geography which it deserved, were more hopeful. At the same time he did not abandon hope. As examinations now governed everything at the Universities (and he was not one of those who regarded that as altogether an evil) the object should be to secure for geography a worthy place in examinations. He had been told that it was now under consideration whether geography should not have a substantial place in the preliminary examinatioil which was now accepted in lieu of Respousions, or the " Little Go." He hoped that that was true, but he had always urged upon the Geographical Society, in conjunction with Mr. Bryce, though without success, the great importance of promoting the establishment of a geo- graphical lectureship at the University. He admitted that the University ought to do it without any urging, and entirely out of their own funds ; but at the same time he thought if a proposal were made by the Society, perhaps as an experiment, to found a lectureship, or help to found it, it would very likely be entertained, because it would be a substantial proof of the importance that the Society attached to geo- graphical education. The benefit of this would not merely consist in the value of the lectures which might be delivered, but in the fact that there would be some one there whose duty it would be night and day to press the claims of the subject. As member of a Board which had something to do with these things, he had tried to get the University to establish a geographical lectureship, but, as in the case of the man in the Gospel, others stepped down before him. Certain obscure subjects had a number of advocates to push their claims, and geography was not successful in getting a definite place. Any little influence he possessed would be heartily used for the promotion of a geographical lectureship. Sir Joseph Hooker said that one of the most interesting points in Mr. Bryce's address was his reference to the relations of the human race to its environments. It was a curious fact, that the three most degraded races of mankind, the Tasmanians, the Hottentots, and the Patagonians, were found at the extreme south of Australia, of Africa, and of America respectively. Mr. Bryce had stated that France was not crossed by any chain of mountains, but there were the mountain ranges of Central France, , which, commencing in Dordogne, extended through the Departments of Correze, Puy-de-D6me, Cantal, Haute Loire, and Ardeche to the Rhone, and which might well be supposed to have had a great effect in separating the populations of the north of France from those of the south. He himself took an intense interest in geography, and he hoped he had been better taught in Scotland, where he was educated, than it appeared he would have been in England. His impression was, that what was really required was that geographical education should extend throughout the whole period of school and college. Geography was not looked upon as of no account in an educational point of view merely because it was so practical, but because, concerning itself with every branch of a liberal education, it came under no one more than another. Mr. Bryce, in reply, expressed his thanks for the kind manner in which his address had been spoken of, and listened to. With regard to what Sir Joseph Hooker had said about France, he fully admitted the truth of those remarks. There was a remarkable difference between the architecture to the north of the Ardennes, and that to the south. Roman influence was much more marked in the Rhone valley and Eastern Languedoc; and no doubt the existence of the Rhone and Saone valley on the one hand, and no chain of mountains on the other, had estab- lished a connection between North and South France. At the same time there could be no doubt that important influences were due to the chain of mountains to which Sir Joseph Hooker had referred. He did not think anything better could be done than to establish a readership in geograj^hy. at Oxford, as Mr. Brodcrick had advocated. ( 225 } LECTURE IV. January 26th, 1886. — Sir Joseph D. Hooker, k.c.s.i., f.r.s., in the Chair. Scientific Aspects of Geographical Ediication, By Prof. H. N. Moseley, f.r.s. When I undertook to give a short lecture to-day, the exact title of the lecture was not determined on, and I am not responsible for the one printed on the card, but prefer the simpler form, Scientific Aspects of Geographical Education. One of my claims to address you on the subject of geographical education is that I have been a traveller. In my opinion, nothing can bring home to the mind the value of good geographical instruction, or make more keenly felt the disadvantages of the lack of it, than a scientific journey round the world. It is naturally the scientific side of geography which interests me most ; and it is on the importance and prospects of physical geography as a subject of education that I have now to speak. To the naturalist a knowledge of physical geography is becoming yearly more and more essential. The geographical distribution of plants and animals is one of the most important and fascinating of all the branches of his subject, presenting an immense field for research, full of problems of the utmost interest. Such problems can only be approached, with hope of success in elucidating them, with a clear com- prehension of the principles of physical geography, and a power of entering into the utmost details whenever required. The distribution of organisms, and often their very forms and existence, are the result of the relative positions of the various climatic and other physical barriers on the earth's surface. On the land surfaces where these barriers present most sharply defined and serious obstacles to migration, the complexity of the distribution of the terrestrial fauna and flora is most remarkable. On the shores where the barriers are less complete the isolation and geographical restriction of the littoral fauna and flora is less developed. Whilst in the ocean, with no absolute land barriers, the pelagic fauna shows little more than a distribution of animal and vegetable forms, according to climatic zones. In the depths of the ocean, which the eflects of climate do not reach, the distribution of the animal inhabitants almost approaches universality. It is, however, scarcely necessary to insist on the especial importance of the study of physical geography as one of the bases required for the scientific pursuit of zoology ; and I am sure no one will be more ready Q 226 SCIENTIFIC ASPECTS OF GEOGRAPHICAL EDUCATION. tlian my friend Sir Joseph Hooker, to whom our knowledge of the geographical distribution of plants, and its meaning, are so largely due, to testify to its immense importance in the case of botany. It is obvious that it is equally indispensable in the cases of geology, astronomy, and meteorology. Far more important is the question — Ought not physical geography to form part of every liberal education as being a subject specially adapted for purposes of general learning, and as the only true basis on which can be founded a knowledge of what is termed political geogra- phy ? Political geography may be regarded to some extent as the geographical distribution of mankind, and its various features of impor- tance, its boundaries, its lines of migration and commerce, its cities and battlefields, have their positions determined by the physical con- ditions and conformation of the earth's surface, as much as in the case of the distribution of the lower organisms. The importance of the in- fluence of the physical geography of a country on the condition of its people is familiar to all from Buckle's masterly treatment of the subject, and only a sound knowledge of physical geography can enable the student properly to comprehend it. The importance of the influence which the geographical distribution of cereals has had on the development of civilisation can hardly be overrated. There can be no doubt that Buckle would have been an advocate of the right of physical geography to a place in every liberal education and to be made the subject of higher study at the Universities. In Germany and Austria, and many other parts of Europe, the necessity of physical geography as a subject of general education and of higher University study seems to be thoroughly accepted. There can be little doubt that it is an excellent subject of general education. I have become more and more convinced of this from my own experience as an examiner in the subject, and especially when examining for the Public School medals of this Society. The clearness of the compre- hension of the well-instructed candidates who entered for those examinations, of the bearings on one another of the parts of various sciences which are brought together in physical geography, was to me a matter of great interest and satisfaction. The subject is not only an excellent one for teaching purposes, but also is especially well adapted for examination purposes. It is easy to set questions on matters of wide bearing, requiring answers in the form of essays of considerable length, in which the candidate must show his powers of combining and clearly expressing his knowledge, and of reasoning upon the facts he has acquired. Dr. Archibald Geikie, than whom no one can speak with higher authority, has expressed a most decided opinion on the peculiar value of physical geography in education. He writes, in a letter published in Mr. Keltie's Keport, that he knows of no other subject "that lends SCIENTIFIC ASPECTS OF GEOGRAPHICAL EDUCATION. 227 itself so effectively to tlie teacher who wishes to inspire his pupils with some appreciation of the nature and value of scientific education and reasoning." He has long been of opinion that, in this sense of the term, geography (that is physical geography), should form an essential part of education. It seems generally conceded that the teaching of geography in this country is at present in a very unsatisfactory condition, and far behind that existing over a great part of the Continent of Europe. It is most remarkable, and much to be regretted, that in England, of all countries where advanced education prevails, with her world-wide pos- sessions and interests, such a condition should prevail. There can be no doubt about the matter. The fact that it is not found by English publishers to pay to issue first-rate maps and works on physical geo- graphy, equivalent to those published in Germany, is striking evidence of its correctness. The present movement is founded on a conviction that it is so. The reasons for this condition of things are probably not far to seek. When we find that geography, whether in lower or higher schools, or at military training colleges, is best taught and provided for in such countries as Germany and Austria, where the subject is repre- sented by special professors and systematically taught at the Univer- sities, whilst at no British University is there any professor of geography at all, it is surely not unreasonable to conclude that the lack of professors and higher teachiug of the subject at our Universities is the main cause of the inferior position of the subject here. This Society has long ago formed the opinion that the recognition of geography at the Universities is the one most important step by which the teaching of this neglected subject can be adequately promoted throughout the country, and, as is well known, has since 1871 made various efforts to induce the Universities to appoint pro- fessors of the subject and otherwise promote its teaching, but with little or no effect. The present energetic effort of the Society to promote geographical teaching, cannot but yield considerable results in improving the position of the subject in this country, but it is most important that a further attempt to introduce the subject in any form, as a University one, should be made. Possibly, although at the present moment it may not be possible to secure the representation of geography as a whole, because of the apparent vagueness of its bounds and the attacks on all sides to which it is in consequence liable, there may be a chance of success if the attempt be made to press the claims of physical geography. It is scarcely possible that the establishment of physical geography at the Universities can ever be effected without the cordial co-operation of the leading geologists of this country. I know that several of these, including Professor Bonney, to whom I am indebted for much advice n 2 228 SCIENTIFIC ASPECTS OF GEOGRAPHICAL EDUCATION. in the present matter, believe that the time has come when special chairs of physical geography should be established, regarding the question as one of, as it were, splitting the subject of geology into two parts. Professor Archibald Geikie expresses himself as of a similar opinion in his letter published in Mr. Keltic's Eeport. That there is a necessity for lectures on the higher branches of physical geography is shown by the fact that courses of lectures nearly relating to this subject are now being given by Professor Hughes at Cambridge and Professor Boyd Dawkins at the Owens College, and I venture to suggest to the Council of the Society that it would be well to make an attempt to secure the co-operation of the Geological Society in a joint attempt to induce the Universities to establish professorships of physical geography. There are many reasons why success may attend an effort to establish the representation of physical geography rather than the wider subject. It is obvious that any professor who could hold such a chair must be a geologist, the two subjects of physical geography and geology being most closely allied] and overlapping. I am not going to attempt to define physical geography ^as a subject. The term geography is, no doubt, a somewhat unfortunate one, and a great deal of serious opposition has been raised to the advancement of the subject on such grounds as that it is a *' graphy " and not a " logy." But the Germans have not only practically separated geology and geography as subjects of University study with the highest success, but find no difficulty in the use of the term physical geography to cover such know- ledge as is represented in Peschel's excellent * AUgemeine Erdkunde.' The term Erdkunde is no doubt more accurately translated geognosy, and in dictionaries its English equivalents are given as geography, geology, geognosy. But the Germans appear to use the term as an equivalent with Geographie. Some of the text-books covering the same ground as Peschel's bear the title of * Phjsische Geographic.' But by all means let a new term be adopted for the subject if the old one is a hindrance to its development. It must, however, be remembered that similar arguments might be brought against the term physiology, which is nevertheless in full use with a very definite limit ascribed to it without inconvenience of any kind. Regarding physical geography as a part of geology to be separated from it : — The reason why such a separation should be effected is that there is thus formed and brought together for special treatment a subject which is far more necessary and suitable for general educational pur- poses than the whole of geology itself, which will attract far more students and act as a lever for promoting the study of other branches of science as special studies, and certainly of geology itself. The principal argument that is always brought against the esta- blishment of professorships of physical geography at the Universities, is that the subject is already covered by the professors of geology ; but SCIENTIFIC ASPECTS OF GEOGRAPHICAL EDUCATION. 229 Professor Geikie evidently does not take that view, and points out in his letter already referred to, " Geology is every day increasing in its scope, which is already too vast for the physical powers of even the most indefatigable teacher." It is already impossible for one teacher to be supposed to represent up to a university standard all which might be included under the name geology. When both physical geography and geology are represented by a single professor in a University, they must needs be inadequately covered, or one branch must receive but meagre treatment in proportion to the other ; or the period covered by a course of lectures must be too long for any one student to attend the whole. Convinced that it is a matter of the utmost importance for the progress of geography here to show that the two subjects, geology and physical geography, can be taught with perfect harmony and advantage by different professors at the same time at a University, I asked Mr. Keltie to write to some of the German professois of geography, and request them to express their views on the matter, and to ask for copies of the syllabuses of courses of lectures on geography and geology delivered at the same time within their Universities. He has handed me the following most interesting letter from Professor Kirchhoff, Professor of Geography at Halle : — Letter from Professor Kirchhoff of Halle, Professor of Geography in the University, to Mr. J. Scott Keltie. *' Unfortunately, I cannot send you syllabuses of the University lectures in geology like those of my own lectures on general geography, and on the countries of Europe, which I placed in your hands, since such do not exist. " However, the question now being raised in England is already practically settled in Germany. All the Universities in Northern Ger- many, and now those in Austria also, possess geographical as well as geological professois, and it is not found in any instance that the two interfere with each other, or are superfluous to each other, but, on the contrary, they have proved to afford mutual support. " It is, no doubt, correct that geology, in just the same way as geo- graphy, is concerned with the earth and all its various parts. But the point of view on either side is different. For example, whilst I am delivering in Halle during four successive semestres the course on geography, with the nature of which you are acquainted. Professor von Fritsch and two colleagues are lecturing to almost entirely different audiences on mineralogy, crystallography, geology, and palaeontology. In summer. Professor von Fritsch arranges excursions for geological purposes, and many of the students attending my lectures take part in these, because a problem of great geographical importance is able to be solved during these excursions, namely, the explanation of the form of 230 SCIENTIFIC ASPECTS OF GEOGRAPHICAL EDUCATION. the land surface as resulting from its composition, and by means of the history of its development. " The two sciences do, indeed, touch one another in what is termed superficial geology, but from this zone of contact they stretch wide apart from one another. Geology discusses not only the developmental history of the earth in the Quaternary period, a matter which concerns the geographer quite as much as the geologist, but it discusses also that of the most remote periods of the earth's antiquity, investigates the petrographic structure and the organic life of every formation, subjects which hardly concern the geographer at all. " On the other hand, geography has to deal with not only the land surface and the waters, but also with climate, the flora and fauna, and human inhabitants, both of the earth as a whole and of each separate country, confining its view to the present only, that is to say to the Quaternary period. It might as well be said that the existence of history as a subject at Universities rendered geography unnecessary, because it also has to do with the entire earth's surface. "In reality, geography embraces all facts relating to the earth, borrowing them often from other sources. The geology of the British Islands, for example, together with their history since the time of Csesar, does not by any means represent the geography of the islands." Professor Wagner, of Gottingen, Professor of Geography in that University, a most eminent authority on geographical education, has sent a post-card, giving a syllabus of his own lectures and those of Professor von Koenen, Professor of Geology. The syllabus is as follows : — Subjects of the Courses of Lectures given by the Professors of Geology and Geography, respectively, at the University of Gottingen, duiing the years 1884-1886. Professor of Geology ^ Y. Koenen. Professor of Oeograjpliy, H. Wagner. o f V. Koenen. — Palaeontology, and on the Geological Structure of Northern Summer, I ^ •i.-u -17 • 1 884 1 Germany, with Excursions. [ Wagner. — The Geography of Europe. Exercises. Winter, ( V. Koenen. — Geology and on certain Fossils. Exercises. 1884-86. \ Wagner. — The Geography of Germany. Cartographical Exercises. IY, Koenen. — Palaeontology and the Geological Structure of Northern Germany, with Excursions. Wagner. — The Geography of Asia with reference to the history of its discovery. Exercises. Y. Koenen. — Geology, and on certain Fossils. Exercises. Wagner. — General Physical Geognosy {Erdkunde). The history of the Discovery of Africa. Exercises. Y. Koenen. — Pala3ontology and the Geological Structure of Northern Summer, J Germany, with Excursions. 1886. J Wagner. — Geographical Climatology and the distribution of Organisms, and Qn the Study and Teaching of Geography. Winter, 1885-86. SCIENTIFIC ASPECTS OF GEOGRAPHICAL EDUCATION.— DISCUSSION. 231 " You see, therefore, that there is no connection whatever (gar Jcein Konnex) between my lectures and those of the geologist." Can any one doubt that the establishment of such a system of teaching Geography and Geology, side-by-side, as set forth in these two commu- nications, would not be of the utmost benefit to our country and its education generally, if established in our Universities also ? It will be impossible to obtain adequately trained teachers of physical geography, until such courses of instruction are open ; and until adequately trained teachers are produced for higher schools and training colleges, no real progress in the teaching of physical geography can be made throughout the country. There can scarcely be a doubt that the establishment, at our Uni- versities, of such a condition as that at the Grerman ones, would be in every way to the advantage and advancement of geology, and to the increase of the numbers of its students ; it would also advance the cause of all branches of natural science, and all interested in the teaching of these subjects ought to support a movement in &vour of its adoption warmly. No doubt the adoption of the system is merely a question of time, — ^England cannot lag behind in the study of geography for ever. Previous to the lecture, The Chatrman said that for upwards of a century it had been the practice of the Lords Commissioners of the Admiralty to employ one or more shijs annually for scientific purposes, the chief object being hydrographical surveys and mapping coast-lines. In this way charts had been produced such as all other nations of the world put together could not match. Some of these voyages had been for the pur- pose of taking ohservations of the planets across the sun, others for noticing total eclipses of the sun, and others for magnetic surveys, while very few had been for purely geographical purposes. To some of these expeditions ofiBcers had been appointed other than naval men, to do hydrographical, geographical, zoologicsd, and botanical work. In his first voyage Cook was accompanied, as a volunteer, by Sir Joseph Banks, who went with a large stafif at his own expense, and whose labours caused him for half a century afterwards to be regarded as the leading scientific man in the British Isles, while his name was revered in every scientific circle throughout the world. The next case was that of Captain Flinders' voyage to survey the coast of Australia. He was accompanied by Mr. Eobert Brown, the head of the Botanical Department of the British Museum, who, as soon as his works were published, was regarded as the greatest botanist of the day. Sir John Kichardson accompanied Sir John Franklin in two of his great voyages, and the works he produced on the botany, ethnology, and physical geography of the Polar regions were without parallel. He need not do more than mention Darwin in his voyage in the Beagle, and Hiixley in the RatUemake. Mr. Moseley accompanied the most important of all these voyages, and the only one that wa.s fitted out for purely scientific purposes, that of the Challenger, and would take his place along with the illustrious men whose names he had just mentioned. After the lecture, The Chairman said that Professor Moseley had brought great knowledge and practical experience in an admirable manner to show how a University man would 232 SCIENTIFIC ASPECTS OF GEOGRAPHICAL EDUCATION.— DISCUSSION. have geography introduced into University teaching ; but those who were interested in this question had to go a little further. It had always appeared to him that it was exceedingly difficult to bring these subjects properly into the higher education, if the students had not received a good grounding in those branches of science on which geography was based. He was sorry to hear much disrepute often cast upon pure topography. It was of very little use teaching the physical geography, geology, or botany of a country, if the student did not know where the country was. He was strongly of opinion that geography ought to permeate the whole education from the schoolroom to the termination of the University career ; every subject taught having a geographical aspect. Professor Bonney said he was heartily in accord with what Prof. Moseley had said about the importance of geognostic teaching as a branch of education. It was admirably suited for elementary teaching, and had a peculiar value inasmuch as the lessons learned could be constantly used in the daily walks. It was also a good subject for examination purposes, because it could not well be crammed. In order to answer the questions well the student must correlate his information, and have a clear idea of what he was going to say before he commenced writing his answer. With regard to the practical way of proceeding, he was inclined to think that the science of geology had been growing so rapidly that no one man could master the whole of it. It would therefore be necessary before long to break up geology into three distinct branches ; petrology, geognosy, and stratigraphical geology with palaeontology. A rather painful lesson was to be learned by looking round the walls of the Exhibition. It was evident that foreign maps were far superior to English maps. There seemed to have been a kiod of evolution in mapping ; first the plum- pudding stage ; then the hairy caterpillar stage ; and next the graphic method of shading, and he was afraid that some of the maps exhibited had not got beyond the hairy caterpillar stage. But there was one thing more important than maps, and that was models. Some of those exhibited were admirable, but unfortunately the prices were rather prohibitive, so that the Geographical Society would do a great service to teachers if they could get decent models produced at a reasonable price. The Rev. Dr. Jex-Blake (Rugby) said that no one could understand the political history of a country without being acquainted with the geographical facts that had made the towns, and he was sure there was more interest felt in the subject than was commonly supposed by those who were anxious to advance it on sound lines. When he was a boy he never dreamed of being able to get through even a Glreek-play lesson, much less a page of Thucydides or Livy, without knowing the lie of the country, and certainly the interest in the subject was keener now, and more widely spread, than when he was a boy thirty or forty years ago. There were two facts which showed the keen interest in geography of one of his predecessors — Dr. Arnold. Though he died in 1842 and the Crimean War did not break out till 1854, he said that if ever Russia had to fight a European antagonist, that antagonist would be very ill-advised if she did not attack Russia in the Crimea. Dr. Arnold also picked out at a glance, approaching it for the first time, the very pass by which Hannibal must have crossed the Apennines, taking his elephants from Central to Southern Italy ; and no one could read his Thucydides or Roman history without noticing that he knew how physical facts must shape political ones. He was quite sure that the Society had taken a very wise step in forming the Exhibition and having the lectures delivered. He took by no means the gloomy view of the present state of geographical teaching and geographical apparatus, adopted in some quarters ; but such an exhibition as this made improvement certain in both method and apparatus. Rev. Canon Daniel thought that very few public schools or universities would be disposed to add geography to their curriculum if it could not be shown that it SCIENTIFIC ASPECTS OF GEOGRAPHICAL EDUCATION.— DISCUSSION. 233 was valuable as an intellectual discipline ; but the common impression was that it was of very little value in that respect, and in the Society's Reports most of the head-masters who had expressed any opinion on the subject said that the reason why geography received so little attention in the public schools was that it was comparatively valueless as a discipline. He ventured to think that this impression entirely arose from the very unsatisfactory way in which the subject had been taught in this country. If it were taught intelligently it would be found to be as valuable for purposes of intellectual discipline as any other subject included in the ordinary school curricula. If children were led to bring their geography to bear upon their history, and their history upon their geography, then geography would prove to be invaluable as a discipline. Teachers, however, were not sufficiently trained in the subject. Some of them probably had never read any special treatise on it, and yet they were expected to teach it. How could they be enthusiastic about a subject of which they knew little, and about the methods of teaching of which they knew less ? Many public school masters would derive much benefit with regard to the teaching of geography if they would pay a visit to a national school or a training college, where the subject had been taught scientifically for many years, and where models constructed by the teachers themselves were employed to illustrate the lessons. Both the students and the children were accustomed to draw maps from memory, and the Educational Department insisted upon the insertion of meridian lines and parallels of latitude. He wished to say one word in defence of English maps. Those who had critised them had been mainly influenced by their feelings as scientific men ; but the requisites of a map for a school were different from those of an atlas to be used by a student at the University or a scientific man. Many maps which were excellent from a scientific point of view would be execrable from the point of view of teaching. Mountain ranges and other physical features should be exhibited in a very forcible and striking manner. Little children could not possibly take in a multitude of details : what impressed their minds were bold lines. Professor M'Kbnny Hughes (Cambridge) agreed with the previous speaker as to the suitableness for their purpose of our elementary school maps, and thought that it was not necessary, in order to promote the cause of better and higher teaching in geography, to begin by decrying everything English. In the Exhibition around them, of course, greater prominence had been given to those foreign objects which we did not get every day an opportunity of seeing; but he thought that such publi- cations, e. g. as Keith Johnston's Atlases, Stanford's Stereographic, and other wall maps, and those of the Ordnance Survey, would compare favourably with any foreign productions for the several uses for which they were intended. It was so often repeated that there was no geographical teaching in the Universities that he wished to point out again that in the University of Cambridge, at any rate, physical geo- graphy was regularly lectured upon by one or other of the geological staff, and that excursions were regularly made with the students in which the physical features were pointed out and explained. He thought there was a misapprehension of the conditions among those who supposed that the geographical details required for particular courses of lectures on history or 25oology, or physiography or geology, could be obtained fi-om courses of lectures on general geography in the University. The common groundwork, topographical and chorographical, must be acquired before a man comes up to the University. In his short University career he must specialise The Zoological Professor now lectured upon the Geographical Distribution of Animals* The Histoncal Board might provide courses on historical geography : on camr/ainis on colonisation, on the great trade routes of the world, and so on; and, in^h^ department of geology, physical geography must always be taught. Just at the present time, it was true that so little was done at the p/jhools that 234 SCIENTIFIC ASPECTS OF GEOGRAPHICAL EDUCATION.— DISCUSSION. it would answer to teach elementary geography at college. But that he hoped was only temporary. It was quite wrong to say that it did not pay at the University. It paid directly in the Tripos Examinations and indirectly in the better under- standing of history ancient and modern. He would not discourage the expansion of the subject, or the founding of a chair of geography in the University. It would be a useful and interesting subject taken alone, for the politician, the traveller, and the man of leisure. But the present great want will not be met in that way. For the men who require geography as a help in other studies — for their history, their zoology, their geology, — for them geography, in its old meaning, will be a subordinate subject when they get to the University. Practically they must get most of it at school. The Chairman said that Mr. Hughes seemed to overlook the immense influence that fellowships in the Universities would have upon the early education in the subsidiary schools. The professorship should be to a great extent a peripatetic one, and the whole class should be taken through a considerable extent of country, so as to make the teaching practical. Mr. Freshfield said that whatever might be the case at Cambridge, he had the authority of the Warden of Merton, of Mr. Bryce, Mr. Tozer, Mr. George, and others, for saying that at Oxford, instead of the University going the right way as fast as it could, it was resolutely refusing to stir at all. What was wanted at the Universities was a representative of geography, who would secure a hearing by his wide knowledge and power of making the subject attractive. Geography would never be properly taught at the public schools until the assistant-masters who went down to them from the Universities had a liking for it ; and he hoped that Dr. Jex- Blake would use his influence at the Conference of Head-masters to urge them to give geography a little more sympathetic treatment in their courses, not regarding it only as a separate subject, but bringing it into all other subjects. If the head- masters would make it a sine-qua-non that their assistants should have some little knowledge of physical geography, and not speak of it in disrespectful terms on all occasions, a great deal would be done towards the object the Society had in view. Mr. Moseley had spoken of the great advances of Germany and Austria in map- making, and in introducing geography into schools; but Zurich, which was the most commercial and go-ahead of the Swiss Cantons, had done, perhaps, more for geographical education than any other place in Europe. They had a beautiful large wall-map of the Canton, showing all its physical features, and admirably adapted for schools, and they put a small copy of it into every child's hand. They had also little relief maps made of pasteboard, each slip representing 100 metres, and the children were taught to construct the models. For higher education they had the splendid relief model of the Monte Eosa group, constructed by Herr Brefeld and Professor Heim. Zurich owed its high standard of map-making partly to the exertions of the Swiss Ordnance Survey during the past forty years. General Dufour made a marvellous map of Switzerland, and his survey had under his suc- cessor been carried to a pitch of perfection unknown to any other country. The map was sold cheaply. England was much behind in the matter of publishing Ordnance maps cheaply and quickly, and keeping them up to date ; though this was to be attributed rather to the misplaced parsimony of Parliament than to any want of energy in the staff. He might mention, as an instance, that there was no Govern- ment map in existence which showed the hills and dales of Exmoor with even approximate accuracy. The source of the Exe was misplaced about a mile. In France, and Italy too, rough but sufficiently good copies of the Ordnance maps could be purchased for fivepence or sixpence. Mr. G. Griffith (Harrow School) said he had been very much surprised at SCIENTIFIC ASPECTS OF GEOGRAPHICAL EDUCATION.— DISCUSSION. 235 the discussion. The Head-master of Rugby had said that geograpliy was taught in his school in an effective manner, and they had also been told that it was properly taught in the primary schools ; and yet the Geographical Society had for several years been telling the world that it was badly taught in this country. How to teach geography well was a difficult question to answer. He could imagine that if the teaching of topography were attempted in the schools something might be done ; but he believed the Society aimed at having physical geography taught as a separate subject, and that included not only geology, but meteorology, terrestrial magnetism, and other matters. The use of the barometer and scientific instruments, in his opinion, ought not to form part of geographical teaching, but of physics. He thought the Geographical Society had to a certain extent made a mistake in their examina- tions, in extending them over too large a range of subjects. At Harrow, text-books by Geikie and Huxley were used ; but it was absolutely impossible to have all the subjects treated of in those books taught in a practical way, except as a part of physics, because they involved questions of heat, of light, and of mechanics. That, he believed, was one of the reasons why the schools had failed to take up the subject in the way the Geographical Society wished. He believed that great good might be done by professors of geography at the Universities as proposed by Professor Moseley, and the establishment of such was sanctioned by the Oxford Commission of 1854. Mr. J. R, Langler said the great mistake usually made in teaching geography was to compel children to learn from a text-book a large number of names, im- portant and unimportant alike, in set lessons, and without any association of ideas. The main thing in learning useful geography was not to know first the " where " but the "what" — the scenery, climate, history, &o., as suggested by the pictorial part of this valuable Exhibition — otherwise the lesson became a painful infliction of mere words, instead of exciting the interest of the children. The " where " localises the idea; and the "why" is a third stage which explains causes and effects, especially in " physical geography." With regard to the establishment of chairs at the Universities, teachers would be sure to give instruction in any subject which told at the University examination. That evening a proposal was before the mem- bers of Convocation of the London University to eliminate geography altogether from the syllabus; and if examiners put mainly such questions as "What is the roof of the world?" "What do you understand by the Flowery Land? " little good would be done by retaining the subject for the advantage of a commercial people? If, however, attention was given to questions such as those Mr. Moseley had suggested, e. g. the growing of cereals, or the distribution of those plants which were especially useful to mankind, geography might be studied to some purpose. He remembered Sir Henry Kawlinson once saying at the annual dinner of the Society that he thought there were very few members of the House of Commons who knew the situation of the Bay of Fundy ; but until the Bay of Fundy became important on account of a dispute about the fishing grounds, what special advantage was there in knowing its exact locality ? Many names were of little use except under such circumstances, and might well be omitted from text-books in favour of confessedly important points in the geography of the world. Much time and energy are wasted in teaching minute details. Eev. E. Hale (Eton) thought that Professor Hughes had regarded geography too much from a geological point of view, and had not clearly appreciated that it is a science of itself. The reason why the schools did not send geographers to the Universities was that geography was not recognised at the Universities. A pupil of his own who had taken both the prizes offered by the Society, wrote to him from Cambridge, saying that nobody cared anything about geography there. At the school with which he was connected every boy, as the foundation of his scientific course, 236 SCIENTIFIC ASPECTS OF GEOGRAPHICAL EDUCATION.— DISCUSSION. had a year of physical geography. That quickened the boys' habits of observation. He was also accustomed to give a few lessons on the weather chart of the Times, and the boys acquired a rough-and-ready idea of the way in which the Meteorological Department made their forecasts. Such an interest was taken in the subject that for the last seven years the boys themselves had drawn up their own meteorological reports. Every teacher ought to be independent of his books, but often when he had not had time to finish his lectures on a subject, he had referred the boys to Huxley's * Physiography,' and he had never found that they had any difficulty in under- standing it. One reason why geography was badly taught was that masters disliked the lesson. They simply took their text-book and their Keith Johnston, read a page or two, and then asked questions about it when they went into school. Taught in that way geography was not likely to commend itself to the pupils. Such a state of things would not exist if geography were recognised at the Universities. Professor M'Kenny Hughes did not thiuk he could be accused of regarding geography from one point of view only, when the whole drift of his remarks had been to show that the teaching of geography at the University was, and must be, divided under several heads to suit the more specialised studies of the place. The opposition could hardly be said to come from those departments which now offered, as far as they could, the geographical teaching required for their own subjects. He had that morning lectured on the details of the physical geography of a country to which he was going to take his men in the Easter vacation. He regretted that he should have been so far misunderstood as to be supposed to object to geographical teaching because he did not believe that a particular scheme which had been proposed would best promote the end in view. Professor Moseley, in reply, said he was sorry that Mr. Hughes had expressed himsi If rather strongly against his proposition ; but there was a statement in Mr, Keltic's admirable report to the effect that the great opponents to the development of geography in this country had always been the geologists. He was glad to find that Professor Bonney took an opposite view, and he knew that Professor Boyd Dawkins and Professor Archibald Geikie were strongly in favour of a professorship of physical geography. No doubt geography had long been taught at Rugby as admirably as Mr. Jex-Blake had stated ; but nothing more execrable could be conceived than the teaching of geography at Harrow when he was there ; in fact, all the geography he was taught there was the drawing of maps from copies. Mr. Jex-Blake seemed to regard physical geography as a thing with respect to which there was no develop- ment, but the fact was that it was a subject in which most interesting work was being done every day. Until he saw a mountain in Switzerland he had no con- ception of the gradual rise of a mountain chain, or of the enormous area covered by it. There was not only a certain quality of study of physical geography applicable to public schools, but there was also a higher study of the subject, such as was represented in Oscar Peschel's 'Allgemeine Erdkunde.' Peschel was one of the greatest geniuses that ever lived. He not only wrote a treatise on geography, but also a most valuable anthropology, a history of geography, and a series of essays on all sorts of interesting subjects connected with geography. His idea of a professor of geography at a University was one who would treat the subject in its higher branches. At the present time there was no text-book on physical geography in England which in any way approached those pubhshed in Germany. He did not expect all the details of the subject to be taught to beginners at school. It should proceed by successive stages, the same as Latin or Greek. He believed that geography would take its proper place in the Universities before many years passed away. MEASUKES ADOPTED BY THE COUNCIL ( 239 ) MEASURES ADOPTED BY THE COUNCIL. During the past Session (1885-6) the Council of the Royal Geographical Society have, through a Committee specially appointed for the purpose, considered very carefully the various opinions and suggestions set out in the foregoing pages. Their object has been to frame a practical scheme whereby the Society may to some extent co-operate with the educa- tional bodies in raising geography to a higher place in our national education. The evidence before the Council was practically unanimous on this point — ^that the first necessity for any sensible improvement in the standard of geographical education was to instruct and interest the teaching class. And there was a further general agreement that this could not be effected without action on the part of the leading Universities. What form that action should take? to what extent the Geographical Society and the Universities might with profit work conjointly ? — these proved to be more difficult questions on which there exists considerable divergence of opinion. With regard to this first and most important part of the measures adopted by the Council, they have thought it best not to decide absolutely in favour of any particular plan, but to submit the several detailed proposals set out below to the Vice-Chancellors of Oxford and Cambridge, at the same time assuring them of their willingness to give substantial aid in setting on foot any scheme which promises to give geography a better repre- sentation among the University studies and to place it on a footing not inferior to that which it holds in the leading Universities of the Con- tinent. The proposals of the Council having already the approval of many influential members of the Universities and gentlemen engaged in education, the Council have every reason to expect that they will bo seriously and favourably considered by the competent authorities, and that a satisfactory scheme based on them may be before long brought into operation. When the leading Universities have recognised the place of geo- graphy—when their graduates who become schoolmasters have been taught to value it as a branch of knowledge, essential equaUy to a just understanding of the natural sciences, history, and classical literature— for even the nice choice of local epithets by the classical poets is often misunderstood by critics who have never been at the pains to form a 240 MEASURES ADOPTED BY THE COUNCIL. true picture of tlie scenes described — then intelligent instruction in geography may become a part of the ordinary course of teaching in Public Schools. To return to the system of Public School Medals would, in the opinion of the best judges, be either to encourage the forcing of a few boys in a too specialised course of study, or to stamp with approval inadequate instruction often hardly going beyond topo- graphical details. Other measures resolved upon relate chiefly to the promotion of geographical education in middle-class and elementary schools. Prize medals for geographical proficiency have for some time been given by the Society in connection with the Oxford and Cambridge Local Examinations. By this means middle-class education is to some extent affected. It is now proposed also to assist by a small grant the geographical lectures given in the great towns of the North and Midlands as part of the Oxford University Extension scheme. The syllabus of these lectures, prepared by a distinguished young Oxonian, Mr. Mackinder, is one of the most hopeful signs, in this country, of the tendency to a better appreciation of the claims of geography as a mental discipline to students. With regard to primary education, the Council have good reason to believe that geography is in comparison to other subjects, better represented — certainly as to plant, probably also in method of instruction — :in our elementary schools, than in higher places of instruction. What seems desirable is to emphasise its claims and to encourage its study among the future teachers. The mass of children can only be reached through their teachers, and it has therefore, after consultation with gentlemen of practical experience, been decided to offer, subject to the satisfactory arrangement of details with the Education Department, a series of prizes and two scholarships of 20Z., and lOZ. each to the pupil teachers in their fourth year who are certified by H.M. Inspectors to have done best in geography. The Council further propose, for the present, to provide a certain number of school libraries with the ' Proceedings ' of the Society, and to encourage, where possible, the introduction of lectures by dis- tinguished geographers and travellers in Public Schools where there is an opening for them. These various proposals are not put forward by the Council as covering the whole ground. It would be beyond the power of the Geographical Society to undertake such a task. But it is hoped that they are well-timed and well-directed — so far as they go — and that they will in time give an impulse to geographical education throughout the country. Great or conspicuous immediate results it would be too sanguine to count on at the Universities. Much must depend on the right men being forthcoming to lead. Hitherto the opportunity has been steadily refused, and capacities which might have found their field in a Chair of Geography have been turned elsewhere. MEASURES ADOPTED BY THE COUNCIL. 241 Nothing will be found in the appended Resolntionfl of the Council with regard to the second great requirement for better instruction in geography — ^improved plant. It has been thought better to defer any definite st^ps in this direction imtil after the return of the Society's Collection, which is now making a succesfal tour of the provinces. That a selection from this collection will be arranged and kept permanently risible, and that some steps will be taken to indicate, if not to make, some of the most desirable additions to it may be assumed. The Society's action has resulted already in an increased activity in the production of maps and text-books at home, and in the introduction of the best foreign wall- maps to such an extent, that as to one map, a Viennese map-maker was last spring temporarily sold out. Specimens of physical maps coloured in contour lines will be exhibited in the next Session, and experiments are now being made with the object of obtaining, if possible, standard tints for different elevations, the general use of which would simplifv the work of teachers and pupils. D. W. Freshfield, Secrei€aif. The following are the Eesolutions alluded to above : — The Council, having considered the scheme proposed by the Education Committee for the advancement of Geographical Instruction in England, and after making some alterations therein, approved it in the following form : — '■ The President shall, on behalf of the Council, address the Yice- ChanceUors of the Universities of Oxford and Cambridge on the importance of providing for a representation of Geogra|^y in our Universities similar to that which it possesses in the leading Universities of the Continent, and especially of Germany ; and he shaH submit to the Vice-chancellors the following alternative schemes, which indicate the direction in wHch the Council think that they may best be able to co-operate with the Universities. First 5cfeem€.— That the Council should appoint (with the approval of the Vice-chancellor or his delegates) a Lecturer or Header in Geography, who should deliver courses of lectures at both Universities, arranged so as to suit students in the Honour Schools. The salary of the Lecturer to be paid by the Council ; and the University to acoord him, as far as practicable, the status of a Header attached to the University. Second Scheme.-Th^t ea^h University should join with the Council m supplying funds for a Readership at a salary not exceedina- 300/ per annum. The Reader to be appointed by a Committee on which the Royal Geographical Society should be represented. The President is to express also the willingness of the Council to appoint delegates to discuss these or any alternative schemes which B 242 MEASURES ADOPTED BY THE COUNCIL. may be suggested on behalf of the University, such, for instance, as the recognition of special proficiency in dealing with the geographical aspects of the various subjects of Honour Examinations in the Universities. The President will further state that in the case of either of the above schemes taking efi*ect the Council are prepared to award in alter- nate years at each University an Exhibition, value lOOZ., to be spent in the geographical investigation (physical or historical) of some district approved by the Council, to a member of the University of not more than eight years' standing, who shall have attended the Geographical Lecturer's courses during his residence. The Exhibitioner to be selected by a sub-committee, to consist of the Lecturer and two resident members of the University and two members of Council, and to communicate the results of his investigations to the Eoyal Geographical Society. In the event of the sub-committee in any year considering it un- desirable to award the Exhibition, the funds thus released may be devoted to two prizes of 50Z. and 251. respectively, to be offered to members of the University of the same standing, for an Essay on a Geographical Subject, the conditions of which would be laid down by the Council. The balance of the 1001, to be reserved to provide a fee for the adjudicator or adjudicators. The Council contemplate that the Lecturer or Readers appointed should from time to time deliver lectures in London, which they do not doubt would be quite compatible with the discharge of University duties. They desire to leave the arrangements for such lectures for subsequent consideration. A donation of SOI. for the present year will be made, in aid of the Geographical Lectures in the University extension courses (Oxford). The following proposals to be communicated to the President of the Council of Education, and his concurrence requested in the arrange- ments necessary for carrying them into effect, subject to any modifi- cations in detail he may think desirable : — The Council are prepared to offer a first and second prize (to con- sist of Atlases or Books) and eight Honorary Certificates to the pupil teachers in their fourth year passing the best examination in Geo- graphy, in each of the ten General Districts. The result of the ex- amination, with a copy of the paper set, to be communicated to the Council by the Education Department. The Council would offer further prizes of two Scholarships of 20Z. and 101. respectively to the two best among the ten first prize-takers. The Scholarships to be awarded either on the Eeport of the Education Office, which would be asked to submit the papers of the successful scholars for the inspection of the Council, or the ten first-prize papers to be sent in to the R.G.S.'s officers, and the Scholarships awarded by them. MEASURES ADOPTED BY THE COUNCIL. 243 The monthly * Proceedings ' of the Society to be sent to Public School Libraries, the total not exceeding 40. Travellers or geographers capable of giving instructive geographical lectures to be put into communication with the Head Masters of Public Schools where occasional lectures are given to the students. As a first step in carrying out that part of the Council Resolutions which relates to the Universities, the following letter has been addressed to the Vice-Chancellor of Oxford by Lord Aberdare, President of the Society : — London, July 9, 1886. My dear Vice-Chancellor, The Council of the Eoyal Geographical Society have on two previous occasions (in 1871 and 1874) addressed memorials, of which copies are enclosed,* to your predecessors, urging the claims of geography to further recognition by the Universities. They have recently undertaken an inquiry into the position of geography in English and Continental education. The result has been unfavourable to England ; and there has been a general concurrence of testimony, according with their own strong conviction, that the most effectual step towards the removal of our inferiority would be the estab- lishment in our Universities of Chairs or Readerships similar to those held in Germany, viz. by Karl Ritter at Berlin, and Professors Peschel and Richthofen at Leipzig. So much of human knowledge and human interests is bound up with the relations and interaction of the physical conditions of the earth, the study of which is practically embraced in geography, that there are few branches of education which do not present a geographical aspect, and which do not therefore offer a field for instruction in geography in com- bination with some other subject. It is unnecessary to insist upon the close connection of history and geography, or upon the importance of a knowledge of the physical conditions of the various regions of the world, to those who engage in the conduct of our political affairs. Without the comprehensive study of the earth, for which English- men, as a people, have the largest opportunities and the least prepara- tion, physical students would fail to grasp the true character and relations of the various sciences of observation, such as anthropology geology, botany, meteorology, &c. As geography already holds a statutable place in the studies of the University, it seems to us that the courses of a Reader or Professor in Geography might easily, by consultation with the examiners, be so arranged as to fit in with the requirements of scholars in the Honour * Vide ante, pp. 79, 81. R 2 244 MEASURES ADOPTED BY THE COUNCIL. Schools, their establishment serving rather to complete the present University system of instruction than to introduce a new element into it. The Council of the Koyal Geographical Society are so fully convinced of the national importance of placing geographical science on a sound footing, and of the necessity of some action at the Universities in order to ohtain this result, that they have approved the proposals submitted by their Education Committee, enclosed herewith, which they beg you to take into your favourable consideration, and to submit at the earliest opportunity to the proper authorities. The length of time for which the Society should undertake to make a contribution out of its funds towards a Geographical Chair or Eeader- ship will be further considered whenever your University may be prepared to accept our proposition in principle, and to discuss in detail the plans proposed. Believe me, my dear Vice-Chancellor, Sincerely yours, Aberdare, President. To the Vice-Chancellc>b OP THE University of Oxford. CATALOGUE' OF EXHIBITION OF APPLIANCES TD8ED IN GEOGKAPHICAL EDUCATION. INTRODUCTORY NOTR It formed part of the instractioais of the Gonneil t: i:ie S^deiy's Inspector to collect specimens of the var'cns appKan'zes "i5»^i in Geo- graphical Education at home and abroad. The oljects wccssidin^y collected were arranged in the GaUerks at 53, Great If ^^"c»:r: ~ z- Street. The Exhibition was pnrely edncaticaal : widi ostam esBEfskss^ the objects exhibited were such as are scvnaSj is^z. m riinriieiisi- I" was not exhanstiYe^ bnt lepreaa nt aili e . It lif^^ zLzi. =«'~ r" ' tff ^yj^ specimens of aU the maps, Ac, issued ly iJii^ I^=^»fKitg bi*gees in Txnomr countries; and it was imposBible to fiiMJ epaace 1:3 aE ^»e losps ssn in. The Exhibition, however, c>:3itaiiie»i S]:*cciiii2:s it!|it«tfcBte iiTe ^f the Yarions styl^ and methods adopted fax f^rwaH ^mail %p|ilisBees m Geography. The leading countries of Europe were reprEser i&d in iLe Exhibition. The Maps were arranged on the walU in geogxa^ineal fsds, Iksb^ ning with maps of the World, followed by Europe and parts cf Esrope, Asia, &c. The object aimed at was to hsmg ade W ade 5T»5*™rgn= of the work of different pnblisherB and diffetent ct^^nitii^ ; e<> t'* r -r^tc^s conld compare the styles for ihemsdtreB. TiMi purpose •" • • • • DIVISION I. Maps — I. The World II. Europe III. Classical IV. Asia .. V. Africa VI. America VII. Australasia VIII. Scriptural IX. Elementary Diagrams, Maps, and Reliefs « • • » PAGE 251 254 261 262 264 265 266 267 268 DIVISION Ia. Small Maps in Sheets 273 DIVISION II. Globes • • • t .. 273 DIVISION IIL TeLLURIA, PLAUETARLi, EtC. .. .. 276 DIVISION IV. Models, Relief Maps .. .. 277 DIVISION V. Geographical Pictures Ethnological Pictures and Models .. .. 280 .. 283 250 CONTENTS. DIVISION VI. Atlas?:s — PAGE I. Englisli • • • • « • • * t .. 283 II. French and Belg ian • • • .. 291 III. German • i • ■ a ■ • » • .. 292 IV. Austrian m • * » « ■ • 1 * .. 294 V. Dutch • • • » ■ ■ • # « .. 296 VI. Swiss • • • 1 • . .. 300 VII. Scandinavian • t ■ • « • • • « .. 300 VIII. Italian • ■ ■ ■ « » • • • .. 301 Text-Books — I. English II. German III. Austrian IV. Swiss V. French VI. Dutch VII. Scandinavian DIVISION VII. .. 301 .. 310 .. 314 .. 316 .. 317 .. 322 .. 325 DIVISION VIII. Miscellaneous 327 CATAIjOGUE OF EXHIBITION OF APPLIANCES USED IN GEOGRAPHICAL EDUCATION. Note.— 2Vi« dimensions of Maps hace been given in inches^ breadth and height. T^oc ^les of Maps are in English; of Atlases and Text-books in the origmal lamgwjge, with brief explanation in English. Scale.— r-^e so-called ''Natural Scale" is in most instances attached to the deacriptiom of the maps. A scale of 1 inch to a geographical (or na^iticaX) mUe corresponds to 1 : 73,037 of nature. A scale of 1 inch to a Statute mile corresponds to 1 : 63^66 of nat>ire. Hence a scale of 1 : 1,000,000 corresponds approximately to 16 Statute mUes to an ituA. DIVISION I. MAPS. L— THE WORLD. 1. — AVestem and Eastern Hemispheres (separate). A Sterec^raphical Projection on the Twentieth Meridian, mainly Political, with 10 inset maps : — 2 Globular Projections on the Plane of a Meridian ; 2 Ortho- graphical Projections on the Plane of a Meridian ; Water Hemisphere ; Land Hemisphere ; Southern and Northern Hemispheres. Also insets, Mercator's Projection, the Gores of a Glohe complete on the same scale at the Equator, and a comparative series of Vertical Sections. 50 by 58 in. Price IBs. each. London, E. Stanford. 1878 and 1885. 2. — Physical and Political Map of the World in Hemispheres (Italian). By Professor Guide Cora. 44 by 44 in. each. Tmm, G. B. Paravia & Co. No date. 3 and 4. — Eastern and Western Hemispheres (German). FhysicaL By H. Kiepert. Physical Features of the Land in varying tints of brown, and Ocean Currents in green. 41 by 41 in. Price IS$, Bfrrlin, Dietrich Reimer. 1878. 252 DIVISION I. MAPS —THE WORLD. 6. — Map of the World (Frencli), Political and Commercial, containing tlie Planisphere, Eastern and Western, Northern and Southern Hemi- spheres, and inset map of Oceania. On the Planisphere are shown ocean currents, directions of principal winds, limits of ice, &c. ; land coloured politically with leading railway routes and telegraph lines. 72 by 66 in. Price 18s. Paris, Freres des Ecoles Chretiennes. No date. 6 and 7. — Eastern and Western Hemispheres (Swedish). Shows physical features of the land and the ocean currents. 40 by 40 in. Price 15«. Stockholm, Norstedt. No date. 8. — Imperial Chart of the World on Mercator's Projection. Political. With inset chart showing rain, winds, isothermal lines, and ocean cur- rents. 63 by 72 in. Price 2l5. Edinburgh, W. & A. K. Johnston. No date. 10. — Map of the World on Mercator's Projection. Outline in blue, names in black, mountains in brown, and towns in red. Small dials at each meridian showing Greenwich time; ocean currents. Price 13s. 60 by 50 in. London, Bacon & Co. No date. 11. — Distribution of Plants, and Distribution of Volcanoes and Earthquakes (two maps). By E. G. Ravenstein. Each 48 by 36 in. London, Reynolds. 1859. 12. — Series of 9 small Maps (German) of the World to exhibit Special Phenomena : — (a) Hypsometrical Survey of the Earth, with 2 inset maps of Volcanoes and Vegetation. 18 by 23 in. (h) Diminution of Gravity from the Poles towards the Equator. (c) Oceanography, showing Ebb and Flood, Currents, Depths, Temperature, Coral Reefs. (d) Hypsometrical Map of the World, with Horizontal Strata according to the principle of Ritter von Hauslab. (e) Representation of Atmospheric and Hy drome trie Pressures in June and July. (/) Magnetism, showing the Deviation and Inclination of the Magnetic Needle, as also the Intensity of the Earth's Magnetism. (g) Distribution of Heat in Monthly Isotherms for the Northern Hemisphere, and in Yearly Isotherms for the whole Earth. (h) Geological Survey of the Earth, on Mercator's Projection, with inset Maps of Europe, India, South Africa, and part of North America. Price Is. 4:d. each. Vienna, Artaria & Co. 14. — Physical Chart of the World, showing contours of land and ocean-bed ; the different character of the surface (forests, tundra, deserts, &c.), by variety of colouring ; ocean currents ; limits of Polar drift ; Inset maps showing meteorological phenomena. By Keith Johnston. 60 by 42 in. Price 2l5. Edinburgh, W. & A. K. Johnston. No date. DIVISION I. MAPS.— THE WORLD. 253 15. — The Distribution of Animals in Zoological Provinces, after Sclater and Wallace. Prepared under the Direction of Dr. Andrew Wilson. The map shows by six colours the great zoological provinces— Palsearctic, Nearctic, Ethiopian, Oriental, Australian, Neotropical. 50 by 42 in. Price 12s. Edinburgh, W. & A. K. Johnston. No date. 15a.— Geographical Distribution of Plants. By A. K. Johnston & A. Henfrey. From Johnston*s Physical Atlas. An inset sbows the vertical distribution. 27 by 24 in. Price 7s. Qd. in sheets, 12s. mounted. Edinburgh, W. & A. K. Johnston. No date. Geographical Distribution of important Food Plants. By Arthur Henfrey. Inset maps show special features of distribution, and also the distribution according to altitude. From Johnston's Physical Atlas. 27 by 24 in. Price 10s. 6c?. in sheets, 12s. mounted. No date. Hyotographic or Rain-Map of the World. With a special map of the Temperature and Eainfall of India, 27 by 24 in. Price 10s. 6d. in sheets, 12s. mounted. Same origin and publisher as above. No date. 16.— Map of the World (French). By E. Levasseur. Mainly Political, with inset maps of tbe Suez Canal, the Isthmus of Panama, Eastern and Western Hemispheres, and North and South Poles. 1 : 18,000,000 at the Equator. 80 by 72 in. Price 208. Paris, Delagrave. No date. 16a.— Chart of the World, on Gall's Projection. By John Bartholo- mew. Colouring mainly political. 76 by 59 in. London, Jerrold & Sons. No date. 17. — Physical Map of the World (Dutch), on Gall's Projection. By Dr. C. M. Kan and N. W. Posthumus. Coloured to show the varying character of the surface of the Earth, Ocean Currents, limits of Polar Drift, with four inset maps showing Meteorological phenomena. 72 by 60 in. Amsterdam, C. L. Brinkman. No date. (Compare No. 14.) 18. — World, Political, on Mercator's Projection. 58 by 50 in. Price 13s. London, E. Stanford. 1885. 19.— The World, on Mercator's Projection (Italian), showing various classes of Ocean Currents, limits of Polar Drift, Telegraph Lines, and other details. Planned and drawn by Prof. Guide Cora. 50 by 42 in. Turin, Paravia & Co. 1884. 20.— Map of the World (German). Aid to the Study of Geographical Discoveries, showing tracks of navigators and explorers. By Prof. Ernst Mayer and Josef Luksch. 60 by 45 in. Price 13s. in sheets. Vienna, Artaria & Co. No date. 21.— Map of the World, showing the Year's Isotherms. By A. Supan. 56 by 44 in. Equatorial scale 1:30,000,000. Price 30s. Vienna, Holzel. 1884. 254 DIVISION I. MAPS.— EUROPE. II.— EUEOPE. 22. — Europe (Frencli), Physical, Political, Historical, and Economical. Willi statistical diagrams relating to Area, Population, Finance, Religion, Commerce, Marine, Eailways, Education, &c. ; with sections and inset map of Density of Population. By E. Levasseur. Scale 1 : 4,000,000. 66 by 60 in. Price 20s. Paris, Ch. Delagrave. 1885. 23. — Europe, Physical and Political (French). By G. Meissas. With inset map of Spitzbergen, Nova Zembla, and Franz- Josef Land. 1 : 2,680,000. 84 by 80 in. Price 22s. Paris, Hachette & Co. No date. S4. — Europe, Political (German), showing limits of various cultures. By H. Kiepert. Physical features clear and well defined. Scale 1 : 4,000,000. 67 by 52 in. Berlin, Dietrich Reimer. No date. 25. — Europe, Test Map (without names, but with conspicuous red spots for towns). Colouring political. With dials to indicate the time on the different meridians when noon at Greenwich. 48 by 60 in. Price 13s. London, G. W. Bacon & Co. 1884. 26.— School Map of Europe (Political). Scale 1 : 4,000,000. 63 by 46 in. Price 12s. Edinburgh, T. Ruddiman Johnston. 1885. 27. — Europe, Oro-hydrographical (Italian). By Prof. Felice de Angeli. Lowlands coloured green, uplands and mountains in tints of brown. No scale. 58 by 45 in. Price 9s. in sheets. Milan, Ferd. Sacchi & Figli. No date. 28. — Europe, Political, with physical features well brought out (German). By Vincenz v. Haardt. Scale 1 : 4,000,000. 62 by 48 in. Price 13s. Vienna, Eduard Holzel. 1883. 29. — Europe, Political; physical features clear. Sections on the parallels of 46° and 42° N. lat. Scale 53 miles to an inch. 72 by 63 in. Price 21s. Edinburgh, W. & A. K. Johnston. No date. 30. — Europe, Political, with physical features prominent. 65 miles to an inch. 58 by 50 in. Price 13s. London, E. Stanford. 1884. 31. — Orographical Map of Europe, showing the contour levels of the land by differences of colour (green and brown), and the depths of the sea in tints of blue. By Sir A. C. Ramsay, late Director of the Geological Survey. 68 by 60 in. Price 30s. London, Stanford. 1876. 32 and 33. — Europe. By Samuel Arrowsmith. (The Educational Series of Maps. Varty's.) Both coloured politically ; one with physical features and names, price 6s. ; the other with only rivers and towns, price 5s. 34 by 26 in. No scale. London, E. Stanford. No date. DIVISION I, MAPS.— EUROPE. 255 34. — ^Europe, photolithographed from reliefs, and intended to repre- sent the appearance of a raised surface. 60 by 51 in. Scale 1 : 4,000,000. Price 21«. London, Mnrby. No date. 35. — ^Europe, Physical Map of. By A. K. Johnston. Scale 80 miles to an inch. 50 by 42 in. Physical featnres in tints of green and brown. Principal ocean cnrrents shown by white lines. Price 12«. Edinburgh, W. & A. K. Johnston. Xo date. 36. — Enrope, Physical and Political (Italian). By Professor Gnido Cora. Scale 1:3,500,000. 69 by 60 in. Only boundaries coloured. Physical features clear. Turin & Borne, Paravia & Co. 1883. 38. — ^Europe (French) ; Political, with physical features clear ; towns and railways in red. By E. Cortambert. About 100 miles to an inch. 48 by 36 in. Price 68. Sd. Paris, Hachette & Co. Xo date. 41. — ^Europe (Dutch.) Physical features in tints of brown, political boundaries marked in red ; rivers exaggerated, broad black lines. By Dr. G. J. Dozy. Scale 1 : 3,300,000. 75 by 63 in. Amhem, J. Voltelen. No date. 42. — Europe (French), Physical, Hypsometrical, and Political, the altitudes in four gradations being shown by differences of colour. With inset maps — Statistics (1880), Ethnography, Climatology, Vegetable and Mineral productions, and Hypsometrical sections. Scale 1 : 3,000,000. 80 by 70 iru Price 18*. Paris, Freres des Ecoles Chretiennes. 1880. 43. — Europe, Orographical (Dutch), with political boundaries in red. By E. Schierbeek. Physical features in green and brown ; inset maps showing areas of culture. About 60 miles to an inch. 72 by 64 in. Groningen, Wolters. No date. 44. — Europe (Swedish), including part of Greenland, Spitzbergen, Nova Zembla, and Franz-Josef Land, Physical and PoliticaL Oro- graphy shown by differences of colour (green and brown) ; Ocean Currents; Ocean Depths by tints of blue; Southern Limits of Ice. Political boundaries in red. 60 by 72 in. 70 miles to an inch. Price 9s. 6d. Stockholm, Flodin. No date. 45. — Europe, Orohydrographical (German), by means of different tints (green and brown). By Vincenz v. Haardt. Scale 1 : 4,000,000. 62 by 48 in. Price 26«. Vienna, HolzeL 1883. 46. — Central Europe, from England to Black Sea, Hypsometrical (German). Showing Orography by well-marked colours ; inset sections similariy coloured ; contours of Ocean-beds. By A. Steinhauser. Scale 1:1,500,000. 66 by 48 in. Price 20». Vienna, Artaria & Co. 1877. 47. — Central Europe. Political; physical features £[iint. 25 miles to an inch. 60 by 42 in. Price 12». Edinburgh, W. & A. E. Johnston. No date. 256 DIVISION I. MAPS.— EUROPE. 48. — Balkan Peninsula, including part of Italy and Asia, Political. Physical features clear and detailed. By K. Kiepert. 60 by 54 in. Scale 1 : 1,000,000. Price 9s. Berlin, Reimer. 1883. The same. Physical. Without names. Showing Orography promi- nently in different tints of brown. 1884. 49. — Austrian Alps (German), Hypsometrical. By A. Stein- hauser. Physical features prominent and graphic. Scale 1 : 500,000. 54 by 46 in. Price lis. in sheets. Vienna, Artaria & Co. No date. 50. — The Alpine Region, from the Rhone to the Balkan Peninsula, Physical, with political boundaries marked ; with Section across the Alps from the Isere to the Vistula. Scale 1 : 580,000. 76 by 54 in. Price 15s. in sheets. Vienna, Artaria. 1884. 51 and. 52. — The Alpine Region, from the Rhone to the Balkan Peninsula, with and without names ; the former showing Political Boundaries, Railways, and other artificial features, price 68s. ; the latter having the Physical features more markedly brought into relief, price 60s. By Vincenz v. Haardt. 84 by 52 in. Scale 1 : 600,000. With Section showing comparative Heights of Chief Peaks of Alps on scale six times greater than that of the map. Vienna, Holzel. 1882. [There are both school and detailed editions of these maps. Explanatory text separate.] 63 and 64. — The Alpine Region, with and without names (German), embracing the same area as the two preceding maps, with more minute detail and more delicate and graphic work. Scale 1 : 500,000. 84 by 66 in. Price 19s. in sheets. Zurich, Wiirster & Co. 1885. 66. — Ziegler's Wall Map of Switzerland (French and German), with physical features, political divisions, and names. Scale 1 : 200,000. 72 by 48 in. Price 10s. in sheets. Zurich, Wiirster & Co. No date. 66. — Orohydrographical Map of Switzerland, same as No. 55, with physical features more boldly brought out. Price 8s. in sheets. 1885. 67. — Panorama of the Alps. Zurich, Wiirster & Co. 68-61. — Series of Eight Hand Maps of the Alps, illustrating their Hypsometry and Hydrography in various aspects, with and without names. Colouring and details most delicate and precise. Scale 1 : 1,700,000. 22 by 16 in. Vienna, Artaria & Co. 63. — Europe in the Beginning of the Sixth Century. By K. v. Spruner and C. A. Bretschneider. Scale 1 : 4,000,000. 61 by 51 in. Price 10s. 6d. Gotha, Justus Perthes. 94. — Europe at the Time of the Thirty Years' War (German). By K. V. Spruner and C. A. Bretschneider. Scale 1 : 4,000,000. 61 by 51 in. Price 10s. 6d. Gotha, Justus Perthes. DIVISION I. MAPS.— EUROPE. 267 64a. — Map of Europe. By E. Levasseur and Naud-fivrard. Scale 1 : 4,000,000. Style same as No. 84. 60 by 54 in. Price 17«. 6(L Paris, Ch. Delagrave. Printed like wall-paper and intended to give the im- pression of relief. No date. (In smaller aide room.) 65. — ^British Islands, in two maps (a) Physical, (h) Political (German). The Physical tinted in shades of brown for the orography, and in shades of blue for ocean depths. By Richard Kiepert. Scale 1 : 1,000,000. 60 by 40 in. Price 9«. each. Berlin, Dietrich Reimer. 1882. 66. — Great Britain and Ireland, with insets showing Shetland Isles and Environs of London. Photolithographed from reliefs. Edited by Sydney B. J. Skertchley, F.G.S. Scale 1 : 790,000. 50 by 55 in. Price 21«. London, Thomas Murby. No date. 67. — Stereographical Map of the British Islands, constructed to show the correct relations of their physical features. The effect is that of a relief with light coming from the north. Scale 11 J miles to an inch. 50 by 58 in. Price 21s. London, E. Stanford. 1877. 68. — Wall Map of the United Kingdom. Scale 8 miles to an inch. 75 by 90 in. Price 42s. Physical features well marked but not prominent. London, E. Stanford. 1880. 69. — ^British Isles, showing great physical and political facts; mountains shown by black lines. Scale 13 miles to an inch. 42 by 52 in. London, National Society. No date. 70.— England and Wales, Physical. Scale 1 : 506,680. 46 by 53 in. Price 15s. Hills brown, lowlands green. Edinburgh, Euddiman John- ston. 1885. 71.— England and Wales, Physical. Scale 1 : 620,000. 42 by 50 in. Price 12s. Elevation of the land and depth of the sea shown in oreen, brown, and blue. Edinburgh, W. & A. K. Johnston. No date. 71a.— Physical Map of England and Wales, produced under the direc- tion of W. Morrison, Esq., by J. S. Laurie, Richmond. The map is intended to present the appearance of a relief. Photograph. Smaller fac-simile in frame. Autotype of a contour model in cardboard of the North of England. Near these is the relief of England from which the photographs have been taken. 71b. — Photo-relief Map of Scotland, prepared by H. F. Brion and Rev. Edmund Maclure. Series A, showing only the hill features. The relief from which the photo is taken has the vertical scale 6 times the horizontal. London, S.P.C.K. [Proof.] 72.— England and Wales, Political, with physical features clearly shown. Extra large Wall Map. 3f miles to an inch. 96 by 114 in. Price 63s. London, Stanford. 1881. 258 DIVISION I. MAPS.— EUROPE. 73. — England and Wales, Political. Outline in blue, mountains in brown, names in black, towns ia red. Small dials at each, meridian showing Greenwich time. 8 miles to an inch. 48 by 60 in. Price 13s. London, Bacon. No date. 74. — England and Wales, Political. By W. Hughes. 7 miles to an inch. 64 by 68 in. Price 14s. London, Philip and Son. No date. 75. — Map of English Lake District. Scale 1 mile to an inch. 28 by 30 in. Price 10s. Qd. London, Stanford. Also, one of the Ordnance Survey sheets, contoured. — Underneath are two models (Nos. 281 and 282) of the Lake District by J. B. Jordan, one showing the contour lines. 1879. 76. — Map of Scotland, Political, physical features faint but clear. Scale 4 miles to an inch. 63 bj 72 in. Price 21s. Edinburgh, W. & A. K. Johnston. No date. 76a. — Belgium, Physical, Hypso metrical, and Political. With inset maps of Hypsometry and Hydrography, and Navigable Ways, Geology and Agriculture, Industry and Commerce, and Hypsometrical Section. By Brother A. M. G. Scale 1 : 160,000. 76 by 68 in. Price 18s. Brussels, Institut National de Geographic. 1877. 76b. — Belgium, General (French). With inset maps and pro- files. By Dufief and Kerremans. Scale 1 : 160,000. No date. Price 10s. in sheets. Belief of ground shown lq tints of brown ; political divisions ; inset physical map ; map of agricultural regions ; judicial divisions ; sections from south to north and west to east. Brussels, Institut National de Geographic. No date. 77.— Map of France. By E. Levasseur. Scale 1 : 600,000. Shows political features; hills faintly indicated. With inset hypsographical map of France, and map of Corsica. 78 by 75 in. Price 25s. Paris, Delagrave. No date. 78.— Map of France. By E. Levasseur. Scale 1 : 600,000. Hills shaded, elevation of land and depth of sea shown by tints, political features clearly indicated. Two inset maps (river-systems, Corsica) and several sections. 77 by 74 in. Price 25s. Paris, Delagrave. 1881. 79. — Map of France, Physical, Hypsometrical, and Political. By Fr^re A. M. G. Scale 1 : 700,000. Hills in chalk. Elevation of land and depth of sea in brown and blue tints, political boundaries quite sub- ordinate. There are three inset maps (river-systems of France, environs of Paris, Corsica), and several hypsographical sections. 75 by 67 in. Price 20s. Paris, Freres des ^^coles Chretiennes. 1880. DIVISION I. MAPS.— EUROPE. 253 80.— Mapof France, Physical. By Richard Kiepert. Scale 1 : 1,000,000. Without names ; the hill features are shown in chalk and the country is tinted according to elevation. 53 by 41 in. Price lis. Berlin, D. Eeimer. 1881. 81.— Map of France. By Eichard Kiepert. Scale 1 : 1,000,000 " Political," but hill features very prominently shown, whilst political subdivisions are very faintly indicated. 53 by 41 in. Price lis, Berlin, D. Eeimer. 1881. 82. — Map of France. Drawn by J. Gaul tier under the direction of Messrs. A. and G. Meissas. Scale 1 : 600,000. Hills shaded, depart- ments very boldly tinted. 82 by 76 in. Price 21s. Paris, Hachette. No date. 83.— Map of France. By E. E. Eijkers. Scale 1 : 1,600,000. HiUs in brown, lowlands green ; political boundaries very faint, few names. 27 by 34 in. Groningen, J. B. Wolters. 1876. 84. — Map of France. By E. Levasseur and Naud-£vrard. Scale 1 : 800,000. "Painted" with a view to producing a picturesque effect, and printed in the style of paper-hangings. 60 by 54 in. Price 17s. 6d. Paris, Ch. Delagrave. No date. 85.— Environs of Paris. By Naud-lfevrard. Scale 1 : 40,000. This map is " painted " by Huegenin with a view to producing a picturesque effect, and printed in colours in the style of paper-hangings. The prevailing tint is brown, rivers are blue, houses and railways red, and woods green. 60 by 54 in. Price 17s. 6d. Paris, Ch. Delagrave. No date. 86a.— Map of Spain and Portugal. Scale 1 : 1,060,000. Political ; boldly coloured ; hills subordinate. 50 by 42 in. Price 12s. Edinburgh and London, W. & A. K. Johnston. No date. 86. — Map of the German Empire and of Neighbouring Territories. By Dr. Hermann Wagner. Scale 1 : 800,000. A fine wall map. Hill& carefully shaded ; political prominent. 70 by 63 in. Price 17s. Gotha, J. Perthes. 1883. 87.— Map of Germany, Political. By E. Kiepert. Scale 1 : 1,000,000. Hills elaborately shown. 54 by 75 in. Price 9s. Berlin, D. Eeimer 1884. 88.— Map of the German Empire, designed for School and Office use. By Dr. H. Kiepert. Scale 1 : 750,000. Shows hill features as well a» political boundaries very fully. 85 by 81 in. Price 18s. Berlin, D. Eeimer. 1883. 89.— Map of Germany, Oro-hydrographical and Eailway. By Dr. H. Mohl; revised edition by W. Keil. Scale 1:1,000,000. Hills shaded, lowlands green, uplands buff; railways in red. Full nomen- clature. 72 by 72 in. Cassel, Theodor Fischer. No date. (Compare relief No. 295.) 2 260 DIVISION I. MAPS.— EUROPE. 90. — Map of Friesland. By E. van Assen. Scale 1 : 50,000. Soil (clay, sand, bog) tinted ; woods shown. 74 by 88 in. Price 20«. Groningen, J. Welters. 1883. 91. — Map of the Netherlands (General). By P. H. Witkamp. Scale 1 : 180,000. Coloured politically, with inset geological and hypso- grapbical maps. 76 by 86 in. Amhem, J. Voltelen. No date. 92.— Map of the Netherlands. By H. Schierbeek. Scale 1 : 200,000. Tinted according to nature of soil (clay, sand, loess, bog). Political boundaries and railways are shown. There are two inset maps of the Netherlands — agricultural and hypsographical. 75 by 84 in. Price 20s. in sheets. Groningen, Welters. No date. 93.— Map of the Netherlands. By Dr. W. C. H. Staring. Scale 1 : 200,000. Tinted according to system of cultivation and geologically. There are inset maps showing the distribution of cattle and the hypso- graphical features, as also diagrams. 64 by 76 in. Haarlem, A. C. Kruseman. 1860. 94. — Amsterdam Ship Canal. A bird's-eye view. From 'Onze Tijd.' Amsterdam, C. F. Stemler. 95. — Map of Scandinavia, with Finland. By Dr. Magnus Both. Scale 1 : 1,000,000. Hills shaded ; six tints to indicate height, four to show depth of sea ; political boundaries coloured ; full nomenclature. 56 by 90 in. Price 17s. 6d. Stockholm, P. A. Norstedt & Sons. No date. 96. — Map of Upland (Sweden). By Dr. J. M. Larsson. Scale 1 : 150,000. Strictly political ; roads, &c., shown in full detail. Ten inset plans of Stockholm and other places. 45 by 60 in. Price 8s. Sd. Stockholm, Central Tryckeriet. 1885. 97. — Map of Goteborg and Bohus Lan (Sweden). By T. A. von Mentzer and Captain Apeltoft. Scale 1 : 100,000. Political, with hills. Five inset maps, showing Ecclesiastical and other divisions. 44 by 87 in. Stockholm, Central Tryckeriet. 1881. 98.— Map of Italy, Physical. By E. Kiepert. Scale 1 : 1,000,000. The hills are drawn in, and the elevation above the sea is besides shown by means of eight tints. There are no names. 41 by 54 in. Price 9s. Berlin, D. Reimer. 1883. 99. — Map of Italy, Oro-hydrographical. By Ferd. Carabelli; re- vised by Professor Felice de Angeli. Scale 1 : 1,000,000. Five tints are employed to indicate the height of the land ; two to show the depth of the sea. The hill features are in addition shown by bold shading. 51 by 67 in. Price 10s. in sheets. Milan, F. Sacchi & Sons. No date. DIVISION I. MAPS.— CLASSICAL. 261 100.— Map of Italy, Physical and Political. By Guido Cora. Scale 1 : 700,000. Hills, in mucli detail, in brown ; outHne and lettering black. 60 by 64 in. Turin, G. B. Paravia & Co. 1883. 101.— Map of Italy, General. By E. ScbiapareUi and C. and E. Mayr. Scale 1 : 920,000. Hills shown in much detail, in brown. There are inset plans of Borne and Naples. 52 by 60 in. Price 9». Gotha, J. Perthes ; Turin, Loescher. 1879 (5th edition). 103.— Map of Italy. By Lnigi Eonchetti. Scale 1 : 650,000. A rough general map. 60 by 74 in. Price 7s. Qd. in sheets. Milan, Ferd. Sacohi & Co. 1885. 103.— Map of Italy. By E. Kiepert. Scale 1 : 1,000,000. Political, but hiU features shown with much detail. 41 by 55 in. Price 9«. Berlin, D. Eeimer. 1883. 104.— Map of Austria-Hungary. By E. A. Schulz. Scale 1 : 1,100,000. A general wall map. Hills in brown. 57 by 42 in. Price 98. Vienna, Artaria. 1880. 105.— Map of Austria-Hungary. By E. Kiepert. Scale 1 : 1,000,000. Execution same as No. 103. Embraces country to beyond Ehine and large portion of Balkan Peninsula. 80 by 45 in. Price 98. Berlin, D. Eeimer. 1884. 106. — ^Map of Austria-Hungary. By Vincenz von Haardt. Scale 1:1,000,000. Hills in brown; coloured politically. 55 by 45 in. Price ll8. Yienna, Holzel. 1884. 107. — Maps of the French Colonies and Foreign Possessions. By E. Levasseur. Scale 1 : 1,000,000. There are 26 separate maps on a single sheet. 80 by 64 in. Price 20s. Paris, Ch. Delagrave. 1879. 108. — Johnston's Standard Map of the British Empire. There are 27 maps on a single sheet, all differing in scale, and without projections. 60 by 51 in. Price 128. London, A. Johnston. 1884. 109. — The British Colonies and Possessions, on a uniform scale. Scale 1 : 7,603,200, 120 miles to an inch. There are 28 separate maps on a single sheet. 58 by 50 in. Price 13s. London, E. Stanford. 1886. III.— CLASSICAL MAPS, 110. — Orbis terrarum antiqui tabula geographica . . . descripta ab Dr. H. Kiepert. Scale 1 : 5,400,000. Coloured politically, but physical features carefully indicated. 72 by 40 in. 2nd ed. Price 158. Berlin, D. Eeimer. 1884. 111. — Imperii Eomani tabula geographica. . .descripta ab Dr. H. Kiepert. Scale 1 : 3,000,000. With an inset map showing the growth of the Eoman Empire. 72 by 56 in. Price 208. Berlin, D. Eeimer, 1885. 262 DIVISION I. MAPS.— ASIA. 112.- — Graeciee antiquae tabula descripta ab Dr. H. Kiepert. 78 by 60 in. 4tli ed. Price 20s. Berlin, D. Reimer. 1883. 113. — Grsecia antiqua. By W. & A. K. Johnston. Scale 1 : 685,000. Pbysical features very superficially indicated. 50 by 42 in. Price 12s. London and Edinburgh, W. & A. K. Johnston. No date. 114.— Italia antiqua. By W. & A. K. Johnston. Scale 1 : 1,250,000. 40 by 50 in. Price 12s. London and Edinburgh, W. & A. K. Johnston. No date. 115. — Italia antiqua in usum scholarum, descripta ab H. Kiepert. Physical features carefully delineated. 52 by 60 in. Price 15s. Berlin, D. Reimer. 116.— Orbis Romanus. By W. & A. K. Johnston. Scale 1 : 4,000,000. Physical features very superficial. With inset map of Inner Asia. 50 by 42 in. Price 12s. London and Edinburgh, W. & A. K. Johnston. No date. 117. — A map to illustrate Caesar De Bello Gallico. By W. & A. K. Johnston. Scale 1 : 1,080,000. Physical features neglected. 50 by 42 in. Price 12s. London and Edinburgh, W. & A. K. Johnston. No date. 118. — Map of Athens and Environs. Surveyed by J. A. Kaupert. 1876. Scale 1 : 12,500. Plan of Old Athens. By E. Curtius and J. A. Kaupert. Scale 1 : 12,500. The Environs of Mycenae. Surveyed by Captain Steffen, 1881-2. Scale 1 : 12,500. Plan of the Acropolis. Surveyed by the same. Scale 1 : 750. Map of the Piraeus (ancient). By Milchhofer and Kaupert. Scale 1 : 12,500. Map of the Piraeus. Surveyed by G. von Alten. Scale 1 : 12,500. 1881. The above maps were produced at the instance of the German Archaeological Institute, and published by D. Reimer of Berlin. They afford some excellent examples of hill-sketching hy a combination of contours and hachures, IV.— ASIA. 118a.— Map of Asia. By W. & A. K. Johnston. Scale 1 : 6,336,000. Political, but physical features plainly marked. 72 by 63 in. Price 21s. Edinburgh and London, W. & A. K. Johnston. 1881, 119.— Map of Asia, Political. By R. Kiepert. Scale 1 : 8,000,000. Physical features carefully shown ; hills in brown. 69 by 53 in. Price 9s. Berlin, D. Reimer. 1884. DIVISION I. MAPS.— ASU. 263 130.— Map of Asia, Physical. By Dr. Jos. Chavanne. Scale 1:8,000,000. Lowlands tinted green; uplands buff; Mils shaded in brown. Sea tinted according to depth. With two inset maps (ethno- graphical and political). 69 by 55 in. Price 228. Vienna, Holzel. Ko date. 121. — Map of Asia, Physical and Political. By Guido Cora. Scale 1:8,000,000. Political colouring bold; physical features subordinate. 69 by 54 in. Turin, G. B. Paravia & Co. 1882. 122.— Map of Asia. By E. von Sydow. Scale 1 : 8,000,000. New edition of this typical physical map. Lowlands green, sea blue, hills shown boldly and characteristically in brown. Names abbreviated and unobtrusive. 58 by 55 in. Price 9«. 6d. Gotha, J. Perthes. No date. 123.— Map of Asia. Scale 1:8,000,000. Physical and political; lowlands green, plateaux grey ; hills in brown. Political boundaries coloured. Lettering bold. 58 by 55 in. Price Ids, Stockholm, P. A. Norstedt & Sons. No date. 124.— Map of Asia. By Frere A. M. G. Scale 1 : 10,000,000. Tinted green and buff to show altitudes ; inset maps, political, French Indo- Asia and Turkey in Asia. No lettering, except initials. 44 by 34 in. Price 5s. Paris, Freres des Ecoles Chretiennes. No date. 125. — Orographical Map of Asia. Edited by Sir Andrew C. Ramsay. Scale 1 : 8,870,000. Tinted in blue, gi-een, buff, brown, and red, to show altitudes and depth of sea. 58 by 50 in. Price 30«. London, E. Stanford. 1878. 126.— Map of Asia. By E. Levasseur. Scale 1 : 10,000,000. Tinted to show altitude; political boundaries and railways; lettering bold. 50 by 42 in. Price 20«. Paris, Ch. Delagrave. No date. 127.— Map of Asia. By A. Keith Johnston. Scale 1 : 9,505,000. Physical features prominent. Lowlands green, plateaux brown, hills shaded. Sections at foot. 50 by 42 in. Price 12«. Edinburgh and London, W. & A. K. Johnston. No date. 128.— Map of India. By W. Hughes. Scale 1 : 2,208,000. Political. 50 by 65 in. Price 14«. London and Liverpool, G. Philip & Sons. No date. 129.— Map of India. By Bev. J. Barton. Scale l:2,534,40a Political, with inset map of Mogul Empire. 50 by 68 in. Price 13«. London, E. Stanford. 1882. 130.— Map of India, Political (outline). By W. & A. K. Johnston. Scale 1:3,000,000. 42 by 50 in. Price 12*. Edinburgh and London W. & A. K. Johnston. No date. 264 DIVISION I. MAPS.— AFRICA. 131. — Oroplastic Map of Japan. By Dr. E. Naumann. Scale 1 : 864,000. Altitudes and depth of sea shown by contours at intervals of 200 metres, and tints. 60 by 66 in. Manuscript. 1885. [Bemoved,] 132. — Map of the Dutch East Indies. By P. E. Bos and E. E. Eijkens. Scale 1:2,000,000. Physical features predominate. Two inset maps of Java, scale 1 : 1,000,000, the one hypsographical, the other political. 94 by 65 in. Price 258. Groningen, J. E. Wolters. 1881. 133. — Map of the Dutch East Indies. By G. A. van Eck. Scale 1 : 3,000,000. Physical features in green and brown ; boundaries in black. Inset maps of Java, Sumatra, &c. 84 by 50 in. Amsterdam, C. F. Stemler. 1881. 134. — ^Map of the Dutch East Indies. By E. de Geest. Scale 1 : 4,000,000. Political ; hills shown. Inset map of Java, scale 1 : 950,000. 46 by 42 in. Amsterdam, Seyffardt. 135.— Map of Java. By Dr. I. Dornseiffen. Scale 1 : 1,000,000, with inset plan of Batavia. 48 by 17 in. Amsterdam, Seyffardt. This map forms part of Dornseiffen's Atlas of the Dutch East and West Indies. No date. 136.— Map of Sumatra. By Dr., I. Dornseiffen. Scale 1 : 1,450,00 0. 17 by 51 in. Amsterdam, Seyffardt. No date, v.— AFEICA. 137. — Orographical Map of Africa. Edited by Sir A. C Eamsay. Scale 1 : 7,476,480. Contoured and tinted to show depth of sea and height of land. 50 by 58 in. Price 30s. London, E. Stanford. 1877. 138.— Map of Africa. By Dr. M. Eoth. Scale 1 : 8,000,000. Tinted to show altitude, but political colouring predominant. Two inset maps (political and ethnographical). 58 by 50 in. Price 14s. Stockholm, P. Herzog. No date. 139. — Map of Africa, Physical and Political. By Guido Cora. Scale 1 : 8,000,000. Political colouring prevails. 48 by 44 in. Turin, G. A. Paravia. 1883. 140.— Map of Africa. By H. Berghaus. Scale 1 : 8,000,000. A physical map, tinted, with hill shading. Inset political map. 49 by 40 in. Price 10s. Gotha, J. Perthes. No date. 141.— Map of Africa (" Excelsior Series "). By G. W. Bacon. Scale 1 : 8,240,000. Political colouring predominating. Outline in blue, mountains in brown, names in black, towns in red, and small dials at each meridian to show Greenwich time. Inset map of Cape Colony. 45 by 57 in. Price 13s. London, G. W. Bacon. 1885. DIVISION I. MAPS.— AMERICA, 265 142.— Map of Africa. By Vincenz von Haardt. Scale 1 : 8,000,000. Physical ; tinted according to altitude. Four inset maps— river-systems, ethnography, political divisions, Central Europe. 50 by 50 in. Price 10s. Vienna, E. Holzel. No date. 143.— Map of Africa, Physical. By H. Kiepert. Scale 1 : 8,000,000. Tinted according to height; hills shaded. Inset political map. 46 by 49 in. Price 128. Berlin, D. Keimer. 1881. 146.— Maps of Africa and Australia. By E. Levasseur. Scale 1 : 10,000,000. Both maps on one sheet, with sections at foot. Physical features (shown in green and brown tints, and faintly shaded hills) predominate. 48 by 40 in. Price 20s. Paris, Ch. Delagrave. No date. 146.— Map of Algeria. By E. Levasseur. Scale 1:1,000,000. Tinted green and buff to show height. With inset plan of Environs of Algiers, and sections. 46 by 31 in. Paris, Ch. Delagrave. No date. 147. — School Map of Africa and Arabia. By T. Ruddiman Johnston. Scale 1:7,604,000. Political. 46 by 53 in. Price 12s. Edinburgh and London, T. Euddiman Johnston. 1884. VI.— AMERICA. 148. — ^Map of North and South America. By Vincenz von Haardt. Scale 1 : 10,000,000. Physical ; political boundaries marked faintly. Inset maps of Central America, part of United States, and Central Europe. 62 by 62 in. Price 13s. Vienna, E. Hohzel. 1883. 149. — Map of North America. Scale 1 : 8,000,000. Map prepared at the instance of the Swedish Minister of Ecclesiastical Affairs. Physical features predominate. Inset map of Western Europe on same scale. 44 by 46 in. Price 7s. 6d. Stockholm, Sigfrid Flodius. No date. 150. — ^Map of North America, Political. By H. Kiepert. Scale 1:8,000,000. Hills clearly shown. Inset map of West Europe on same scale. 45 by 45 in. Price 12s. Berlin, D. Beimer. 1880. 151.— Map of North America. By Guide Cora. Scale 1 : 8,000,000. Political, but hills shown fairly. 45 by 44 in. Turin, G. B. Paravia. 1882. 152. — Test Map of North America. By T. Ruddiman Johnston. Scale 1 : 6,340,000. Political ; hills indicated ; no names. 46 by 53 in. Price 12s. Edinburgh, T. Ruddiman Johnston. 1885. 153.— Map of South America. Scale 1 : 8,000,000. Published at the instance of the Swedish Department for Ecclesiastical Affairs. The physical features (including forests, prairies, &c,) predominate. There is an inset map of Western Europe on same scale. 46 by 43 in. Price 5s. 6d. Stockholm, Sigfrid Flodius. No date. 266 DIVISION I. MAPS.— AUSTRALASIA. 154.— Map of Soutli America. By Sydney B. J. SkertcMey. Scale 1:8,060,000. Physical; lowlands green, hills with oblique light. 28 by 40 in. Price 12s. London, Thos. Murby. No date. 155. — Map of South America, Physical and Political. By G-uido Cora. Scale 1:8,000,000. (See No 151.) 40 by 46 in. Turin, G. B. Paravia. 1883. 166. — Map of South America, Political. By H. Kiepert. Scale 1:8,000,000. (Compare No. 160.) 34 by 43 in. Price 10s. Berlin, D. Keimer. 1880. 157.— Map of the United States and Mexico. By W. & A. E. Johnston. Scale 1 : 2,914,560. Political, but hills shown. 72 by 63 in. Price 2 Is. Edinburgh and London, W. & A. K. Johnston. No date. 158. — " Excelsior" Map of the United States, Mexico, part of Canada, &c. By G. W. Bacon. Scale 1 : 3,802,000. Political colouring prevails, the execution being similar to the other maps of Bacon's series (see No. 141). Inset map of New York. 60 by 45 in. Price 13s.. London, G. W. Bacon & Co. 1884. 159. — Map of the Dominion of Canada. Scale 1 : 2,530,000. Political, but hills indicated. 87 by 52 in. Price 21s. London and Liverpool, Geo. Philip & Son. VII.— AUSTEALASIA. 160. — Map of Australia and Polynesia. By Vincenz von Haardt. Scale 1 : 16,000,000. Physical. The map embraces the whole of the Pacific, shows ocean currents, depths of sea, physical features of land, &c. There are inset maps of Western Europe, New Zealand, and Eastern Australia. 65 by 54 in. Price 15s. Vienna, E. Holzel. 1885. 161. — Map of the Pacific Ocean (Australia and Polynesia). By E. Kiepert. Scale 1 : 12,000,000. Ocean currents, warm and cold ; physical features of land; political divisions. Three enlarged maps of Coral Islands. 2nd ed. 72 by 46 in. Price 20s. Berlin, D. Keimer. 1882. 162.— Map of Australasia. Scale 1:4,640,000. Political, hills shaded. 58 by 60 in. Price 13s. London, E. Stanford. 1883. 163. — Map of Oceania, Physical and Political. By Guido Cora. Scale 1:8,000,000. Political features quite preponderating. 68 by 53 in. Turin-, G. B. Paravia. 1882. 164.- -Map of Australia and New Zealand, with part of the Indian Archipelago. By W. Hughes. Scale 1:3,060,000. Political. 65 by 50 in. Price 14s. London, G. Philip & Son. No date. DIVISION I. MAPS.-SCRIPTQRAL. 267 165.-Map of New Zealand. Scale 1:2,090,880. 27 by 32 in. Price 6». London, E. Stanford. 1880. 166.— Map of New Zealand. By James Hector and W. Hughes. Scale 1:890,000. Political, but hills shaded. Inset geological and ethnographical maps. 48 by 66 in. Price Us. London, G. Philip & Son. No date. 167 —Map of New Zealand. Scale 1 : 1,334,000. Political. 34 by 42 in. Price 98. London, E. Stanford. 1879. VIII.— SCRIPTUKE MAPS. 167a.— Relief of Jerusalem. By E. Schotte & Co. of Berlin. (Below No. 167.) 168.— The Lands of the Bible. By Dr. M. Roth. Scale 1 : 2,250,000. Physical features carefully indicated. 58 by 36 in. Price 13«. Stock- holm, Norstedt & Co. No date. 168a. — The Countries of the Bible, combining the Old Testament with the New Testament. By W. & A. K. Johnston. Scale 1 : 5,060,000. There are inset maps of Jerusalem, Arabia, and Ethiopia, and of the Dispersion of Man after the Deluge. 50 by 42 in. Price 128. Edinburgh, W. & A. K. Johnston. No date. 169.— The Lands of the Bible. By H. Kiepert. Scale 1 : 3,000,000. Physical features clearly shown. Inset map of Sinai. 52 by 48 in. Price 78. Berlin, D. Reimer. 1883. 170. — Stanford's Sunday School Map of Bible Lands. A sheet con- taining two maps of Palestine, Old and New ; a map of Sinai and Lower Egypt ; a map illustrating the Acts ; and several minor maps. 84 by 84 in. Price 288. London, E. Stanford. 1880. 170a.— The Holy Land, to illustrate the Old and New Testaments. By W. & A. K. Johnston. Scale 1 : 380,000. Two distinct maps, placed side by side, with inset map of Jerusalem and map of its environs. 60 by 42 in. Price 128. Edinburgh, W. & A. K. Johnston. No date. 171. — Map of Palestine. By T. A. von Mentzer and L. A. Wadner. Scale 1 : 200,000. Physical Features well shown. Inset plans of Jeru- salem, and Tribal map. 47 by 60 in. Price 78. Stockholm, Sigfrid Flodins. No date. 172.— Map of Palestine. By H. Kiepert. Scale 1 : 200,000. Physical features prominently shown. Inset Tribal map, and plan of Jerusalem. 60 by 78 in. Price 168. Berlin, D. Reimer. 1883. 173.— The Peninsula of Sinai, Lower Egypt, &c. Scale 1 : 823,680. Tints distinguish fertile and sterile regions. 42 by 34 in. Price 98.* London, E. Stanford. 1876. 268 DIVISION I. MAPS.— ELEMENTARY DIAGRAMS, ETC. IX.— ELEMENTAEY DIAGEAMS, MAPS. AND KELIEES. 174. — Mattematical Greograpliy. Set of diagrams by Prof. Georg Jausz. 76 by 54 in. Price 28s. Yienna and Olmiitz, E. Holzel. No date. (Explanatory text separate.) 175. — Mathematical Geography. Set of diagrams by E. Wetzel. 78 by 68 in. Price 20s. (Explanatory text separate.) Berlin, D. Reimer. 1884. 176. — Four sets of diagrams illustrative of Mathematical and Physical Geography. By T. Euddiman Johnston. Intended for Standards V.-VII. 46 by 52 in. Price 12s. Edinburgh, T. Euddiman Johnston. 1884. 177. — Mathematical Geography. Diagrams by Emil Letoschek. 44 by 36 in. Price 26s. Vienna, E. Holzel. No date. 177a. — Clock-face. By T. Euddiman Johnston. Price 5s. 178. — Johnston's Standard Series of Illustrations. Physiography No. 1. Coal. 57 by 58 in. London, A. Johnston. No date. 179. — Johnston's Standard Series of Illustrations. Physiography No. 2. Diagrams and views illustrative of Meteorology, Springs, Coral Islands, Salt-mines, &c. 50 by 58 in. London, A. Johnston. No date. 180. — Johnston's Pictorial Illustrations of Geographical Terms. A fancy view geographically delineated, with astronomical diagrams, &c. 60 by 42 in. Price 12s. Edinburgh and London, W. & A. K. Johnston. 181. — The Principal Forms of the Earth's Surface. A fancy picture. 42 by 32 in. Price 7s. Qd. London, Letts & Co. No date. 182. — Philips's Geographical Diagrams for Elementary Classes. Set of diagrams illustrative of geographical terms, &c. 65 by 51 in. Price 14s. London and Liverpool, Geo. Philip & Sons. No date. 183. — Elementary Geography. By T. Euddiman Johnston. A set of diagrams illustrative of geographical terms, &c. 46 by 53 in. Price 12s. Edinburgh, T. Euddiman Johnston. 1884. 183a. — Picture Lessons in Geography. A series of six fancy pictures of various geographical features, with corresponding maps below. Price 15s. the set. London, Bacon & Co. 183b. — Pictorial Geography for the instruction of young children. An ideal landscape. London, Griffith & Farran. 184. — J. S. Gerster's Illustrations of Geographical Object-Lessons. A sheet of diagrams exhibiting map-drawing, projections, &c. 62 by 49 in. Price 2s. each in sheets. Freiburg in Breisgau, Herder. No date. DIVISION I. MAPS.— ELEMENTARY DIAGRAMS, ETC. 269 185.— Set of diagrams showing principal Projections. By A. S. Steinhauser. 20 by 15 in. Vienna, Art aria & Co. No date. 186.— Five diagrams by A. S. Steinbauser, illustrative of Astrono- mical Geography. Each 20 by 15 in. Vienna, Artaria & Co. No date. 187-197. — Plans, Maps, and Models mostly used in London and other Board Schools: — 187. — Plans of a Schoolroom, and of Pritchard's Koad Board School. 188. — Plan of Board School, Victoria Road, Starch Green, with its immediate neighbourhood. 188a. — Bacon's Plan of the London School Board District of Tower Hamlets. 39 by 45 in. Scale 8 in. to a mile. [Similar plans are used in all the London Board Schools, and are followed by plans of the various School Board Divisions of London.] 189. — ^Plan of London, prepared for use in the schools of the London School Board by E. Stanford. Scale 3 in. to a mile (1 : 21,122). The map shows School Board and Borough divisions, faint contours, but no hill shading. 58 by 50 in. Price 13«. London, E. Stanford. 1884. 190. — Philips's New Map of Middlesex, vdth portions of the adjoining counties. By J. Bartholomew. Scale 1 : 126,732. A reduction from the Ordnance Survey, but without hills. 64 by 62 in. London and Liverpool, Geo. Philip & Son. No date. 191.— Map of Middlesex. Scale 2 miles to an inch (1: 126,732). Without hills. 48 by 46 in. Price 21«. Edinburgh and London, W. & A. K. Johnston. 1881. 192. — Ordnance Survey Contoured Map of the Thames Basin. Scale 4 miles to an inch (1 : 253,464). Contours drawn at intervals of 100 feet, with grey tints. 40 by 27 in. Price 4«. London, E. Stanford. 1870. 193. — Eiver Basin of the Thames. By T. Euddiman Johnston. Scale 1 : 143,000. Produced from No. 192. 63 by 53 in. Price 21a. Edinburgh, T. Euddiman Johnston. No date. 194.— The Valley of the Thames. By W. & A. K. Johnston. Scale 1 : 1,167,904. A general map, politically coloured ; watershed well marked. 50 by 42 in. Price 12«. Edinburgh and London, W. & A. K. Johnston. No date. 196.— Model of the Valley of the Thames. By J. B. Jordan. Hori- zontal scale 1 ; 253,440, vertical 1 : 28,800. Coloured geologically. In paper embossed. 36 by 21 in. (Made for and lent by the Science and Art Department.) 19 5a.— Contoured Model of the Environs of London. By J. B. Jordan. 21 by 16 in. Contours in cardboard at intervals of 25 feet : horizontal scale 1 : 63,360, vertical 1 : 12,000. 270 DIVISION I. MAPS.— ELEMENTARY DIAGRAMS, ETC. 196.— Geological Model of South-East of England, &c. By W. Topley and J. B. Jordan. Horizontal scale 1 : 253,440, vertical 1 : 28,800. The map printed on paper, and embossed. 24 by 21 in. London, E. Stanford. 1873. (Out of print.) Above this, Contoured Model of same country. By J. B. Jordan. Contours in cardboard at intervals of 100 feet. Scales and size same as above. 196a. — Mariner's Compass, in wooden case, used in London Board Schools. 196b. — Mariner's Compass, in brass case, for use in schools. Price 3s. &d. London, Henry Higham. 196c. — Map of Bradford and District. Designed and published by Fred. D. King, Holy Trinity School, Bradford. Drawn by E. P. Brown, 34 by 48 in. Scale 2 inches to a mile. Physical features fully and carefully filled in ; towns and other features conspicuous. 197.— Model of the Borough of Birmingham. Horizontal scale 1 : 12,600, vertical scale 1 : 1200. Model used in Birmingham Board Schools. — Street plan, serving as a key, below. 198. — Environs of Graz, prepared in Holzel's Geographical Establish- ment for the School Board of Graz. Scale 1 : 10,000. A full, topogra- phical map. 50 by 65 in. Price 40s. Vienna, Holzel. 1883. 199. — Map of the Canton of Zurich. By Wurster, Randegger, & Co. Scale 1 : 40,000. Physical features predominate. 50 by 63 in. Price 10s. Zurich, J. Wurster & Co. No date. 200. — Map of the Canton of Zurich. By J. M. Ziegler. Scale 1 : 125,000. A topographical map ; hills shown elaborately. 18 by 20 in. Price 7d., printed on linen. Zurich, J. Wurster & Co. No date. 200a. — Map of the Canton of Vaud. Bj J. Randegger. Scale 1 : 250,000. Physical features predominate. 16 by 17 in. Price bd. Lausanne, Rouge et Dubois. No date. 201- — Contoured Strata-Relief of the Environs of ZoUikou. Scale 1 : 25,000. Exhibited by the Secondary School at Zollikou. 11 by 12 in. The relief is produced by cutting up a map. 202. — Map of the Vorarlberg, prepared by order of the Teachers' Association. By Wurster, Randegger, & Co. Scale 1 : 75,000. 40 by 51 in. Price 16s., printed on linen. [Zurich, Wurster & Co.] 1875. 203. — Map of the Environs of Moravian Triibau. Scale 1 : 40,000. A finished topographical map. 36 by 40 in. Price 24s. Vienna, E. Holzel. 1882. 204» — Map of Vestmanland. By N. Selander. Scale 1 : 150,000. A political outline map. 46 by 32 in. Price 9s. Stockholm, General Staff. No date. DIVISION I. MAPS.— ELEMENTARY DIAGRAMS, ETC. 271 205.— Map of Sodermanland, By Dr. J. M. Larsson, 1875-77. Scale 1 : 150,000. A political outline map, witli 9 inset plans of towns. 52 by 36 in. Price 9«. Stockholm, Central Tryckeriet. No date. 205a.— Map of Nerike. By N. Selander. Scale 1:150,000. A purely political map. 27 by 45 in. Price 98. Stockholm, General Staff. No date. 205b. — Map of the Province of Drenthe. By N. J. Visscher. Scale 1 : 40,000. A specimen from the anther's ' De Provincien van Nederland,' published by J. B. Welters, Groningen, 1875. 206. — Specimens of Maps designed for instmction in Local Topo- graphy or " Heimatsknnde." a. Seventeen maps of varions parts of Germany. By H. Habenicht. Scale 1 : 500,000. Physical features prominently shown. A specimen exhibited on the wall. Gotha, J. Perthes. h. Maps of the Canton of Zurich and Thxirgau, the one published by the Zurich School Board, the other by Wurster of Zurich. Scale 1 : 150,000. Price 8d., on linen. c. Maps of Kent, Middlesex, and Surrey. By W. & A. K. Johnston. Price Id. each. {These will he found on the table beside the Atlases.') 207. — Model of an Ideal Geographical Landscape. By C. Muret. Scale 1 : 20,000. 21 by 20 in. Price 25«. Paris, Ch. Delagrave. 208.— Model of an Ideal District. By Frere Alexis, M.G. Contoured, in a glass cistern, which allows of water being withdrawn. No scale. 15 by 15 in. Price 25a. 209.— Model of Ideal Landscape. By Frere Alexis, M.G. Intended to explain Greographical Terms. No horizontal scale ; vertical scale about 1:20,000. 28 by 22 in. Price 25g. 187L 209a.— Model, intended to illustrate G«(^raphical Terms. By J. W. Leake, London Board School Teacher. 210.— Model of an Ideal Landscape, intended to illustrate Physical Features and Geographical Terms. By E. C. H, No scale. 30 by 18 in. 211.— Map of England and Wales. By L. Suzanne. Scale 1:445,000. An outline map, without names ; printed on black oil-cloth. 60 by 60 in. Price 21«. London, A. and C- Harding, ^ent. 211a.— Tableau-Carte. Outline map on cloth faced with slate, having Europe on one side ai^d France on the other. 60 by 65 in! Price £1. Paris, Delagrave. 21lB.-Similar Map. 48 by 45 in. Paris, Suzanne; London Harding & Co. ' 272 DIVISION I. MAPS.— ELEMENTARY DIAGRAMS, ETC. 212. — The World, its Typical Sources of Productions. By Mr. Clark, Amberley Road Board Schools, Paddington. A Mercator's Chart, with " samples " attached to it. 70 by 45 in. Manuscript. 212a. — [At foot of stairs.) Two Charts, one showing actual specimens of various English Manufactures, the other containing sketches of various Belgian Wild Animals, Plants, Manufactures, &c. By J. W. Leake, London Board School Teacher. 213. — (On landing.) Stanford's Orographical Series of Wall Maps, for use in Schools and Colleges. Edited by Sir A. C. Ramsay, ll.d., F.R.S., &c., late Director-General of the Geological Surveys of the United Kingdom. Mounted on linen, on rollers, varnished. List of Series. British Isles. Scale 11 J miles to an inch. 60 by 58 in. Price 305. England and Wales. Scale 8 miles to an inch. 50 by 68 in. Price 305. Scotland. Scale 8 miles to an inch. 34 by 42 in. Price 18*. Ireland. Scale 8 miles to an inch. 34 by 42 in. Price 18s. Europe. Scale 65 miles to an inch. 58 by 50 in. Price 30s. Asia. Scale 140 miles to an inch. 58 by 50 in. Price 30s. Africa. Scale 116 miles to an inch. 60 by 58 in. Price 30s. North America. Scale 97 miles to an inch. 60 by 58 in. Price 30s. South America. Scale 97 miles to an inch. 50 by 68 in. Price 30s. " The above set of maps is here exhibited in a * string ' case, which is also found very convenient for school purposes. The internal arrangements are very simple, and not liable to get out of order if only one map be pulled out at once and the case properly used." Price, complete in case as exhibited, £24. London, E. Stanford. 214-215.— Large Outline Maps of the World (Mercator, 1 : 20,000,000) and of Europe (1 : 3,000,000), to be used for any special purpose. By Prof. H. Wagner. The series contains similar maps of the other Con- tinents. Prices, the World, 3s. ; Europe, 68. Gotha, Justus Perthes. [Suspended to Gas-standards.) Map of France, showing Belief of the Soil. By Yidal-Lablache. Scale 1 : 1,100,000. The map is tinted according to height. On back, same map, but without names. 42 by 36 in. Paris, Armand Colin & Co. No date. Map of France, showing Products of the Soil. By Vidal-Lablache. Scale 1 : 1,100,000. And a similar map, exhibiting Industrial Districts, printed on the back. 42 by 36 in. Paris, Armand Colin & Co. No date. Map of France, showing the Towns. By Vidal-Lablache. Scale 1 : 1,100,000. And same map, without names, printed on back. 42 by 36 in. Paris, Armand Colin & Co. No date. ( 273 ) DIVISION Ia. SMALL MAPS IN SHEETS. Several series of these are represented in the Exhibition, and will be found on the table beside the Atlases. Stanford's Primary Series, 17 by 14 in. Price plain 6rf., coloured 9d. London, Stanford. Stanford's Outline Series, 17 by 14 in. Price Sd. and Qd. London, Stanford. Philips' Map of the World on Mercator's Projection. 22 by 27 in. Price 6d. London, Philip & Son. Three specimens of Keith Johnston's Penny County Maps. Euddiman Johnston's Series of Outline and Projection Maps. Id. each. Edinburgh, Euddiman Johnston. Kendall's Series of Small Memory Maps. London, H. Higham. Perthes' Series of Maps for Local Geography. See No. 206a. Holzel's Series of Small Maps of the Provinces of Austria. Maps showing Special Aspects of Switzerland. Published by Wiirster, Eandegger & Co. of Zurich ; and also of several of the Swiss Cantons. Kloden's Eepetitions-Karten. Maps for Exercises. Berlin, Eeimer. Cartographic de I'enseignement. Series of small test and exercise maps. Paris, Hachette & Co. De Provincien van Nederland, voor de lagere school bewerkt. Door N. J. Visscher. For teaching local geography. Price 6d. Groningen, Wolters. 1875. See 205b. Seibert's Geschichts-Karten fiir Volks- und Biirger-Scbulen. Anti- quity, Middle Ages, Present Time, Austria. Price Sd. each. Vienna, Holzel. DIVISION II. GLOBES. 220-3.— Globes, published by W. & A. K. Johnston, Edinburgh and London : — 220.— Terrestrial Globe, 6-inch. Price 21«. 1885. 221.— „ „ 12-inch. Price £3 13«. 6d. 1884. 222.— „ „ 18-inch. £5 5«. 1884. 223.— „ Library Globe, by A. K. Johnston. 30 inch. Price £12 12s. 1884. 274 DIVISION II. GLOBES. 224-5c. — Globes, published by G. Philip & Son, London and Liverpool : — 224. — Terrestrial Globe, by J. Bartholomew, 6-inch. Price 10s. 6d. 226. — „ „ „ „ 9-inch. Price 21s. 225a. — „ „ 6-inch. Price 21s. 225b. — „ J) J, J. Bartholomew, 9-inch. Price 42s. 825c.— „ „ 12-inch. Price 94s. 6cZ. The last three globes are provided with W. Eice's patent screens, to illustrate illumination by the sun, succession of seasons, &c. 226.— Embossed Belief Globe, published by Morison, Brothers, Glasgow. Diameter 16 inches. Price £i 10s. Manufactured in Berlin. 227. — Physical Globe, by E. Levasseur, 13 inch. Published by Ch. Delagrave, Paris. Price 25s. 228-32.— Globes, by Ch. Perigot and M. Moureaux. Published by Ch. Delagrave, Paris : — 228. — Terrestrial Globe, 5-inch. Price 6s. 229. — „ „ 6-inch. Price Qs. 230.— „ „ 10-inch. Price 14s. 231.— „ ,, 13-inch. With Henard's cosmographic arrangement for showing universal time. (Compare with Nos. 269, 270.) Price 40s. 232.— Terrestrial Globe, 15 inch. Price 28s. 233-8. — Globes, by Ch. Larochette and L. Bonnefont. Published by Ch. Delagrave, Paris : — 233. — Terrestrial Globe, 7-inch. Price 8s. 4c?. 234. — „ „ 12-inch. Price 15s. 235. — „ 5» 15 inch. Price 36s. 236.— „ „ 21-inch. Price £5 13s. QcL 237.— Black Slated Globe, 13-inch. Price 16s. 238.— „ ' » ,, 25-inch. Price £4 8s. 239. — Terrestrial Globe, by Parquet. Published by Ch. Delagrave, Paris. Diameter 9 inches. English nomenclature. Price 24s. 240. — Celestial Globe, by Ch. Simon and Ch. Bagge, diameter 1 3 inches. Published by Ch. Delagrave, Paris. Price 32s. 241-43. — Globes, published by D. Reimer, Berlin : — 241. — Terrestrial Globe, 13-inch. By C. Adami. New edition by H. Kiepert. 1885. Price 21s. 242.— Terrestrial Globe, 20-inch. By H. Kiepert. 1879. Price £4 12s. 243. — Belief Globe, 13-inch. Plaster of Paris. No names. Price 21s. DIVISION II. GLOBES. 275 844-6.— Globes, published by L. J. Heymann, Berlin:— 244.— Terrestrial Globe, 14-incli. Price 36«. 245.— Black Slated Globe, 14-inch. Price 13«. 6d. 246-52.— Globes, published by L. Schotte & Co., Berlin :— 246.— Terrestrial Globe, No. 53, 7-inch. Price 8». 247. „ „ „ 55, 12-inch. Price 16«. 6d. 248— „ „ » 126, 18-inch. Price £2 15«. 249. , „ „ 74, 9-inch, with moon attached (Selenographic globe). Price 17». (Incomplete.) 250.— EeUef Globe, No. 4, 12-inch. Coloured physically. Price 27«. 251.— „ „ No. 17, 16-inch. Coloured physically. Price £3 12». 252.— Celestial Globe, No. 84, 9-inch. Price 16«. 253-8.- Globes, by 0. Delitsch. Published by J. Felkl & Son, Eostok, near Prague. 253.— Terrestrial Globe, No. 1, 2-7-inch. Price Is, 254. — „ „ No. 2, 3* 5-inch. Price 4«. No. 3, 4 • 7-inch. Price Is. Gd. No. 4, 6 • 2-inch. Price 6». 6d. No. 5, 7 •5-inch. Price 14». No. 6, 12 •5-inch. Price 40«. 255.— 256.— 257.— 258.— » if 258a. — ^Part of a contrivance designed by Pro£ G. H. Darwin to give a truer representation of the globe than an ordinary projection. It consists of a figure formed of 20 hexagons and 12 pentagons, the projection on which figure is but slightly distorted. 258b. — Terrestrial and Celestial Globes made in the reign of Queen Elizabeth, 1592, known as the Molyneux Globes. The following notes on these globes are taken from the article Globe in the new edition of the 'Encyclopaedia Britannica,' by Mr. Coote. *' The true successor of Mercator was neither J. F. van Langren, Jodocus Hondius, nor W. J. Blaeu, as has been supposed, but an Englishman named Emerie Mollineux, the friend of Hakluyt, and of John Davis of Arctic fame. The earliest notice we have of the ter- restrial globe made by him is the prospective one of its intended publication, to be found at the end of the preface of the Ist edition of Hakluyt's Voyages of 1589. The * comin g out of the very large and most exact terrestriall globe ' of Mollineux there referred to, with its companion celestial one, was accomplished in 1592, . . . The only examples of these once famous globes known to exist are now pre- served in the library of Middle Temple, London. They are both two feet in diameter, mounted on stands, with the usual accessories of horizon, meridiap, &c. The celestial globe still bears the date of 1592, T 2 276 DIVISION III. TELLURIA, PLANETARIA, ETC. but the terrestrial appears to liave received additions, and the date has been altered by the pen to 1603." The latter was still further repaired by Newton in 1818. A full account of these globes will be found in the Hakluyt Society edition of John Davis's ' Instruction,' pp. Iviii-lxi. (Lent by the Honourable Society of the Kiddle Temple.) 258c. — Celestial Globe of glass, with liquid horizon, the object being to find the position of the sun and the state of the heavens at any place on the earth, at any time. Price £4 Is. ; cheaper form £3 12s. Made and sold by Dr. K. H. Sohlberg, Ostermalms Laroverk, Stockholm. DIVISION III. TELLURIA, PLANETARLA., &c. 269. — Tellurium. Constructed by Dr. Schmidt. Sold by Holzel of Vienna. Price £8. This is the first constructed specimen of a very elaborate tellurium, on a new principle. It may be used for many purposes, such as show- ing the earth's relations as a planet ; the relations of moon and earth ; parallax ; the sun's movements through the zodiac, (fee. It has many fittings, such as constellations, particular stars, various circles, and so on. Dr. Schmidt has issued printed directions for its use. 260. — Tellurium. By Dr. Pick. Sold by Hasenberg, Salzburg. Price 20s. This is simple and strong, and of much use in demonstrating the seasons and eclipses. 262. — Small Tellurium, with moon, and glass globe for candle to represent the sun. Price 35s. By E. Stanford, London. 263.— Tellurium, No. 91. By E. Schotte & Co., of Berlin. With instructions by Wittsack. Price 22s. 6d. 264. — Small Tellurium. Similar in arrangement to No. 262 but without moon, and with screen over earth to show limit of sun's light. Manufactured by Schotte & Co. Sold by G. Philip & Son, London. Price 60s. 265.— Tellurium No. 2. By J. Felkl & Son, of Rostok, near Prague. Price 49s. 6d. 266.— Planetarium No. 2. By J. Felkl & Son. Price £3 18s. 267.— Selenotrope. W. Rice's patent. Sold by Gr. Philip & Son, London and Liverpool. Price 7s. Qd. DIVISION IV. MODELS— RELIEF MAPS. 277 268.— Time-Clock (inside a globe). By Juret & Co., Conajoharie, New York. (From the Map Boom of tlie Eoyal Geographical Society.) 269.— MoTiret's Cosmographical Clock, with Globe. Sold by G. W. Bacon, London. Price £25. 270.— Another example. Sold by Ch. Delagrave, Paris. Price £20. DIVISION IV. MODELS— BELIEF TVTAPS. The extent of exaggeration of the altitudes is given in all cases in which it could be ascertained. We call contoured strata-reliefs those maps which are built up by placing layers of cardboard upon each other, or which present an appearance as if this had been done. 271. — Belief of a portion of the Alps, including the Monte Eosa, Matterhom, &c. By X. Imfeld. Scale 1 : 25,000. No exaggeration of heights. Plaster of Paris, painted according to nature. 54 by 44 in. Price £80. Zurich, J. Wurster & Co. 272.— Relief of an Ideal Glacier. By Albert Heim. Scale 1 : 18,000. No exaggeration of heights. Plaster, painted. 24 by 16 in. Zurich, Wurster & Co. Price £4 16*. 273. — Relief of an Ideal Volcanic Island. By Albert Heun. Scale 1 : 10,000. No exaggeration of heights. Plaster, painted. 27 by 21 in. Zurich, Wurster & Co. Price £3 12«. 274. — A Geological Model of the Neighbourhood of Rochester. By Charles Bird, b.a. Scale 1:21,122. Exaggeration 5-fold. Plaster, painted. 66 by 54 in. 276. — Relief Map of the Island of St. Paul. From a survey by Com. Wiillerstorf-Urbair, 1857. By Captain Ignaz Cybulz. Scale 1 : 12,500. No exaggeration. Produced galvanoplastically. 22 by 18 in. 276.— ReKef of the Jura Mountains. By L. I. Bardin and Com- mandant Peigne. Scale 1 : 40,000. A contoured strata-relief, in plaster, the contours at intervals of 10 metres. Size (of the 3 sections) 60 by 52 in. Paris, CL Delagrave. (Lent by the Science and Art Depart- ment.) S77. — One of the above sections coloured geologically. 278.— Four ReHef Maps, by J. J. Pauliny, produced in the Austrian Military Geographical Institute. Scale 1 : 72,000. No exaggeration Si^e of each 8 by 10 in. Ori^eler Spitze, Lomnitzer Spitze, Schneekoppe, Adelsberg, and environs. Published by the '^ Schulbucher-Verlae " Vienna. ^' 278 DIVISION IV. MODELS— RELIEF MAPS. 279.— Belief Map of the Wildspitz. By M. W. Wolff of Berlin. Scale 1:50,000.' No exaggeration. Plaster, coloured. 12 by 12 in. Price 25s. Eheinbacli, H. Stumm. 280-3. — Belief Maps. By James B. Jordan : — 280.— Relief Map of tlie British Seas. Scale about 1 : 2,500,000. Exaggeration 28-fold. Contoured in cardboard at intervals of 250 feet. 48 by 48 in. The charts from which the model is constructed are attached to the wall near it. (Made for and lent by the Science and Art Department.) 281. — Relief Map of part of the Cumbrian Mountains. Scales, horizontal and vertical, 1 : 63,360. An embossed relief pro- duced from sheet 101 S.E. of the Ordnance Survey. 18 by 12 in. 282. — Contoured Model of the Cumbrian Mountains, produced from sheets 101 S.E. and 98 N.W. of the Ordnance Survey. Contoured at intervals of 250 feet. The maps are shown above. One of them is shaded in contours. 18 by 24 in. 283. — Model of the Lake Regions of Equatorial Africa. Scale 1 : 1,584,000. Exaggeration 26-fold. Papier-mache, coloured. 42 by 56 in. (Made for and lent by Colonel J. A. Grant, C.B.) 284. — Relief Map of Central Umbria. By Major Claudio Cherubini, Scale 1 : 75,000. Exaggeration 2-fold. Plaster. 44 by 27 in. Price £4. 285* — Relief Maps of the Western, the Central and the Eastern Alps (in three overlapping sections). By Major Claudio Cherubini. Scale 1 : 250,000. Exaggeration 2-fold. Plaster, painted. 12 by 5 ft. Price of Western Alps and Ligurian Apennines, £5 12s. ; of Central Alps and Parmesan Apennines, £6 16s.; of Eastern Alps and Istria, £6 16s. Turin, Roux & Favale. 286. — Relief Map of Carinthia and Carniola. By A. Steinhauser and V. Streffleur. Scale 1 : 216,000. A contoured strata-relief, produced from a printed map. Vienna, Schulbucher-Verlag. 287-92.— Models by Mdlle. C. Kleinhans, published by Ch. Delagrave, Paris. 287.— France. Scale 1 : 1,000,000. Exaggeration 4-fold. Plaster, painted. 47 by 48 in. Price £8. 288. — France. Scale 1 : 1,500,000. Exaggeration 4-fold. Plaster, painted. 31 by 33 in. Price £3. 289. — Vosges and Jura Mountains. Scale 1 : 500,000. Exaggera- tion 5-fold. Plaster, painted. Price 12s. 290.— Mont Blanc. Scale 1 : 500,000. Exaggeration 5-fold. Plaster, painted. Price 6s. 291.— Europe. Scale 1 : 4,000,000. Exaggeration 4-fold. Plaster, painted. Sea contoured. 51 by 48 in. Price £6. 292. — Europe. Same map coloured geologically. Price £11. DIVISION IV. MODELS— REUEF MAPS. 279 293.— Belief Map of England and Wales. By G. W. Baoon. Scale 1 : 760,000. Exaggeration 25-fold. Painted. 36 by 33 in. Price 25s. London, Bacon. 1885. 294.— A Relief Map of England. By Geo. W. Davies, of Balsall Heath Board School, Birmingham. 60 by 48 in. The sea, assumed to be of even depth, can be filled with water. 294a. — Similar Map used in Snmmerford Street School, Bethnal Green, in Standards I., 11., III. Mainly to show river basins. 36 by 48 in. Horizontal scale 1 : 700,000 ; vertical scale exaggerated 25 times. Constructed of Portland cement by T. C. Howarth. 295.— Relief Map of Central Europe. By Lorenz Dickert. Scale 1 : 1,000,000. Exaggeration considerable. Plaster, painted. 57 by 55 in. Price £10. Rheinbach, H. Stumm. 296.— Relief Map of Switzerland. By Ed. Beck. Scale 1 : 900,000. Embossed. 16 by 10 in. Bern. 1859. 297— Relief Map of Asia. By M. Shulgin. Scale 1:8,000,000. Composition, painted by hand. 54 by 51 in. St. Petersburg. (Lent by the Science and Art Department.) 298. — Relief Maps, by H. F. Brion, London. These maps are printed and embossed. The exaggeration is 6-fold in the map of Palestine, 32-fold in the others. The maps exhibited are:— England and Wales, Scotland, Asia, India, Ancient Palestine, and the Soudan ; size of each about 13 by 16 in. Price 21«. each; Soudan, 52«. 6d. London, S.P.C.K. No dates. 299.— Relief Maps published by E. Schotte & Co., Berlin. These maps are printed on paper, and embossed. Size of each about 26 by 24 in. No scales are given. The exaggeration very manifold. The maps exhibited are : — Europe, Asia, Africa, Australia, North America, South America, British Isles, price 328. each, and Palestine, 21«. 3d. 300.— Relief Maps by Captain Giuseppe Roggero. Publiiihed by Roux and Favale, Turin. These maps are printed on paper, and embossed. There aie three principal sizes, viz. 21 by 23 in., 19 by 23 in., and 10 by 11 in. ; the price varying between 9d. and 8«. The exaggeration various, between 5- and 72-fold for the larger maps, and is 2-fold in the case of the smaller ones. 301.— ReUef Atlas. By Aug. Ravenstein. ITie firet atlas of the kind produced ; 8 maps, 11 by 9 in., printed on papers to show physical features and embossed, with 8 political sheet maps. Frankfurt-on-Main Dondorf. Price 10a. 1849. 302.-Relief Atlas. By G. Woldermann. 24 eiubossed mam printed on. paper. 12 by 12 in. Price 7«. 6d Leipzig, P. Eckcrlcin. ( 280 ) DIVISION V. GEOaHAPHICAL PICTURES. There are several series of these arranged on the two centre screens. The most numerous series are the Geographische Charakterbilder of Holzel of Vienna, and sold in London by Hachette & Co. These pictures (oleographs) are each 32 in. wide by 24 in. in height, and printed in from 12 to 16 colours. Price of the 27 plates unmounted £8 8«., or 8s. each; mounted on cloth, £9 15s., or 9s. Qd. each; portfolio to hold mounted set, 16s. The Text accompanying the pictures is sold in nine parts at Is. 6d. each part. The following is a list of these pictures : — 303. 1. The Ortler group, Tyrol. 2. The Shoshone Canons and Waterfalls, North America. 3. The Gulf of Pozzuoli, with the Bay of Baise and Cape Miseno. 4. The Desert. 5. 6. The Bernese Oberland. 7. The Otakapuarangi, with the Sinter Terrace of Eotomahana, New Zealand. 8. Sierra Nevada, California, with the Yosemite Valley. 9. The Plateau of Anahuac, Barranca Sta. Maria, and the Peak of Orizaba. 10. Naples with Vesuvius. 11. Pasterzen Glacier, with the Gross Glockner, Tyrol. 12. The Nile Cataract near Assouan. 13. The Pillar Cape, Crown Prince Rudolph-Land. 14. Heligoland. 15. Tropical Virgin Forest in the Amazon Valley, South America. 16. Nagasaki Harbour. 17. The Adelsberg Grotto. 18. Upper Inn Valley. 19. The Mountains of Weckelsdorf. 20. The Danube near Vienna. 21. Mangrove Coast in Venezuela. 22. The Giant Mountains, with the Schneekoppe, Bohemia. 23. 24. The Stettin Haff (The Baltic). 25. The Bay of Cattaro. 26. Hammerfest, Norway. 27. Table Mountain and Cape Town. DIVISION V. GEOGRAPHICAL PICTURES. 281 304 and 306. — Ad. Lehmann's Geographische Charakterbilder (chromolithographs), 13 in number. Published by Ernest Leitmann of Leipzig. Price 4:S. each. Size the same as those of Holzel. 1. South American Primeval Forest. 2. The Bernese Oberland (double). 3. Polar Landscape — Franz- Josef Fjord, East Greenland. 4. The Great Aletsch Glacier. 5. Heligoland. 6. Jerusalem in the time of Christ. 7. The Furka Pass. 8. Thuringian Forest and Wartburg. 9. The Akropolis of Athens. 10. Dunes near Bering, in the Island of Kiigen. 11. Constantinople. 12. Saxon Switzerland. 13. New York. The pictures of the above series are published by Philip & Son of London, with English names : — ^Nos. 2, 4, 5, 7, are exhibited. The same house publishes a picture entitled "The Khine Valley at Bingen" (No. 13), and another, « The Pyramids." 306. — Four specimens of a series entitled " Picturesque Geography" (chromes), now being published by Bacon of London. 20 by 16 in. Price Is. each unframed. A handbook accompanies each set. 1. The Boden Glacier above Zermatt. 2. Coral Eeefs and Atoll. 3. Lake Llyn-y-Dinas, North Wales. 4. Ellen's Isle, Loch Katrine. 307. — A lithograph of a glacier on the Dachstein (Gletscherpha- nomene). By Professor Simony of Vienna (presented by the ^author), and published by Holzel of Vienna. 308. — There are also shown upon the screens a number of original Water-colour Drawings of scenes in various parts of the world, by Miss Marianne North. 309. — Several sketches of Hawaiian Volcanoes. By Miss Gordon Cumming. 310. — Several original sketches of Japanese Landscapes. By Dr. Naumann. The largest of this series shows a geological section under- lying the landscape above. [Now removed.] 311.^ — Several sketches of the Kilima-njaro region. By Mr. H. H. Johnston. [Others in portfolio.'] 282 DIVISION V. GEOGRAPHICAL PICTURES. 312. — Two specimens of a series of Charakterbilder (chroino- litliographs). Publislied by Theodor Fisclier of Kassel. 68 by 42 in. Price 18s. each. 1. South American Tropical Forest. 2. The Nile Valley of Egypt. 313. — Six specimens of a series (Tableaux Geographiques) of chromo-lithographs published by Delagrave of Paris, under the direc- tion of M. Felix Hement, and used in London Board Schools. There are twelve in the series, each 24 by 16 in. Price of the collection 12s. 6d., or Is. Sd. each. Each picture has an explanatory text published separately, price lOd. These pictures are mostly ideal representations of typical landscapes. The following are hung on the sci-een : — 1. Confluence of two Eivers, with low hills. 2. Lake and Glaciers. 3. Cape and Cliff. 4. Watercourse and Gla^ iers. 6. Valley of Mauri enne. 6. Bay of Naples and Vesuvius. 314. — Historical Pictures. In the large portfolio will be found a series of 61 Historical Pictures by Langl, published by Holzel of Vienna, divided into two sections : — I. Antiquity : (a) 6 pictures re- lating to Egypt ; (h) 3 to India ; (c) 1 to Assyria ; (d) 3 to Persia ; (e) 8 to Greece ; (/) 10 of Roman Monuments. 11. Middle Ages and Modern Times : (g) 4 Ancient Christian Monuments ; (A) 5 Arabian Monuments ; (t) 6 Roman Mcjnuments ; (k) 9 Gothic Monuments ; (l) 4 Renaissance Monuments ; (m) 3 Russian and Armenian Monuments. Price, complete collection, unmounted, £13 13s., or 6s. each; mounted on cloth, £18 14s., or 7s. Qd. each. Two poitfolios for the plates 30s. Three of them (No. 314) are on the left-hand screen — the Appian Way, the Nile, Taormina. London agent, Hachette & Co. [Text-book to accompany pictures, *Bilder zur Geschichte,' 121 pp. See under Text-books 119b.] In the Portfolio are four Historical Pictures by Joseph Hofmann (Holzel), illustrating Ancient Athens. With separate key to the details. Price 40s. each, with text. 314a. — Ferdinand Hirt's Geographische Bildertafeln. Herausgegeben von Dr. Alwin Oppel und Arnold Ludwig. Vol. i., 24 sheets folio, devoted to General Geography; Vol. ii., 26 sheets, devoted to Typical Landscapes. These collections are intended to supplement the usual text-books, each sheet containing numerous picture illustrations of typical features, peoples, places, and products all over the globe. Price, paper covers, 3s. 6d. ; cloth, 4s. Qd. each volume. Leipzig and Breslau, Ferdinand Hiit. 1882-4. See Text-book No. 97. (On tahle beside atlases.) DIVISION VI. ATLASES —ENGLISH. 283 314b. — Schneider's Typen-Atlas. Herausgegeben von Dr. Oskar Sclineider. A smaller book of the same kind as Hirt's. 15 sheets, with numerous pictures. Price 2«. 4id. Dresden, Meinhold & Sons. 1881. 314c. — Platen voor Aanschouwelijk Onderwijs in Aardrijkskunde. Verzameld door E. P. Bos. A small collection for Dutch schools similar to above, 40 pictures in all. Price Is. Groningen, Welters. 1884. ETHNOLOGICAL PICTUEES AND MODELS. 315. — Eassenbilder zum Gebrauch beim Geographischen Unter- richt. A series of large-sized heads and busts of various types of people, uncoloured. Edited by Prof. A. Kirchhoff of Halle. The heads are those of a North American Indian, a Negro, a Papuan of New Guinea, Hottentot, Japanese, Polynesian, Chinese, Bushman, Nubian Arab, Eskimo. There is text to accompany each picture. Price Is. 6d. each. Kassel, Theodor Fischer. 316. — Types of Mankind. A set of five Chromo-lithograph Pictures, one containing five typical heads — European, Chinese, Negro, North American Indian, and Pacific Islander. The others represent several groups of peoples with appropriate surroundings; Chinese, Hindoos, Eskimo, Negro, North American Indian, and Australasians. Price 3s. 6^. each, mounted. London, Archibald Johnston. 316a. — Similar Series. By W. & A. K. Johnston. 317.— Ethnologischer Bilder- Atlas. By Dr. Friedrich Miiller. Three specimens (on screen) of this series, each representing a group — Hot- tentots, Bushmen, and American Indians. Vienna, Hatinger & Son. On the tables will be found a number of busts representing various types of peoples, used in Eussian schools. Also several cases con- taining the heads of the principal peoples of the world. These have been kindly lent by the Science and Art Department. DIVISION VL ATLASES. I.— ENGLISH. 1. — T. Euddiman Johnston's Standard Atlases. Six parts, each corresponding to the subject of a Board School Standard. Price 2d. to 6d. Edinburgh, Euddiman Johnston. No date. 1a. — The Eoyal Map Book. Series of Atlas-Geographies to suit the Code of 1882. Standards I. to V. Plans, Maps, and the Compass, Geographical Definitions, Europe, England, British Islands, &c., with text. Prices Id. and 2d. Edinburgh, T. Nelson & Sons. Nd date. 284 DIVISION VI. ATLASES.— ENGLISH. iB.—Johnston's Threepenny Atlas. 16 maps, full-coloured. Edin- burgli, W. & A. K. Johnston. No date. Ic— The Oriel Atlases. Standards III and IV. 16 and 10 small maps. Price 2d. London, Marcus Ward & Co. No date. Id. — Marcus Ward's Threepenny Atlas for Standard V. 13 maps. Price Sd. London, Marcus Ward & Co. No date. 2. — Philips' Initiatory Atlas for Young Learners. 12 small coloured maps of the World in hemispheres, 4 continents, and sections of Europe and Asia. Price 6d. London, George Philip & Son. No date. 2a. — Philips' Standard Atlas, edited by J. F. Williams. Small maps of various forms. London, George Philip & Son. 1884. No. 1. 12 maps. Price 2d. „ 2. 44 „ „ 4d „ 3. 36 „ ,, 4rf. „ 4. 31 „ „ 4:d. 2b. — Philips' Threepenny Atlas. 16 maps. Small 4to. Price Sd. London, George Philip & Son. No date. 2c. — Johnston's Standard Atlas and Geography. Seven parts, corre- sponding to the " Standards." 12 full-coloured maps and letterpress. Price 4:d, and 6d. each. Edinburgh, W. & A. K. Johnston. No date. 3. — Series of Atlas-Geographies to suit the Code of 1882. No. 1. England. 15 maps, and a Complete Geography of England. With Notes and Exercises. Edinburgh, T. Nelson & Sons. Price 6c?. 1885. 3a. — Primer Atlas. For use in schools and for general reference. 13 maps. Price 2s. Edinburgh, W. & K. Chambers. 1884. 4. — Sketch-Map Copy-Book and Geography. A Series. With Sug- gestions to Teachers. Price Sd. each. London, Jarrold & Sons. No date. No. 1. England and Wales. 10 maps. „ 2. Scotland, Ireland, and the Colonies. 11 maps. 3. Europe, Physical and Political. 11 maps. 4. The Continents. 8 maps, 1 double paged. 4a.— Philips' Preparatory Atlas. 16 maps full coloured. Price Gd. London, George Philip & Son. No date. 4b. — The Universal Atlas for School and Home. 21 small 4to maps. Price 6d. London, Marcus Ward & Co. No date. 4c. — Marcus Ward's Shilling Atlas. 24 small 4to maps. Price Is. London, Marcus Ward & Co. No date. 4d. — Mr. Butler's Outline Maps to the Geographical and Biographical Exercises for the Use of Young Persons. London, Griffith, Farran, & Co. No date. 3J DIVISION Vi, ATLASES.— ENGLISH. 285 6. — Philips' First School Atlas. With Examination Questions on each map. 24 coloured maps. Price Is. London, George Philip & Son. No date. 5a. — Blackie's Geographical Series. Map Drawing. Copies for school and home lessons adapted to Geographical Readers. Three parts (III.-IV. ; V. ; YI.-VII.). Price 3d. each. Also in one vol. Glasgow, Blackie & Son. 1885. 6b. — Blackie's Geographical Series. Maps to accompany Blackie's Geographical Readers. 16 small 4to maps. Price 4c?. 6. — Philips' Grammar School Atlas. For Preparatory Classes. London, George Philip & Son. No date. No. 1. 15 full-coloured maps. Price Sd, „ 2. 31 full-coloured maps. Price 6d. 6a. — Philips' Physical Atlas for Beginners. By William Hughes. 12 maps. Including Earthquakes, the Atmosphere, Climate, Maritime Routes, &c. Price Is. George Philip & Son. No date. 6b. — Philips' Shilling Atlas of Modern Geography. 12 maps. Price Is. London, George Philip & Son. No date. 7. — Johnston's Sixpenny National Atlas. 16 maps. Edinburgh, W. & A. K. Johnston. No date. 7a. — Philips' " Favourite Sixpenny Atlas." 80 maps, plans, dia- grams, &c. Mostly small, on 23 pp. Price 6d. London, George Philip & Son. No date. 7b. — Philips' series of Map-drawing Books. No. 1, Europe ; No. 2, England and Wales. Price 6d. each. London, George Philip & Son. 7c. — Philips' Imperial Outline Atlas. Series I. and II., 12 maps each. Price Is. each. Maps sold separately Id, London, George Philip & Son. 8. — Johnston's Sixpenny Quarto Atlas. 16 maps, full coloured. Edinburgh, W. & A. K. Johnston. No date. 9. — Philips' Atlas for Beginners. 34 maps. By Wm. Hughes. With consulting index. Price 2s. Gd. London, George Philip & Son. 1885. 9a. — Philips' Standard Atlas for use in Elementary Schools. 24 coloured maps, with comparative elevations of highest mountains in each division of the Globe. Price Qd. George Philip & Son. No date. 9b. — Philips' Atlas of the British Colonies. 16 coloured sheets, some of several maps each. Price 6d. London, George Philip & Son. No date. 9c. — Philips' Atlas of the Countries of Europe. Including a map of the World, and General map of Europe. 16 coloured maps. Price 6d, London, George Philip & Son. No date. 286 DIVISION VI. ATLASES.— ENGLISH. 10.— The Excelsior Elementary Atlas. 16 coloured maps. Price Is. London, G. W. Bacon & Co. No date. 10a.— Philips' Excelbior Atlas of the World. 100 coloured maps, plans, sections, &g., mostly small. Comprising zones of vegetation, and of animals, ocean currents, winds, tides, &c. Price Is. London, George Philip & Son. No date. 10b. — Philips' Atlas for Standard VII. 22 plates of physical, mathematical, and astronomical geography. Price Is. London, George Philip & Son. No date. 11. — Elementary School Atlas of General and Descriptive Geography. By Alexander Keith Johnston. 20 maps, with index. Price 5s. Edinburgh, W. & A. K. Johnston. 1884. 12. — Philips' Elementary Atlas and Geography. By J. F. Williams. 30 coloured maps, with Text and Questions. 80 pp. Price 3s. 6d. London, George Philip & Son. 1882. 13. — Outline Atlas. 16 maps. For use chiefly with ' The Elementary Physical Atlas.' Price Is. By Eev. J. P. Faunthorpe. London, E. Stanford. 14. — Elementary Physical Atlas, chiefly for map-drawing and study of the great ph}sical features and relief contours of the Continents. By Kev. J. P. Faunthorpe. 16 maps, with descriptive letterpress. London, E. Stanford. 1884. 15. — Projection Atlas. 16 sheets, with Projections. For use chiefly with ' The Elementary Physical Atlas.' By Eev, J. P. Faunthorpe. Price Is. London, E. Stanford. No date. 16. — Blank Sheets for Maps. By Eev. J. P. Faunthorpe. 16 leaves. For use chiefly with ' The Elementary Physical Atlas.' Price Qd. London, E. Stanford. 1884. 17. — The Pupil's Ctipy-Book for Map-drawing. With directions. 3 outline majjs, and 1 map filled in partly with mountains and rivers of England, plain and coloured. Price 4(?. Edinburgh, W. & A. K. Johnston. 1880, 18. — Map Drawing Books, Philips', with blank projections of each map. England, Physical, Political, Eailway. Price Sd. London, George Philip & Son. No date. 18a. — Philips' Series of Imperial Quarto Maps. Price Id. each. London, George Philip & Son. No date. 19. — Bacon's Outline Maps. 16 maps, of two forms, small and large 4 to. Price 6d. and Is. London, G. W. Bacon & Co. 20. — Bacon's Map Projections. 16 maps, small and large 4to. Price 6^. and Is. London, G. W. Bacon & Co. DIVISION VI. ATLASES.— ENGLISH. 287 21. — Set of Johnston's Penny Political Coloured Maps. 40 maps. Edinburgh, W. & A. K. Johnston. No date. 22. — Set of Johnston's Penny Outline Maps. 40 maps. Edinburgh, W. & A. K. Johnston. 23. — Set of Johnston's Penny Test Maps. 40 maps. Edinburgh, W. & A. K. Johnston. 24. — Set of Johnston's Penny Projections. 40 maps. Edinburgh, W. & A. K. Johnston. 25. — The Eeader's Atlas of Modern Geography. 16 coloured maps, with astronomical diagrams. Price Qd. Edinburgh, T. Ruddiman Johnston. No date. 26. — Johnston's Shilling National Atlas of General Geography. 24 coloured maps. Edinburgh, W. & A. K. Johnston. No date. 27. — Excelsior Elementary Atlas. 16 coloured maps. Price 2s. London, G. W. Bacon & Co. No date. 28. — Johnston's Quarto Atlas. 24 full-coloured maps. Price Is. Edinburgh, W. &. A. K. Johnston. No date. 29. — Grammar School Atlas. No. III. For Senior Classes. Price Is. London, George Philip & Son. No date. 29a. — Atlas of Physical Maps in fac-simile relievo. By J. S. Laurie. 9 maps produced by photography from reliefs. London, Central School Depot. No date. 30. — Keith Johnston's Middle Class Atlas of Physical Geography. 31 maps, with analytical index. Price 2s. 6^. Edinburgh, W. & A. K. Johnston. No date. 30a. — Philips' Instructive Atlas of Modern Geography, with con- sulting index. Edited by William Hughes. 24 maps. Price 3s. Qd. London, George Philip & Son. 1885. 30b. — Philips' Young Scholar's Atlas. 24 maps, with insets. Price 2s. 6d. London, George Philip & Son. No date. 30c. — Philips' Young Student's Atlas. 36 maps. Index. Price 3s. 6d. London, George Philip & Son. No date. 31. — Keith Johnston's Middle Class Political Atlas. 31 maps coloured. With index, plans of chief towns, and enlargements of im- portant districts. Price 2s. 6d. Edinburgh, W. & A. K. Johnston. No date. 32. — Keith Johnston's Middle Class Atlas of the British Empire. With 15 maps, with descriptive letterpress and index. Price Is. 6d. Edinburgh, W. & A. K. Johnston. No date, 33. — The Instructive Atlas of Modern Geography. 17 coloured maps. Price 7s. 6 Paris, Armand Colin & Co. 1885. 133. — Geographic, Cours moyen pour I'enseignement primaire. (Middle Course of Primary Geography.) By F. J. C. 12mo, 124 pp. Price 7d. Paris, Poussielgue. No date. 133a. — Notice-Questionnaire sur les Cartes Murales de I'Europe Politique et de I'Europe Hypsometrique. Par le Frere Alexis M. G. 71 pp. Price Is. Paris, Poussielgue. 1878. 133b. — Notice-Questionnaire sur les Cartes Murales de la France Politique et de la France Hypsometrique. (Catechism of Geography on the Political and Hypsometrical wall maps of France.) By A. M. G. Price Is. Paris, Poussielgue. 1882. 134. — Notice-Questionnaire sur la Mappemonde. (Catechism of the map of the W^orld, Physical, Political, and Commercial.) By A. M. G. Paris, Poussielgue. 1875. 134a. — Legons de Geographic. (Lessons in Geography.^ By E. Brouard. Elementary course. With map and illustrations. Price 7Jd. Also Teachers' edition. Paris, Hachette & Co. 1881. 135. — ^feleiiients de Geographic a I'usage de I'enseignement primaire. (Elements of Geography for Primary Schools.) By J. Dufief. First stage. With illustrations. 39 pp. Price 4:d. Brussels, Lehegue & Co. 1882. 135a. — Instruction sur la Maniere de se servir du Globe terrestre. (Instructions how to use the terrestrial globe, so as to acquire primary notions of the Heavens, the Earth, Sun, and Moon.) By E. Levasseur. Paris, Ch. Delagrave. No date. 136. — Geographic Generale, Physique et Politique. (Physical and Political Geography.) By C. Callewaert. Brussels, Brothers Callewaert. No date. 137. — ifclements de Geographic a I'usage de I'enseignement primaire. (Elements of Geography for Primary Schools.) By J. Dufief. Second stage. With illustrations. 94 pages. Price 7hd. Brussels, Leb^gue & Co. 1882. 138. — Notions sommaires sur les Cinq Parties du Monde et sur I'Europe en particulier. (Summary Notions on the Continents and Europe in particular.) By E. Cortambert. 156 pp. Price 6d. Paris, Hachette & Co. 1882. 139. — Petit Cours de Geographic Moderne. (Short Course in Modem Geography.) By E. Cortambert. Ecvised down to present date by DIVISION VH. TEXT-BOOKS.— FRENCH. 319 E. Cortambert. With numerous maps and engravings. 288 pp. Price Is. dd. Paris, Hachette & Co. 1882. 140. — ^^lements de Geographic a Tusage de I'enseignement primaire. (Elements of Geography for Primary Schools.) By J. Dufief. Third stage. 208 pages. Price lOd. Brussels, Lebegue & Co. 1882. 141. — Series of small Geographies of the French Departments. By Adolphe Joanne. Useful for local geography. Price Is. each. Paris, Hachette & Co. 1883. 142. — Traite ifelementaire de Cosmographie a I'usage des ifecoles Nor- males et des !^coles primaires. (Cosmography, Elementary, for Normal and Primary Schools.) By A. Sluys. Namur, Wesmael-Charlier. 1888. 143. — Lemons de Geographic. (Lessons in Geography.) By E. Brouard. Middle course. 191 pp. Price Is. Paris, Hachette & Co. 1881. 144. — Geographic ^felementaire de la France. (France, Elementary.) By E. Cortambert. 93 pp. Price Is. Paris, Hachette & Co. 1882. 145.— Troisi^me Cours. Geographic detaillec. (Third Course. De- tailed Geography.) By J. Du Fief. Asia, Africa, America, and Oceania. For the Second Class in Athenees. Vol. iii., containing Asia, Africa, America. 552 pp. Price 3s. Brussels, Lebegue & Co. 1883-84. 146. — Deuxieme Cours. Abreg^ de Geographic redige conform^ment au programme du Gouvernement a I'usage de renseignement moyen. (Second Course of Geography. Compendium of Geography for Middle Class Schools.) 296 pp. By J. Du Fief. Price Is. dd. Brussels, Lebegue & Co. 1882. 147. — Cours Superieur de Geographic, pour renseignement primaire. (Higher Course of Geography for Primary Schools.) By F. J. C. 328 pp. Price Is. 2d. Paris, Poussielgue. No date. 148. — Elements de Geographic. Cours Moyen. (Elements of Geo- graphy.) By Henry Lemonier and Franz Schrader. Middle Course. With 33 maps and 10 engravings. Price Is. 4d. Paris, Hachette & Co. 1884. 149. — ^Elements de Geographic Cours Superieur. (Elements of Geography.) By Henry Lemonier and Franz Schrader. Higher Course. With 44 maps and 48 engravings. Price 2s. Paris, Hachette & Co. 1884. 150. — Cours Special de Geographic, pour I'enseignement primaire superieur. (Special Course of Geography for Primary Schools. Ad- vanced Stage.) Part I. The World, France excepted. By F. J. C. With illustrations. 624 pp. Price 2s. 7d. Paris, Poussielgue. 1880. 320 DIVISION VII. TEXT-BOOKS.— FRENCH. 161.— La Terre Illustree. Cours special de G^ographie Uuiverselle pour renseignement primaire superieur a Tusage des ifecoles Chretiennes. (The World Illustrated. Special Course of Universal Geography for Higher Primary Schools.) By F. J. C. 650 pp. Price 2s. 6d. Paris, Poussielgue. 1884. 15S.— Le9ons de Geographie. (Lessons in Geography.) By E. Brouard. Higher Course. 157 pp. Price 7^d. Paris, Hachette & Co. 1883. 153. — Elements de Geographie Generale. (Elements of General Geography.) By E. Cortambert. According to the Official Programme of July 23rd, 1874. For classes learning Preparatory Mathematics. With illustrations, 163 pp. Price Is. Sd. Paris, Hachette & Co. 1874. 154. — Geographie Physique et Politique de la France. (France, Physical and Political.) By E. and thoroughly revised by K. Cortambert. With illustrations. 230 pp. TricQls.Sd. Paris, Hachette & Co. 1885. 155. — Geographie Generale de I'Europe et du Bassin de la Mediter- ranee. (Europe and the Mediterranean.) By E. & R. Cortambert. With illustrations, 123 pp. Price Is. 3d. Paris, Hachette & Co. 1884. 166. — Geographie, Physique, Politique et [feconomique de I'Europe, France except^e. (Europe, Physical, Political, and Economical, France excepted.) By E. & R. Cortambert. Price Is. 8d. Paris, Hachette & Co. 1883. 157- — Geographic Generale de I'Afrique, de I'Asie, de I'Oceanie et de I'Amerique. (Africa, Asia, Oceania, and America, General.) By E. & R. Cortambert. Price Is. Sd. Paris, Hachette & Co. 1883. 158. — ifetude Generale de I'Europe. (Europe, General.) According to the Programme of 1882. For secondary special instruction. With illustrations. By Richard Cortambert. 253 pp. Price Is. Sd. Paris, Hachette & Co. 1883. 169. — Geographie Physique, Politique et Economique, de I'Afrique, de I'Asie, de I'Amerique et de I'Oceanie. (Africa, Asia, America, and Oceania, Physical, Political, and Commercial.) By E. and entirely revised by R. Cortambert. With illustrations. 213 pp. Price Is. dd. Paris, Hachette & Co. 1884. 160. — Geographie Generale. (General Geography.) According to the Official Programme of 2nd August, 1880. For pupils learning Elementary Mathematics. 683 pp. Price 4s. 2d. Paris, Hachette & Co. 1881. 161.— Cours de Geographie. Comprenant la description Physique et Politique et la Geographie Historique des diverses contrees du Globe. (Physical, Political, and Historical Geography of the different DIVISION VII, TEXT-BOOKS.— FRENCH. 321 Countries of the Globe.) By E. Cortambert. Entirely revised by E. Cortambert. With numerous vignettes and maps. 890 pp. Price 3s. 6d. Paris, Hachette & Co. 1882. 162. — Troisi^me Cours. Geographie detaillee a I'usage des trois classes superieures des Atb^n^es. (Graduated Course of Geography for Middle-class Schools. Third Course. Detailed Geography for the Higher Classes in Athenaeums.) The Earth. By J. Dufief. With 48 plates. 280 pp. Is. 8d. Brussels, Lebegue & Co. 1882. 163. — Troisieme Cours. Geographie detaillee a I'usage des trois classes superieures des Athen^es. (Graduated Course of Geography for Middle-class Schools. Third Course. Detailed Geography for the three upper classes in Athenaeums.) Europe. By J. Dufief. 176 pp. Price Is. Brussels, Lebegue & Co. 1881. 164. — Geographie de la France. Pour la Classe de Ehetorique. (France. According to the Official Programme of the 2nd August, 1880. For the "Classe de Ehetorique.") By G. Cortambert. New edition completely rearranged by E. Cortambert. 360 pp. Price 2s. 6d. Paris, Hachette & Co. 1882. 165. — Geographic, Physique, Politique et Economique de I'Afrique, de I'Asie, de I'Amerique et de I'Oceanie. (Physical, Political, and Economical Geography of Africa, Asia, America, and Oceania.) By E. Cortambert. Entirely rearranged by E. Cortambert. 428 pp. Price Is. Sd. Paris, Hachette & Co. 1884. 166. — Geographie, Physique, Politique, Administrative, et Commer- ciale de la France et de ses Possessions Coloniales. (France and Colonial Possessions, Physical, Political, Administrative, and Commercial.) By E. and entirely revised by E. Cortambert. 360 pp. Paris, Hachette & Co. 1884. 166a. — Letterpress for Wall Maps (on gas-standards) Nos. 3, 5, 8. France — mountains, towns, agriculture, and industry. Paris, Armand Colin & Co. 167. — Geographie Militaire. (A treatise on Geography for Military Students.) By le Commandant Niox of the Paris Ecole Superieure de Guerre. 5 vols. Price 15s. 6d. Paris, Baudoin. 1881-85. 168. — ^Methodologie Theorique et Appliquee, ou Manuel du Maitre. (Methodology, Theoretical and Applied. Showing how to use the various works, pupils' manuals, cartographical exercises, &c., forming the Cours de Geographie. Teacher's Manual.) By F. J. C. Price Is. Sd. Paris, Poussielgue. 1884. 169. — Geographie. Methodologie Theorique et Appliquee, ou Manuel du Maitre.) (Methodology, Theoretical and Applied. Part I. 322 DIVISION VII. TEXT-BOOKS.— DUTCH. General theory and application to local geography. With two appen- dices, monograph of the Commune of Tamines, and address at the Con- gress of Antwerp. For teachers.) By A. M. Gr. 211 pp. Price I*. O^d. Liege, H. Dessain. 1883. — 2 copies. 170. — Geographie. La Terre a vol d'oiseau. (Bird's-eye View of the Earth.) Concrete Descriptive Geography. By On^sime Eeclus. 2 vols., with 370 engravings. 681 and 672 pp. Price 8s. 4:d. Paris, Hachette & Co. 1882. 180. — France, Algerie et Colonies. (France, Algeria, and Colonies.) Concrete Descriptive Geography. By Onesime Keclns. 12mo, 802 pp. With 120 engravings. Price 4g. 7d. Paris, Hachette & Co. 1883. VI.— DUTCH. 180a. — Beknopte Aardrijksknnde van Nederland en zijne Bezittingen. (Netherlands and its Possessions, a Compendium.) By J. C. Boeser and D. C. van Neek. 12mo, 96 pp. Arnhem, J. Voltelen. 1885. 181. — De Werelddeelen. Aardrijksknnde voor de Lagere School. (The Continents, for the Lower Schools.) By J. C. Boeser and D. C. van Neck. 12mo, 74 pp. Arnhem, J. Voltelen. 1883. 183. — Nederland en zijne overzeesche Bezittingen. Kleine Aardrijks- knnde voor de Volksschool. (Netherlands and its Foreign Possessions ; small Text-book for Common Schools.) By P. E. Bos. With illustrations. 8vo, 62 pp. Price 5d. Groningen, J. B. Wolters. 1882. 183. — Aardrijksknnde voor de Volksschool. (Geography for Common Schools.) By P. R. Bos. With woodcuts. 8vo, 120 pp. Price 7c?. Groningen, J, B. Wolters. 1883. 184. — Beknopte Aardrijksknnde van Nederland. (Netherlands. An Epitome of the " Geography of the Netherlands " by the same author.) By E. E. Eijkens. Price Is. Groningen, J. B. Wolters. 1883. 185. — Aardrijksknnde van Nederland. (Geography of the Nether- lands.) By E. E. Eijkens. Describing the land, water, climate, population, their derivation and characteristics, political divisions, &c. 182 pp. Price Is. Sd, Groningen, J. B. Wolters. 1885. 186. — Leiddraad bij het Onderwijs in Aardrijksknnde aan Scholen voor Voortgezet Onderwijs. (Guide to Geography for Advanced Schools.) By P. E. Bos. 158 pp. Price Is. 6d. Groningen, J. B. Wolters. 1883. 187. — Beknopte Aardrijksknnde. (A Compendium of Geography, Mathematical, Physical, and Political.) By J. C. Boeser and D. C. van Neck. Arnhem, J. Voltelen. 1884. DIVISION VII. TEXT-BOOKS.— DUTCH. 323 188. — Beknopt Leerboek der Aardrijkskimde. (Compendium, Phy- sical, Political, and Ethnographical.) By P. E. Bos. With 121 plates and figures. 258 pp. Price 2s. 6d. Groningen, J. B. Wolters. 1885. 189. — Het Werelrond: Een Leerhoek der Aardrijkskunde voor School- gebruik en eigen Studio. (This World-Eound : a Text-book for School and Self-instruction.) By F. Bruins. In 3 parts. Part I. The World as a whole, Europe, Netherlands, and Germany, with 190 woodcuts and 2 coloured maps. Part II. Austria-Hungary and other European Countries, with 114 woodcuts and 20 statistical tables. Part III. The Continents other than Europe, with 169 woodcuts. 267, 253, 298 pp. Price 3s. 9d., 4s. 7d., 4s. 7d. Groningen, Noordhoff & Smit. 1881-82. 190. — Onze Aarde : Handbook der Natuurkundige Aardrijkskunde. (Our Earth : Manual of Physical Geography, Atmosphere, Hydrosphere, Botany, Zoology, Anthropology, Ethnography, &c.) By H. Blink. With 150 plates, and index (20 maps in a separate atlas). Large 8vo, 432 pp. Price 8s. 2d. Groningen, Noordhoff & Smit. 1885. 191. — Leerboek der Oude Aardrijkskunde. (Text-book of Ancient Geography.) 3 parts — Greece and the East ; Italy and the West ; the North, Far East, and South. By Dr. J. G. Schlimmer. 167 pp. Price 2s. Id. Groningen, J. B. Wolters. 1880. 192. — Leiddraad bij het Onderwijs in de Wis- of Sterrenkundige Aardrijkskunde. (Guide to Astronomical Geography.) By Dr. W. GleunSjjun. 112 pp. Price Is. 6c?. Groningen, J. B. Wolters. 1879. 193. — Onze Planeet — Grondbeginselen der Wis- en Natuurkundige Aardrijkskunde. (Our Planet : Elements of Mathematical and Physical Geography. For higher " Biirgerschulen," Normal Schools, and Self- instruction.) By H. Blink. With 101 plates (15 maps in a separate Atlas.) 183 pp. Price 2s. Id. Groningen, Noordhoff & Smit. 1885. 194. — Aarde, Zon en Maan — Wiskundige Aardrijkskunde. (Earth, Sun and Moon : Mathematical Geography.) By J. E. K. van Wijnen. 109 pp. Price Is. Sd. Groningen, J. B. Wolters. 1881. 195. — Onze Moeder Aarde. (Our Mother Earth. Illustrated Text- book of Geography for Schools.) By F. Bruins. Part I. with 108, and Part II. with 128 woodcuts. 184 and 276 pp. Price 2s. 6d. each part. Groningen, Nordhoff & Smit. 1881. 196. — De Landen en Volken der Geheele Aarde. (Lands and Peoples of the whole Earth : Physical and Anthropological Manual.) By P. E. Bos. 545 pp. Price Gs. Sd. Groningen, J. B. Wolters. 1885. 197. — Handleiding bij de Wandkaart van Nederlandsch Oost-Indie. (Hand-Guide to the Wall Map of the Dutch East Indies.) By P. E. Bos and E. E. Eijkens. 32 pp. Groningen, J. B. Wolters. 1883. Y 2 324 DIVISION VII, TEXT-BOOKS.— DUTCH. 198.— De Globe. AardrijkskTiiidig Sctetsboek. (The Globe. Geographical Sketch-Book for School and Family.) " To enliven geo- graphical instruction in schools and refresh the geographical knowledge of those who have left school." Countries of Europe described in detail, and the other continents summarily. 447 pages. By P. K. Bos. Price 4s. 2d. Groningen, J. B. Welters. 1880. 199. — Leerboek der Aardrijkskunde. (Text-book.) The Earth as a whole ; continents ; general configuration ; orography ; hydrography ; countries and people and their mutual relations. With numerous coloured maps, and illustrations of objects of nature and art. 391 pages. By P. E. Bos. Price 6s. 3d. Groningen, J. B. Welters. 1883. 200. — Schetsen en Beelden uit Nederland en Nederlandsch Indie. (Sketches and Pictures from the Netherlands and the Dutch Indies.) A Keading-book for School and Family. With numerous illustrations. 8vo, 100 pages. By P. K. Bos. Price 7d. Groningen, J. B. Wolters. 1882. 201. — De Eeiziger. Aardrijkskundige Beschrijvingen en Schilder- ingen. (The Traveller. Geographical descriptions.) Eeading-book for the highest classes in lower schools. By E. E. Eijkens. 12mo, 164 pages. Price 7d. Groningen, J. B, Wolters. 1880. 202. — Onze Provincie. (Our Province. Sketches from the Province of Groningen. For Common Schools.) 12mo, 96 pages. By J. van den Berg. Price 7d. Groningen, Noordhoff & Smit. 1874. 203. — Overal Heen. (Away everywhere ; or, A Voyage round the World, with the advantage of the knowledge gathered by Travellers. A contribution to the knowledge of Nature, Lands, and Peoples.) With illustrations. For School and Family. By J. J. A. Goeverneur. 8vo, 78 pages. Price 6d. Groningen, Noordhoff & Smit. 1885. 203a. — Kijkjes in de Cost. Een Leesboek voor de Yolkschool. (Glimpses into the East: a Eeading-book for Common Schools.) By H. C. van der Heijde. With preface by Prof. P. J. Veth. Part I. Java. 8vo, 127 pp. Price Sd. Groningen, Noordhoff & Smit. 1884. 204. — Kijkjes in de Cost. Een Leesboek voor de Yolksschool. II. De Buitenbezittingen. (Glimpses into the East: a Eeading-book for Common Schools.) By H. C. van der Heijde. With a preface by Prof. P. J. Veth. Part II. Foreign Possessions. 8vo, 146 pp. Price Sd. Groningen, Noordhoff & Smit. 1881. 205. — Driemaal den Aardbol om! (Thrice the Earth-ball round! Geography for Common Schools in three courses.) By F. Bruins. 2 parts, 124 and 98 pp. Price 7d. each. Groningen, Noordhoff & Smit. 1884. 206. — De heele Wereld rond. (The whole World round : a Eead- ing-book for promoting a knowledge of Nature, Lands, and Peoples.) DIVISION VII. TEXT-BOOKS.— SCANDINAVIAN. 325 With illustrations. For Common Schools. By J. J. A. Goevernoiir. 2 parts, 80 and 96 pp. Price 6d. each. Groningen, Noordhoff & Smit. 1883. 207. — Kent gij ons land ? (Know ye our Land ? Illustrated Geo- graphical Reading-book for Common Schools.) By J. D. Bakker and F. Deelstra. 1st part with 32 and 2nd part with 28 woodcuts. 104 and 96 pp. Price 8d. each. Groningen, Noordhoff & Smit. 1882. 208. — Op reis door Nederland. (Travels through the Netherlands.) Illustrated Geographical Reading-book for Common Schools. By J. D. Bakker & F. Deelstra. 1st part with 35, 2nd part with 33 woodcuts, 123 and 132 pp. Price Sd. each part. Groningen, Noordhoff & Smit. 1884. 208a.— Wij en de Wereld. (We and the World.) Reading Com- pendium of Geography for the Lower Schools. By F, Bruins. Two parts, with 34 and 63 woodcuts respectively. 84 and 100 pp. Price Qd. each. Groningen, Noordhoff & Smit. 1882-83. 209. — Oude Aardrijkskunde. (Ancient Geography.) Greece and the East, Italy and the West. With index. By Dr. J. G. Schlimmer. 8vo, 279 pp. Price 4s. 2d. Groningen, J. B. Wolters. 1879. 210. — Aardrijkskunde van Nederland. (Netherlands.) With maps and sketches. For Normal Schools, Higher " Burger schulen," and self- instruction. Geology, Configuration of Soil, Distribution of Land, Climate, Population. 8vo, 391 pp. By R. Schuiling. ZwoUe, J. J. Tijl. 1884. 211. — Aardrijkskunde in Schetsen en Beelden. (Geography in Sketches and Pictures.) The Earth as a whole ; the different Countries of Europe ; Asia, Africa, America, and Australia. By R. R. Rijkens and P. R. Bos. 4to, 392 pp. Price 8«. 9d. Groningen, J. B. Woliers. 1877. VII.— SCANDINAVIAN. 212. — Larobok i Geografi for Folkskolan. (Text-book prepared according to the "Normal Plan for Instruction in Common Schools.") With illustrations. By Dr. Carl Lind. 95 pp. Price 7d. Stockholm, P. Palinquist. 1880. 213. — Geografi for Skolans Lagre Klasser. (Geography for the lower classes in Public Schools.) By 0. W. Alund. With woodcuts and index. Small 8vo, 112 pp. Price 7d. Stockholm, Emil GuUberg. 1884. 214. — Larobok i Geografi for Sveriges Folkskolor. (Text-book for the National Schools of Sweden.) By Prof. Ed. Erslev. With 36 wood- cuts, and tables of comparative areas, heights, lengths, and population. 326 DIVISION VII. TEXT-BOOKS.— SCANDINAVIAN. K.SI Small 8vo, 120 pp. Price Id. Stockholm, P. A. Norstedt & Soner. 1884. 215. — Larobok i Geografi for Folkskolor ooh Nybegynnare. (Text- book for Common Schools and Beginners.) By J. G. Gehlin and Thor Brunius. Small 8vo, 64 pp. Price 3Jc?. Stockholm, A. L. Norman. 1883. 215a. — LaBrebog i Geografien. Af Dr. E. Loeffler. 185 pp. Many illustrations. Copenhagen, Hegel & Son. 1884. 216. — Folkskolans Geografi. (Common Schools' Geography.) With illustrations and statistical tables of the States of the World. 12mo, 158 pp. Stockholm, C. E. Fritze. 1885. 217. — Forberedande Larobok i Geografi pa Grundvalen. (Prepara- tory Text-book on the plan of Prof. Ed. Erslev's Text-books.) By J. P. Yelander. With 65 illustrations. 8vo, 176 pp. Price 2s. 3 Stockholm, Jos. Seligmann & Co. 1884. DIVISION VIII. MISCELLANEOUS. 327 225. — Larobok i Geografi for Sveriges Allmanna Laroverk. (Text- book for the Higher Public Schools.) By Prof. Ed. Erslev. " Non multa sed multum." Revised by F. P. Velander. With 140 pictures and a map. Large 8vo, 364 pp. Price ds. Id. Stockholm, Albert Bonnier. 1881. 226. — Allman Geografi for Skolans Hogre Klasser. (General Geography for Higher Classes in Schools and Reading at Home.) By Prof. Ed. Erslev. "Non multa sed multum." Revised by J. P. Velander. With 226 plates, a map, and index. Large 8vo, 543 pp. Price 5s. 6d. Stockholm, Albert Bonnier. 1881. 227. — Haandbog i Geographien. Af Dr. E. Lofifler, Decent in Geo- graphy in Copenhagen University. 3rd ed. 728 pp. Numerous illustrations. Copenhagen, Hegel & Son. 1883-5. 227a.— Handbok i Geografi. By Dr. E. Loffler. A Swedish translation of No. 277. 611 pp. Price 8s. 3d. Stockholm, Norstedt & Soner. 1879. 228. — Charaktersskildringar af Lander, Folkslag och Stader. (Characteristics of Lands, Peoples, and Towns. For Advanced Pupils and lovers of instructive reading in general.) 2 vols. 8vo, 560 and 626 pp. Price 1st vol. 55., 2nd vol. 5s. 6Jd Stockholm, Z. Haeggstrom. 1870-73. 229. — Geografiska Bilder fran Jordens Skilda Lander och Folkslag. (Geographical Pictures of Various Lands and Peoples of the Earth. For School and Family.) By Carl Kastman and Thor Brunius. 8vo, 381 pp. Price 2s. Norrkoping, M. W. Wallberg. 1880. DIVISION VIII. MISCELLANEOUS. 319. — Models by Victor von Reitzen, employed in teaching Hill Drawing at the Military Geographical Institute, Vienna, with specimens of students* work. 820. — Four models by Neutze for teaching Hill Drawing. 321. — Skeletons for illustrating Geographical Projections. 322. — Box with Drawing Instruments, &c., £old by Ch. Delagrave, Paris. Price 26s. 323. — *' Dominos Geographiques " — blocks for producing maps. Paris, Ch. Delagrave. 328 DIVISION VIII. MISCELLANEOUS. 324.— Specimens of sketches from actual surveys, made by boys of Gordon's College, Aberdeen. The master takes the boys out to the country in the neighbourhood of the school, and using a penny 12-inch scale, cardboard, and coloured chalks, trains them to map-drawing from nature. These specimens are some of the results. 325. — Specimens of work (including contoured strata-models) from Zurich Schools. These are done on the basis of the elementary contoured and shaded maps in the beginning of Wettstein's Atlas. 326. — Specimens of work from an Austrian school. The blank reliefs have been coloured by a pupil from a wall map. 327. — How to Draw a Map from Memory. By P. E. Swinstead, B. A. Price la. 4.d. London, Simpkin, Marshall & Co. With specimens of work done by Mr. Swinstead's method. 328. — On tables throughout the rooms, boxes of Dissected Maps : — The World, England and Wales, 25s. ; England, 7s. ; Europe, 6s. ; Germany, 2s. 6d. ; New Zealand, Is. 6d. 329. — Specimen of rapid Map-drawing from Memory, from Man- chester Grammar School. The boys have to commit to memory the latitude and longitude of as many places as they can remember, and are trained to draw maps of any region indicated by limits of latitude and longitude, putting in the lines for themselves. 330. — Iron Map-Easel. Price 7s. Gd. London, Bacon & Co. SUPPLEMENT TO CATALOGUE OF EXHIBITION OF APPLIANCES USED IN aEOGEAPHICAL EDUCATION. CONTENTS. DIVISION I. PAGE. Wall Maps 333 DIVISION VI. Atlases — English 334 French 335 DIVISION VII. Text-Books — English , 339 French , 341 DIVISION VIII. Miscellaneous 343 SUPPLEMENT TO CATALOGUE OP EXHIBITION OF APPLIANCES USED m GEOGEAPHICAL EDUCATION. The following Maps, Atlases^ Text-Boohs, &c., have been received since the completion of the revised edition of the Catalogue. I.— WALL MAPS. 331. — The Hemisplieres, Physical and Political (two plans of maps). By K. Bamberg. 60 by 60 in. Price, physical, 18s. each hemisphere. Berlin and Weimar, Carl Chun. 1885. [See Note to Bamberg's Europe, No. 332.] 332. — ^Europe, Physical and Political (2 maps). By K. Bamberg. 74 by 64 in. Scale 1 : 3,800,000. Price 22s. Bamberg's maps are placed in the first rank as elementary maps by the Cassel Geographical Society and Association of Teachers. Berlin and Weimar, Carl Chun. 1885. 333. — Small Wall Map of the Circle of Karlsruhe, for Heimatskunde. Drawn by J. I. Kettler. 32 by 38 in. Scale 1 : 75,000. Printed on linen. Price 9s. Lahr, Moritz Schauenburg. No date. 334. — The Kingdom of Saxony. Designed by Dr. 0. Delitsch, by- direction of the Minister of Education. 72 by 53 in. Scale 1 : 142,000. Elevations shown by seven tints of brown. Inset map of the basin of the Elbe, and plans of Leipzig and Germany. Used for the Heimats- kunde of Saxony. Price 8s. Leipzig, Hinrichs. 1880. 335. — Geological School Map of the Netherlands. By C. A. C. Kruyder. 58 by 70 in. Scale 1 : 200,000. Sea coloured black. Te Zwolle, J. J. Tijl. No date. 336.— Political Map of Europe. By A. M. G. With inset map of statistics and climatology, and two sections. 80 by 70 in. Scale 1 : 3,000,000. Price 18s. Paris, Poussielgue. 1882. 334 DIVISION VI. ATLASES.— ENGLISH. VI.— ATLASES. ENGLISH. 350. — Gill's Standard Atlases. "Expressly edited to serve the purposes of Map Drawing as required by the Education Department." Standards III. to VI., each with maps from 19 to 34 in number (England, the British Empire, Europe, the World). Price Sd.j ^d., 4